APEIROST2

Apeirostikc Logismc II
Prqeirec Shmeiseic
Tmma Majhmatikn Panepistmio Ajhnn Ajna, 2006
Perieqmena
1 Paragwgoc kai meleth sunarthsewn
1.1 1.2 1.3 Krisima shmeia 1 Jewrhma meshc timhc 3 Gewmetrikh shmasia thc deuterhc paragwgou 1.3a Kurtec kai koilec sunarthseic 8 1.3b Asumptwtec 11 Aprosdioristec morfec 12 Idiothta Darboux 14 Askseic 15
1
8
1.4 1.5 1.6
2 Seirc pragmatikn arijmn

2.1 2.2
19
2.3
2.4 2.5
Sgklish seirc 19 Seirc me mh arnhtikoc rouc 23 2.2a Seirc me fjnontec mh arnhtikoc rouc 24 2.2b O arijmc e 26 Genik kritria 28 2.3a Apluth sgklish seirc 28 2.3b Kritria sgkrishc 29 2.3g Kritrio lgou kai kritrio rzac 31 2.3d To kritrio tou Dirichlet 33 2.3e Dekadik parstash pragmatikn arijmn* 34 Dunamoseirc 38 Askseic 41
3 Omoimorfh sunqeia
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5
47
Omoimorfh sunqeia 47 Qarakthrismc thc omoimorfhc sunqeiac msw akoloujin 51 Omoimorfh sunqeia suneqn sunartsewn se kleist diastmata 52 Sustolc jerhma stajero shmeou 55 Askseic 56
iv Perieqomena
4 Oloklrwma
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6
Riemann 61 O orismc tou Darboux 61 To kritrio oloklhrwsimthtac tou Riemann 64 Do klseic Riemann oloklhrsimwn sunartsewn Idithtec tou oloklhrmatoc Riemann 71 O orismc tou Riemann* 77 Askseic 80
69
5 To jemelidec jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo

To jerhma mshc tou Oloklhrwtiko Logismo 87 Ta jemelidh jewrmata tou Apeirostiko Logismo 88 Mjodoi oloklrwshc 92 Askseic 94
87
6 Basikc pragmatikc sunartseic
Trigwnometrikc sunartseic 97 Antstrofec trigwnometrikc sunartseic 100 Logarijmik kai ekjetik sunrthsh: prtoc orismc 101 Ekjetik kai logarijmik sunrthsh: deteroc orismc 106 Askseic 109 Orismc 113 Kurtc sunartseic orismnec se anoikt disthma Paragwgsimec kurtc sunartseic 116 Anisthta tou Jensen 118 Pargwgoc kai melth sunartsewn 121 Seirc pragmatikn arijmn 130 Omoimorfh sunqeia 141 Oloklrwma Riemann 148 Pargwgoc kai Oloklrwma 158 Basikc pragmatikc sunartseic 164
97
7 Kurtc kai kolec sunartseic
113
114
8 Upodexeic gia tic Askseic
121
Keflaio 1
Pargwgoc kai melth sunartsewn

Skopc mac se aut to Keflaio enai na apodexoume ta kria jewrmata tou Diaforiko Logismo kai na dome pc efarmzontai sth melth sunartsewn pou orzontai se kpoio disthma I thc pragmatikc eujeac. Ja dome ti an mia sunrthsh f : I R enai paragwgsimh (, akma kaltera, do forc paragwgsimh) sto I , tte qrhsimopointac thn f ( kai thn f ) mporome na {sqedisoume th grafik parstash} thc f .
1.1 Krsima shmea

Ja xekinsoume me kpoia paradegmata pou deqnoun ti h monotona h parxh kpoiou topiko akrtatou miac paragwgsimhc sunrthshc dnoun kpoiec plhroforec gia thn pargwgo. To monadik ergaleo pou ja qrhsimopoisoume enai o orismc thc paraggou.
Lmma 1.1.1. 'Estw f : (a, b) R paragwgsimh sunrthsh. An h f enai axousa sto (a, b) tte f (x) 0 gia kje x (a, b).
Apdeixh. 'Estw x (a, b). Uprqei > 0 ste (x , x + ) (a, b). An loipn |h| < tte h f orzetai sto x + h. Afo h f enai paragwgsimh sto x, qoume
(1.1.1)
f (x) = lim+
h0
f (x + h) f (x) f (x + h) f (x) = lim . h h h0
'Estw 0 < h < . Afo h f enai axousa sto (a, b) qoume f (x + h) f (x). Sunepc,
(1.1.2)
f (x + h) f (x) 0 h
ra f (x) = lim
h0+
f (x + h) f (x) 0. h
2 Paragwgoc kai meleth sunarthsewn Parathrste ti dexame to zhtomeno qwrc na koitxoume ti gnetai gia arnhtikc timc tou h (elgxte mwc ti an < h < 0 tte h klsh f (x+h)f (x) enai h pli mh arnhtik, opte odhgomaste sto dio sumprasma). 2 An upojsoume ti h paragwgsimh sunrthsh f : (a, b) R enai gnhswc axousa, den mporome na isquristome ti h f enai gnhswc jetik sto (a, b). Gia pardeigma, h f : R R me f (x) = x3 enai gnhswc axousa sto R, mwc f (x) = 3x2 , ra uprqei shmeo sto opoo h pargwgoc mhdenzetai: f (0) = 0. To Lmma 1.1.1 mac exasfalzei fusik ti f 0 panto sto R.
Paratrhsh 1.1.2.
Orismc 1.1.3.
'Estw f : I R kai stw x0 I . Lme ti h f qei topik mgisto sto x0 an uprqei > 0 ste: an x I kai |x x0 | < tte f (x0 ) f (x). Omowc, lme ti h f qei topik elqisto sto x0 an uprqei > 0 ste: an x I kai |x x0 | < tte f (x0 ) f (x). An h f qei topik mgisto topik elqisto sto x0 tte lme ti h f qei topik akrtato sto shmeo x0 . Aut pou qreiastkame gia thn apdeixh tou Lmmatoc 1.1.1 tan h parxh thc f (x) (o orismc thc paraggou) kai to gegonc ti (lgw monotonac) h elqisth tim thc f sto [x, x + ) tan h f (x). Epanalambnontac loipn to dio ousiastik epiqerhma parnoume thn akloujh Prtash (Fermat).
Jerhma 1.1.4 (Fermat).

(1.1.3)
'Estw f : [a, b] R. Upojtoume ti h f qei topik akrtato se kpoio x0 (a, b) kai ti h f enai paragwgsimh sto x0 . Tte,
f (x0 ) = 0.
Apdeixh. Qwrc periorism thc genikthtac upojtoume oti h f qei topik mgisto sto x0 . Uprqei > 0 ste (x0 , x0 +) (a, b) kai f (x0 +h) f (x0 ) gia kje h (, ). An 0 < h < tte
(1.1.4)
f (x0 + h) f (x0 ) 0, h
ra
h0+
lim
f (x0 + h) f (x0 ) 0. h
Sunepc, f (x0 ) 0. An < h < 0 tte
(1.1.5)
f (x0 + h) f (x0 ) 0, h
ra
h0
lim
f (x0 + h) f (x0 ) 0. h 2
Sunepc, f (x0 ) 0. Ap tic do anisthtec petai ti f (x0 ) = 0.
Orismc 1.1.5.
'Estw f : I R. 'Ena eswterik shmeo x0 tou I lgetai krsimo shmeo gia thn f an f (x0 ) = 0.
1.2 Jewrhma meshc timhc 3 Ta krsima shmea miac sunrthshc enai pol qrsima tan jloume na brome th mgisth thn elqisth tim thc. 'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc sunrthsh. Gnwrzoume ti h f parnei mgisth tim max(f ) kai elqisth tim min(f ) sto [a, b]. An x0 [a, b] kai f (x0 ) = max(f ) f (x0 ) = min(f ), tte anagkastik sumbanei kpoio ap ta paraktw: (i) x0 = a x0 = b (kro tou diastmatoc). (ii) x0 (a, b) kai f (x0 ) = 0 (krsimo shmeo). (iii) x0 (a, b) kai h f den enai paragwgsimh sto x0 . Dedomnou ti, sthn prxh, to pljoc twn shmewn pou ankoun se autc tic {treic omdec} enai sqetik mikr, mporome me apl upologism kai sgkrish merikn timn thc sunrthshc na apantsoume sto erthma. Pardeigma: Na breje h mgisth tim thc sunrthshc f (x) = x3 x sto [1, 2]. H f enai paragwgsimh sto (1, 2), me pargwgo f (x) = 3x2 1. Ta shmea sta 1 1 opoa mhdenzetai h pargwgoc enai ta x1 = 3 kai x2 = 3 ta opoa ankoun sto (1, 2). 'Ara, ta shmea sta opoa mpore na parnei mgisth elqisth tim h f enai ta kra tou diastmatoc kai ta do krsima shmea:
Efarmog 1.1.6.
x0 = 1,
Oi antstoiqec timc enai:
1 x1 = , 3
1 x2 = , 3
x3 = 2.
f (1) = 0,
2 f (1/ 3) = , 3 3
2 f (1/ 3) = , 3 3
f (2) = 6.
Sugkrnontac autc tic tsseric timc blpoume ti max(f ) = f (2) = 6 kai min(f ) = f (1/ 3) = 2/(3 3). 2
1.2 Jerhma Mshc Timc

Sthn prohgomenh pargrafo edame ti an h paragwgsimh sunrthsh f : (a, b) R enai axousa sto (a, b) tte f (x) 0 gia kje x (a, b). Skopc mac tra enai na dome an isqei kpoiou edouc antstrofo. Ac upojsoume prta ti h f : (a, b) R enai paragwgsimh se na shmeo x0 (a, b) kai ti f (x0 ) > 0. Enai swst ti h f enai axousa se mia perioq tou x0 ? H apnthsh enai {qi}. 'Ena pardeigma mac dnei h sunrthsh f : R R pou orzetai ap tic f (x) = x + x2 an x Q kai f (x) = x x2 an x Q. / Parathrste ti h f enai asuneqc se kje x = 0, enai mwc paragwgsimh sto 0, kai f (0) = 1 > 0. Qrhsimopointac thn puknthta twn rhtn kai twn arrtwn sto R, mporete na elgxete ti h f den enai axousa se kanna disthma thc morfc (, ) pou > 0 (skhsh). Qrhsimopointac thn paragwgisimthta miac sunrthshc kai to prshmo thc paraggou thc se na mno shmeo, mporome na dexoume kti pol asjenstero:
4 Paragwgoc kai meleth sunarthsewn 'Estw f : (a, b) R. Upojtoume ti h f enai paragwgsimh sto x0 (a, b) kai f (x0 ) > 0. Tte, uprqei > 0 ste (x0 , x0 + ) (a, b) kai (a) f (x) > f (x0 ) gia kje x (x0 , x0 + ). (b) f (x) < f (x0 ) gia kje x (x0 , x0 ). Apdeixh. 'Eqoume upojsei ti lim ton orism tou orou me |x x0 | < tte x (a, b) kai
f (x)f (x0 ) = f (x0 ) > 0. xx0 xx0 f (0) = 2 > 0, brskoume > 0
Lmma 1.2.1.
Efarmzontac ste: an 0 <
(1.2.1)
'Epetai ti:
f (x) f (x0 ) f (x0 ) > 0. > f (x0 ) = x x0 2
(a) Gia kje x (x0 , x0 + ) qoume
(1.2.2)
f (x) f (x0 ) >
f (x0 ) (x x0 ) > 0 f (x) > f (x0 ). 2
(b) Gia kje x (x0 , x0 ) qoume
(1.2.3)
f (x) f (x0 ) <
f (x0 ) (x x0 ) < 0 f (x) < f (x0 ). 2
Parathrste ti oi (1.2.2) kai (1.2.3) den deqnoun ti h f enai axousa sto (x0 , x0 + ) sto (x0 , x0 ). 2 To erthma gia to antstrofo tou Lmmatoc 1.1.1 diatupnetai loipn wc exc: an f (x) 0 gia kje x (a, b) tte enai swst ti h f enai axousa sto (a, b)? H apnthsh enai {nai}. 'Opwc ja dome, h upjesh ti h f diathre prshmo se olklhro to (a, b) pazei ousiastik rlo. Gia thn austhr mwc apdeixh, ja qreiaste epshc na sundusoume thn nnoia thc paraggou me ta basik jewrmata gia suneqec sunartseic se kleist diastmata. To basik teqnik bma enai h apdeixh tou {jewrmatoc mshc timc}. 'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc sunrthsh. Upojtoume oti h f enai paragwgsimh sto (a, b): dhlad, gia kje x (a, b) orzetai kal h efaptomnh tou grafmatoc thc f sto (x, f (x)). Jewrome thn eujea ( ) pou pernei ap ta shmea A = (a, f (a)) kai B = (b, f (b)). An th metakinsoume parllhla proc ton eaut thc, kpoia ap tic parllhlec ja efptetai sto grfhma thc f se kpoio shmeo (x0 , f (x0 )), x0 (a, b). H klsh thc efaptomnhc ja prpei na isotai me thn klsh thc eujeac ( ). Dhlad,
(1.2.4)
f (x0 ) =
f (b) f (a) . ba
Sto prto mroc autc thc paragrfou dnoume austhr apdeixh auto tou isqurismo (Jerhma Mshc Timc). Apodeiknoume prta mia eidik perptwsh: to jerhma tou Rolle.
1.2 Jewrhma meshc timhc 5 'Estw f : [a, b] R. Upojtoume ti h f enai suneqc sto [a, b] kai paragwgsimh sto (a, b). Upojtoume epiplon ti f (a) = f (b). Tte, uprqei x0 (a, b) ste
Jerhma 1.2.2 (Rolle).
(1.2.5)
f (x0 ) = 0.
Apdeixh. Exetzoume prta thn perptwsh pou h f enai stajer sto [a, b], dhlad f (x) = f (a) = f (b) gia kje x [a, b]. Tte, f (x) = 0 gia kje x (a, b) kai opoiodpote ap aut ta x mpore na paxei to rlo tou x0 . 'Estw loipn ti h f den enai stajer sto [a, b]. Tte, uprqei x1 (a, b) ste f (x1 ) = f (a) kai qwrc periorism thc genikthtac mporome na upojsoume ti f (x1 ) > f (a). H f enai suneqc sto [a, b], ra parnei mgisth tim: uprqei x0 [a, b] ste
(1.2.6)
f (x0 ) = max{f (x) : x [a, b]} f (x1 ) > f (a).
Eidiktera, x0 = a, b. Dhlad, to x0 brsketai sto anoikt disthma (a, b). H f qei (olik) mgisto sto x0 kai enai paragwgsimh sto x0 . Ap to Jerhma 1.1.4 (Fermat) sumperanoume ti f (x0 ) = 0. 2 To jerhma mshc timc enai mesh sunpeia tou jewrmatoc tou Rolle.
Jerhma 1.2.3 (jerhma mshc timc).

(1.2.7) f (x0 ) =
'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc sto [a, b] kai paragwgsimh sto (a, b). Tte, uprqei x0 (a, b) ste
f (b) f (a) . ba
Apdeixh. Ja anaqjome sto Jerhma tou Rolle wc exc. Jewrome th grammik sunrthsh h : [a, b] R pou parnei tic diec timc me thn f sta shmea a kai b. Dhlad,
(1.2.8)
h(x) = f (a) +
f (b) f (a) (x a). ba
Orzoume mia sunrthsh g : [a, b] R me
(1.2.9)
g(x) = f (x) h(x) = f (x) f (a)
f (b) f (a) (x a). ba
H g enai suneqc sto [a, b], paragwgsimh sto (a, b) kai ap ton trpo epilogc thc h qoume
(1.2.10)
g(a) = f (a) h(a) = 0
kai g(b) = f (b) h(b) = 0.
Smfwna me to jerhma tou Rolle, uprqei x0 (a, b) ste g (x0 ) = 0. 'Omwc,
(1.2.11)
g (x) = f (x)
f (b) f (a) ba 2
sto (a, b). 'Ara, to x0 ikanopoie thn (1.2.7).
Paratrhsh 1.2.4.
H upjesh ti h f enai suneqc sto kleist disthma [a, b] qrhsimopoijhke sthn apdeixh kai enai aparathth. Jewrste, gia pardeigma, thn f : [0, 1] R me f (x) = x an 0 x < 1 kai f (1) = 0. H f enai paragwgsimh (ra, suneqc) sto (0, 1) kai qoume f (0) = f (1) = 0. 'Omwc den uprqei x (0, 1) pou na ikanopoie thn f (x) = f (1)f (0) = 0, afo f (x) = 1 10 gia kje x (0, 1). To prblhma enai sto shmeo 1: h f enai asuneqc sto 1, dhlad den enai suneqc sto [0, 1]. To jerhma mshc timc mac epitrpei na apantsoume sta erwtmata pou suzhtsame sthn arq thc paragrfou.
Jerhma 1.2.5.
'Estw f : (a, b) R paragwgsimh sunrthsh.
(i) An f (x) 0 gia kje x (a, b), tte h f enai axousa sto (a, b). (ii) An f (x) > 0 gia kje x (a, b), tte h f enai gnhswc axousa sto (a, b). (iii) An f (x) 0 gia kje x (a, b), tte h f enai fjnousa sto (a, b). (iv) An f (x) < 0 gia kje x (a, b), tte h f enai gnhswc fjnousa sto (a, b). (v) An f (x) = 0 gia kje x (a, b), tte h f enai stajer sto (a, b). Apdeixh. Ja dexoume nan ap touc prtouc tsseric isqurismoc: upojtoume ti f (x) 0 sto (a, b), kai ja dexoume ti an a < x < y < b tte f (x) f (y). Jewrome ton periorism thc f sto [x, y]. H f enai suneqc sto [x, y] kai paragwgsimh sto (x, y), opte efarmzontac to jerhma mshc timc brskoume (x, y) pou ikanopoie thn
(1.2.12)
f () =
f (y) f (x) . yx
Afo f () 0 kai y x > 0, qoume f (y) f (x) 0. Dhlad, f (x) f (y). Gia ton teleutao isqurism parathrste ti an f = 0 sto (a, b) tte f 0 kai f 0 sto (a, b). 'Ara, h f enai tautqrona axousa kai fjnousa: an x < y sto (a, b) tte f (x) f (y) kai f (x) f (y), dhlad f (x) = f (y). 'Epetai ti h f enai stajer. 2 Mia parallag (kai genkeush) tou jewrmatoc Mshc Timc enai to jerhma mshc timc tou Cauchy:
Jerhma 1.2.6 (jerhma mshc timc tou
Cauchy). 'Estw f, g : [a, b] R, suneqec sto [a, b] kai paragwgsimec sto (a, b). Tte, uprqei x0 (a, b) ste (1.2.13) [f (b) f (a)] g (x0 ) = [g(b) g(a)] f (x0 ).
Shmewsh: Parathrste prta ti to jerhma mshc timc enai eidik perptwsh tou jewrmatoc pou jloume na dexoume: an g(x) = x tte g (x) = 1 kai h (1.2.13) parnei th morf
(1.2.14)
[f (b) f (a)] 1 = (b a) f (x).
1.2 Jewrhma meshc timhc 7 H parxh kpoiou x0 (a, b) to opoo ikanopoie thn (1.2.14) enai akribc o isqurismc tou jewrmatoc mshc timc. Jumhjete tra thn ida thc apdeixhc tou jewrmatoc mshc timc. Efarmsame to jerhma tou Rolle gia th sunrthsh
(1.2.15)
f (x) f (a)
f (b) f (a) (x a). ba
Isodnama (pollaplasiste thn prohgomenh sunrthsh me ba) ja mporosame na qoume prei thn
(1.2.16)
[f (x) f (a)] (b a) [f (b) f (a)] (x a).
Ja jewrsoume loipn sunrthsh antstoiqh me autn thc (1.2.16) {antikajistntac thn x me thn g(x)}. Apdeixh. Jewrome th sunrthsh h : [a, b] R me
(1.2.17)
h(x) = [f (x) f (a)] (g(b) g(a)) [f (b) f (a)] (g(x) g(a)).
H h enai suneqc sto [a, b] kai paragwgsimh sto (a, b) (giat oi f kai g qoun tic diec idithtec). Ekola elgqoume ti
(1.2.18)
h(a) = 0 = h(b).
Mporome loipn na efarmsoume to jerhma tou Rolle: uprqei x0 (a, b) ste h (x0 ) = 0. Afo
(1.2.19)
h (x0 ) = f (x0 ) (g(b) g(a)) g (x0 ) (f (b) f (a)), 2
parnoume thn (1.2.13).
Paratrhsh 1.2.7.
To endiafron shmeo sthn (1.2.13) enai ti oi pargwgoi f (x0 ) kai g (x0 ) {upologzontai sto dio shmeo} x0 . Pol suqn, to jerhma mshc timc tou Cauchy diatupnetai wc exc. 'Estw f, g : [a, b] R, suneqec sto [a, b] kai paragwgsimec sto (a, b). Upojtoume epiplon ti (a) oi f kai g den qoun koin rza sto (a, b). (b) g(b) g(a) = 0. Tte uprqei x0 (a, b) ste
Prisma 1.2.8.
(1.2.20)
f (x0 ) f (b) f (a) = . g(b) g(a) g (x0 )
Apdeixh. Ap to jerhma mshc timc tou Cauchy, uprqei x0 (a, b) ste
(1.2.21)
(f (b) f (a))g (x0 ) = (g(b) g(a))f (x0 ).
Parathrome ti g (x0 ) = 0: an eqame g (x0 ) = 0, tte ja tan (g(b) g(a))f (x0 ) = 0 kai, afo ap thn upjes mac g(b) g(a) = 0, ja prepe na qoume f (x0 ) = 0. Dhlad oi f kai g ja eqan koin rza. Mporome loipn na diairsoume ta do mlh thc (1.2.21) me (g(b) g(a))g (x0 ) kai na proume to zhtomeno. 2
1.3 Gewmetrik shmasa thc deterhc paraggou

Sthn 1.1 edame ti o mhdenismc thc paraggou se na shmeo x0 den enai ikan sunjkh gia thn parxh topiko akrtatou sto x0 . H sunrthsh f (x) = x3 den qei akrtato sto x0 = 0, mwc f (x0 ) = 0. Koitzontac th deterh pargwgo sta shmea mhdenismo thc prthc paraggou mporome pollc forc na sumpernoume an na krsimo shmeo enai ntwc shmeo akrtatou.
Jerhma 1.3.1. 'Estw f : (a, b) R paragwgsimh sunrthsh kai stw x0 (a, b) me f (x0 ) = 0.
(a) An uprqei h f (x0 ) kai f (x0 ) > 0, tte qoume topik elqisto sto x0 . (b) An uprqei h f (x0 ) kai f (x0 ) < 0, tte qoume topik mgisto sto x0 . Shmewsh: An f (x0 ) = 0 an den uprqei h f (x0 ), tte prpei na exetsoume ti sumbanei me llo trpo. Apdeixh. Ja dexoume mno to (a). 'Eqoume
(1.3.1)
0 < f (x0 ) = lim
xx0
f (x) f (x0 ) f (x) = lim . xx0 x x0 x x0
Epomnwc, mporome na brome > 0 ste: (i) An x0 < x < x0 + , tte f (x) > 0. (ii) An x0 < x < x0 tte f (x) < 0. 'Estw y (x0 , x0 + ). (i) An x0 < y < x0 + , tte efarmzontac to jerhma mshc timc sto [x0 , y] brskoume x (x0 , y) ste
(1.3.2)
f (y) f (x0 ) = f (x)(y x0 ) > 0.
(ii) An x0 < y < x0 , tte efarmzontac to jerhma mshc timc sto [y, x0 ] brskoume x (y, x0 ) ste
(1.3.3)
f (y) f (x0 ) = f (x)(y x0 ) > 0.
Dhlad, f (y) f (x0 ) gia kje y (x0 , x0 + ). 'Ara, h f qei topik elqisto sto x0 . 2
1.3a Kurtc kai kolec sunartseic

