Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
C-bar
• C-bar is the average of all the subgroup C-values in C-Chart
Census
• count or measurement of the entire population
Continuous Data
• measured – weigh, timed,
• can be measured and broken down into smaller parts and still have meaning. Money, temperature and
time are continous.Volume (like volume of water or air) and size are continuous data.
Control Charts
• indicate stability over time
control limits
• Provide boundaries for a process running in control
• based upon process data
CTQ - Critical to Quality
• key measurable characteristics of a product or process whose performance standards or specification
limits must be met in order to satisfy the customer
• CTQ’s represent the product or service characteristics that are defined by the customer (internal or
external). They may include the upper and lower specification limits or any other factors related to the
product or service.
• the product or service characteristics that are defined by the customer as critical to their needs
• what the customer expects of a product
DATA
Attribute Data Control Charts
• Attribute data - qualitative data that can be counted for recording and analysis good/bad, yes/no
• the average and dispersion are closely related; therefore, only one chart needed
• P-Chart – proportions percent defective with variable or constant sample size
• NP-chart– number of defectives with constant sample size
• C-Chart – count of defects with constant sample size
• U-Chart – defects per unit with variable or constant sample size
Defect
• non-conformities – a single characteristic not meeting defined requirements
Defective
• non-conformance – contains one or more defects
Discrete Data
• counted (usually in whole numbers)
DMAIC
• Define – project charter, problem statement, scope, goals, resources, financial, process maps
• Measure – collect data, process maps, fishbone, Pareto, QFD, need accuracy & precision
• Analyze - root cause is verified, hypothesis testing (verifying assumptions and predictions regarding the
relationship between process inputs and the CTQ values)
• Improve – brainstorming for ideas & solutions to problems identified in Analyze phase
• Control – helps to reduce variation in the process and eliminate defects
• Control - project responsibilities transition from process improvement team to operations team
• Six Sigma Methodology used for process improvement
DPMO (defects per million opportunities)
• defect level for a process
• number of defects divided by number of opportunities multiplied by one million
Gauge R&R
• Repeatability & Reproducibility
Gauge Repeatability
• how consistently same operator or measurement system measures same even over time
Gauge Reproducibility
• how consistently several operators or measurement systems measure same even over time
Histogram
• tool used in the Measure phase to illustrate shape, central tendency, and dispersion of data
Leverage
• applying proven methods to other projects via lessons learned - share ideas & best practices
• reduces costs, increase efficiency, improve customer service
• identifying “spin-off” projects that can benefit
Master Attribute
• standard or correct answer in an Attribute Gauge R & R study
MR = Moving Range
Mean
• arithmetic average
• the statistic most often used as the measure of central tendency or center of data
• represented by Greek symbol “μ” (pronounced mu)
• center line (process average) in a control chart between UCL and LCL
Measurement systems
• see Gauge Reproducibility and Gauge Reproducibility
• Accuracy – how close the average are equal to the target
• Precision – variation in repeated measurement of the same event
• Linearity – performance over a range of events
• Stability – performance over time
natural tolerance
• Natural tolerance is also called “6 sigma” because it is defined as 6 times the population standard
deviation of the individual observations.
• 3 sigma on each side of the process mean
If the process capability potential, Cp, is greater than 1.0, the specification limits are wider than the natural
tolerance, and the process has the potential for meeting specifications if held in control at a mean of (U - L)/2.
net profit
• selling price minus costs
NP-Bar
• centerline or process average of all subgroups in NP-Chart
Problem statement
• data-driven statement that does not include opinions on root causes or possible solutions
Process capability
• the extent to which a stable process is able to meet specifications
• assessed using either continuous data or discrete data
• when using attribute data should be expressed as percent, PPM, PPB defective, DPMO, etc.