Se epmeno Keflaio ja asqolhjome susthmatik me tic kurtc kai tic kolec sunartseic f : I R. Se aut thn upopargrafo apodeiknoume kpoiec aplc protseic gia paragwgsimec sunartseic, oi opoec mac bohjne na {sqedisoume th grafik touc parstash}.
1.3 Gewmetrikh shmasia thc deuterhc paragwgou 9 Jewrome mia paragwgsimh sunrthsh f : (a, b) R. An x0 (a, b), h {exswsh thc efaptomnhc} tou grafmatoc thc f sto (x0 , f (x0 )) enai h
(1.3.4)
y = f (x0 ) + f (x0 )(x x0 ).
Lme ti h f enai kurt sto (a, b) an gia kje x0 (a, b) qoume
(1.3.5)
f (x) f (x0 ) + f (x0 )(x x0 ) gia kje x (a, b).
Dhlad, an to grfhma {(x, f (x)) : a < x < b} brsketai pnw ap lec tic efaptmenec. Lme ti h f enai gnhswc kurt sto (a, b) an gia kje x = x0 h anisthta sthn (1.3.5) enai gnsia. Lme ti h f enai kolh sto (a, b) an gia kje x0 (a, b) qoume
(1.3.6)
f (x) f (x0 ) + f (x0 )(x x0 ) gia kje x (a, b).
Dhlad, an to grfhma {(x, f (x)) : a < x < b} brsketai ktw ap lec tic efaptmenec. Lme ti h f enai gnhswc kolh sto (a, b) an gia kje x = x0 h anisthta sthn (1.3.6) enai gnsia. Tloc, lme ti h f qei shmeo kampc sto shmeo x0 (a, b) an uprqei > 0 ste h f na enai gnhswc kurt sto (x0 , x0 ) kai gnhswc kolh sto (x0 , x0 + ) gnhswc kolh sto (x0 , x0 ) kai gnhswc kurt sto (x0 , x0 + ).
Jerhma 1.3.2.
'Estw f : (a, b) R paragwgsimh sunrthsh.
(a) An h f enai (gnhswc) axousa sto (a, b), tte h f enai (gnhswc) kurt sto (a, b). (b) An h f enai (gnhswc) fjnousa sto (a, b), tte h f enai (gnhswc) kolh sto (a, b). Apdeixh. 'Estw x0 (a, b) kai stw x (a, b). Upojtoume prta ti x > x0 . Ap to jerhma mshc timc, uprqei x (x0 , x) me thn idithta
(1.3.7)
f (x) f (x0 ) = (x x0 )f (x ).
Afo x0 < x qoume f (x ) f (x0 ), kai afo x x0 > 0 blpoume ti
(1.3.8)
f (x) f (x0 ) = (x x0 )f (x ) (x x0 )f (x0 ).
Upojtoume tra ti x < x0 . Ap to jerhma mshc timc, uprqei x (x, x0 ) me thn idithta
(1.3.9)
f (x) f (x0 ) = (x x0 )f (x ).
Afo x < x0 qoume f (x ) f (x0 ), kai afo x x0 < 0 blpoume ti
(1.3.10)
f (x) f (x0 ) = (x x0 )f (x ) (x x0 )f (x0 ).
Se kje perptwsh, isqei h (1.3.5). Elgxte ti an h f upoteje gnhswc axousa sto (a, b) tte parnoume gnsia anisthta sthn (1.3.5). (b) Me ton dio trpo.
H deterh pargwgoc (an uprqei) mpore na mac dsei plhrofora gia to an h f enai kurt kolh.
Jerhma 1.3.3.
'Estw f : (a, b) R do forc paragwgsimh sunrthsh.
(a) An f (x) > 0 gia kje x (a, b), tte h f enai gnhswc kurt sto (a, b). (b) An f (x) < 0 gia kje x (a, b), tte h f enai gnhswc kolh sto (a, b).
Apdeixh:
(a) Afou f > 0 sto (a, b), h f enai gnhswc axousa sto (a, b) (Jerhma 1.2.5). Ap to Jerhma 1.3.2 petai to zhtomeno. (b) Me ton dio trpo. Tloc, dnoume mia anagkaa sunjkh gia na enai to x0 shmeo kampc thc f .
Jerhma 1.3.4.
'Estw f : (a, b) R do forc paragwgsimh sunrthsh kai stw x0 (a, b). An h f qei shmeo kampc sto x0 , tte f (x0 ) = 0. Apdeixh. Jewrome th sunrthsh g(x) = f (x) f (x0 ) f (x0 )(x x0 ). H g den qei topik mgisto elqisto sto x0 : qoume g(x0 ) = 0 kai g > 0 arister tou x0 , g < 0 dexi tou x0 to antstrofo. Epshc, g (x0 ) = 0 kai g (x0 ) = f (x0 ). An tan g (x0 ) > 0 g (x0 ) < 0 tte ap to Jerhma 1.3.1 h g ja eqe akrtato sto x0 , topo. 'Ara, f (x0 ) = g (x0 ) = 0. 2 Shmewsh. H sunjkh tou Jewrmatoc 1.3.4 den enai ikan. H f (x) = x4 den qei shmeo kampc sto x0 = 0. Enai gnhswc kurt sto R. 'Omwc f (x) = 12x2 , ra f (0) = 0. Pardeigma. Meletste th sunrthsh f : R R me
(1.3.11)
f (x) =
x2
1 . +1
H f enai paragwgsimh sto R, me
(1.3.12)
f (x) =
2x . (x2 + 1)2
'Ara, h f enai gnhswc axousa sto (, 0) kai gnhswc fjnousa sto (0, +). Parnei mgisth tim sto 0: f (0) = 1, kai lim f (x) = 0. H deterh pargwgoc thc f orzetai panto kai enai sh me
x
(1.3.13)
f (x) =
2(3x2 1) . (x2 + 1)3
1 'Ara, f > 0 sta , 3 kai
ti h f qei
1 kai 3 , gia na sqedisoume {arket pist} th grafik parstash thc f .
1 1 1 , , en f < 0 sto , . 'Epetai 3 3 3 1 1 shmeo kampc sta 3 kai enai: gnhswc kurt sta , 3 1 1 , gnhswc kolh sto 3 , 3 . Autc oi plhroforec enai arketc
1.3 Gewmetrikh shmasia thc deuterhc paragwgou 11
1.3b Asmptwtec
1. 'Estw f : (a, +) R. (a) Lme ti h eujea y = enai orizntia asmptwth thc f sto + an
(1.3.14)
x+
lim f (x) = .
x+1 x1
Pardeigma. H f : (1, +) R me f (x) = y = 1.
qei orizntia asmptwth thn
(b) Lme ti h eujea y = x + ( = 0) enai plgia asmptwth thc f sto + an
(1.3.15)
x+
lim (f (x) (x + )) = 0.
Parathrste ti h f qei to pol ma plgia asmptwth sto + kai ti an y = x + enai h asmptwth thc f tte h klsh upologzetai ap thn
(1.3.16)
= lim
x+
f (x) x
kai h stajer upologzetai ap thn
(1.3.17)
= lim (f (x) x).

x+
Antstrofa, gia na dome an h f qei plgia asmptwth sto +, exetzoume prta an uprqei to lim f (x) . An aut to rio uprqei kai an enai diaforetik x ap to 0, to sumbolzoume me kai exetzoume an uprqei to lim (f (x) x). An kai aut to rio ac to pome asmptwth thc f sto +. uprqei, tte h y = x + enai h plgia
x2 +x1 x1 x+ x+
Pardeigma. H f : (1, +) R me f (x) = + thn y = x + 2. Prgmati,
qei plgia asmptwth sto
(1.3.18)
kai
f (x) x2 + x 1 = lim = 1, x+ x x+ x2 x lim 2x 1 = 2. x1
(1.3.19)
x+
lim (f (x) x) = lim
x+
2. Me anlogo trpo orzoume kai brskoume thn orizntia plgia asmptwth miac sunrthshc f : (, a) R sto (an uprqei). 3. Tloc, lme ti h f : (a, x0 ) (x0 , b) R qei (arister dexi) katakrufh asmptwth sto x0 an
(1.3.20)
xx 0
lim f (x) =
xx+ 0
lim f (x) =
1 antstoiqa. Gia pardeigma, h f (x) = x qei arister kai dexi katakrufh 1 1 asmptwth sto 0 thn eujea x = 0, afo lim x = kai lim x = +. x0 x0+
1.4 Aprosdiristec morfc

To jerhma mshc timc tou Cauchy qrhsimopoietai sthn apdeixh twn {ka0 nnwn tou L Hospital} gia ria thc morfc 0 . Tupik paradegmata thc katstashc pou ja suzhtsoume se aut thn pargrafo enai ta exc: jloume na exetsoume an uprqei to rio
(1.4.1)
xx0
lim
f (x) g(x)
pou f, g enai do sunartseic paragwgsimec dexi kai arister ap to x0 , me g(x) = 0 an x kont sto x0 kai x = x0 , kai
(1.4.2)
xx0
lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0

xx0
(1.4.3)
xx0
lim f (x) = lim g(x) = +.

xx0
Tte lme ti qoume aprosdiristh morf 0 ( antstoiqa) sto x0 . 0 Oi kannec tou lHospital mac epitrpoun suqn na brome ttoia ria (an uprqoun) me th bojeia twn paraggwn twn f kai g . Tupik jerhma auto tou edouc enai to exc.
'Estw f, g : (a, x0 ) (x0 , b) R paragwgsimec sunartseic me tic exc idithtec: (a) g(x) = 0 kai g (x) = 0 gia kje x (a, x0 ) (x0 , b). (b) lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0.
xx0 xx0 f (x) xx0 g (x) f (x) xx0 g(x)
Jerhma 1.4.1.
An uprqei to lim
= R, tte uprqei to lim lim f (x) f (x) = = lim . xx0 g (x) g(x)
kai
(1.4.4)
xx0
Apdeixh. Epektenoume tic f kai g , orzontc tic sto x0 me f (x0 ) = g(x0 ) = 0. Afo
(1.4.5)
xx0
lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0,

xx0
oi f kai g gnontai tra suneqec sto (a, b). Ja dexoume ti
(1.4.6)
'Eqoume
xx+ 0
lim
f (x) f (x) = = lim+ . g(x) xx0 g (x)
(1.4.7)
f (x) f (x) f (x0 ) = g(x) g(x) g(x0 )
gia kje x (x0 , b). Oi f , g den qoun koin rza sto (x0 , x) giat h g den mhdenzetai poujen. Epshc g(x) = 0, dhlad g(x) g(x0 ) = 0. Efarmzontac
1.4 Aprosdioristec morfec 13 loipn to jerhma mshc timc tou Cauchy mporome gia kje x (x0 , b) na brome x (x0 , x) ste
(1.4.8)
(x) 'Estw tra ti limxx0 f (x) = g ste: an x0 < y < x0 + tte
f (x) f (x ) = . g(x) g (x )
kai stw > 0. Mporome na brome > 0
(1.4.9)
f (y) g (y)
< .
Sunduzontac tic (1.4.8) kai (1.4.9) blpoume ti an x0 < x < x0 + tte
(1.4.10)
f (x) g(x)
f (x ) g (x )
<
(giat x0 < x < x < x0 + ). 'Ara,
(1.4.11)
xx0
lim+
f (x) f (x) = = lim+ . g(x) xx0 g (x)

0
Me anlogo trpo deqnoume ti limxx
f (x) g(x)
= .
O antstoiqoc kannac tan x0 = + enai o exc. exc idithtec:
Jerhma 1.4.2.
'Estw f, g : (a, +) R paragwgsimec sunartseic me tic
(a) g(x) = 0 kai g (x) = 0 gia kje x > a. (b) lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0.
x+ x+ f (x) x+ g (x) f (x) x+ g(x)
An uprqei to lim
= R, tte uprqei to lim f (x) f (x) = = lim . x+ g (x) g(x)
kai
(1.4.12)
x+
lim
1 Apdeixh. Orzoume f1 , g1 : 0, a R me
(1.4.13)
f1 (x) = f
1 x
kai g1 (x) = g
1 x
Oi f1 , g1 enai paragwgsimec kai
(1.4.14)
12 f f1 (x) = x1 g1 (x) x2 g
x0+ x+
1 x 1 x
f g
1 x 1 x
'Eqoume lim f1 (x) = lim f (x) = 0 kai lim g1 (x) = lim g(x) = 0 (exhgste giat). Epshc, g1 = 0 kai g1 = 0 sto (0, 1/a). Tloc,
x0+ x+ 1 x 1 x
(1.4.15)
x0
lim+
f f1 (x) = lim+ g1 (x) x0 g
= lim
x+
f (x) . g (x)
14 Paragwgoc kai meleth sunarthsewn 'Ara, efarmzetai to Jerhma 1.4.1 gia tic f1 , g1 kai qoume
(1.4.16)
Afo
x0+
lim
f1 (x) f (x) f (x) = lim 1 = lim . g1 (x) x0+ g1 (x) x+ g (x)
(1.4.17)
petai h (1.4.12).
x+
lim
f (x) f1 (x) = lim , g(x) x0+ g1 (x) 2
Uprqoun arketc akma periptseic aprosdiristwn morfn gia tic opoec mporome na diatupsoume katllhlo {kanna tou lHospital}. Den ja dsoume llec apodexeic, ac dome mwc th diatpwsh enc kanna gia aprosdiristh morf . exc idithtec:
Jerhma 1.4.3.
'Estw f, g : (a, b) R paragwgsimec sunartseic me tic
(a) g(x) = 0 kai g (x) = 0 gia kje x (a, b). (b) lim f (x) = lim g(x) = +.
xa+ xa+ f (x) g (x)
An uprqei to lim
xa+
= R, tte uprqei to lim+

xa
f (x) g(x)
kai
(1.4.18)
xa+
lim
f (x) f (x) = = lim . g(x) xa+ g (x)
1.5 Idithta Darboux gia thn pargwgo

Orismc 1.5.1.
Lme ti mia sunrthsh f : I R qei thn idithta Darboux (idithta thc endimeshc timc) an: gia kje x < y sto I me f (x) = f (y) kai gia kje pragmatik arijm anmesa stouc f (x) kai f (y) mporome na brome z (x, y) ste f (z) = . Ap to Jerhma Endimeshc Timc petai ti kje suneqc sunrthsh f : I R qei thn idithta Darboux. Ja dexoume ti h pargwgoc miac paragwgsimhc sunrthshc qei pnta thn idithta Darboux (an kai den enai pnta suneqc sunrthsh).
Jerhma 1.5.2. Apdeixh:
'Estw f : (a, b) R paragwgsimh sunrthsh. Tte, h f qei thn idithta Darboux.
'Estw x < y (a, b) me f (x) = f (y). Qwrc periorism thc genikthtac mporome na upojsoume ti f (x) < f (y). Upojtoume ti f (x) < < f (y) kai ja brome z (x, y) ste f (z) = . Jewrome th sunrthsh g : (a, b) R pou orzetai ap thn g(t) = f (t) t. Tte, h g enai paragwgsimh sto (a, b) kai g (t) = f (t) . 'Ara, qoume g (x) < 0 < g (y) kai zhtme z (x, y) me thn idithta g (z) = 0.
Isqurismc.
Uprqoun x1 , y1 (x, y) ste g(x1 ) < g(x) kai g(y1 ) < g(y).
1.6 Askhseic 15 Apdeixh tou isqurismo. H g enai paragwgsimh sto x, dhlad
(1.5.1)
h0+
lim
g(x + h) g(x) = g (x) < 0. h
(x) Epilgontac = g 2 > 0 blpoume ti uprqei 0 < 1 < y x ste
(1.5.2)
g(x + h) g(x) g (x) < g (x) + = <0 h 2
1 gia kje 0 < h < 1 . Parnontac x1 = x+ 2 qoume x1 (x, y) kai g(x1 ) < g(x).
'Omoia, h g enai paragwgsimh sto y , dhlad
(1.5.3)
Epilgontac =
g (y) 2
h0
lim
g(y + h) g(y) = g (y) > 0. h
> 0 blpoume ti uprqei 0 < 2 < y x ste
(1.5.4)
g(y + h) g(y) g (y) > g (y) = >0 h 2

2 2
gia kje 2 < h < 0. Parnontac y1 = y g(y).
qoume y1 (x, y) kai g(y1 ) < 2
Sunqeia thc apdeixhc tou Jewrmatoc 1.5.2. H g enai paragwgsimh sto (a, b), ra suneqc sto [x, y]. Epomnwc, h g parnei elqisth tim sto [x, y]: uprqei z [x, y] me thn idithta g(z) g(t) gia kje t [x, y]. Ap ton Isqurism blpoume ti h g den parnei elqisth tim sto x ote sto y . 'Ara, z (x, y). Afo h g enai paragwgsimh sto z , to Jerhma 1.1.4 (Fermat) mac exasfalzei ti g (z) = 0. 2
1.6 Askseic
A. Erwtseic katanhshc A1. 1. 2.
Exetste an oi paraktw protseic enai alhjec yeudec (aitiologste plrwc thn apnthsh sac). An h f enai paragwgsimh sto (a, b), tte h f enai suneqc sto (a, b).
An h f enai paragwgsimh sto x0 = 0 kai an f (0) = f (0) = 0, tte lim nf (1/n) = 0.
3. An h f enai paragwgsimh sto [a, b] kai parnei th mgisth tim thc sto x0 = a, tte f (a) = 0.
An f (x) 0 gia kje x [0, ) kai f (0) = 0, tte f (x) 0 gia kje x [0, ).
4.
5. 6.
An h f enai do forc paragwgsimh sto [0, 2] kai f (0) = f (1) = f (2) = 0, tte uprqei x0 (0, 2) ste f (x0 ) = 0. 'Estw f : (a, b) R kai stw x0 (a, b). An h f enai suneqc sto x0 , paragwgsimh se kje x (a, b) \ {x0 } kai an uprqei to lim f (x) = R, tte f (x0 ) = .
xx0
7.
An h f : R R enai paragwgsimh sto 0, tte uprqei > 0 ste h f na enai suneqc sto (, ).
8*.
An h f enai paragwgsimh sto x0 R kai f (x0 ) > 0, tte uprqei > 0 ste h f na enai gnhswc axousa sto (x0 , x0 + ). Dste pardeigma sunrthshc f : R R me tic exc idithtec:
A2.
(a) f (1) = 0, f (2) = 1 kai f (1) > 0. (b) f (1) = 0, f (2) = 1 kai f (1) < 0. (g) f (0) = 0, f (3) = 1, f (1) = 0 kai h f enai gnhswc axousa sto [0, 3]. (d) f (m) = 0 kai f (m) = (1)m gia kje m Z, |f (x)|
1 2
gia kje x R.
B. Basikc askseic 1.
Gia kajema ap tic paraktw sunartseic brete th mgisth kai thn elqisth tim thc sto disthma pou upodeiknetai. (a) f (x) = x3 x2 8x + 1 sto [2, 2]. (b) f (x) = x5 + x + 1 sto [1, 1]. (g) f (x) = x3 3x sto [1, 2].
2.
Dexte ti h exswsh:
(a) 4ax3 + 3bx2 + 2cx = a + b + c qei toulqiston ma rza sto (0, 1). (b) 6x4 7x + 1 = 0 qei to pol do pragmatikc rzec. (g) x3 + 9x2 + 33x 8 = 0 qei akribc ma pragmatik rza. Dexte ti h exswsh xn + ax + b = 0 qei to pol do pragmatikc rzec an o n enai rtioc kai to pol treic pragmatikc rzec an o n enai perittc.
3.
4. 'Estw a1 < < an sto R kai stw f (x) = (x a1 ) (x an ). Dexte ti h exswsh f (x) = 0 qei akribc n 1 lseic. 5.
Sqediste tic grafikc parastseic twn sunartsewn
f (x) = x +
1 , x
f (x) = x +
3 , x2
f (x) =
x2
x2 , 1
f (x) =
1 1 + x2
jewrntac san pedo orismo touc to megaltero uposnolo tou R sto opoo mporon na oriston.
1.6 Askhseic 17
6.
(a) Dexte ti: ap la ta orjognia parallhlgramma me stajer diagnio, to tetrgwno qei to mgisto embadn. (b) Dexte ti: ap la ta orjognia parallhlgramma me stajer permetro, to tetrgwno qei to mgisto embadn.
7.
Brete ta shmea thc uperbolc x2 y 2 = 1 pou qoun elqisth apstash ap to shmeo (0, 1).
8. Pnw se kklo aktnac 1 jewrome do antidiametrik shmea A, B . Brete ta shmea tou kklou gia ta opoa to trgwno AB qei th mgisth dunat permetro. 9.
Dnontai pragmatiko arijmo a1 < a2 < < an . Na breje h elqisth tim
n k=1
thc sunrthshc f (x) =
(x ak )2 .
10.
'Estw a > 0. Dexte ti h mgisth tim thc sunrthshc
f (x) =
enai sh me
2+a 1+a .
1 1 + 1 + |x| 1 + |x a|
11.
'Estw f : (a, b) R, a < x0 0. Dexte ti uprqei > 0 ste (a) f (x) > f (x0 ) gia kje x (x0 , x0 + ). (b) f (x) < f (x0 ) gia kje x (x0 , x0 ).
12.
'Estw f : (a, b) R paragwgsimh sunrthsh kai stw x0 (a, b). Upojtoume ti uprqei h f (x0 ). Dexte ti:
(a) An h f qei topik elqisto sto x0 , tte f (x0 ) 0. (b) An h f qei topik mgisto sto x0 , tte f (x0 ) 0.
13.
Upojtoume ti oi sunartseic f kai g enai paragwgsimec sto [a, b] kai ti f (a) = g(a) kai f (b) = g(b). Dexte ti uprqei toulqiston na shmeo x sto (a, b) gia to opoo oi efaptmenec twn grafikn parastsewn twn f kai g sta (x, f (x)) kai (x, g(x)) enai parllhlec tautzontai. Dnontai do paragwgsimec sunartseic f, g : (a, b) R ste f (x)g (x) f (x)g(x) = 0 gia kje x (a, b). Dexte ti anmesa se do rzec thc f (x) = 0 brsketai mia rza thc g(x) = 0, kai antstrofa. 'Estw f : [a, b] R, suneqc sto [a, b], paragwgsimh sto (a, b), me f (a) = f (b). Dexte ti uprqoun x1 = x2 (a, b) ste f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) = 0. 'Estw f : (0, +) R paragwgsimh, me lim f (x) = 0. Dexte ti
x+ x+
14.
15. 16.
lim (f (x + 1) f (x)) = 0.
17.
1 x
'Estw f : (1, +) R paragwgsimh sunrthsh me thn idithta: |f (x)| gia kje x > 1. Dexte ti lim [f (x + x) f (x)] = 0.
x+
18.
'Estw f, g do sunartseic suneqec sto [0, a] kai paragwgsimec sto (0, a). Upojtoume ti f (0) = g(0) = 0 kai f (x) > 0, g (x) > 0 sto (0, a). (a) An h f enai axousa sto (0, a), dexte ti h (b) An h
f g
enai axousa sto (0, a), dexte ti h
f (x) x enai axousa sto (0, a). f g enai axousa sto (0, a).
G. Askseic* 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Dnontai pragmatiko arijmo a1 < a2 < < an . Na breje h elqisth tim
n k=1
thc sunrthshc g(x) =
|x ak |.
'Estw f paragwgsimh sto (0, 2) me |f (x)| 1 gia kje x (0, 2). Jtoume 1 an = f n . Dexte ti h (an ) sugklnei. 'Estw n N kai stw f (x) = (x2 1)n . Dexte ti h exswsh f (n) (x) = 0 qei akribc n diaforetikc lseic, lec sto disthma (1, 1).
'Estw a > 0. Dexte ti den uprqei paragwgsimh sunrthsh f : [0, 1] R me f (0) = 0 kai f (x) a gia kje x (0, 1]. 'Estw f : (a, b) R paragwgsimh sunrthsh. An h f enai asuneqc se kpoio shmeo x0 (a, b), dexte oti h asunqeia thc f sto x0 enai ousidhc (den uprqei to rio lim f (x)).
xx0
6. 7.
'Estw f : (a, b) R paragwgsimh sunrthsh me lim f (x) = +. Dexte

xb xb
ti an uprqei to lim f (x) tte enai so me +.
'Estw f : (0, +) R paragwgsimh sunrthsh me

x+
Dexte ti an uprqei to lim f (x) tte enai so me 0.
x+
lim f (x) = L R.
Keflaio 2
Seirc pragmatikn arijmn

2.1 Sgklish seirc
Orismc 2.1.1.
thn akolouja 'Estw (ak ) mia akolouja pragmatikn arijmn. Jewrome
(2.1.1)
Dhlad,
sn = a 1 + + a n .
(2.1.2)
To smbolo
s1 = a 1 ,
k=1
s2 = a1 + a2 ,
s3 = a1 + a2 + a3 ,
...
n k=1
ak enai h seir me k -ost ro ton ak . To jroisma sn =

k=1
ak
enai to n-ost merik jroisma thc seirc twn merikn ajroismtwn thc seirc
k=1
ak kai h (sn ) enai h akolouja
ak .
An h (sn ) sugklnei se kpoion pragmatik arijm s, tte grfoume
(2.1.3)
s = a1 + a2 + + an +
s=
k=1
ak
kai lme ti h seir sugklnei (sto s), to de rio s = lim sn enai to jroisma n thc seirc. An sn + an sn , tte grfoume kai lme ti h seir
k=1 k=1
ak = +
ak =
k=1
ak apoklnei sto + sto antstoiqa.

k=1
An h (sn ) den sugklnei se pragmatik arijm, tte lme ti h seir apoklnei.
ak
20 Seirec pragmatikwn arijmwn
Parathrseic 2.1.2.
morfc
k=0
ak
(a) Pollc forc exetzoume th sgklish seirn thc
a0 + a1 + + an snm+1 = am + am+1 + + an (gia n m) antstoiqa, kai exetzoume th sgklish thc akoloujac (sn ).
(b) Ap touc orismoc pou dsame enai faner ti gia na exetsoume th sgklish apklish miac seirc, aplc exetzoume th sgklish apklish miac akoloujac (thc akoloujac (sn ) twn merikn ajroismtwn thc seirc). O nostc mwc roc thc akoloujac (sn ) enai na {jroisma me olona auxanmeno mkoc}, to opoo adunatome (sunjwc) na gryoume se kleist morf. Sunepc, h eresh tou orou s = lim sn (tan aut uprqei) enai pol suqn n anfikth. Skopc mac enai loipn na anaptxoume kpoia kritria ta opoa na mac epitrpoun (toulqiston) na pome an h (sn ) sugklnei se pragmatik arijm qi. Prin proqwrsoume se paradegmata, ja dome kpoiec aplc protseic pou ja qrhsimopoiome elejera sth sunqeia. An qoume do seirc sunduasm touc
k=1 k=1
k=m
ak pou m 2. Se autn thn perptwsh jtoume sn+1 =
ak ,
k=1
bk , mporome na sqhmatsoume ton grammik
(ak + bk ), pou , R.
k=1
Prtash 2.1.3.
An
ak = s kai
k=1
bk = t, tte

(2.1.4)
(ak + bk ) = s + t =
k=1 k=1 n k=1 n k=1
ak +
k=1 n
bk .
Apdeixh. An sn =
ak , tn =
bk kai un =
merik ajrosmata twn seirn, tte un = Aut prokptei ekola ap tic idithtec thc prsjeshc kai tou pollaplasiasmo, afo qoume ajrosmata me peperasmnouc to pljoc rouc. 'Omwc, sn s kai tn t, ra un s+t. Ap ton orism tou ajrosmatoc seirc petai h (2.1.4). 2
k=1 sn + tn .
(ak + bk ) enai ta n-ost
Prtash 2.1.4. (a) An apaleyoume peperasmno pljoc {arqikn} rwn miac seirc, den ephrezetai h sgklish apklish thc.
(b) An allxoume peperasmnouc to pljoc rouc miac seirc, den ephrezetai h sgklish apklish thc. Apdeixh. (a) Jewrome th seir
k=1
ak . Me th frsh {apalefoume touc arqi k=m
koc rouc a1 , a2 , . . . , am1 } ennoome ti jewrome thn kainorgia seir
ak .
An sumbolsoume me sn kai tn ta n-ost merik ajrosmata twn do seirn antistoqwc, tte gia kje n m qoume
(2.1.5) sn = a1 + a2 + + am1 + am + + an = a1 + + am1 + tnm+1 .
2.1 Sugklish seirac 21 'Ara h (sn ) sugklnei an kai mnon an h (tnm+1 ) sugklnei, dhlad an kai mnon an h (tn ) sugklnei. Epshc, an sn s kai tn t, tte s = a1 +a2 + +am1 +t. Dhlad,

(2.1.6)
k=1
ak = a1 + + am1 +
k=m k=1
ak .
(b) Jewrome th seir
ak . Allzoume peperasmnouc to pljoc rouc thc

k=1
(ak ). Jewrome dhlad mia na seir
bk pou mwc qei thn exc idithta:
uprqei m N ste ak = bk gia kje k m. An apaleyoume touc prtouc
m 1 rouc twn do seirn, prokptei h dia seir

to (a).
k=1
k=m
ak . Tra, efarmzoume 2
Prtash 2.1.5.
(b) An h seir
k=1
(a) An
ak = s, tte an 0.
ak sugklnei, tte gia kje > 0 uprqei N = N () N
ste: gia kje n N ,
(2.1.7)
k=n+1 n k=1
ak < .
Apdeixh. (a) An sn =
ak , tte sn s kai sn1 s. 'Ara,
(2.1.8)
(b) An
k=1
an = sn sn1 s s = 0. ak = s, tte ap thn (2.1.6) qoume
(2.1.9)
n :=
k=n+1
a k = s sn 0
kajc to n . Ap ton orism tou orou akoloujac, gia kje > 0 uprqei N = N () N ste: gia kje n N , |n | < . 2
Shmewsh.
apoklnei.
To mroc (a) thc Prtashc 2.1.5 qrhsimopoietai san kritrio ap k=1
klishc: An h akolouja (ak ) den sugklnei sto 0 tte h seir
ak anagkastik
Paradegmata
(a) H gewmetrik seir me lgo x R enai h seir
(2.1.10)
k=0
xk .
22 Seirec pragmatikwn arijmwn Dhlad ak = xk , k = 0, 1, 2, . . .. An x = 1 tte sn = n + 1, en an x = 1 qoume
(2.1.11)
sn = 1 + x + x2 + + xn =
xn+1 1 . x1
Diakrnoume do periptseic: (i) An |x| 1 tte |ak | = |x|k 1, dhlad ak 0. Ap thn Prtash 2.1.5(a) blpoume ti h seir (2.1.10) apoklnei. (ii) An |x| < 1 tte xn+1 0, opte h (2.1.11) deqnei ti sn
1 1x .
Dhlad,
(2.1.12)
k=0
xk =
1 . 1x
(b) Thleskopikc seirc. Upojtoume ti h akolouja (ak ) ikanopoie thn
(2.1.13)
ak = bk bk+1
k=1
gia kje k N, pou (bk ) mia llh akolouja. Tte, h seir an kai mnon an h akolouja (bk ) sugklnei. Prgmati, qoume
ak sugklnei
(2.1.14) sn = a1 + + an = (b1 b2 ) + (b2 b3 ) + + (bn bn+1 ) = b1 bn+1 ,

opte bn b an kai mnon an sn b1 b. San pardeigma jewrome th seir
k=1 1 k(k+1) .
Tte,
(2.1.15)
1 pou bk = k . 'Ara,
ak =
1 1 1 = = bk+1 bk , k(k + 1) k k+1
sn
= a1 + + an 1 1 1 = 1 + 2 2 3 1 = 1 1. n+1
+ +
1 1 n n+1
Dhlad,
(2.1.16)
k=1
1 = 1. k(k + 1)
k=1
Jerhma 2.1.6 (kritrio
Cauchy). H seir
ak sugklnei an kai mno
an isqei to exc: gia kje > 0 uprqei N = N ( ) N ste: an N m < n tte

n
(2.1.17)
k=m+1
ak = |am+1 + + an | < .
2.2 Seirec me mh arnhtikouc orouc 23 Apdeixh. An sn = a1 + a2 + + an enai to n-ost merik jroisma thc seirc, h seir sugklnei an kai mnon an h (sn ) sugklnei. Dhlad, an kai mnon an h (sn ) enai akolouja Cauchy. Aut mwc enai (ap ton orism thc akoloujac Cauchy) isodnamo me to exc: gia kje > 0 uprqei N = N ( ) N ste gia kje N m < n,
(2.1.18) |am+1 + +an | = |(a1 + +an )(a1 + +am )| = |sn sm | < .
Pardeigma:
'Eqoume ak =
1 k
H armonik seir
k=1
1 k.
gia kje k N. Parathrome ti: an n > m tte
(2.1.19)
am+1 + + an =
1 1 1 nm + + + . m+1 m+2 n n
Efarmzoume to kritrio tou Cauchy. An h armonik seir sugklnei, tte, gia 1 = 4 , prpei na uprqei N N ste: an N m < n tte
(2.1.20)
|am+1 + + an | <
1 . 4
Epilgoume m = N kai n = 2N . Tte, sunduzontac tic (2.1.19) kai (2.1.20) parnoume
(2.1.21)
1 2N N 1 > aN +1 + + a2N = , 4 2N 2
pou enai topo. 'Ara, h armonik seir apoklnei.
Shmewsh:
k=1
To pardeigma thc armonikc seirc deqnei ti to antstrofo thc Protashc 2.1.5(a) den isqei. An ak 0 den enai aparathta swst ti h seir
ak sugklnei.
2.2 Seirc me mh arnhtikoc rouc

Se autn thn pargrafo suzhtme th sgklish apklish seirn me mh arnhtikoc rouc. H basik paratrhsh enai ti an gia thn akolouja (ak ) qoume ak 0 gia kje k N, tte h akolouja (sn ) twn merikn ajroismtwn enai axousa: prgmati, gia kje n N qoume
(2.2.1)
sn+1 sn = (a1 + + an + an+1 ) (a1 + + an ) = an+1 0.

'Estw (ak ) akolouja me ak 0 gia kje k N. H seir
k=1
Jerhma 2.2.1.
k=1
ak sugklnei an kai mnon an h akolouja (sn ) twn merikn ajroismtwn enai ak = +.
nw fragmnh. An h (sn ) den enai nw fragmnh, tte
Apdeixh. H (sn ) enai axousa akolouja. An enai nw fragmnh tte sugklnei se pragmatik arijm, ra h seir sugklnei. An h (sn ) den enai nw fragmnh tte, afo enai axousa, qoume sn +. 2
24 Seirec pragmatikwn arijmwn Shmewsh. Edame ti mia seir me mh arnhtikoc rouc sugklnei apoklnei sto +. Epistrfontac sto pardeigma thc armonikc seirc ti, afo den sugklnei, apoklnei sto +:
k=1 1 k,
blpoume
(2.2.2)
k=1
1 = +. k
Ja dsoume mia apeujeac apdeixh gia to gegonc ti h akolouja sn = 1 + 1 + 2 1 + n tenei sto +. Pio sugkekrimna, ja dexoume me epagwg ti
()
s2 n 1 +
n 2
gia kje n N.
Gia n = 1 h anisthta isqei wc isthta: s2 = 1 + 1 . Upojtoume ti h () 2 isqei gia kpoion fusik n. Tte,
s2n+1 = s2n +
2n
1 1 1 + n + + n+1 . +1 2 +2 2
Parathrste ti o s2n+1 s2n enai na jroisma 2n to pljoc arijmn kai ti 1 o mikrteroc ap autoc enai o 2n+1 . Sunepc,
s2n+1 s2n + 2n
1 1 n 1 n+1 = s2 n + 1 + + = 1 + . 2n+1 2 2 2 2
'Ara, h () isqei gia ton fusik n + 1. 'Epetai ti s2n +. Afo h (sn ) enai axousa kai qei upakolouja pou tenei sto +, sumperanoume ti sn +.
2.2a Seirc me fjnontec mh arnhtikoc rouc

Pollc forc sunantme seirc
ak+1 ak gia kje k N kai 0. 'Ena kritrio sgklishc pou efarmzetai suqn se ttoiec periptseic enai to kritrio sumpknwshc.
k=1 ak
ak twn opown oi roi ak fjnoun proc to 0:
Prtash 2.2.2 (Kritrio sumpknwshc fjnousa akolouja me ak > 0 kai ak 0. H seir an h seir
k=0
Cauchy). 'Estw (ak ) mia ak sugklnei an kai mno
k=1
2k a2k sugklnei.
k=0
Apdeixh. Upojtoume prta ti h merikn ajroismtwn
2k a2k sugklnei. Tte, h akolouja twn
(2.2.3)
tn = a1 + 2a2 + 4a4 + + 2n a2n
enai nw fragmnh. 'Estw M na nw frgma thc (tn ). Ja dexoume ti o M enai nw frgma gia ta merik ajrosmata thc O arijmc m brsketai anmesa se do diadoqikc dunmeic tou 2: prqei n N
k=1
ak . 'Estw sm = a1 + + am .
2.2 Seirec me mh arnhtikouc orouc 25 ste 2n m < 2n+1 . Tte, qrhsimopointac thn upjesh ti h (ak ) enai fjnousa, qoume
sm
=
k=1
a1 + (a2 + a3 ) + (a4 + a5 + a6 + a7 ) + + (a2n1 + + a2n 1 ) +(a2n + + am ) a1 + 2a2 + 4a4 + + 2n1 a2n1 + 2n a2n M. ak qei mh arnhtikoc rouc kai h akolouja twn merikn ajroismtwn
k=1
Afo h
thc enai nw fragmnh, to Jerhma 2.2.1 deqnei ti h Antstrofa: upojtoume ti h fragmnh: uprqei M R ste merik jroisma (tn ) thc seirc
k=1 sm k
ak sugklnei.
ak sugklnei, dhlad ti h (sm ) enai nw M gia kje m N. Tte, gia to tuqn
k=1
2 a2k qoume
tn
= =
a1 + 2a2 + 4a4 + + 2n a2n 2a1 + 2a2 + 2(a3 + a4 ) + + 2(a2n1 +1 + + a2n ) 2s2n 2M.
k=0
Afo h (tn ) enai nw fragmnh, to Jerhma 2.2.1 deqnei ti h gklnei.
2k a2k su2
Paradegmata
(a)
Jewrome thn

k=1
1 kp ,
pou p > 0. 'Eqoume ak =
1 kp .
Afo p > 0, h (ak ) fjnei proc to 0.

k
(2.2.4)
k=0
2k a2k =
k=0
2k
1 1 = p1 k )p 2 (2 k=0
1 H teleutaa seir enai gewmetrik seir me lgo xp = 2p1 Edame ti sugklnei 1 1 an xp = 2p1 < 1, dhlad an p > 1 kai apoklnei an xp = 2p1 1, dhlad an p 1.
Ap to kritrio sumpknwshc, h seir sto + an 0 1 kai apoklnei Afo p > 0, h (ak ) fjnei

k=1
proc to 0. Jewrome thn

k=2
pou p > 0. 'Eqoume ak =
1 k(log k)p .
(2.2.5)
k=1
2k a2k =
k=1
2k
1 1 = p k (log(2k ))p (log 2) 2
1 . kp
Ap to prohgomeno pardeigma, aut sugklnei an p > 1 kai apoklnei an p
1. Ap to kritrio sumpknwshc, h seir

apoklnei sto + an 0 1 kai
2.2b O arijmc
'Eqoume orsei ton arijm e wc to rio thc gnhswc axousac kai nw fragmnhc 1 n akoloujac n := 1 + n kajc to n .
Prtash 2.2.3.
(2.2.6)
O arijmc e ikanopoie thn
e=
k=0
1 . k!
Apdeixh. Jumhjete ti 0! = 1. Grfoume sn gia to n-ost merik jroisma thc seirc sto dexi mloc:
(2.2.7)
sn = 1 +
1 1 1 + + + . 1! 2! n!
Ap to diwnumik anptugma, qoume
1+
1 n
n 1 n 1 n 1 + + + 2 1 n 2 n n nn n1 n(n 1) 1 n(n 1) (n k + 1) 1 = 1+ + + + 2 1! n 2! n k! nk n(n 1) 2 1 1 + + n! nn 1 1 1 1 1 n1 = 1+ + 1 + + 1 1 1! 2! n n! n n 1 1 1 1 + + + + , 1! 2! n! = 1+ n sn .
dhlad,
(2.2.8)
'Estw n N. O prohgomenoc upologismc deqnei ti an k > n tte
1+
1 k
1 1 1 + 1 1! 2! k 1 1 + + 1 k! k 1 1 1 1+ + 1 1! 2! k = 1+
1 1 n! k1 1 k 1 + + 1 n! + +
1 k
n1 k
1 k
n1 k
Kratntac to n stajer kai afnontac to k , blpoume ti
(2.2.9)
e = lim
1+
1 k
1+
1 1 1 + + + = sn . 1! 2! n!
Afo h axousa akolouja (sn ) enai nw fragmnh ap ton e, petai ti h (sn ) sugklnei kai lim sn e. Ap thn llh pleur, h (2.2.8) deqnei ti n e = lim n lim sn . 'Ara,
n n
(2.2.10)
e = lim sn =
n k=0
1 , k!
2.2 Seirec me mh arnhtikouc orouc 27 pwc isqurzetai h Prtash.
Qrhsimopointac autn thn anaparstash tou e, ja dexoume ti enai rrhtoc arijmc.
Prtash 2.2.4.
O e enai rrhtoc.
Apdeixh. Upojtoume ti o e enai rhtc. Tte, uprqoun m, n N ste
(2.2.11)
Dhlad,
e=
m = n
k=0
1 . k!
(2.2.12)
m = n
1+
1 1 + + 1! n!
1 1 + + + (n + 1)! (n + s)!
Pollaplasizontac ta do mlh thc (2.2.12) me n!, mporome na gryoume
0<A
= n! =
m 1 1 1 + + + n 1! n! 1 1 1 + + + + . n + 1 (n + 1)(n + 2) (n + 1) (n + s)
Parathrste ti, ap ton trpo orismo tou, o
(2.2.13)
A = n!
m 1 1 1 + + + n 1! n!
enai fusikc arijmc. 'Omwc, gia kje s N qoume
1 1 1 + + + n + 1 (n + 1)(n + 2) (n + 1) (n + s)
< =
1 1 1 1 + + + + s 2 6 23 2 2 1 + 3 8
k=0
1 2k
2 1 11 + = . 3 4 12
'Ara,
(2.2.14)
1 1 1 11 + + + + . n + 1 (n + 1)(n + 2) (n + 1) (n + s) 12
'Epetai ti o fusikc arijmc A ikanopoie thn
(2.2.15)
kai qoume katalxei se topo.
0<A
11 12 2
2.3 Genik kritria

2.3a Apluth sgklish seirc Orismc 2.3.1.
Lme ti h seir
k=1 k=1
ak sugklnei apoltwc an h seir
k=1
|ak |
sugklnei. Lme ti h seir sugklnei apoltwc.
ak sugklnei up sunjkh an sugklnei all den
H epmenh prtash deqnei ti h apluth sgklish enai isqurterh ap thn (apl) sgklish.
Prtash 2.3.2.
sugklnei.
An h seir
k=1
ak sugklnei apoltwc, tte h seir
k=1
ak
Apdeixh. Ja dexoume ti ikanopoietai to kritrio Cauchy (Jerhma 2.1.6). 'Estw > 0. Afo h seir
N m < n, (2.3.1)
k=1
|ak | sugklnei, uprqei N N ste: gia kje
|ak | < .
k=m+1
Tte, gia kje N m < n qoume

n n
(2.3.2)
k=m+1 k=1
ak
k=m+1
|ak | < .
'Ara h seir gklnei.
ak ikanopoie to kritrio Cauchy. Ap to Jerhma 2.1.6, su2
Paradegmata
(a) H seir
k=1 (1)k1 k2
sugklnei. Mporome na elgxoume ti sugklnei apol-
twc: qoume
(2.3.3)
k=1
(1) k2
k1
=
k=1
1 k2
k=1 1 kp
kai h teleutaa seir sugklnei (enai thc morfc (b) H seir

k=1 (1)k1 k
me p = 2 > 1).
den sugklnei apoltwc, afo
(2.3.4)
k=1
(1) k
k1
=
k=1
1 k
2.3 Genika krithria 29 (armonik seir). Mporome mwc na dexoume ti h seir sugklnei up sunjkh. Jewrome prta to merik jroisma
2m
s2m
=
k=1
(1) k
k1
= =
'Epetai ti
1 1 1 1 1 + + + 2 3 4 2m 1 2m 1 1 1 1 + + + + . 12 34 56 (2m 1)2m 1 > s2m , (2m + 1)(2m + 2)
(2.3.5)
s2m+2 = s2m +
dhlad, h upakolouja (s2m ) enai gnhswc axousa. Parathrome epshc ti h (s2m ) enai nw fragmnh, afo
(2.3.6)
s2m <
1 1 1 1 + 2 + 2 + + 2, 2 1 3 5 (2m 1)
kai to dexi mloc thc (2.3.6) frssetai ap to (2m 1)-ost merik jroisma thc seirc
kpoion pragmatik arijm s. Tte,
k=1
1 k2
h opoa sugklnei. 'Ara h upakolouja (s2m ) sugklnei se
(2.3.7)
s2m1 = s2m +
1 s + 0 = s. 2m
Afo oi upakoloujec (s2m ) kai (s2m1 ) twn rtiwn kai twn perittn rwn thc (sm ) sugklnoun ston s, sumperanoume ti sn s.
2.3b Kritria sgkrishc Jerhma 2.3.3 (kritrio sgkrishc).

k=1
Jewrome tic seirc
k=1
ak kai
bk , pou bk > 0 gia kje k N. Upojtoume ti uprqei M > 0 ste |ak | M bk

k=1
(2.3.8)
gia kje k N kai ti h seir apoltwc. Apdeixh. Jtoume sn =
n k=1
bk sugklnei. Tte, h seir

n k=1
k=1
ak sugklnei
|ak | kai tn =
bk . Ap thn (2.3.8) petai ti
(2.3.9)
gia kje n N. Afo h seir 'Ara, h
sn M t n
k=1
bk sugklnei, h akolouja (tn ) enai nw 2
fragmnh. Ap thn (2.3.9) sumperanoume ti kai h (sn ) enai nw fragmnh.

k=1
|ak | sugklnei.
Jerhma 2.3.4 (oriak kritrio sgkrishc).

k=1
ak kai
Jewrome tic seirc
k=1
bk , pou bk > 0 gia kje k N. Upojtoume ti ak = R k bk lim

k=1
(2.3.10)
kai ti h seir
bk sugklnei. Tte, h seir

ak bk
k=1
ak sugklnei apoltwc.
Apdeixh. H akolouja M > 0 ste
sugklnei, ra enai fragmnh. Dhlad, uprqei
(2.3.11)
ak M bk
gia kje k N. Tte, ikanopoietai h (2.3.8) kai mporome na efarmsoume to Jerhma 2.3.3. 2
Jerhma 2.3.5 (isodnamh sumperifor).

kai
k=1
Jewrome tic seirc
k=1
ak
bk , pou ak , bk > 0 gia kje k N. Upojtoume ti ak = > 0. k bk lim

k=1
(2.3.10)
Tte, h seir
bk sugklnei an kai mno an h seir

k=1
ak sugklnei.
Apdeixh. An h k=1 bk sugklnei, tte h k=1 ak sugklnei ap to Jerhma 2.3.4. k Antstrofa, ac upojsoume ti h k=1 ak sugklnei. Afo ak > 0, b bk 1 qoume ak . Enallssontac touc rlouc twn (ak ) kai (bk ), blpoume ti h 2 k=1 bk sugklnei, qrhsimopointac xan to Jerhma 2.3.4.
Paradegmata
(a) Exetzoume th sgklish thc seirc ti
k=1
sin(kx) k2 ,
pou x R. Parathrome
(2.3.12)
Afo h
k=1 k=1 1 k2
sin(kx) 1 2. k2 k
sugklnei, sumperanoume (ap to kritrio sgkrishc) ti h seir
sin(kx) k2
sugklnei apoltwc.
k=1 k+1 k4 +k2 +3 .
(b) Exetzoume th sgklish thc seirc

k+1 k4 +k2 +3
Parathrome ti an ak =
kai bk =
1 k3 ,
tte
(2.3.13)
ak k4 + k3 = 4 1. bk k + k2 + 3
2.3 Genika krithria 31 Afo h h

k=1 k=1 1 k3
sugklnei, sumperanoume (ap to oriak kritrio sgkrishc) ti sugklnei.

k+1 k2 +2 . 'Opwc sto prohgomeno k=1 k+1 1 bk = k2 +2 kai ak = k , tte
k+1 k4 +k2 +3
(g) Tloc, exetzoume th sgklish thc seirc pardeigma, an jewrsoume tic akoloujec
(2.3.14)
ak k2 + 2 1 > 0. = 2 bk k +k
k=1 k+1 k2 +2
Ap to Jerhma 2.3.5 petai ti h

k=1 1 k,
qei thn dia sumperifor me thn
dhlad apoklnei.
2.3g Kritrio lgou kai kritrio rzac Jerhma 2.3.6 (Kritrio lgou seir me mh mhdenikoc rouc. (a) An lim (b) An lim
ak+1 k ak ak+1 ak
D Alembert). 'Estw
k=1
ak mia
< 1, tte h > 1, tte h
k=1 k=1
ak sugklnei apoltwc. ak apoklnei.