• assessed with a histogram with specification limits
• capable process has a high Cp value and Cpk=Cp
Process maps
• shows the inter-relationships of the steps in a process
• used to discipline teams to produce solutions that are definable, repeatable, predictable and measurable
• walk the process
• clearly define the boundaries of the process
• should include data, sigma level, COPQ, defect rate, flow rate
• “as is"
• include rework loops
• oval – starting or stopping point
• rectangle – process step or action
• diamond - decision
projects
selecting potential projects consider - resource availability, reward, complexity, risk
Project Charter
• set expectations and obtain buy-in on scope, goal, and resources
• accelerate the acquisition of resources
• avoid scope creep
• documentation
• easy and effective means to document a Six Sigma project
Project selection
• considerations = Complexity, Risk, Reward, Resource availability
R = Range
Root Causes
• often found in low-level fishbones during analyze phase
• easier to find the root cause of a problem that is detected as it is happening
• see Cause and Effect Diagram
ROI = Return On Investment
• for Six Sigma project is calculated by dividing the project savings by the project cost
• used to measure the impact of a Six Sigma project on business results
• Reduced operating costs
• Increase in operating efficiencies
• Improved morale
• Communicating project savings
• Sharing ideas and best practices
• Identifying “spin-off” projects
Sample
• subset of the population
• every element in a sample is also an element of the population
• Stratified sampling – grouping members into similar subgroups before sampling
Sample Mean
• used to estimate the population mean
• sample = subset of the population
Savings
• soft = non-tangible – time, customer satisfaction, morale
• hard = money, cost, can be counted, direct impact upon the company's bottom line
Scatter Diagram
• shows the type of correlation between two variables
• strength of the relationship between two variables is determined visually by the tightness of the cluster
of points on the scatter diagram around the line of best fit drawn through the points
• extrapolation is used to predict a value outside the range of the data plotted
Scope Creep
• Tendency for project to expand scope
• limited by clearly defining boundaries
Six Sigma - ∂
• a commitment to your customers.
• a method that uses best management ideas and practices for flexible system for process improvement
• a means to stretch your thinking with respect to quality and customer satisfaction
• customer focused
• fact-based strategy focused on process improvement, variation reduction and defect elimination
• uses two types of data - continuous and discrete
Specification Limits
• used to determine if a product meets customer requirements
=
n or (n - 1)
Statistics
• Uses Qualitative and Quantitative data types
• Systematic Sampling - uses a rule or pattern to select elements from the population to form the sample
• Qualitative = discrete data – counted , Not measured
• Quantitative data - continuous data - different depending on types of questions
X-bar Chart - see Variable Data Control Charts
• used to monitor central tendency
__
X-bar = X
• mean or average of sample
• typically charted on a line control chart with the center line being X Double Bar, (an average of the
averages), and upper control limits and lower control limits
• We use averages because they are more susceptible to change than single values.
Variable
• a characteristic or property of an individual element in a population or sample
Variation
• Common Cause - causes of variation that are inherent in a process over time. They affect every outcome
• Common cause – variation inside control limits - do NOT adjust process
• Special Cause - relatively large, unusual variation usually comes from outside the process
Z value
• Z value is a data point's position between the mean and another location (usually mean) as measured by
the number of standard deviations.
• Z is a measure of process capability and corresponds to the process sigma value that is reported by the
businesses. For example, a 3 sigma process means that three standard deviations lie between the mean
and the nearest specification limit. Three is the Z value.
Costs Costs Costs
appraisal costs
• inspection costs incurred to identify defective products before the products are shipped to customers
• Test and inspection of incoming materials
• Test and inspection of in-process goods
• Final product testing and inspection
• Supplies used in testing and inspection
• Supervision of testing and inspection activities
• Depreciation & maintenance of test equipment
• field testing and appraisal at customer site
Entitlement cost
• cost of doing the right thing right the first time
Prevention Costs
• Prevention costs support activities whose purpose is to reduce the number of defects.
• Examples - statistical process control, quality engineering, training, and tools
Sigma to DPMO to Yield to Cpk Table
Assumptions
No analysis would be complete without properly noting the assumptions made. In the above table, we have
assumed that the standard sigma shift of 1.5 is appropriate, the data is normally distributed, and the process is
stable.