ak+1 ak
Apdeixh. (a) Upojtoume ti lim Tte, uprqei N N ste:

k+1 | aak |
< 1. 'Estw x > 0 me

klp.
< x < 1.
x gi kje k N . Dhlad, |aN +2 | x|aN +1 | x2 |aN |
(2.3.15)
|aN +1 | x|aN |,
Epagwgik deqnoume ti
(2.3.16)
gi kje k N .
|ak | xkN |aN | =

k=N k=N
|aN | k x xN
Sugkrnoume tic seirc
|ak | kai
xk . Ap thn (2.3.16) blpoume ti
(2.3.17)
gia kje k N , pou M = thn gewmetrik seir 'Ara, h
k=N k=0 |aN | xN
|ak | M xk
. H seir
k=N
xk sugklnei, diti prorqetai ap
xk (me apaloif twn prtwn rwn thc) kai 0 < x < 1.

k=1
|ak | sugklnei. 'Epetai ti h

ak+1 ak
|ak | sugklnei ki aut.

ak+1 ak
(b) Afo lim Dhlad,
> 1, uprqei N N ste
1 gia kje k N .
(2.3.18)
|ak | |ak1 | |aN | > 0
32 Seirec pragmatikwn arijmwn gia kje k N . Tte, ak 0 kai, ap thn Prtash 2.1.5(a), h
k=1
ak apoklnei.
2
Shmewsh. An lim apklish thc en h
k=1 1 k2 k=1 k ak+1 ak k=1
= 1, prpei na exetsoume allic th sgklish

1 k
ak . Parathrste ti h
ak+1 ak
apoklnei kai
ak+1 ak
k k+1
1,
sugklnei kai
k2 (k+1)2
1.
Pardeigma
Exetzoume th sgklish thc seirc
k=0 1 k! .
'Eqoume
(2.3.19)
k! 1 ak+1 = = 0 < 1. ak (k + 1)! k+1
'Ara, h seir sugklnei.
Jerhma 2.3.7 (kritrio rzac - Cauchy).

matikn arijmn. (a) An lim (b) An lim
k
'Estw
k=1
ak mia seir prag-
k
k
|ak | < 1, tte h seir sugklnei apoltwc. |ak | > 1, tte h seir apoklnei.
k
Apdeixh (a) Epilgoume x > 0 me thn idithta lim uprqei N N ste

k
|ak | < x < 1. Tte,
|ak | x gia kje k N . Isodnama, |ak | xk

k=N
(2.3.21)
gia kje k n. Sugkrnoume tic seirc deterh seir sugklnei. 'Ara h apoltwc. (b) Afo lim
k
|ak | kai
k=N
xk . Afo x < 1, h
k=1
k=N
|ak | sugklnei. 'Epetai ti h

k
ak sugklnei
|ak | > 1, uprqei N N ste

k=1
|ak | 1 gia kje k N . 2
Dhlad, |ak | 1 telik. 'Ara ak 0 kai h Shmewsh. An lim apklish thc

k=1
k
ak apoklnei.
|ak | = 1, prpei na exetsoume allic th sgklish

k=1 1 k, k=1 1 k2
ak . Gia tic
qoume
|ak | 1. H prth apoklnei
en h deterh sugklnei.
Paradegmata
(a) Exetzoume th sgklish thc seirc
|x| k k k=1 xk k ,
pou x R. 'Eqoume
|ak | =
|x|. An |x| < 1, tte lim
|ak | = |x| < 1 kai h seir sugklnei apoltwc.
2.3 Genika krithria 33 An |x| > 1, tote lim

k
|ak | = |x| > 1 kai h seir apoklnei. An |x| = 1, to

k=1 1 k
kritrio rzac den dnei sumprasma. Gia x = 1 parnoume thn armonik seir h opoa apoklnei. Gia x = 1 parnoume thn {enallssousa seir} opoa sugklnei. 'Ara, h seir sugklnei an kai mno an 1 x < 1. (b) Exetzoume th sgklish thc seirc
x2 2 k k k=1 x2k k2 , k=1
(1)k k
pou x R. 'Eqoume
|ak | =
x2 . 'Ara, lim
h seir sugklnei apoltwc. An |x| = 1 to kritrio rzac den dnei sumprasma. Sthn perptwsh x = 1 h seir parnei th morf h seir sugklnei apoltwc tan |x| 1.
k=1 1 k2 ,
|ak | = x2 . An |x| > 1 h seir apoklnei. An |x| < 1

dhlad sugklnei. 'Ara,
2.3d To kritrio tou
Dirichlet
To kritrio tou Dirichlet exasfalzei (merikc forc) th sgklish miac seirc h opoa den sugklnei apoltwc (sugklnei up sunjkh).
Abel). 'Estw (ak ) kai (bk ) do akoloujec. Orzoume sn = a1 + + an , s0 = 0. Gia kje 1 m < n, isqei h isthta
n n1
Lmma 2.3.8 (jroish kat mrh -
(2.3.22)
k=m
ak bk =
k=m
sk (bk bk+1 ) + sn bn sm1 bm .
Apdeixh. Grfoume
n n
ak bk
k=m
=
k=m n
(sk sk1 )bk

n
=
k=m n
sk bk
k=m
sk1 bk
n1
=
k=m n1
sk bk
k=m1
sk bk+1
=
k=m
sk (bk bk+1 ) + sn bn sm1 bm , 2 Dirichlet). 'Estw (ak ) kai (bk ) do akoloujec
pou enai to zhtomeno. me tic exc idithtec:
Jerhma 2.3.9 (kritrio
(a) H (bk ) qei jetikoc rouc kai fjnei proc to 0. (b) H akolouja twn merikn ajroismtwn sn = a1 + + an thc (ak ) enai fragmnh: uprqei M > 0 ste
(2.3.23)
|sn | M
34 Seirec pragmatikwn arijmwn gia kje n N. Tte, h seir

k=1
ak bk sugklnei.
Apdeixh. Ja qrhsimopoisoume to kritrio tou Cauchy. 'Estw > 0. Qrhsimopointac thn upjesh (a), brskoume N N ste
(2.3.24)
'An N m < n, tte
n
> bN bN +1 bN +2 > 0. 2M
n1
ak bk
k=m
=
k=m n1
sk (bk bk+1 ) + sn bn sm1 bm |sk ||bk bk+1 | + |sn ||bn | + |sm1 ||bm |
k=m n1
(bk bk+1 ) + M bn + M bm
k=m
= 2M bm < 2M = .
2M ak bk sugklnei.
Ap to kritrio tou Cauchy, h seir
k=1
Pardeigma (kritrio
Leibniz)
Seirc me enallassmena prshma
(1)
k1
Ta merik ajrosmata thc ((1) ) enai fragmna, afo sn = 0 an o n enai rtioc kai sn = 1 an o n enai perittc. 'Ara, kje ttoia seir sugklnei. Pardeigma, h seir
k=1 (1)k1 . k
k=1 k1
bk , pou h {bk } fjnei proc to 0.
2.3e Dekadik parstash pragmatikn arijmn*

Skopc mac se autn thn pargrafo enai na dexoume ti kje pragmatikc arijmc qei dekadik parstash: enai dhlad jroisma seirc thc morfc
(2.3.25)
k=0
ak a1 a2 = a0 + + 2 + , k 10 10 10
pou a0 Z kai ak {0, 1, . . . , 9} gia kje k 1. Parathrste ti kje seir autc thc morfc sugklnei kai orzei nan pragmatik arijm x = epeid 0
ak 10k k=0 ak . 10k
Prgmati, h gewmetrik seir

k=0 ak 10k
k=0
1 10k
sugklnei kai
9 10k
gia kje k 1, h seir
sugklnei smfwna me to
kritrio sgkrishc seirn.
2.3 Genika krithria 35
Lmma 2.3.10.
(2.3.26)
An N 1 kai ak {0, 1, . . . , 9} gia kje k N , tte
0
k=N
ak 1 N 1 . k 10 10
H arister anisthta isqei san isthta an kai mnon an ak = 0 gia kje k N , en h dexi anisthta isqei san isthta an kai mnon an ak = 9 gia kje k N . Apdeixh. 'Eqoume
(2.3.27)
k=N
ak 10k
k=N ak 10k
0 = 0. 10k = 0. Antstrofa, an am 1 gia
k=N k=m
An ak = 0 gia kje k N , tte kpoion m N , tte

k=N
k=N
ak 10k
am + 10m 1 + 10m
ak 10k 0 10k
k=N k=m
=
Ap thn llh pleur,
1 > 0. 10m
(2.3.28)
k=N
ak 10k
k=N
9 9 = N 10k 10
1+
1 1 + + 10 102
1 . 10N 1
An ak = 9 gia kje k N , tte
(2.3.29)
k=N
ak = 10k
k=N
9 1 = N 1 . 10k 10
Antstrofa, an am 8 gia kpoion m N , tte

k=N
ak 10k
am + 10m 8 + 10m
k=N k=m
ak 10k 9 9 1 = m m+ k 10 10 10 9 10k
k=N k=m
k=N k=m
9 10k
= = <
1 + 10m
k=N
1 1 m + N 1 10 10 1 , 10N 1 2
ki aut sumplhrnei thn apdeixh tou Lmmatoc.
Lmma 2.3.11.
(2.3.30)
'Estw n mh arnhtikc akraioc kai stw N 0. Tte uprqoun akraioi p0 , p1 , . . . pn ste: pk {0, 1, . . . , 9} gia 0 k N 1, pN 0 kai
n = 10N pN + 10N 1 pN 1 + + 10p1 + p0 .
Apdeixh. Diairntac diadoqik me 10 parnoume
n q1 q2 . . . qN 1
= 10q1 + p0 , = 10q2 + p1 , = 10q3 + p2 , . . .
pou 0 p0 9 pou 0 p1 9 pou 0 p2 9
kai q1 0 kai q2 0 kai q3 0 kai qN 0.
= 10pN + pN 1 ,
pou 0 pN 1 9
Epagwgik, qoume:
= 10q1 + p0 = 102 q2 + 10p1 + p0 = 103 q3 + 102 p2 + 10p1 + p0 = = 10N qN + 10N 1 pN 1 + 10p1 + p0 .
Jtontac pN = qN qoume to zhtomeno.
Qrhsimopointac ta Lmmata 2.3.10 kai 2.3.11 ja dexoume ti kje pragmatikc arijmc qei dekadik parstash. {dekadikc seirc}:
Jerhma 2.3.12.
(a) Kje pragmatikc arijmc x 0 grfetai san jroisma
(2.3.31)
x=
k=0
ak a1 a2 = a0 + + + , 10k 10 102
pou a0 N {0} kai ak {0, 1, . . . , 9} gia kje k 1. Tte, lme ti o x qei th dekadik parstash x = a0 .a1 a2 a3 . (b) Oi arijmo thc morfc x = dekadikc parastseic:
m 10N
pou m N kai N 0 qoun akribc do
(2.3.32)
x = a0 .a1 a2 aN 9999 = a0 .a1 a2 aN 1 (aN + 1)000
'Oloi oi lloi mh arnhtiko pragmatiko arijmo qoun monadik dekadik parstash. Apdeixh. (a) 'Estw x 0. Uprqei mh arnhtikc akraioc a0 , to akraio mroc tou x, ste:
(2.3.33)
a0 x < a0 + 1.
1 10 .
Qwrzoume to disthma [a0 , a0 + 1) se 10 sa upodiastmata mkouc ankei se na ap aut. 'Ara, uprqei a1 {0, 1, . . . , 9} ste
O x
(2.3.34)
a0 +
a1 a1 + 1 x < a0 + . 10 10
2.3 Genika krithria 37

1 Qwrzoume to no aut disthma (pou qei mkoc 10 ) se 10 sa upodiastmata 1 mkouc 102 . O x ankei se na ap aut, ra uprqei a2 {0, 1, . . . , 9} ste
(2.3.35)
a0 +
a1 a2 a1 a2 + 1 + 2 x < a0 + + . 10 10 10 102
Suneqzontac epagwgik, gia kje k 1 brskoume ak {0, 1, . . . , 9} ste
(2.3.36)
a0 +
a1 ak ak + 1 a1 + + k x < a0 + + + . 10 10 10 10k
k=0 ak 10k
Ap thn kataskeu, ta merik ajrosmata sn thc seirc getai, ikanopoion thn sn x < sn +
1 10n .
h opoa dhmiour-
'Ara,
(2.3.37)
'Epetai ti sn x, dhlad
0 x sn <
1 . 10n
(2.3.38)
x=
k=0
ak . 10k
(b) Ac upojsoume ti kpoioc x 0 qei toulqiston do diaforetikc dekadikc parastseic. Dhlad,
(2.3.39)
x = a0 .a1 a2 = b0 .b1 b2 ,
pou a0 , b0 N {0}, ak , bk {0, 1, . . . , 9} gia kje k 1, kai uprqei m 0 me thn idithta am = bm . 'Estw N 0 o elqistoc m gia ton opoo am = bm . Dhlad,
(2.3.40)
a0 = b0 , a1 = b1 , . . . , aN 1 = bN 1 , aN = bN .
Qwrc periorism thc genikthtac upojtoume ti aN < bN . Ap thn
(2.3.41)
k=N
ak = 10k
k=N
bk 10k
kai ap to Lmma 2.3.10 petai ti
1 10N
= =
k=N +1
bN aN 10N ak 10k 1 0 10N 1 . 10N
k=N +1
bk 10k
'Ara, lec oi anisthtec enai isthtec. Dhlad,
(2.3.42)
bN aN = 1
38 Seirec pragmatikwn arijmwn kai
(2.3.43)
k=N +1
ak 1 = N, 10k 10
k=N +1
bk = 0. 10k
Ap to Lmma 2.3.10,
bN ak bk
= aN + 1, = 9, an k N + 1, = 0, an k N + 1.
'Ara, an o x qei perissterec ap ma dekadikc parastseic, tte qei akribc do parastseic, tic akloujec:
(2.3.44)
x = a0 .a1 a2 aN 999 = a0 .a1 a2 aN 1 (aN + 1) 00
Tte, o x isotai me
x = = =
a0 +
a1 a2 aN 1 aN + 1 + + + N 1 + 10 102 10 10N N N 1 10 a0 + 10 a1 + + 10aN 1 + aN + 1 10N m 10N
gia kpoiouc m N kai N 0. m Antstrofa, stw ti x = 10N , pou m N kai N 0. Ap to Lmma 2.3.11 mporome na gryoume
(2.3.45)
m = 10N pN + 10N 1 pN 1 + + 10p1 + p0 ,
pou pN N {0} kai pk {0, 1, . . . , 9} gia 0 k N 1. An pm enai o prtoc mh mhdenikc roc thc akoloujac p0 , p1 , . . . , pN 1 , pN , tte
x = = =
10N pN + + 10m pm 10N pN 1 pm pN + + + N m 10 10 pN .pN 1 pm 000 = pN .pN 1 (pm 1) 99 . 2
Aut oloklhrnei thn apdeixh tou (b).
2.4 Dunamoseirc
Orismc 2.4.1.
(2.4.1)
k=0
'Estw (ak ) mia akolouja pragmatikn arijmn. H seir
ak xk
lgetai dunamoseir me suntelestc ak .
2.4 Dunamoseirec 39 O x enai mia parmetroc ap to R. To prblhma pou ja suzhtsoume ed enai: gia dojesa akolouja suntelestn (ak ) na brejon oi timc tou x gia tic opoec h antstoiqh dunamoseir sugklnei. Gia kje ttoio x lme ti h dunamoseir sugklnei sto x.
Prtash 2.4.2.
'Estw
k=0
ak xk mia dunamoseir me suntelestc ak .
(a) An h dunamoseir sugklnei sto y = 0 kai an |x| < |y|, tte h dunamoseir sugklnei apoltwc sto x. (b) An h dunamoseir apoklnei sto y kai an |x| > |y|, tte h dunamoseir apoklnei sto x. Apdeixh. (a) Afo h ste
k=0
ak y k sugklnei, qoume ak y k 0. 'Ara, uprqei N N
(2.4.2)
|ak y k | 1
gia kje k N.
'Estw x R me |x| < |y|. Gia kje k N qoume
(2.4.3)
H gewmetrik seir
k=N
|ak xk | = |ak y k |
x y k
x y
x y
x y
sugklnei, diti
< 1. Ap to kritrio sgkrishc
petai to sumprasma.
(b) An h dunamoseir sunkline sto x, ap to (a) ja sunkline apoltwc sto y , topo. 2 'Estw
k=0
ak xk mia dunamoseir me suntelestc ak . Me bsh thn Prtash 2.4.2
mporome na dexoume ti to snolo twn shmewn sta opoa sugklnei h dunamoseir enai {ousiastik} na disthma summetrik wc proc to 0 (, endeqomnwc, to {0} to R). Aut fanetai wc exc: orzoume
(2.4.4)
R := sup{|x| : h dunamoseir sugklnei sto x}.
To snolo sto dexi mloc enai mh ken, afo h dunamoseir sugklnei sto 0. H Prtash 2.4.2 deqnei ti an |x| < R tte h dunamoseir sugklnei apoltwc sto x. Prgmati, ap ton orism tou R uprqei y me R |y| > |x| ste h dunamoseir na sugklnei sto y , opte efarmzetai h Prtash 2.4.2(a) sto x. Ap ton orism tou R enai faner ti an |x| > R tte h dunamoseir apoklnei sto x. 'Ara, h dunamoseir sugklnei se kje x (R, R) kai apoklnei se kje x me |x| > R. To disthma (R, R) onomzetai disthma sgklishc thc dunamoseirc. H suzthsh pou kname deqnei ti to snolo sgklishc thc dunamoseirc, dhlad to snolo lwn twn shmewn sta opoa sugklnei, prokptei ap to (R, R) me thn prosjkh (swc) tou R tou R twn R. Sthn perptwsh pou R = +, h dunamoseir sugklnei se kje x R. Sthn perptwsh pou R = 0, h dunamoseir sugklnei mno sto shmeo x = 0.
40 Seirec pragmatikwn arijmwn To prblhma enai loipn tra to exc: pc mporome na prosdiorsoume thn aktna sgklishc miac dunamoseirc sunartsei twn suntelestn thc. Mia apnthsh mac dnei to kritrio thc rzac gia th sgklish seirn.
Jerhma 2.4.3.
1 0
'Estw
k=0
k
ak xk mia dunamoseir me suntelestc ak . Upo|ak | = a kai jtoume R =

1 a
jtoume ti uprqei to lim
= + kai
1 +
= 0.
me th smbash ti
(a) An x (R, R) h dunamoseir sugklnei apoltwc sto x. (b) An x [R, R] h dunamoseir apoklnei sto x. / Apdeixh. Efarmzoume to kritrio thc rzac gia th sgklish seirn. Exetzoume mno thn perptwsh 0 < a < + (oi periptseic a = 0 kai a = + afnontai san skhsh). (a) An |x| < R tte
(2.4.5)
lim
|ak xk | = |x| lim

k=0
|ak | = |x|a =
|x| < 1. R
Ap to kritrio thc rzac, h (b) An |x| > R tte
ak xk sugklnei apoltwc.
(2.4.6)
k k=0
lim
|ak xk | =
|x| > 1. R 2
Ap to kritrio thc rzac, h
ak xk apoklnei.
Paratrhsh 2.4.4.
To Jerhma 2.4.3 den mac epitrpei na sumpernoume amswc tic sumbanei sta {kra R tou diastmatoc sgklishc}. 'Opwc deqnoun ta epmena paradegmata, mpore h dunamoseir na sugklnei se na, se kanna kai sta do kra. 1. Gia thn
k=0
xk elgqoume ti R = 1. Gia x = 1 qoume tic seirc

1k
k=0
kai
(1)k
k=0
oi opoec apoklnoun. 2. Gia thn

k=0 xk (k+1)2
elgqoume ti R = 1. Gia x = 1 qoume tic seirc

k=0
1 (k + 1)2
kai
k=0
(1)k (k + 1)2
oi opoec sugklnoun.
2.5 Askhseic 41 3. Gia thn

k=0 xk k+1
elgqoume ti R = 1. Gia x = 1 qoume tic seirc

k=0
1 k+1
kai
k=0
(1)k . k+1
H prth apoklnei, en h deterh sugklnei. Antstoiqo apotlesma prokptei an qrhsimopoisoume to kritrio tou lgou sth jsh tou krithrou thc rzac.
Jerhma 2.4.5.
'Estw
k=0
ak xk mia dunamoseir me suntelestc ak = 0.

ak+1 ak 1 = a kai jtoume R = a .
Upojtoume ti uprqei to lim
(a) An x (R, R) h dunamoseir sugklnei apoltwc sto x. (b) An x [R, R] h dunamoseir apoklnei sto x. / Apdeixh. Efarmste to kritrio tou lgou gia th sgklish seirn.
2.5 Askseic
A. Erwtseic katanhshc
'Estw (ak ) mia akolouja pragmatikn arijmn. Exetste an oi paraktw protseic enai alhjec yeudec (aitiologste plrwc thn apnthsh sac).
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
An ak 0 tte h akolouja sn = a1 + + an enai fragmnh. An h akolouja sn = a1 + +an enai fragmnh tte h seir An |ak | 0, tte h seir An h seir
k=1 k=1 k=1
ak sugklnei.
ak sugklnei apoltwc.
k=1
|ak | sugklnei, tte h seir

ak+1 ak
ak sugklnei.
An ak > 0 gia kje k N kai an 0 <
< 1 gia kje k N, tte h seir
k=1
ak sugklnei.
ak+1 k ak ak+1 ak
6. 7. 8.
An ak > 0 gia kje k N kai an lim An ak > 0 gia kje k N kai an An ak 0, tte h seir
= 1, tte h seir
k=1 k=1
ak apoklnei. ak apoklnei.
+, tte h h seir
k=1
(1)k ak sugklnei.
9.
k=1
An ak > 0 gia kje k N kai an h seir
k=1
ak sugklnei, tte h seir
ak sugklnei.
k=1
10. 11.
k=1
An h seir
k=1
a2 sugklnei. k
An ak > 0 gia kje k N kai an h seir
k=1
a2 sugklnei. k
H seir H seir
k=1 246(2k) k!
12. 13.
sugklnei.
k=1
k(1 + k 2 )p sugklnei an kai mno an p < 1.
B. Basikc askseic 1. 2.
Dexte ti an lim bk = b tte
k k=1
(bk bk+1 ) = b1 b.
Dexte ti
k=1 1 (2k1)(2k+1)
(a)
1 2
(b)
k=1
2k +3k 6k
3 2
(g)
k+1 k 2 +k k k=1
= 1.
3. 4.
Upologste to jroisma thc seirc
k=1
1 k(k+1)(k+2) .
Exetste gia poic timc tou pragmatiko arijmo x sugklnei h seir

1 . 1+xk
k=1
5.
Efarmste ta kritria lgou

k=1 k=0 2k k k! x
kai rzac stic akloujec seirc:

(g)
k=1 xk k2 k=0 k3 k x 3k
(a) (e)
k k xk
(b)
k=0
xk k! 2k x k k2
(d)
k=0
k 3 xk
k=1 k10 xk k! .
(st)
k=1
(z)
(h)
An gia kpoiec timc tou x R kanna ap aut ta do kritria den dnei apnthsh, exetste th sgklish apklish thc seirc me llo trpo.
6.
Exetste an sugklnoun apoklnoun oi seirc
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + + + 2 + 3 + 3 + 4 + 4 + 2 3 22 3 2 3 2 3
2.5 Askhseic 43 kai
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 +1+ + + + + + + . 2 8 4 32 16 128 64
Exetste an sugklnei apoklnei h seir
n=1
7.
ak stic paraktw periptseic:
(a) ak = (g) ak =
k+1
k+1 k k
(b) ak = 1 + k 2 k (d) ak = ( k k 1)k .
8.
Exetste an sugklnoun apoklnoun oi seirc k+ k cos2 k k , ( k 1), , 31 2k k2

k=1 k=1 k=1
k=1
k! . kk
Exetste wc proc th sgklish tic paraktw seirc. 'Opou emfanzontai oi parmetroi p, q, x R na brejon oi timc touc gia tic opoec oi antstoiqec seirc sugklnoun. (a) (d) (z)
k=1 k=1 k=1 1
9.
1+
2 1 k k
(b)
k=1
k=1 1
pk k p (0 < p) (0 < q < p)

k=1
(g) (st)
k=2 k=1
1 kp kq
(0 < q < p)
1 k1+ k
(e)
pk q k
2+(1)k 2k
kp
1 k
1 k+1
(h)
kp
k+12 k+ k1 .
k=1
10. 11.
'Estw ti ak 0 gia kje k N. Dexte ti h seir
ak 1+k2 ak
sugklnei.
Orzoume mia akolouja (ak ) wc exc: an o k enai tetrgwno fusiko 1 arijmo jtoume ak = k kai an o k den enai tetrgwno fusiko arijmo jtoume
ak =
1 k2 .
Exetste an sugklnei h seir
k=1
ak .
k=1
12. 13.
Exetste an sugklnei apoklnei h seir
(1)k k1p , pou p R.
'Estw {ak } fjnousa akolouja pou sugklnei sto 0. Orzoume
s=
k=1
(1)k1 ak .
Dexte ti 0 (1) (s sn ) an+1 .
14.
'Estw (ak ) fjnousa akolouja jetikn arijmn. Dexte ti: an h
k=1
ak
sugklnei tte kak 0.
15.
'Estw ti ak > 0 gia kje k N. An h

k=1
ak sugklnei, dexte ti oi
k=1
a2 , k
k=1 k=1
ak , 1 + ak
a2 k 1 + a2 k
sugklnoun epshc.
16.
Upojtoume ti ak 0 gia kje k N kai ti h seir

k=1
k=1
ak sugklnei.
Dexte ti h seir
ak ak+1 sugklnei. Dexte ti, an h {ak } enai fjnousa,
tte isqei kai to antstrofo.
17.

k=1 ak k
k=1
ak sugklnei.
Dexte ti h seir
sugklnei.
k=1
18.

k=1
ak apoklnei.
Dexte ti
ak = 1. (1 + a1 )(1 + a2 ) (1 + ak )
G. Askseic* 1.
h
'Estw (ak ) fjnousa akolouja jetikn arijmn me ak 0. Dexte ti: an
k=1
ak apoklnei tte
min ak ,
k=1
1 k
= +.
2.
Upojtoume ti ak > 0 gia kje k N kai ti h

k=1
k=1
ak apoklnei. Jtoume
sn = a1 + a2 + + an .
(a) Dexte ti h
ak 1+ak
apoklnei.
(b) Dexte ti: gia 1 m < n,
am+1 an sm + + 1 sm+1 sn sn
kai sumpernate ti h (g) Dexte ti
an s2 n k=1 ak sk
apoklnei.
k=1 ak s2 k
1 sn1
1 sn
kai sumpernate ti h
sugklnei.
2.5 Askhseic 45
3.
Upojtoume ti ak > 0 gia kje k N kai ti h

k=n
k=1
ak sugklnei. Jtoume
rn =
ak .
(a) Dexte ti: gia 1 m < n,
am an rn+1 + + 1 rm rn rm
kai sumpernate ti h (b) Dexte ti nei.
a n rn k=1 ak rk
apoklnei.
<2
rn
rn+1 kai sumpernate ti h
k=1
a k rk
sugkl-
4.
'Estw (ak ) akolouja pragmatikn arijmn. Dexte ti an h seir

k=1
k=1
ak
apoklnei tte kai h seir
kak apoklnei.
5.
Upojtoume ti ak 0 gia kje k N. Orzoume
bk =
k=1
1 k
2k
am .
m=k+1 k=1
Dexte ti h
ak sugklnei an kai mno an h
bk sugklnei. [Updeixh: An
sn kai tn enai ta merik ajrosmata twn do seirn, dokimste na sugkrnete ta s2n kai tn .]
6.
'Estw (ak ) akolouja jetikn arijmn ste
k=1
ak = + kai ak 0.
Dexte ti an 0 < tte uprqoun fusiko m n ste

n
<
k=m
ak < .
7.
Dexte ti an 0 < tte uprqoun fusiko m n ste
<
1 1 1 + + + < . m m+1 n
Keflaio 3
Omoimorfh sunqeia
3.1 Omoimorfh sunqeia
Prin dsoume ton orism thc omoimorfhc sunqeiac, ja exetsoume pio prosektik do apl paradegmata suneqn sunartsewn. (a) Jewrome th sunrthsh f (x) = x, x R. Gnwrzoume ti h f enai suneqc sto R, kti pou ekola epibebainoume austhr qrhsimopointac ton orism thc sunqeiac: 'Estw x0 R kai stw > 0. Zhtme > 0 ste
(3.1.1)
|x x0 | < = |f (x) f (x0 )| < , dhlad |x x0 | < .
H epilog tou enai profanc: arke na proume = . Parathrste ti to pou brkame exarttai mno ap to pou djhke kai qi ap to sugkekrimno shmeo x0 . H sunrthsh f metablletai me ton {dio rujm} se olklhro to pedo orismo thc: an x, y R kai |x y| < , tte |f (x) f (y)| < . (b) Jewrome tra th sunrthsh g(x) = x2 , x R. Enai pli gnwst ti h g enai suneqc sto R (afo g = f f ). An jelsoume na to epibebaisoume me ton eyilontik orism, jewrome x0 R kai > 0, kai zhtme > 0 me thn idithta
(3.1.2)
|x x0 | < = |x2 x2 | < . 0
'Enac trpoc gia na epilxoume katllhlo enai o exc. Sumfwnome ap thn arq ti ja proume 0 < 1, opte
|x2 x2 | = 0
An loipn epilxoume
|x x0 | |x + x0 | (|x| + |x0 |) |x x0 | (2|x0 | + 1)|x x0 |.
(3.1.3)
= min 1,
2|x0 | + 1
48 Omoiomorfh suneqeia tte
(3.1.4)
|x x0 | < = |x2 x2 | < (2|x0 | + 1) . 0
'Ara, h g enai suneqc sto x0 . Parathrste mwc ti to pou epilxame den exarttai mno ap to pou mac djhke, all kai ap to shmeo x0 sto opoo elgqoume thn sunqeia thc g . H epilog pou kname sthn (3.1.3) deqnei ti so pio makri brsketai to x0 ap to 0, tso pio mikr prpei na epilxoume to . Ja mporose bbaia na pei kanec ti swc uprqei kalteroc trpoc epilogc tou , akma kai anexrthtoc ap to shmeo x0 . Ac dome to dio prblhma me nan detero trpo. Jewrome x0 > 0 kai > 0. Mporome na upojsoume ti < x2 , afo ta mikr enai aut pou parousizoun endiafron. Mporome 0 epshc na koitme mno x > 0, afo mac endiafrei ti gnetai kont sto x0 to opoo qei upoteje jetik. H anisthta |x2 x2 | < ikanopoietai an kai mno 0 an x2 < x2 < x2 + , dhlad an kai mno an 0 0
(3.1.5)
Isodnama, an
x2 < x < 0
x2 + . 0
(3.1.6)
x0
x2 0
< x x0 <
x2 + x0 . 0
Aut sumbanei an kai mno an
|x x0 |
<
min x0
x2 , 0 ,
x2 + x0 0 x2 + + x0 0
= min =
Upojsame ti x2 > . 'Ara, 0
x2 + x0 0 .
x2 + + x0 0
(3.1.7)
x2 + + x0 0
<
x2 0 x2 + + x0 0
<
x2 0 = x0 . x0 > 0 kai o prohgomenoc < x2 tte h kalterh 0
An loipn |x x0 | <
upologismc deqnei epilog tou sto shmeo x0 enai
, tte |x x0 | < x0 x x2 ++x0 0 ti |x2 x2 | < . Dhlad, an 0 < 0
(3.1.8)
= (, x0 ) =
x2 0 + + x0
Den mporome na exasfalsoume thn (3.1.2) an epilxoume megaltero . An ta prohgomena do epiqeirmata den enai apoltwc peistik, dnoume ki na trto.
3.1 Omoiomorfh suneqeia 49
Isqurismc.
Jewrome thn g(x) = x2 , x R. 'Estw > 0. Den uprqei > 0 me thn idithta: an x, y R kai |y x| < tte |g(y) g(x)| < .
Parathrste ti o isqurismc enai isodnamoc me to exc: gia dojn > 0 den uprqei kpoia omoimorfh epilog tou pou na mac epitrpei na elgqoume thn (3.1.2) se kje x0 R. Apdeixh tou isqurismo. Ac upojsoume ti uprqei > 0 ste: an x, y R kai |y x| < tte |g(y)g(x)| < . Afo gia kje x R qoume x + 2 x = 2 < , prpei, gia kje x R na isqei h
(3.1.9)
x+
x2 < .
Eidiktera, gia kje x > 0 prpei na isqei h
(3.1.10)
x < x +
2 = 4
x+
x2 < .
'Omwc tte, gia kje x > 0 ja eqame
(3.1.11)
x<
. 2
Aut enai topo: to R ja tan nw fragmno.
Ta paradegmata pou dsame deqnoun mia {parleiyh} mac ston orism thc sunqeiac. 'Enac pio prosektikc orismc ja tan o exc: H f : A R enai suneqc sto x0 A an gia kje > 0 uprqei (, x0 ) > 0 ste: an x A kai |x x0 | < , tte |f (x) f (x0 )| < . O sumbolismc (, x0 ) ja deiqne ti to exarttai tso ap to so kai ap to shmeo x0 . Oi sunartseic (pwc h f (x) = x) pou mac epitrpoun na epilgoume to anexrthta ap to x0 lgontai omoimorfa suneqec:
Orismc 3.1.1. 'Estw f : A R mia sunrthsh. Lme ti h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto A an gia kje > 0 mporome na brome = () > 0
ste
(3.1.12)
an x, y A
kai |x y| <
tte |f (x) f (y)| < .
Paradegmata
(a) H f (x) = x enai omoimorfa suneqc sto R. (b) H g(x) = x2 den enai omoimorfa suneqc sto R. (g) Jewrome th sunrthsh g(x) = x2 tou (b), periorismnh mwc sto kleist disthma [M, M ], pou M > 0. Tte, gia kje x, y [M, M ] qoume
(3.1.13)
|g(y) g(x)| = |y 2 x2 | = |x + y| |y x| 2M |y x|.
50 Omoiomorfh suneqeia Dnetai > 0. An epilxoume () = [M, M ] kai |x y| < qoume

2M
tte h (3.1.13) deqnei ti an x, y
(3.1.14)
|g(y) g(x)| 2M |y x| < 2M = .
Dhlad, h g enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [M, M ]. To pardeigma (g) odhge ston exc orism. 'Estw f : A R mia sunrthsh. Lme ti h f enai Lipschitz suneqc an uprqei M > 0 ste: gia kje x, y A
Orismc 3.1.2.
(3.1.15)
qc.
|f (x) f (y)| M |x y|.

Kje Lipschitz suneqc sunrthsh enai omoimorfa sune-
Prtash 3.1.3.
Apdeixh. 'Estw f : A R kai M > 0 ste |f (x) f (y)| M |x y| gia kje x, y A. An mac dsoun > 0, epilgoume = M . Tte, gia kje x, y A me |x y| < qoume
(3.1.16)
|f (x) f (y)| M |x y| < M = . 2
'Epetai ti h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto A.
H epmenh Prtash mac dnei na qrsimo kritrio gia na exasfalzoume ti mia sunrthsh enai Lipschitz suneqc (ra, omoimorfa suneqc). 'Estw I na disthma kai stw f : I R paragwgsimh sunrthsh. Upojtoume ti h f enai fragmnh: uprqei stajer M > 0 ste: |f (x)| M gia kje eswterik shmeo x tou I . Tte, h f enai Lipschitz suneqc me stajer M . Apdeixh. 'Estw x < y sto I . Ap to jerhma mshc timc uprqei (x, y) ste
Prtash 3.1.4.
(3.1.17)
Tte,
f (y) f (x) = f ()(y x).
(3.1.18)
|f (y) f (x)| = |f ()| |y x| M |y x|. 2
Smfwna me ton Orism 3.1.2, h f enai Lipschitz suneqc me stajer M .
Ap th suzthsh pou prohgjhke tou orismo thc omoimorfhc sunqeiac, enai logik na perimnoume ti oi omoimorfa suneqec sunartseic enai suneqec. Aut apodeiknetai me apl sgkrish twn do orismn:
Prtash 3.1.5.
An h f : A R enai omoimorfa suneqc, tte enai suneqc.
Apdeixh. Prgmati: stw x0 A kai > 0. Ap ton orism thc omoimorfhc sunqeiac, uprqei > 0 ste an x, y A kai |x y| < tte |f (x) f (y)| < . Epilgoume aut to . An x A kai |x x0 | < , tte |f (x) f (x0 )| < (prte y = x0 ). Afo to > 0 tan tuqn, h f enai suneqc sto x0 . 2
3.2 Qarakthrismoc thc omoiomorfhc suneqeiac mesw akoloujiwn 51
3.2 Qarakthrismc thc omoimorfhc sunqeiac msw akoloujin

Jumhjete ton qarakthrism thc sunqeiac msw akoloujin: an f : A R, tte h f enai suneqc sto x0 A an kai mno an gia kje akolouja (xn ) me xn A kai xn x0 , isqei f (xn ) f (x0 ). O antstoiqoc qarakthrismc thc omoimorfhc sunqeiac qei wc exc:
Jerhma 3.2.1. 'Estw f : A R mia sunrthsh. H f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto A an kai mno an gia kje zeugri akoloujin (xn ), (yn ) sto A me xn yn 0 isqei
(3.2.1) f (xn ) f (yn ) 0.
Apdeixh. Upojtoume prta ti h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto A. 'Estw (xn ), (yn ) do akoloujec sto A me xn yn 0. Ja dexoume ti f (xn )f (yn ) 0: 'Estw > 0. Ap ton orism thc omoimorfhc sunqeiac, uprqei > 0 ste
(3.2.2)
an x, y A kai |x y| <
tte |f (x) f (y)| < .
Afo xn yn 0, uprqei n0 () N ste: an n n0 tte |xn yn | < . 'Estw n n0 . Tte, |xn yn | < kai xn , yn A, opte h (3.2.2) dnei
(3.2.3)
|f (xn ) f (yn )| < .
Afo to > 0 tan tuqn, sumperanoume ti f (xn ) f (yn ) 0. Antstrofa: ac upojsoume ti
(3.2.4)
an xn , yn A kai xn yn 0
tte
f (xn ) f (yn ) 0.
Ja dexoume ti h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto A. 'Estw ti den enai. Tte, uprqei > 0 me thn exc idithta: Gia kje > 0 uprqoun x , y A me |x y | < all |f (x ) f (y )| .
1 Epilgontac diadoqik = 1, 1 , . . . , n , . . ., brskoume zeugria xn , yn A ste 2
(3.2.5)
|xn yn | <
1 n
all |f (xn ) f (yn )| .
Jewrome tic akoloujec (xn ), (yn ). Ap thn kataskeu qoume xn yn 0, all ap thn |f (xn ) f (yn )| gia kje n N blpoume ti den mpore na isqei h f (xn ) f (yn ) 0 (exhgste giat). Aut enai topo, ra h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto A. 2
Paradegmata
1 (a) Jewrome th sunrthsh f (x) = x sto (0, 1]. H f enai suneqc all den enai omoimorfa suneqc. Gia na to dome, arke na brome do akoloujec (xn ),
52 Omoiomorfh suneqeia
(yn ) sto (0, 1] pou na ikanopoion thn xn yn 0 all na mhn ikanopoion thn 1 1 xn yn 0. 1 1 Parnoume xn = n kai yn = 2n . Tte, xn , yn (0, 1] kai (3.2.6)
all
xn yn =
1 1 1 = 0 n 2n 2n
(3.2.7)
f (xn ) f (yn ) =
1 1 = n 2n = n . xn yn
1 (b) Jewrome th sunrthsh g(x) = x2 sto R. Orzoume xn = n + n kai yn = n. Tte,
(3.2.8)
all
xn yn =
1 0 n
(3.2.9)
g(xn ) g(yn ) =
n+
1 n
n2 = 2 +
1 2 = 0. n2
'Ara, h g den enai omoimorfa suneqc sto R. (g) Orzoume f (x) = cos(x2 ), x R. H f enai suneqc sto R kai |f (x)| 1 gia kje x R. Dhlad, h f enai epiplon fragmnh. 'Omwc h f den enai omoimorfa suneqc: gia na to dete, jewrste tic akoloujec (3.2.10) xn = (n + 1) kai yn = n. Tte, (3.2.11)
xn yn =
all
(n + 1)
n =
(n + 1) n = (n + 1) + n
(n + 1) +
0,
(3.2.12)
|f (xn ) f (yn )| = | cos((n + 1)) cos(n)| = 2
gia kje n N. Ap to Jerhma 3.2.1 petai to sumprasma. Uprqoun loipn fragmnec suneqec sunartseic pou den enai omoimorfa suneqec (sqediste th grafik parstash thc cos(x2 ) gia na dete to lgo: gia megla x, h f anebanei ap thn tim 1 sthn tim 1 kai katebanei ap thn tim 1 sthn tim 1 lo kai pio grgora - o rujmc metabolc thc gnetai pol megloc).
3.3 Omoimorfh sunqeia suneqn sunartsewn se kleist diastmata

Sthn pargrafo 3.1 edame ti h sunrthsh g(x) = x2 den enai omoimorfa suneqc sto I = R all enai omoimorfa suneqc se kje disthma thc morfc I = [M, M ], M > 0 (osodpote meglo ki an enai to M ). Aut pou isqei genik enai ti kje suneqc sunrthsh f : [a, b] R enai omoimorfa suneqc:
3.3 Omoiomorfh suneqeia suneqwn sunarthsewn se kleista diasthmata 53
Jerhma 3.3.1.
'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc sunrthsh. Tte, h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [a, b].
Apdeixh. Ac upojsoume ti h f den enai omoimorfa suneqc. Tte, pwc sthn apdeixh tou Jewrmatoc 3.2.1, mporome na brome > 0 kai do akoloujec (xn ), (yn ) sto [a, b] me xn yn 0 kai |f (xn ) f (yn )| gia kje n N. Afo a xn , yn b gia kje n N, oi (xn ) kai (yn ) enai fragmnec akoloujec. Ap to Jerhma Bolzano-Weierstrass, uprqei upakolouja (xkn ) thc (xn ) h opoa sugklnei se kpoio x R. Afo a xkn b gia kje n, sumperanoume ti a x b. Dhlad,
(3.3.1)
xkn x [a, b].
Parathrste ti xkn ykn 0, ra
(3.3.2)
ykn = xkn (xkn ykn ) x 0 = x.
Ap th sunqeia thc f sto x petai ti
(3.3.3)
Dhlad,
f (xkn ) f (x)
kai
f (ykn ) f (x).
(3.3.4)
f (xkn ) f (ykn ) x x = 0.
Aut enai topo, afo |f (xkn ) f (ykn )| gia kje n N. 'Ara, h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [a, b]. 2 Paratrhsh. To gegonc ti h f tan orismnh sto kleist disthma [a, b] qrhsimopoijhke me do trpouc. Prton, mporsame na brome sugklnousec upakoloujec twn (xn ), (yn ) (jerhma Bolzano-Weierstrass). Deteron, mporosame na pome ti to koin rio x autn twn upakoloujin exakolouje na brsketai sto pedo orismo [a, b] thc f . Qrhsimopoisame dhlad to exc:
(3.3.5)
an a zn b kai zn z, tte a z b.
To epmeno jerhma apodeiknei ti oi omoimorfa suneqec sunartseic qoun thn exc {kal idithta}: apeikonzoun akoloujec Cauchy se akoloujec Cau1 chy. Aut den isqei gia lec tic suneqec sunartseic: jewrste thn f (x) = x 1 sto (0, 1]. H xn = n enai akolouja Cauchy sto (0, 1], mwc h f (xn ) = n den enai akolouja Cauchy.
Jerhma 3.3.2. 'Estw f : A R omoimorfa suneqc sunrthsh kai stw (xn ) akolouja Cauchy sto A. Tte, h (f (xn )) enai akolouja Cauchy. Apdeixh: 'Estw > 0. Uprqei > 0 ste: an x, y A kai |x y| < tte |f (x) f (y)| < . H (xn ) enai akolouja Cauchy, ra uprqei n0 () ste
(3.3.6)
an m, n n0 (), tte |xn xm | < .
54 Omoiomorfh suneqeia 'Omwc tte,
(3.3.7)
|f (xn ) f (xm )| < .
Brkame n0 N me thn idithta
(3.3.8)
an m, n n0 () tte |f (xn ) f (xm )| < .
Afo to > 0 tan tuqn, h (f (xn )) enai akolouja Cauchy.
Edame ti kje suneqc sunrthsh f orismnh se kleist disthma enai omoimorfa suneqc. Ja exetsoume to exc erthma: 'Estw f : (a, b) R suneqc sunrthsh. Pc mporome na elgxoume an h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto (a, b)?
Jerhma 3.3.3.
'Estw f : (a, b) R suneqc sunrthsh. H f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto (a, b) an kai mno an uprqoun ta lim f (x) kai lim f (x).
xa+ xb
Apdeixh. Upojtoume prta ti uprqoun ta lim f (x) kai lim f (x). Orzoume mia {epktash} g thc f sto [a, b], jtontac: g(a) = lim f (x), g(b) =
xb xa+ xb
lim f (x) kai g(x) = f (x) an x (a, b).
xa+
H g enai suneqc sto kleist disthma [a, b] (exhgste giat), ra omoimorfa suneqc. Ja dexoume ti h f enai ki aut omoimorfa suneqc sto (a, b). 'Estw > 0. Afo h g enai omoimorfa suneqc, uprqei > 0 ste: an x, y [a, b] kai |x y| < tte |g(x) g(y)| < . Jewrome x, y (a, b) me |x y| < . Tte, ap ton orism thc g qoume
(3.3.9)
|f (x) f (y)| = |g(x) g(y)| < .
Antstrofa, upojtoume ti h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto (a, b) kai deqnoume ti uprqei to limxa+ f (x) (h parxh tou llou pleuriko orou apodeiknetai me ton dio trpo). Ja dexoume ti an (xn ) enai akolouja sto (a, b) me xn a, tte h (f (xn )) sugklnei. Aut enai meso ap to Jerhma 3.3.2: h (xn ) sugklnei, ra h (xn ) enai akolouja Cauchy, ra h (f (xn )) enai akolouja Cauchy, ra h (f (xn )) sugklnei se kpoion pragmatik arijm . Epshc, to rio thc (f (xn )) enai anexrthto ap thn epilog thc (xn ): stw (yn ) mia llh akolouja sto (a, b) me yn a. Tte, xn yn 0. Ap to Jerhma 3.2.1,
(3.3.10)
n
f (xn ) f (yn ) 0.
Xroume dh ti lim f (xn ) = , ra
(3.3.11)
f (yn ) = f (xn ) (f (xn ) f (yn )) + 0 = .
Ap thn arq thc metaforc (gia to rio sunrthshc) petai ti lim f (x) = . xa+ 2
3.4 Sustolec
jewrhma stajerou shmeiou 55
(a) Jewrome th sunrthsh f (x) = x sto [0, 1]. H f enai suneqc sto [0, 1], epomnwc enai omoimorfa suneqc. 'Omwc, h f den enai Lipschitz suneqc sto [0, 1]. An tan, ja uprqe M > 0 ste (3.3.12) |f (x) f (y)| M |x y|
Pardeigma
gia kje x, y [0, 1]. Eidiktera, gia kje n N ja eqame
(3.3.13)
1 n2
f (0) =
1 1 1 =n 2 0 M 2 0 . n n n
Dhlad, n M gia kje n N. Aut enai topo: to N ja tan nw fragmno. (b) H sunrthsh f (x) = x enai Lipschitz suneqc sto [1, +), ra omoimorfa suneqc. Prgmati, an x 1 tte
(3.3.14)
1 1 |f (x)| = , 2 2 x
dhlad h f qei fragmnh pargwgo sto [1, +). Ap thn Prtash 3.1.4 enai Lipschitz suneqc me stajer 1/2. (g) Ac dome tra thn dia sunrthsh f (x) = x sto [0, +). H f den enai Lipschitz suneqc sto [0, +) ote mporome na efarmsoume to Jerhma 3.3.1. Edame mwc ti h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [0, 1] kai omoimorfa suneqc sto [1, +). Aut ftnei gia na dexoume ti enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [0, +): 'Estw > 0. Uprqei 1 > 0 ste: an x, y [0, 1] kai |x y| < 1 tte |f (x) f (y)| < 2 (ap thn omoimorfh sunqeia thc f sto [0, 1]). Epshc, uprqei 2 > 0 ste: an x, y [1, +) kai |x y| < 2 tte |f (x) f (y)| < 2 (ap thn omoimorfh sunqeia thc f sto [1, +)). Jtoume = min{1 , 2 } > 0. 'Estw x < y [0, +) me |x y| < . Diakrnoume trec periptseic: (i) An 0 x < y 1 kai |xy| < , tte |xy| < 1 ra |f (x)f (y)| < (ii) An 1 x < y kai |x y| < , tte |x y| < 2 ra |f (x) f (y)| <
2 2
< . < .
(iii) An x < 1 < y kai |x y| < , parathrome ti |x 1| < kai |1 y| < . 'Omwc, x, 1 [0, 1] kai 1, y [1, +). Mporome loipn na gryoume
|f (x) f (y)| |f (x) f (1)| + |f (1) f (y)| <
+ = . 2 2
3.4 Sustolc
Orismc 3.4.1.
(3.4.1)
jerhma stajero shmeou
Mia sunrthsh f : A R lgetai sustol an uprqei 0 < M < 1 ste: gia kje x, y A
|f (x) f (y)| M |x y|.
Profanc, kje sustol enai Lipschitz suneqc.
56 Omoiomorfh suneqeia
Jerhma 3.4.2 (jerhma stajero shmeou).

sustol. Uprqei monadik y R me thn idithta
'Estw f : R R
(3.4.2)
f (y) = y.
Apdeixh. Ap thn upjesh uprqei 0 < M < 1 ste |f (x)f (y)| M |xy| gia kje x, y R. H f enai Lipschitz suneqc, ra omoimorfa suneqc. Epilgoume tuqn x1 R. Orzoume mia akolouja (xn ) msw thc
(3.4.3)
Tte,
xn+1 = f (xn ),
n N.
(3.4.4)
|xn+1 xn | = |f (xn ) f (xn1 )| M |xn xn1 |
gia kje n 2. Epagwgik apodeiknoume ti
(3.4.5)
|xn+1 xn | M n1 |x2 x1 |
gia kje n 2. 'Epetai ti an n > m sto N, tte
|xn xm |
|xn xn1 | + + |xm+1 xm |
(M n2 + + M m1 )|x2 x1 | 1 M nm m1 = M |x2 x1 | 1M M m1 |x2 x1 |. 1M

Afo 0 < M < 1, qoume M m 0. 'Ara, gia dojn > 0 mporome na brome m1 n0 () ste: an n > m n0 tte M 1M |x2 x1 | < , kai sunepc, |xn xm | < . Epomnwc, h (xn ) enai akolouja Cauchy kai aut shmanei ti sugklnei: uprqei y R ste xn y . Ja dexoume ti f (y) = y : ap thn xn y kai th sunqeia thc f sto y blpoume ti f (xn ) f (y). 'Omwc xn+1 = f (xn ) kai xn+1 y , ra f (xn ) y . Ap th monadikthta tou orou akoloujac prokptei h f (y) = y . To y enai to monadik stajer shmeo thc f . 'Estw z = y me f (z) = z . Tte,
(3.4.6)
0 < |z y| = |f (z) f (y)| M |z y|, 2
dhlad 1 M , to opoo enai topo.
3.5 Askseic
Exetste an oi paraktw protseic enai alhjec yeudec (aitiologste plrwc thn apnths sac).
3.5 Askhseic 57
1. 2.
H sunrthsh f (x) = x2 + H sunrthsh f (x) =

1 x1
1 x
enai omoimorfa suneqc sto (0, 1).
enai omoimorfa suneqc sto (0, 1).
3. An h sunrthsh f den enai fragmnh sto (0, 1), tte h f den enai omoimorfa suneqc sto (0, 1). 4. 5.
An h (xn ) enai akolouja Cauchy kai h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto R, tte h (f (xn )) enai akolouja Cauchy. An h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto (0, 1), tte to lim f
n 1 n
uprqei.
6. Jewrome tic f (x) = x kai g(x) = sin x. Oi f kai g enai omoimorfa suneqec sto R, mwc h f g den enai omoimorfa suneqc sto R.
H sunrthsh f : R R me f (x) = x an x > 0 kai f (x) = 2x an x 0, enai omoimorfa suneqc sto R.
7. 8.
Kje fragmnh kai suneqc sunrthsh f : R R enai omoimorfa suneqc.
'Estw X R. Lme ti mia sunrthsh f : X R ikanopoie sunjkh Lipschitz an uprqei M 0 ste: gia kje x, y X ,
|f (x) f (y)| M |x y|.

Dexte ti an h f : X R ikanopoie sunjkh Lipschitz tte enai omoimorfa suneqc. Isqei to antstrofo?
2. 3. 4.
'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc, paragwgsimh sto (a, b). Dexte ti h f ikanopoie sunjkh Lipschitz an kai mno an h f enai fragmnh.
'Estw n N, n 2 kai f (x) = x1/n , x [0, 1]. Dexte ti h sunrthsh f den ikanopoie sunjkh Lipschitz. Enai omoimorfa suneqc? Exetste an oi paraktw sunartseic ikanopoion sunjkh Lipschitz:
1 (a) f : [0, 1] R me f (x) = x sin x an x = 0 kai f (0) = 0. 1 (b) g : [0, 1] R me g(x) = x2 sin x an x = 0 kai g(0) = 0.
5. 'Estw f : [a, b] [m, M ] kai g : [m, M ] R omoimorfa suneqec sunartseic. Dexte ti h g f enai omoimorfa suneqc. 6.
'Estw f, g : I R omoimorfa suneqec sunartseic. Dexte ti (a) h f + g enai omoimorfa suneqc sto I . (b) h f g den enai anagkastik omoimorfa suneqc sto I , an mwc oi f, g upotejon kai fragmnec tte h f g enai omoimorfa suneqc sto I .
58 Omoiomorfh suneqeia 'Estw f : R R suneqc sunrthsh me thn exc idithta: gia kje > 0 uprqei M = M () > 0 ste an |x| M tte |f (x)| < . Dexte ti h f enai omoimorfa suneqc.
7.
8.
'Estw a R kai f : [a, +) R suneqc sunrthsh me thn exc idithta: uprqei to lim f (x) kai enai pragmatikc arijmc. Dexte ti h f enai
x+
omoimorfa suneqc.
9.
'Estw f : R R omoimorfa suneqc sunrthsh. Dexte ti uprqoun A, B > 0 ste |f (x)| A|x| + B gia kje x R.
10. 'Estw n N, n > 1. Qrhsimopointac thn prohgomenh 'Askhsh dexte ti h sunrthsh f (x) = xn , x R den enai omoimorfa suneqc. 11. (a) 'Estw f : [0, +) R suneqc sunrthsh. Upojtoume ti uprqei a > 0 ste h f na enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [a, +). Dexte ti h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [0, +). (b) Dexte ti h f (x) = x enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [0, +). 12. 13.
'Estw f : (a, b) R omoimorfa suneqc sunrthsh. Dexte ti uprqei suneqc sunrthsh f : [a, b] R ste f (x) = f (x) gia kje x (a, b). Exetste an oi paraktw sunartseic enai omoimorfa suneqec.
(i) f : R R me f (x) = 3x + 1.
1 (ii) f : [2, +) R me f (x) = x .
(iii) f : (0, ] R me f (x) = (iv) f : R R me f (x) = (v) f : R R me f (x) =
1 x
sin2 x.
1 x2 +4 . x 1+|x| . x x2 +1 .
(vi) f : [2, 0] R me f (x) =
(vii) f : R R me f (x) = x sin x. (viii) f : [0, +) R me f (x) =

cos(x2 ) x+1 .
G. Askseic* 1. 2.
Dexte ti h sunrthsh f : (0, 1) (1, 2) R me f (x) = 0 an x (0, 1) kai f (x) = 1 an x (1, 2) enai suneqc all den enai omoimorfa suneqc. 'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc sunrthsh kai stw > 0. Dexte ti mporome na qwrsoume to [a, b] se peperasmna to pljoc diadoqik upodiastmata tou idou mkouc tsi ste: an ta x, y ankoun sto dio upodisthma, tte |f (x) f (y)| < .
3.5 Askhseic 59 'Estw f : R R suneqc, fragmnh kai montonh sunrthsh. Dexte ti h f enai omoimorfa suneqc.
3.
4. 'Estw f : R R suneqc kai periodik sunrthsh. Dhlad, uprqei T > 0 ste f (x + T ) = f (x) gia kje x R. Dexte ti h f enai omoimorfa suneqc.
'Estw X R fragmno snolo kai f : X R omoimorfa suneqc sunrthsh. Dexte ti h f enai fragmnh: uprqei M > 0 ste |f (x)| M gia kje x X.
5.
6.
'Estw A mh ken uposnolo tou R. Orzoume f : R R me
f (x) = inf{|x a| : a A}
(f (x) enai h {apstash} tou x ap to A). Dexte ti (a) |f (x) f (y)| |x y| gia kje x, y R. (b) h f enai omoimorfa suneqc.
Keflaio 4
Oloklrwma Riemann
4.1 O orismc tou Darboux
Se autn thn pargrafo dnoume ton orism tou oloklhrmatoc Riemann gia Gia mia fragmnh sunrthsh f : [a, b] R me mh arnhtikc timc, ja jlame to oloklrwma na dnei to embadn tou qwrou pou perikleetai anmesa sto grfhma thc sunrthshc, ton orizntio xona y = 0 kai tic katakrufec eujeec x = a kai x = b.
fragmnec sunartseic pou orzontai se na kleist disthma.
Orismc 4.1.1. (a) 'Estw [a, b] na kleist disthma. ja lme kje peperasmno uposnolo
(4.1.1) P = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn }
Diamrish tou [a, b]
tou [a, b] me x0 = a kai xn = b. Ja upojtoume pnta ti ta xk P enai diatetagmna wc exc:
(4.1.2)
Ja grfoume
a = x0 < x1 < < xk < xk+1 < < xn = b.
(4.1.3)
P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b}
gia na tonsoume autn akribc th ditaxh. Parathrste ti ap ton orism, kje diamrish P tou [a, b] periqei toulqiston do shmea: to a kai to b (ta kra tou [a, b]). (b) Kje diamrish P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} qwrzei to [a, b] se n upodiastmata [xk , xk+1 ], k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1. Onomzoume pltoc thc diamrishc P to megaltero ap ta mkh autn twn upodiasthmtwn. Dhlad, to pltoc thc diamrishc isotai me
(4.1.4)
P := max{x1 x0 , x2 x1 , . . . , xn xn1 }.
62 Oloklhrwma Riemann Parathrste ti den apaitome na isapqoun ta xk (ta n upodiastmata den qoun aparathta to dio mkoc). (g) H diamrish P1 lgetai eklptunsh thc P an P P1 , dhlad an h P1 prokptei ap thn P me thn prosjkh kpoiwn (peperasmnwn to pljoc) shmewn. Se autn thn perptwsh lme epshc ti h P1 enai leptterh ap thn P . (d) 'Estw P1 , P2 do diamerseic tou [a, b]. H koin eklptunsh twn P1 , P2 enai h diamrish P = P1 P2 . Ekola blpoume ti h P enai diamrish tou [a, b] kai ti an P enai mia diamrish leptterh tso ap thn P1 so kai ap thn P2 tte P P (dhlad, h P = P1 P2 enai h mikrterh dunat diamrish tou [a, b] pou ekleptnei tautqrona thn P1 kai thn P2 ). Jewrome tra mia fragmnh sunrthsh f : [a, b] R kai mia diamrish P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} tou [a, b]. H P diamerzei to [a, b] sta upodiastmata [x0 , x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], . . . , [xk , xk+1 ], . . . , [xn1 , xn ]. Gia kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 orzoume touc pragmatikoc arijmoc
(4.1.5)
kai
mk (f, P ) = mk = inf{f (x) : xk x xk+1 }
(4.1.6)
Mk (f, P ) = Mk = sup{f (x) : xk x xk+1 }.
'Oloi auto oi arijmo orzontai kal: h f enai fragmnh sto [a, b], ra enai fragmnh se kje upodisthma [xk , xk+1 ]. Gia kje k , to snolo {f (x) : xk x xk+1 } enai mh ken kai fragmno uposnolo tou R, ra qei supremum kai inmum. Gia kje diamrish P tou [a, b] orzoume tra to nw kai to ktw jroisma thc f wc proc thn P me ton exc trpo:
n1
(4.1.7)
enai to
U (f, P ) =
k=0
Mk (xk+1 xk ) P , kai
nw jroisma thc
wc proc
n1
(4.1.8)
enai to
L(f, P ) =
k=0
mk (xk+1 xk )
ktw jroisma thc
wc proc
P.
Ap tic (4.1.7) kai (4.1.8) blpoume ti gia kje diamrish P isqei
(4.1.9)
L(f, P ) U (f, P )
afo mk Mk kai xk+1 xk > 0, k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1. Se sqsh me to {embadn} pou prospajome na orsoume, prpei na skeftmaste to ktw jroisma L(f, P ) san mia prosggish ap ktw kai to nw jroisma U (f, P ) san mia prosggish ap pnw. Ja dexoume ti isqei mia pol pio isqur anisthta ap thn (4.1.9):
4.1 O orismoc tou Darboux 63 'Estw f : [a, b] R fragmnh sunrthsh kai stw P1 , P2 do diamerseic tou [a, b]. Tte,
Prtash 4.1.2.
(4.1.10)
L(f, P1 ) U (f, P2 ).
Parathrste ti h (4.1.9) enai eidik perptwsh thc (4.1.10): arke na proume P = P1 = P2 sthn Prtash 4.1.2. H apdeixh thc Prtashc 4.1.2 ja basiste sto exc Lmma. 'Estw P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xk < xk+1 < < xn = b} kai xk < y < xk+1 gia kpoio k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1. An P1 = P {y} = {a = x0 < x1 < < xk < y < xk+1 < < xn = b}, tte
Lmma 4.1.3.
(4.1.11)
L(f, P ) L(f, P1 ) U (f, P1 ) U (f, P ).
Dhlad, me thn prosjkh enc shmeou y sthn diamrish P , to nw jroisma thc f {mikranei} en to ktw jroisma thc f {megalnei}. Apdeixh tou Lmmatoc 4.1.3. Jtoume
(1)
(4.1.12)
kai
mk = inf{f (x) : xk x y}
(4.1.13)
Tte, mk mk Grfoume
(1)
mk = inf{f (x) : y x xk+1 }.

kai mk mk
(2)
(2)
(skhsh: an A B tte inf B inf A).

(1) (2)
L(f, P1 ) =
[m0 (x1 x0 ) + + mk (y xk ) + mk (xk+1 y) + +mn1 (xn xn1 )]
[m0 (x1 x0 ) + + mk (y xk ) + mk (xk+1 y) + +mn1 (xn xn1 )] = [m0 (x1 x0 ) + + mk (xk+1 xk ) + + mn1 (xn xn1 )] = L(f, P ).
'Omoia deqnoume ti U (f, P1 ) U (f, P ).
Apdeixh thc Prtashc 4.1.2. Gia na apodexoume thn (4.1.10) jewrome thn koin eklptunsh P = P1 P2 twn P1 kai P2 . H P prokptei ap thn P1 me diadoqik prosjkh peperasmnwn to pljoc shmewn. An efarmsoume to Lmma 4.1.3 peperasmnec to pljoc forc, parnoume L(f, P1 ) L(f, P ). 'Omoia blpoume ti U (f, P ) U (f, P2 ). Ap thn llh pleur, L(f, P ) U (f, P ). Sunduzontac ta parapnw, qoume
(4.1.14)
L(f, P1 ) L(f, P ) U (f, P ) U (f, P2 ).
Jewrome tra ta uposnola tou R
(4.1.15)
A(f ) =
L(f, P ) : P diamrish tou [a, b]
64 Oloklhrwma Riemann kai
(4.1.16)
B(f ) =
U (f, Q) : Q diamrish tou [a, b] .
Ap thn Prtash 4.1.2 qoume: gia kje a A(f ) kai kje b B(f ) isqei a b (exhgste giat). 'Ara, sup A(f ) inf B(f ) (skhsh). An loipn orsoume san ktw oloklrwma thc f sto [a, b] to
b
(4.1.17)
a
f (x)dx = sup L(f, P ) : P diamrish tou [a, b]

sto [a, b] to
kai san
nw oloklrwma thc f
b a
(4.1.18)
qoume
f (x)dx = inf U (f, Q) : Q diamrish tou [a, b] ,
(4.1.19)
a
f (x)dx
a
f (x)dx.
Orismc 4.1.4. Mia oloklhrsimh an

(4.1.20)
fragmnh sunrthsh f : [a, b] R lgetai Riemann

b b
f (x)dx = I =
a a
f (x)dx.
O arijmc I (h koin tim tou ktw kai tou nw oloklhrmatoc thc f sto [a, b]) lgetai oloklrwma Riemann thc f sto [a, b] kai sumbolzetai me
b b
(4.1.21)
a
f (x)dx
f.
a
4.2 To kritrio oloklhrwsimthtac tou Riemann

O orismc tou oloklhrmatoc pou dsame sthn prohgomenh pargrafo enai dsqrhstoc: den enai ekolo na ton qrhsimopoisei kanec gia na dei an mia fragmnh sunrthsh enai oloklhrsimh qi. Sunjwc, qrhsimopoiome to akloujo kritrio oloklhrwsimthtac.
Jerhma 4.2.1 (kritrio tou Riemann). 'Estw f : [a, b] R fragmnh sunrthsh. H f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh an kai mno an gia kje > 0 mporome na brome diamrish P tou [a, b] ste
(4.2.1) U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < .
Apdeixh. Upojtoume prta ti h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh. Dhlad,
b b b
(4.2.2)
a
f (x)dx =
a
f (x)dx =
a
f (x)dx.
4.2 To krithrio oloklhrwsimothtac tou Riemann 65 'Estw > 0. Ap ton orism tou ktw oloklhrmatoc wc supremum tou A(f ) kai ap ton -qarakthrism tou supremum, uprqei diamrish P1 = P1 () tou [a, b] ste
b
(4.2.3)
a
f (x)dx < L(f, P1 ) + . 2
Omowc, ap ton orism tou nw oloklhrmatoc, uprqei diamrish P2 = P2 () tou [a, b] ste
b
(4.2.4)
a
f (x)dx > U (f, P2 ) . 2
Jewrome thn koin eklptunsh P = P1 P2 . Tte, ap thn Prtash 4.1.2 qoume
U (f, P )
U (f, P2 )
b
2
b
<
a
f (x)dx =
a
f (x)dx
< L(f, P1 ) +
ap pou petai ti
L(f, P ) + , 2 2
(4.2.5)
0 U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < .
Antstrofa: upojtoume ti gia kje > 0 uprqei diamrish P tou [a, b] ste
(4.2.6)
U (f, P ) < L(f, P ) + .
Tte, gia kje > 0 qoume

b b
f (x)dx
a
f (x)dx U (f, P )
b
<
L(f, P ) +
a
f (x)dx + .
Epeid to > 0 tan tuqn, petai ti

b b
(4.2.7)
a
f (x)dx
a
f (x)dx,
kai afo h antstrofh anisthta isqei pnta, h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh. 2 To krtrio tou Riemann diatupnetai isodnama wc exc (exhgste giat). 'Estw f : [a, b] R fragmnh sunrthsh. H f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh an kai mno an uprqei akolouja {Pn : n N} diamersewn tou [a, b] ste
Jerhma 4.2.2 (kritrio tou Riemann).
(4.2.8)
lim
U (f, Pn ) L(f, Pn ) = 0.
66 Oloklhrwma Riemann
Paradegmata.
Ja qrhsimopoisoume to kritrio tou Riemann gia na exetsoume an oi paraktw sunartseic enai Riemann oloklhrsimec: (a) H sunrthsh f : [0, 1] R me f (x) = x2 . Gia kje n N jewrome th diamrish Pn tou [0, 1] se n sa upodiastmata mkouc 1/n:
(4.2.9)
Pn =
0<
1 2 n1 n < < < < =1 . n n n n
H sunrthsh f (x) = x2 enai axousa sto [0, 1], epomnwc
L(f, Pn ) = = = =
kai
f (0)
1 1 1 n1 1 +f + + f n n n n n 2 2 2 1 1 2 (n 1) 0 + 2 + 2 + + n n n n2 2 2 2 1 + 2 + + (n 1) (n 1)n(2n 1) = n3 6n3 2n2 3n + 1 1 1 1 = + 6n2 3 2n 6n2 1 1 2 1 n 1 +f + + f n n n n n n 1 12 22 n2 + 2 + + 2 n n2 n n 12 + 22 + + n2 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) = 3 n 6n3 2 2n + 3n + 1 1 1 1 = + + . 6n2 3 2n 6n2 1 0. n
U (f, Pn )
= f = = =
'Epetai ti
(4.2.10)
U (f, Pn ) L(f, Pn ) =
Ap to Jerhma 4.2.2 sumperanoume ti h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh. Mporome mlista na brome thn tim tou oloklhrmatoc. Gia kje n N,
1 1 1 + 2 3 2n 6n
L(f, Pn )
1 0
x2 dx =
0
x2 dx =
0
x2 dx
=
Afo
U (f, Pn ) 1 1 1 + + . 3 2n 6n2
(4.2.11)
1 1 1 1 + 3 2n 6n2 3
kai
1 1 1 1 + + , 3 2n 6n2 3
4.2 To krithrio oloklhrwsimothtac tou Riemann 67 petai ti
(4.2.12)
Dhlad,
1 3
1 0
x2 dx
1 . 3
(4.2.13)
0
x2 dx =
1 . 3
(b) H sunrthsh u : [0, 1] R me u(x) = x. Mporete na qrhsimopoisete thn akolouja diamersewn tou prohgomenou paradegmatoc gia na dexete ti ikanopoietai to kritrio tou Riemann. Sto dio sumprasma katalgoume an qrhsimopoisoume mia diaforetik akolouja diamersewn. Gia kje n N jewrome th diamrish (4.2.14) Pn = 0< 1 22 (n 1)2 n2 < 2 < < < 2 =1 . n2 n n2 n
H u enai axousa sto [0, 1], epomnwc

n1
(4.2.15)
kai
L(u, Pn ) =
k=0
k n
(k + 1)2 k2 2 n2 n
n1
(4.2.16)
'Epetai ti
U (u, Pn ) =
k=0
k+1 n
(k + 1)2 k2 2 n2 n
n1
U (u, Pn ) L(u, Pn )
=
k=0
k+1 k n n
(k + 1)2 k2 2 n2 n
= =
1 n
n1 k=0
(k + 1)2 k2 2 n2 n
1 0. n
Ap to Jerhma 4.2.2 sumperanoume ti h u enai Riemann oloklhrsimh. Afnoume san skhsh na dexete ti
(4.2.17)
lim L(u, Pn ) = lim U (u, Pn ) =

n
2 . 3
H sugkekrimnh epilog diamersewn pou kname qei to pleonkthma ti mporete ekola na gryete ta L(u, Pn ) kai U (u, Pn ) se kleist morf. Ap thn (4.2.17) petai ti
1
(4.2.18)
0
x dx =
2 . 3
68 Oloklhrwma Riemann (g) H sunrthsh tou Dirichlet g : [0, 1] R me
g(x) =
1 0
an x rhtc an x rrhtoc
den
enai Riemann oloklhrsimh. 'Estw P = {0 = x0 < x1 < < xk < xk+1 < < xn = 1} tuqosa diamrish tou [0, 1]. Upologzoume to ktw kai to nw jroisma thc g wc proc thn P . Gia kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n1 uprqoun rhtc qk kai rrhtoc k sto (xk , xk+1 ). Afo g(qk ) = 1, g(k ) = 0 kai 0 g(x) 1 sto [xk , xk+1 ], sumperanoume ti mk = 0 kai Mk = 1. Sunepc,
n1 n1
(4.2.19)
kai
L(g, P ) =
k=0
mk (xk+1 xk ) =
k=0
0 (xk+1 xk ) = 0
n1
n1
(4.2.20)
U (g, P ) =
k=0
Mk (xk+1 xk ) =
k=0
1 (xk+1 xk ) = 1.
Afo h P tan tuqosa diamrish tou [0, 1], parnoume

1 1
(4.2.21)
0
g(x)dx = 0
kai
g(x)dx = 1.
0
'Ara, h g den enai Riemann oloklhrsimh. (d) H sunrthsh h : [0, 1] R me
h(x) =
x an x rhtc 0 an x rrhtoc
den
enai Riemann oloklhrsimh. 'Estw P = {0 = x0 < x1 < < xk < xk+1 < < xn = 1} tuqosa diamrish tou [0, 1]. Gia kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 uprqei rrhtoc k sto (xk , xk+1 ). Afo h(k ) = 0 kai 0 h(x) 1 sto [xk , xk+1 ], sumperanoume ti mk = 0. Sunepc,
(4.2.22)
L(h, P ) = 0.
Epshc, uprqei rhtc qk > (xk + xk+1 )/2 sto (xk , xk+1 ), ra Mk h(qk ) > (xk + xk+1 )/2. 'Epetai ti
n1
U (h, P )
> =
k=0 x2 n
xk + xk+1 1 (xk+1 xk ) = 2 2 x2 0 = 1 . 2
n1
(x2 x2 ) k+1 k
k=0
Afo
(4.2.23)
U (h, P ) L(h, P ) >
1 2
4.3 Duo klaseic Riemann oloklhrwsimwn sunarthsewn 69 gia kje diamrish P tou [0, 1], to kritrio tou Riemann den ikanopoietai (prte = 1/3). 'Ara, h h den enai Riemann oloklhrsimh. (e) H sunrthsh w : [0, 1] R me
w(x) =
0
1 q
an x Q x = 0 / an x = p , p, q N, MKD(p, q) = 1 q
enai Riemann oloklhrsimh. Ekola elgqoume ti L(w, P ) = 0 gia kje diamrish P tou [0, 1]. 'Estw > 0. Parathrome ti to snolo A = {x [0, 1] : w(x) } enai peperasmno. [Prgmati, an w(x) tte x = p/q kai w(x) = 1/q dhlad q 1/. Oi rhto tou [0, 1] pou grfontai san angwga klsmata me paronomast to pol so me [1/] enai peperasmnoi to pljoc (na nw frgma gia to pljoc touc enai o arijmc 1 + 2 + + [1/] exhgste giat)]. 'Estw z1 < z2 < < zN ma arjmhsh twn stoiqewn tou A. Mporome na brome xna upodiastmata [ai , bi ] tou [0, 1] pou qoun mkh bi ai < /N kai ikanopoion ta exc: a1 > 0, ai < zi < bi an i < N kai aN < zN bN (parathrste ti an 1 tte zN = 1 opte bN = 1). An jewrsoume th diamrish
(4.2.24)
qoume
P = {0 < a1 < b1 < a2 < b2 < < aN < bN 1},
U (w, P )
(a1 0) + 1 (b1 a1 ) + (a2 b1 ) + + 1 (bN 1 aN 1 ) + (aN bN 1 ) + 1 (bN aN ) + (1 bN )
a1 + (a2 b1 ) + + (aN bN 1 ) + (1 bN )
N
+
i=1
(bi ai )
<
2.
Gia to tuqn > 0 brkame diamrish P tou [0, 1] me thn idithta
(4.2.25)
U (w, P ) L(w, P ) < 2.
Ap to Jerhma 4.2.1, h w enai Riemann oloklhrsimh.
4.3 Do klseic Riemann oloklhrsimwn sunartsewn

Qrhsimopointac to kritrio tou Riemann (Jerhma 4.2.1) ja dexoume ti oi montonec kai oi suneqec sunartseic f : [a, b] R enai Riemann oloklhrsimec.
Jerhma 4.3.1.
oloklhrsimh.
Kje montonh sunrthsh f : [a, b] R enai Riemann
70 Oloklhrwma Riemann Apdeixh. Qwrc periorism thc genikthtac upojtoume ti h f enai axousa. H f enai profanc fragmnh: gia kje x [a, b] qoume
(4.3.1)
f (a) f (x) f (b).
'Ara, qei nhma na exetsoume thn parxh oloklhrmatoc gia thn f . 'Estw > 0. Ja brome n N arket meglo ste gia th diamrish
(4.3.2)
Pn =
a, a +
2(b a) n(b a) ba ,a + ,...,a + =b n n n
tou [a, b] se n sa upodiastmata na isqei
(4.3.3)
Jtoume
U (f, Pn ) L(f, Pn ) < .
(4.3.4)
xk = a +
k(b a) , n
k = 0, 1, . . . , n.
Tte, afo h f enai axousa qoume

n1 n1
U (f, Pn ) =
k=0
Mk (xk+1 xk ) =
k=0
f (xk+1 )
ba n
=
en
ba (f (x1 ) + + f (xn )) , n
n1 n1
L(f, Pn )
=
k=0
mk (xk+1 xk ) =
k=0
f (xk )
ba n
=
'Ara,
ba (f (x0 ) + + f (xn1 )) . n
(4.3.5) U (f, Pn ) L(f, Pn ) =
[f (xn ) f (x0 )](b a) [f (b) f (a)](b a) = , n n
to opoo gnetai mikrtero ap to > 0 pou mac djhke, arke to n na enai arket meglo. Ap to Jerhma 4.2.1, h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh. 2
Jerhma 4.3.2.
oloklhrsimh.
Kje suneqc sunrthsh f : [a, b] R enai Riemann
Apdeixh. 'Estw > 0. H f enai suneqc sto kleist disthma [a, b], ra enai omoimorfa suneqc. Mporome loipn na brome > 0 me thn exc idithta: An x, y [a, b] kai |x y| < , tte |f (x) f (y)| < Mporome epshc na brome n N ste
ba .
(4.3.6)
ba < . n
4.4 Idiothtec tou oloklhrwmatoc Riemann 71 Qwrzoume to [a, b] se n upodiastmata tou idou mkouc th diamrish
ba n .
Jewrome dhlad
(4.3.7)
Orzoume
Pn =
a, a +
2(b a) n(b a) ba ,a + ,...,a + =b . n n n
(4.3.8)
xk = a +
k(b a) , n
k = 0, 1, . . . , n.
'Estw k = 0, 1, . . . , n1. H f enai suneqc sto kleist disthma [xk , xk+1 ], ra parnei mgisth kai elqisth tim se aut. Uprqoun dhlad yk , yk [xk , xk+1 ] ste
(4.3.9)
Mk = f (yk )
kai
mk = f (yk ).
ba n
Epiplon, to mkoc tou [xk , xk+1 ] enai so me
< , ra
(4.3.10)
Ap thn epilog tou parnoume
|yk yk | < .
(4.3.11)
'Epetai ti
Mk mk = f (yk ) f (yk ) = |f (yk ) f (yk )| <
. ba
n1
U (f, Pn ) L(f, Pn )
=
k=0 n1
(Mk mk )(xk+1 xk ) (xk+1 xk ) ba
<
k=0
(b a) = . ba 2
Ap to Jerhma 4.2.1, h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh.
4.4 Idithtec tou oloklhrmatoc Riemann

Se autn thn pargrafo apodeiknoume austhr merikc ap tic pio basikc idithtec tou oloklhrmatoc Riemann. Oi apodexeic twn upolopwn enai mia kal skhsh pou ja sac bohjsei na exoikeiwjete me tic diamerseic, ta nw kai ktw ajrosmata klp.
Jerhma 4.4.1.
(4.4.1)
An f (x) = c gia kje x [a, b], tte

b
f (x)dx = c(b a).

a
72 Oloklhrwma Riemann 'Estw P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} mia diamrish tou [a, b]. Gia kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 qoume mk = Mk = c. 'Ara,
n1
Apdeixh:
(4.4.2)
'Epetai ti
L(f, P ) = U (f, P ) =
k=0
c(xk+1 xk ) = c(b a).
(4.4.3)
a
f (x)dx = c(b a) =
a
f (x)dx.
'Ara,
b
(4.4.4)
a
f (x)dx = c(b a).
Jerhma 4.4.2.
(4.4.5)
a
'Estw f, g : [a, b] R oloklhrsimec sunartseic. Tte, h f + g enai oloklhrsimh kai

b b b
[f (x) + g(x)]dx =
a
f (x)dx +
a
g(x)dx.
Apdeixh. 'Estw P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} diamrish tou [a, b]. Gia kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 orzoume
mk Mk mk Mk mk Mk
inf{(f + g)(x) : xk x xk+1 }
= sup{(f + g)(x) : xk x xk+1 } = inf{f (x) : xk x xk+1 } = = = sup{f (x) : xk x xk+1 } inf{g(x) : xk x xk+1 } sup{g(x) : xk x xk+1 }.
Gia kje x [xk , xk+1 ] qoume mk + mk f (x) + g(x). 'Ara,
(4.4.6)
mk + mk mk .
Omowc, gia kje x [xk , xk+1 ] qoume Mk + Mk f (x) + g(x). 'Ara,
(4.4.7)
'Epetai ti
Mk + Mk Mk .
(4.4.8) L(f, P ) + L(g, P ) L(f + g, P ) U (f + g, P ) U (f, P ) + U (g, P ).

'Estw > 0. Uprqoun diamerseic P1 , P2 tou [a, b] ste
(4.4.9)
U (f, P1 )
< 2
f (x)dx < L(f, P1 ) +

a
4.4 Idiothtec tou oloklhrwmatoc Riemann 73 kai
(4.4.10)
U (g, P2 )
< 2
b a
g(x)dx < L(g, P2 ) + . 2
An jewrsoume thn koin touc eklptunsh P = P1 P2 qoume
U (f, P ) + U (g, P )
U (f, P1 ) + U (g, P2 )
b b
<
a
f (x)dx +
a
g(x)dx
< L(f, P1 ) + L(g.P2 ) + L(f, P ) + L(g, P ) + .

Sunduzontac me thn (4.4.8) blpoume ti
b b b
(f + g)(x)dx
a
U (f + g, P )
a b
f (x)dx +
a
g(x)dx
Afo to > 0 tan tuqn,

b
L(f + g, P ) +
a
(f + g)(x)dx + .
(4.4.11)
a
(f + g)(x)dx
a
f (x)dx +
a
g(x)dx
a
(f + g)(x)dx.
'Omwc,
b b
(4.4.12)
a
(f + g)(x)dx
a
(f + g)(x)dx.
'Ara,
b b b b
(4.4.13)
a
(f + g)(x)dx =
a
f (x)dx +
a
g(x)dx =
a
(f + g)(x)dx. 2
'Epetai to Jerhma.
Jerhma 4.4.3.
(4.4.14)
'Estw f : [a, b] R oloklhrsimh kai stw t R. Tte, h tf enai oloklhrsimh sto [a, b] kai
b b
(tf )(x)dx = t
a a
f (x)dx.
Apdeixh. Ac upojsoume prta ti t > 0. 'Estw P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} diamrish tou [a, b]. An gia k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 orsoume (4.4.15) mk = inf{(tf )(x) : xk x xk+1 }, Mk = sup{(tf )(x) : xk x xk+1 } kai
(4.4.16) mk = inf{f (x) : xk x xk+1 }, Mk = sup{f (x) : xk x xk+1 },
74 Oloklhrwma Riemann enai faner ti
(4.4.17)
'Ara,
mk = tmk kai Mk = tMk .
(4.4.18)
'Epetai ti
b
L(tf, P ) = tL(f, P ) kai U (tf, P ) = tU (f, P ).
(4.4.19)
a
(tf )(x)dx = t
a
f (x)dx kai
(tf )(x)dx = t
a a
f (x)dx.
Afo h f enai oloklhrsimh, qoume

b b
(4.4.20)
a
f (x)dx =
a
f (x)dx.
'Epetai ti h tf enai Riemann oloklhrsimh, kai

b b
(4.4.21)
a
(tf )(x)dx = t
a
f (x)dx.
An t < 0, h mnh allag sto prohgomeno epiqerhma enai ti tra mk = tMk kai Mk = tmk . Sumplhrste thn apdeixh mnoi sac. Tloc, an t = 0 qoume tf 0. 'Ara,
b b
(4.4.22)
a
tf = 0 = 0
a
f.
Ap ta Jewrmata 4.4.2 kai 4.4.3 prokptei mesa h {grammikthta tou oloklhrmatoc}.
Jerhma 4.4.4 (grammikthta tou oloklhrmatoc).
An f, g : [a, b] R enai do oloklhrsimec sunartseic kai t, s R, tte h tf + sg enai oloklhrsimh sto [a, b] kai
b b b
(4.4.23)
a
(tf + sg)(x)dx = t
a
f (x)dx + s
a
g(x)dx.
'Estw f : [a, b] R fragmnh sunrthsh kai stw c (a, b). H f enai oloklhrsimh sto [a, b] an kai mno an enai oloklhrsimh sta [a, c] kai [c, b]. Tte, isqei
b c b
Jerhma 4.4.5.
(4.4.24)
a
f (x)dx =
a
f (x)dx +
c
f (x)dx.
Apdeixh. Upojtoume prta ti h f enai oloklhrsimh sta [a, c] kai [c, b]. 'Estw > 0. Uprqoun diamerseic P1 tou [a, c] kai P2 tou [c, b] ste
c
(4.4.25)
L(f, P1 )
a
f (x)dx U (f, P1 ) kai U (f, P1 ) L(f, P1 ) <
4.4 Idiothtec tou oloklhrwmatoc Riemann 75 kai

b
(4.4.26)
L(f, P2 )
c
f (x)dx U (f, P2 ) kai U (f, P2 ) L(f, P2 ) <
. 2
To snolo P = P1 P2 enai diamrish tou [a, b] kai isqoun oi
(4.4.27)
L(f, P ) = L(f, P1 ) + L(f, P2 ) kai U (f, P ) = U (f, P1 ) + U (f, P2 ).
Ap tic parapnw sqseic parnoume
U (f, P ) L(f, P ) =
(U (f, P1 ) L(f, P1 )) + (U (f, P2 ) L(f, P2 )) + = . < 2 2
Afo to > 0 tan tuqn, h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [a, b] (kritrio tou Riemann). Epiplon, gia thn P qoume
b
(4.4.28)
L(f, P )
a
f (x)dx U (f, P )
kai, ap tic (4.4.25), (4.4.26) kai (4.4.27),

c b
(4.4.29)
Epomnwc,
b
L(f, P )
a
f (x)dx +
c
f (x)dx U (f, P ).
(4.4.30)
a
f (x)dx
a
f (x)dx +
c
f (x)dx
U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < ,
kai afo to > 0 tan tuqn,

b c b
(4.4.31)
a
f (x)dx =
a
f (x)dx +
c
f (x)dx.
Antstrofa: upojtoume ti h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [a, b] kai jewrome > 0. Uprqei diamrish P tou [a, b] ste
(4.4.32)
U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < .
An c P jtoume P = P {c}, opte pli qoume /
(4.4.33)
U (f, P ) L(f, P ) U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < .
Mporome loipn na upojsoume ti c P . Orzoume P1 = P [a, c] kai P2 = P [c, b]. Oi P1 , P2 enai diamerseic twn [a, c] kai [c, b] antstoiqa, kai
(4.4.34)
Afo
L(f, P ) = L(f, P1 ) + L(f, P2 ) , U (f, P ) = U (f, P1 ) + U (f, P2 ).
(4.4.35) (U (f, P1 ) L(f, P1 ))+(U (f, P2 ) L(f, P2 )) = U (f, P )L(f, P ) < ,
76 Oloklhrwma Riemann petai ti
(4.4.36)
U (f, P1 ) L(f, P1 ) < kai U (f, P2 ) L(f, P2 ) < .
Afo to > 0 tan tuqn, to kritrio tou Riemann deqnei ti h f enai oloklhrsimh sta [a, c] kai [c, b]. Tra, ap to prto mroc thc apdeixhc parnoume thn isthta
b c b
(4.4.37)
a
f (x)dx =
a
f (x)dx +
c
f (x)dx. 2
Jerhma 4.4.6.
(4.4.38)
'Estw f : [a, b] R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. Upojtoume ti m f (x) M gia kje x [a, b]. Tte,
b
m(b a)
a
f (x)dx M (b a).
Shmewsh. O arijmc
(4.4.39)
enai h
1 ba
sto [a, b].
f (x)dx
a
msh tim thc f
Apdeixh. Arke na diapistsete ti gia kje diamrish P tou [a, b] isqei
(4.4.40)
m(b a) L(f, P ) U (f, P ) M (b a) 2
(to opoo enai pol ekolo).
Prisma 4.4.7.
(4.4.41)
(a) 'Estw f : [a, b] R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. Upojtoume ti f (x) 0 gia kje x [a, b]. Tte,
b
f (x)dx 0.
a
(b) 'Estw f, g : [a, b] R oloklhrsimec sunartseic. Upojtoume ti f (x) g(x) gia kje x [a, b]. Tte,
b b
(4.4.42)
a
f (x)dx
a
g(x)dx.
Apdeixh. (a) Efarmzoume to Jerhma 4.4.6: mporome na proume m = 0. (b) H f g enai oloklhrsimh sunrthsh kai (f g)(x) 0 gia kje x [a, b]. Efarmzoume to (a) gia thn f g kai qrhsimopoiome th grammikthta tou oloklhrmatoc. 2
Jerhma 4.4.8.
(4.4.43)
'Estw f, g : [a, b] R oloklhrsimec sunartseic. Tte,

b b
(a) h |f | enai oloklhrsimh kai
f (x)dx
a a
|f (x)|dx.
(b) h f 2 enai oloklhrsimh. (g) h f g enai oloklhrsimh.
4.5 O orismoc tou Riemann* 77 Apdeixh. Afnetai gia tic Askseic.

b a
Mia smbash. Wc tra orsame to f (x)dx mno sthn perptwsh a b kai h f : [b, a] R enai oloklhrsimh, orzoume
(4.4.44)
a
f (x)dx =
b
f (x)dx.
4.5 O orismc tou Riemann*

O orismc pou dsame gia thn oloklhrwsimthta miac fragmnhc sunrthshc f : [a, b] R ofeletai ston Darboux. O prtoc austhrc orismc thc oloklhrwsimthtac djhke ap ton Riemann kai enai o exc:
Orismc 4.5.1. 'Estw f : [a, b] R fragmnh sunrthsh. Lme ti h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [a, b] an uprqei nac pragmatikc arijmc I(f ) me thn
exc idithta: Gia kje > 0 mporome na brome > 0 ste: an P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} enai diamrish tou [a, b] me pltoc P < kai an k [xk , xk+1 ], k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 enai tuqosa epilog shmewn ap ta upodiastmata pou orzei h P , tte
n1
f (k )(xk+1 xk ) I(f ) < .

k=0
Se aut thn perptwsh lme ti o I(f ) enai to (R)-oloklrwma thc f sto [a, b]. Sumbolismc. Sunjwc grfoume gia thn epilog shmewn {0 , 1 , . . . , n1 } kai (f, P, ) gia to jroisma
n1
(4.5.1)
k=0
f (k )(xk+1 xk ).
Parathrste ti tra to {upeisrqetai} sto sumbolism (f, P, ) afo gia thn dia diamrish P mporome na qoume pollc diaforetikc epilogc = {0 , 1 , . . . , n1 } me k [xk , xk+1 ]. H basik ida psw ap ton orism enai ti
b
(4.5.2)
a
f (x)dx = lim
(f, P, )
tan to pltoc thc P tenei sto mhdn kai ta k epilgontai aujareta sta upodiastmata pou orzei h P . Epeid den qoume sunantsei ttoiou edouc {ria} wc tra, katafegoume ston {eyilontik orism}. Skopc autc thc paragrfou enai h apdeixh thc isodunamac twn do orismn oloklhrwsimthtac:
78 Oloklhrwma Riemann
Jerhma 4.5.2.
'Estw f : [a, b] R fragmnh sunrthsh. H f enai oloklhrsimh kat Darboux an kai mno an enai oloklhrsimh kat Riemann. Apdeixh. Upojtoume prta ti h f enai oloklhrsimh kat Riemann. Grfoume I(f ) gia to oloklrwma thc f me ton orism tou Riemann. 'Estw > 0. Mporome na brome mia diamrish P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} (me arket mikr pltoc) ste gia kje epilog shmewn = {0 , 1 , . . . , n1 } me k [xk , xk+1 ] na isqei
n1
(4.5.3)
k=0
f (k )(xk+1 xk ) I(f ) <
. 4
Gia kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 mporome na brome k , k [xk , xk+1 ] ste
(4.5.4)
'Ara,
mk > f (k )
4(b a)
kai Mk < f (k ) +
. 4(b a)
n1
(4.5.5)
kai
L(f, P ) >
k=0
f (k )(xk+1 xk )
> I(f ) 4 2
n1
(4.5.6)
'Epetai ti
U (f, P ) <
k=0
f (k )(xk+1 xk ) +
< I(f ) + . 4 2
(4.5.7)
U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < ,
dhlad h f enai oloklhrsimh kat Darboux. Epshc,
(4.5.8)
I(f )
< 2
f (x)dx
a a
f (x)dx < I(f ) + , 2
kai afo to > 0 tan tuqn,

b b
(4.5.9)
a
f (x)dx =
a
f (x)dx = I(f ).
Dhlad,
b
(4.5.10)
a
f (x)dx = I(f ).
Antstrofa: upojtoume ti h f enai oloklhrsimh me ton orism tou Darboux. 'Estw > 0. Uprqei diamrish P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} tou [a, b] ste
(4.5.11)
U (f, P ) L(f, P ) <
. 4
4.5 O orismoc tou Riemann* 79 H f enai fragmnh, dhlad uprqei M > 0 ste |f (x)| M gia kje x [a, b]. Epilgoume
(4.5.12)
> 0. 6nM
'Estw P diamrish tou [a, b] me pltoc P < , h opoa enai kai eklptunsh thc P . Tte, gia kje epilog shmewn ap ta upodiastmata pou orzei h P qoume
b
f (x)dx
a
< L(f, P ) L(f, P )

b
(f, P , ) f (x)dx + . 4
U (f, P ) U (f, P ) <

a
Dhlad,
b
(4.5.13)
(f, P , )
a
f (x)dx <
. 2
Zhtme na dexoume to dio prgma gia tuqosa diamrish P1 me pltoc mikrtero ap (h duskola enai ti mia ttoia diamrish den qei kanna lgo na enai eklptunsh thc P ). 'Estw P1 = {a = y0 < y1 < < ym = b} mia ttoia diamrish tou [a, b]. Ja {prosjsoume} sthn P1 na-na la ta shmea xk thc P ta opoa den ankoun sthn P1 (aut enai to pol n 1). Ac pome ti na ttoio xk brsketai anmesa sta diadoqik shmea yl < yl+1 thc P1 . Jewrome thn P2 = P1 {xk } kai tuqosa epilog (1) = {0 , 1 , . . . , m1 } me l [yl , yl+1 ], l = 0, 1, . . . , m 1. Epilgoume do shmea l [yl , xk ] kai l [xk , yl+1 ] kai jewrome thn epilog shmewn (2) = {0 , 1 , . . . , l1 , l , l , . . . , m1 } pou antistoiqe sthn P2 . 'Eqoume
(f, P1 , (1) )
(f, P2 , (2) )
|f (l )(yl+1 yl ) f (l )(xk yl ) f (l )(yl+1 xk )|
3M max |yl+1 yl | < 3M . 2n

l
Antikajistntac th dosmnh (P1 , (1) ) me lo kai leptterec diamerseic (Pk , (k) ) pou prokptoun me thn prosjkh shmewn thc P , met ap n to pol bmata ftnoume se mia diamrish P0 kai mia epilog shmewn (0) me tic exc idithtec: (a) h P0 enai koin eklptunsh twn P kai P1 , kai qei pltoc mikrtero ap . (b) afo h P0 enai eklptunsh thc P , pwc sthn (4.5.13) qoume
b
(4.5.14)
(f, P0 , (0) )
a
f (x)dx <
. 2
80 Oloklhrwma Riemann (g) afo kname to pol n bmata gia na ftsoume sthn P0 kai afo se kje bma ta ajrosmata apeqan to pol 2n , qoume
(f, P1 , (1) )
(f, P0 , (0) ) < n
= . 2n 2
Dhlad, gia thn tuqosa diamrish P1 pltouc < kai gia thn tuqosa epilog (1) shmewn ap ta upodiastmata thc P1 , qoume
(f, P1 , (1) )
a
f (x)dx
< + <
(f, P1 , (1) ) (f, P0 , (0) )
(f, P0 , (0) )
b
f (x)dx
a
+ = . 2 2
'Epetai ti h f enai oloklhrsimh me ton orism tou Riemann, kajc kai ti oi b I(f ) kai a f (x)dx enai soi. 2
4.6 Askseic
'Estw f : [a, b] R. Exetste an oi paraktw protseic enai alhjec yeudec (aitiologste plrwc thn apnths sac).
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
b a
An h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh, tte h f enai fragmnh. An h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh, tte parnei mgisth tim. An h f enai fragmnh, tte enai Riemann oloklhrsimh. An h |f | enai Riemann oloklhrsimh, tte h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh. An h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh, tte uprqei c [a, b] ste f (c)(ba) = f (x) dx.
An h f enai fragmnh kai an L(f, P ) = U (f, P ) gia kje diamrish P tou [a, b], tte h f enai stajer. An h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh kai an f (x) = 0 gia kje x [a, b] Q, tte
b
f (x)dx = 0.
a
8.
An h f enai fragmnh kai an uprqei diamrish P ste L(f, P ) = U (f, P ), tte h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh.
4.6 Askhseic 81
'Estw f : [0, 1] R fragmnh sunrthsh me thn idithta: gia kje 0 < b 1 h f enai oloklhrsimh sto disthma [b, 1]. Dexte ti h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [0, 1].
1 Apodexte ti h sunrthsh f : [1, 1] R me f (x) = sin x an x = 0 kai f (0) = 2 enai oloklhrsimh.
2.
3. 'Estw g : [a, b] R fragmnh sunrthsh. Upojtoume ti h g enai suneqc panto, ektc ap na shmeo x0 (a, b). Dexte ti h g enai oloklhrsimh. 4.
Qrhsimopointac to kritrio tou Riemann apodexte ti oi paraktw sunartseic enai oloklhrsimec:
(a) f : [0, 1] R me f (x) = x. (b) f : [0, /2] R me f (x) = sin x.
5.
Exetste an oi paraktw sunartseic enai oloklhrsimec sto [0, 2] kai upologste to oloklrwma touc (an uprqei):
1 k
(a) f (x) = x + [x]. (b) f (x) = 1 an x = gia kpoion k N, kai f (x) = 0 allic.
6. 'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc sunrthsh me f (x) 0 gia kje x [a, b]. Dexte ti
b
f (x)dx = 0
a
an kai mno an f (x) = 0 gia kje x [a, b].
7.
'Estw f, g : [a, b] R suneqec sunartseic ste

b b
f (x)dx =
a a
g(x)dx.
Dexte ti uprqei x0 [a, b] ste f (x0 ) = g(x0 ).
8.
'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc sunrthsh me thn idithta: gia kje suneq sunrthsh g : [a, b] R isqei
b
f (x)g(x)dx = 0.
a
Dexte ti f (x) = 0 gia kje x [a, b].
9.
'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc sunrthsh me thn idithta: gia kje suneq sunrthsh g : [a, b] R pou ikanopoie thn g(a) = g(b) = 0, isqei
b
f (x)g(x)dx = 0.
a
82 Oloklhrwma Riemann Dexte ti f (x) = 0 gia kje x [a, b].
10.
'Estw f, g : [a, b] R oloklhrsimec sunartseic. Dexte thn anisthta Cauchy-Schwarz:

b 2 b
f (x)g(x)dx
a
f 2 (x)dx
g 2 (x)dx .
11.
'Estw f : [0, 1] R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. Dexte ti

1 2 1
f (x)dx
0
f 2 (x)dx.
Isqei to dio an antikatastsoume to [0, 1] me tuqn disthma [a, b]?
12.
'Estw f : [0, +) R suneqc sunrthsh. Dexte ti

x0
lim+
1 x
f (t)dt = f (0).
0
13.
'Estw f : [0, 1] R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. Dexte ti h akolouja
an =
sugklnei sto
1 0
1 n
f
k=1
k n
f (x)dx. [Updeixh: Qrhsimopoiste ton orism tou Riemann.]

n
14.
Dexte ti
lim
1+
2 + + n n
2 . 3
15. 16. 17.
'Estw f : [0, 1] R suneqc sunrthsh. Orzoume mia akolouja (an ) 1 jtontac an = 0 f (xn )dx. Dexte ti an f (0). Dexte ti h akolouja n = 1 +
1 2
1 3
+ +
1 n
n 1 dx 1 x
sugklnei.
'Estw f : [0, 1] R Lipschitz suneqc sunrthsh ste
|f (x) f (y)| M |x y|
gia kje x, y [0, 1]. Dexte ti
1
f (x)dx
0
1 n
f
k=1
k n
M 2n
gia kje n N.
G. Askseic*
4.6 Askhseic 83
1.
'Estw f : [a, b] R gnhswc axousa kai suneqc sunrthsh. Dexte ti

b f (b)
f (x)dx = bf (b) af (a)

a f (a)
f 1 (x)dx.
2.
'Estw f : [0, +) [0, +) gnhswc axousa, suneqc kai ep sunrthsh me f (0) = 0. Dexte ti gia kje a, b > 0
a b
ab
0
f (x)dx +
0
f 1 (x)dx
me isthta an kai mno an f (a) = b. 'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc sunrthsh me thn exc idithta: uprqei M > 0 ste x
3.
|f (x)| M
a
|f (t)|dt
gia kje x [a, b]. Dexte ti f (x) = 0 gia kje x [a, b].
4. 'Estw a R. Dexte ti den uprqei jetik suneqc sunrthsh f : [0, 1] R ste

1 1 1
f (x)dx = 1,
0 0
xf (x)dx = a kai
x2 f (x)dx = a2 .
'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc, mh arnhtik sunrthsh. Jtoume M = max{f (x) : x [a, b]}. Dexte oti h akolouja
b 1/n
5.
n =
a
[f (x)] dx
sugklnei, kai limn n = M .
6.
'Estw f : [a, b] R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. Skopc autc thc skhshc enai na dexoume ti h f qei poll shmea sunqeiac. (a) Uprqei diamrish P tou [a, b] ttoia ste U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < b a (giat?). Dexte ti uprqoun a1 < b1 sto [a, b] ste b1 a1 < 1 kai
sup{f (x) : a1 x b1 } inf{f (x) : a1 x b1 } < 1.

(b) Epagwgik orste kibwtismna diastmata [an , bn ] (an1 , bn1 ) me mkoc mikrtero ap 1/n ste
sup{f (x) : an x bn } inf{f (x) : an x bn } <
1 . n
(g) H tom autn twn kibwtismnwn diasthmtwn periqei akribc na shmeo. Dexte ti h f enai suneqc se aut.
84 Oloklhrwma Riemann (d) Tra dexte ti h f qei peira shmea sunqeiac sto [a, b] (den qreizetai perissterh doulei!).
7. 'Estw f : [a, b] R oloklhrsimh (qi anagkastik suneqc) sunrthsh me f (x) > 0 gia kje x [a, b]. Dexte ti
b
f (x)dx > 0.
a
D. Sumplhrmata thc Jewrac

Apodexte tic paraktw protseic.
1.
'Estw f, g, h : [a, b] R trec sunartseic pou ikanopoion thn f (x) g(x) h(x) gia kje x [a, b]. Upojtoume ti oi f, h enai oloklhrsimec kai
b b
f (x)dx =
a a
h(x)dx = I.
Dexte ti h g enai oloklhrsimh kai

b
g(x)dx = I.
a
2. 3. 4.
'Estw f : [a, b] R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. Dexte ti h |f | enai oloklhrsimh. Omowc, ti h f 2 enai oloklhrsimh. 'Estw f, g : [a, b] R oloklhrsimec sunartseic. Dexte ti h f g enai oloklhrsimh. 'Estw f : [a, b] R oloklhrsimh. Dexte ti
b b
f (x)dx
a a
|f (x)|dx.
5.
'Estw f : R R sunrthsh oloklhrsimh se kje kleist disthma thc morfc [a, b]. Dexte ti:
a a f (x)dx = 0 f (a x)dx. 0 b b (b) a f (x)dx = a f (a + b x)dx. b b+c (g) a f (x)dx = a+c f (x c)dx. cb b (d) ca f (t)dt = c a f (ct)dt. a (e) a f (x)dx = 0 an h f enai peritt. a a (st) a f (x)dx = 2 0 f (x)dx an h f enai
(a)
rtia.
6.
'Estw f : [a, b] R fragmnh sunrthsh.
4.6 Askhseic 85 (a) Dexte ti h f enai oloklhrsimh an kai mno an gia kje > 0 mporome na brome klimakwtc sunrtseic g , h : [a, b] R me g f h kai
b b
h (x)dx
a a
g (x)dx < .
(b) Dexte ti h f enai oloklhrsimh an kai mno an gia kje > 0 mporome na brome suneqec sunartseic g , h : [a, b] R me g f h kai
b b
h (x)dx
a a
g (x)dx < .
Keflaio 5
To jemelidec jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo

Se aut to Keflaio ja lme ti mia sunrthsh f : [a, b] R enai paragwgsimh sto [a, b] an h pargwgoc f (x) uprqei gia kje x (a, b) kai, epiplon, uprqoun oi pleurikc pargwgoi
f+ (a) = lim+
xa
f (x) f (a) xa
kai f (b) = lim
xb
f (x) f (b) . xb
Sumfwnome na grfoume f (a) = f+ (a) kai f (b) = f (b).
5.1 To jerhma mshc tou Oloklhrwtiko Logismo

'Estw f : [a, b] R mia Riemann oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. Sto prohgomeno Keflaio orsame th msh tim
(5.1.1)
1 ba
f (x)dx
a
thc f sto [a, b]. An h f upoteje suneqc, tte uprqei [a, b] me thn idithta
(5.1.2)
f () =
1 ba
f (x)dx.
a
O isqurismc autc enai mesh sunpeia tou exc genikterou jewrmatoc.
oloklhrsimh sunrthsh me mh arnhtikc timc. Uprqei [a, b] ste

b b
Jerhma 5.1.1 (jerhma mshc timc tou oloklhrwtiko logismo). 'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc sunrthsh kai stw g : [a, b] R
f (x)g(x)dx = f ()
a a
(5.1.3)
g(x)dx.
88 To jemeliwdec jewrhma tou Apeirostikou Logismou Apdeixh. Oi f kai g enai oloklhrsimec, ra h f g enai oloklhrsimh sto [a, b]. H f enai suneqc sto [a, b], ra parnei elqisth kai mgisth tim. 'Estw
(5.1.4)
m = min{f (x) : a x b}
kai M = max{f (x) : a x b}.
Afo h g parnei mh arnhtikc timc, qoume
(5.1.5)
mg(x) f (x)g(x) M g(x)
gia kje x [a, b]. Sunepc,

b b b
(5.1.6)
m
a
g(x)dx
a b a
f (x)g(x)dx M
a
g(x)dx.
Afo g 0 sto [a, b], qoume

b a
g(x)dx 0. Diakrnoume do periptseic: an b g(x)dx = 0, tte ap thn (5.1.6) blpoume ti a f (x)g(x)dx = 0. 'Ara, h (5.1.3) isqei gia kje [a, b]. b Upojtoume loipn ti a g(x)dx > 0. Tte, ap thn (5.1.6) sumperanoume ti (5.1.7) m
b a
f (x)g(x)dx
b a
g(x)dx
M.
Afo h f enai suneqc, to Jerhma Endimeshc Timc deqnei ti uprqei [a, b] ste
(5.1.8)
'Epetai to sumprasma. ste
f () =
b a
f (x)g(x)dx
b a
g(x)dx
. 2
Prisma 5.1.2.
'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc sunrthsh. Uprqei [a, b]

b
(5.1.9)
a
f (x)dx = f ()(b a).
Apdeixh. 'Amesh sunpeia tou Jewrmatoc 5.1.1, an jewrsoume thn g : [a, b] R me g(x) = 1 gia kje x [a, b]. 2 Sthn epmenh pargrafo ja dexoume (xan) to Prisma 5.1.2, aut th for san mesh sunpeia tou prtou jemelidouc jewrmatoc tou Apeirostiko Logismo.
5.2 Ta jemelidh jewrmata tou Apeirostiko Logismo

Orismc 5.2.1 (aristo oloklrwma).
'Estw f : [a, b] R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. Edame ti h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [a, x] gia kje x [a, b].
5.2 Ta jemeliwdh jewrhmata tou Apeirostikou Logismou 89 To aristo oloklrwma thc f enai h sunrthsh F : [a, b] R pou orzetai ap thn
x
(5.2.1)
F (x) =
a
f (t)dt.
Qrhsimopointac to gegonc ti kje Riemann oloklhrsimh sunrthsh enai fragmnh, ja dexoume ti to aristo oloklrwma miac oloklhrsimhc sunrthshc enai pntote suneqc sunrthsh.
Jerhma 5.2.2.
'Estw f : [a, b] R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. To aristo oloklrwma F thc f enai suneqc sunrthsh sto [a, b]. Apdeixh. Afo h f enai oloklhrsimh, enai ex orismo fragmnh. Dhlad, uprqei M > 0 ste |f (x)| M gia kje x [a, b]. 'Estw x < y sto [a, b]. Tte,
y x y
|F (x) F (y)|
=
a y
f (t)dt
a
f (t)dt =
x
f (t)dt
|f (t)|dt M |x y|. 2
'Ara, h F enai Lipschitz suneqc (me stajer M ).
Mporome na dexoume kti isqurtero: sta shmea sunqeiac thc f , h F enai paragwgsimh.
Jerhma 5.2.3.
(5.2.2)
'Estw f : [a, b] R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. An h f enai suneqc sto x0 [a, b], tte h F enai paragwgsimh sto x0 kai
F (x0 ) = f (x0 ).
Apdeixh. Upojtoume ti a < x0 < b (oi do periptseic x0 = a x0 = b elgqontai moia, me th smbash pou kname sthn arq tou Kefalaou). Jtoume 1 = min{x0 a, b x0 }. An |h| < 1 , tte
F (x0 + h) F (x) f (x0 ) = h = =
1 h 1 h 1 h
x0 +h
x0
f (t)dt
a x0 +h a
f (t)dt
x0 +h
f (x0 )
f (t)dt
x0 x0 +h x0
f (x0 )dt
[f (t) f (x0 )]dt.

x0
'Estw > 0. H f enai suneqc sto x0 , ra uprqei 0 < < 1 ste an |x x0 | < tte |f (x) f (x0 )| < . 'Estw 0 < |h| < .
90 To jemeliwdec jewrhma tou Apeirostikou Logismou (a) An 0 < h < , tte
F (x0 + h) F (x) f (x0 ) h
= <
1 h 1 h 1 h
x0 +h
[f (t) f (x0 )]dt

x0 x0 +h
|f (t) f (x0 )|dt

x0 x0 +h
dt =
x0
1 h = . h
(b) An < h < 0, tte
F (x0 + h) F (x) f (x0 ) h
= <
1 |h| 1 |h| 1 |h|
x0
[f (t) f (x0 )]dt

x0 +h x0
|f (t) f (x0 )|dt

x0 +h x0
dt =
x0 +h
1 (h) = . |h|
'Epetai ti
h0
lim
F (x0 + h) F (x0 ) = f (x0 ), h 2
dhlad F (x0 ) = f (x0 ).
'Amesh sunpeia enai to prto jemelidec jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo.
Jerhma 5.2.4 (prto jemelidec jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo). An h f : [a, b] R enai suneqc, tte to aristo oloklrwma F
thc f enai paragwgsimh sunrthsh kai
(5.2.3)
gia kje x [a, b]. ste
F (x) = f (x) 2
'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc sunrthsh. Uprqei [a, b]
b
Prisma 5.2.5.
(5.2.4)
a
f (x)dx = f ()(b a).
Apdeixh. Efarmzoume to jerhma mshc timc tou diaforiko logismo gia th x sunrthsh F (x) = a f (t) dt sto [a, b]. 2 Ac upojsoume tra ti f : [a, b] R enai mia suneqc sunrthsh. Mia paragwgsimh sunrthsh G : [a, b] R lgetai pargousa thc f ( antipargwgoc thc f ) an G (x) = f (x) gia kje x [a, b]. Smfwna me to Jerhma 5.2.4, h sunrthsh
x
F (x) =
a
f (t)dt
5.2 Ta jemeliwdh jewrhmata tou Apeirostikou Logismou 91 enai pargousa thc f . An G enai mia llh pargousa thc f , tte G (x)F (x) = f (x) f (x) = 0 gia kje x [a, b], ra h G F enai stajer sto [a, b] (apl sunpeia tou jewrmatoc mshc timc). Dhlad, uprqei c R ste
(5.2.5)
G(x) F (x) = c
gia kje x [a, b]. Afo F (a) = 0, parnoume c = G(a). Dhlad,

x
(5.2.6)
a
f (t)dt = G(x) G(a)
allic
x
(5.2.7)
G(x) = G(a) +
a
f (t)dt
gia kje x [a, b]. 'Eqoume loipn dexei to exc: 'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc sunrthsh kai stw F (x) = f (t)dt to aristo oloklrwma thc f . An G : [a, b] R enai mia pargousa thc f , tte
x a x
Jerhma 5.2.6.
(5.2.8)
G(x) = F (x) + c =
a
f (t)dt + G(a)
gia kje x [a, b]. Eidiktera,

b
f (x)dx = G(b) G(a).

a
Shmewsh: Den enai swst ti gia kje paragwgsimh sunrthsh G : [a, b] R isqei h isthta
b
(5.2.9)
G(b) G(a) =
a
G (x)dx.
Gia pardeigma, an jewrsoume th sunrthsh G : [0, 1] R me G(0) = 0 kai 1 G(x) = x2 sin x2 an 0 < x 1, tte h G enai paragwgsimh sto [0, 1] all h G den enai fragmnh sunrthsh (elgxte to) opte den mporome na milme gia to b oloklrwma a G . An mwc h G : [a, b] R enai paragwgsimh kai h G enai oloklhrsimh sto [a, b], tte h (5.2.9) isqei. Aut enai to detero jemelidec jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo.
Jerhma 5.2.7 (detero jemelidec jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo). 'Estw G : [a, b] R paragwgsimh sunrthsh. An h G enai
oloklhrsimh sto [a, b] tte
b
(5.2.10)
a
G (x)dx = G(b) G(a).
92 To jemeliwdec jewrhma tou Apeirostikou Logismou Apdeixh. 'Estw P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} mia diamrish tou [a, b]. Efarmzontac to Jerhma Mshc Timc sto [xk , xk+1 ], k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1, brskoume k (xk , xk+1 ) me thn idithta
(5.2.11)
G(xk+1 ) G(xk ) = G (k )(xk+1 xk ).
An, gia kje 0 k n 1, orsoume (5.2.12) mk = inf{G (x) : xk x xk+1 } kai Mk = sup{G (x) : xk x xk+1 }, tte
(5.2.13)
ra
mk G (k ) Mk ,
n1
(5.2.14)
Dhlad,
L(G , P )
k=0
G (k )(xk+1 xk ) U (G , P ).
n1
(5.2.15)
L(G , P )
k=0
(G(xk+1 ) G(xk )) = G(b) G(a) U (G , P ).
Afo h P tan tuqosa kai h G enai oloklhrsimh sto [a, b], parnontac supremum wc proc P sthn arister anisthta kai inmum wc proc P sth dexi anisthta thc (5.2.15), sumperanoume ti
b b
(5.2.16)
a
G (x)dx G(b) G(a)

a
G (x)dx, 2
pou enai to zhtomeno.
5.3 Mjodoi oloklrwshc

Ta jewrmata autc thc paragrfou {perigrfoun} do pol qrsimec mejdouc oloklrwshc: thn oloklrwsh kat mrh kai thn oloklrwsh me antikatstash.
Sumbolismc.
(5.3.1)
An F : [a, b] R, tte sumfwnome na grfoume
[F (x)]b = F (x) a
b a
:= F (b) F (a).
Jerhma 5.3.1 (oloklrwsh kat mrh).

x
'Estw f, g : [a, b] R paragwgsimec sunartseic. An oi f kai g enai oloklhrsimec, tte

x
(5.3.2)
a
f g = (f g)(x) (f g)(a)
a
f g.
Eidiktera,
b
(5.3.3)
a
f (x)g (x)dx = [f (x)g(x)]b a
f (x)g(x)dx.
a
5.3 Mejodoi oloklhrwshc 93 Apdeixh. H f g enai paragwgsimh kai
(5.3.4)
(f g) (x) = f (x)g (x) + f (x)g(x)
sto [a, b]. Ap thn upjesh, oi sunartseic f g , f g enai oloklhrsimec, ra kai h (f g) enai oloklhrsimh. Ap to detero jemelidec jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo, gia kje x [a, b] qoume
x x x
(5.3.5)
a
fg +
a
fg=
a
(f g) = (f g)(x) (f g)(a). 2
O deteroc isqurismc prokptei an jsoume x = b.
Jerhma 5.3.2 (prto jerhma antikatstashc). 'Estw : [a, b] R paragwgsimh sunrthsh. Upojtoume ti h enai oloklhrsimh. An I = ([a, b]) kai f : I R enai mia suneqc sunrthsh, tte
b (b)
(5.3.6)
a
f ((t)) (t) dt =
(a)
f (s) ds.
Apdeixh. H enai suneqc, ra to I = ([a, b]) enai kleist disthma. H f enai suneqc sto I , ra enai oloklhrsimh sto I . Orzoume F : I R me
x
(5.3.7)
F (x) =
(a)
f (s) ds
(parathrste ti to (a) den enai aparathta kro tou I , dhlad h F den enai aparathta to aristo oloklrwma thc f sto I ). Afo h f enai suneqc sto I , to prto jemelidec jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo deqnei ti h F enai paragwgsimh sto I kai F = f . 'Epetai ti
b b
(5.3.8)
a
f ((t)) (t) dt =
a
F ((t)) (t) dt.
Parathrome ti
(5.3.9)
(F ) = (F ) .
H (F ) enai oloklhrsimh sto [a, b], ra h (F ) enai oloklhrsimh sto [a, b]. Ap to detero jemelidec jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo parnoume
b b b
(5.3.10)
a
(f ) =
a
(F ) =
a
(F ) = (F )(b) (F )(a).
Afo
(b) (a) (b)
(5.3.11)
(F )(b) (F )(a) =
(a)
f
(a)
f=
(a)
f, 2
parnoume thn (5.3.6).
94 To jemeliwdec jewrhma tou Apeirostikou Logismou 'Estw : [a, b] R suneqc paragwgsimh sunrthsh, me (x) = 0 gia kje x [a, b]. An I = ([a, b]) kai f : I R enai mia suneqc sunrthsh, tte
b (b)
Jerhma 5.3.3 (detero jerhma antikatstashc).
(5.3.12)
a
f ((t)) dt =
(a)
f (s)( 1 ) (s) ds.
Apdeixh. H enai suneqc kai den mhdenzetai sto [a, b], ra enai panto jetik panto arnhtik sto [a, b]. Sunepc, h enai gnhswc montonh sto [a, b]. An, qwrc periorism thc genikthtac, upojsoume ti h enai gnhswc axousa tte orzetai h antstrofh sunrthsh 1 : I R thc sto I = ([a, b]) = [(a), (b)]. Efarmzoume to prto jerhma antikatstashc gia thn f ( 1 ) (parathrste ti h ( 1 ) enai suneqc sto I ). 'Eqoume
(b) (a)
f ( 1 )
=
a b
[(f ( 1 ) ) ] (f ) [( 1 ) ] (f ) ( 1 ) f .
=
a b
=
a b
=
a
Aut apodeiknei thn (5.3.12).
5.4 Askseic
A. Basikc askseic 1. 'Estw f : [a, b] R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh.
s b
Dexte ti uprqei s [a, b]
ste
f (t)dt =
a s
f (t)dt.
Mporome pnta na epilgoume na ttoio s sto anoikt disthma (a, b)? 'Estw f : [0, 1] R oloklhrsimh kai jetik sunrthsh ste 0 f (x)dx = 1. Dexte ti gia kje n N uprqei diamrish {0 = t0 < t1 < < tn = 1} ste tk+1 1 f (x)dx = n gia kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1. tk
2.
3.
'Estw f : [0, 1] R suneqc sunrthsh. Dexte ti uprqei s [0, 1] ste

1 0
f (x)x2 dx =
f (s) . 3
4.
Upojtoume ti h f : [0, 1] R enai suneqc kai ti

x 1
f (t)dt =
0 x
f (t)dt
5.4 Askhseic 95 gia kje x [0, 1]. Dexte ti f (x) = 0 gia kje x [0, 1].
5.
'Estw f, h : [0, +) [0, +). Upojtoume ti h h enai suneqc kai h f enai paragwgsimh. Orzoume
f (x)
F (x) =
0
h(t)dt.
Dexte ti F (x) = h(f (x)) f (x).
6.
'Estw f : R R suneqc kai stw > 0. Orzoume

x+
g(x) =
x
f (t)dt.
Dexte ti h g enai paragwgsimh kai brete thn g .
7.
'Estw g, h : R R paragwgsimec sunartseic. Orzoume

g(x)
G(x) =
h(x)
t2 dt.
Dexte ti h G enai paragwgsimh sto R kai brete thn G .
8.
'Estw f : [1, +) R suneqc sunrthsh. Orzoume

x
F (x) =
1
x t
dt.
Brete thn F .
9.
'Estw f : [0, a] R suneqc. Dexte ti, gia kje x [0, a],

x x u
f (u)(x u)du =
0 0 0
f (t)dt du.
10.
'Estw a, b R me a < b kai f : [a, b] R suneqc paragwgsimh sunrthsh. An P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} enai diamrish tou [a, b], dexte ti
n1 b
|f (xk+1 ) f (xk )|
k=0 a
|f (x)| dx.
11.
'Estw f : [0, +) [0, +) gnhswc axousa, suneqc paragwgsimh sunrthsh me f (0) = 0. Dexte ti, gia kje x > 0,
x f (x)
f (t) dt +
0 0
f 1 (t) dt = xf (x).
B. Askseic
96 To jemeliwdec jewrhma tou Apeirostikou Logismou 'Estw f : [0, 1] R suneqc paragwgsimh sunrthsh me f (0) = 0. Dexte ti gia kje x [0, 1] isqei
1 1/2
1.
|f (x)|
0
|f (t)|2 dt
2.
'Estw f : [0, +) R suneqc sunrthsh me f (x) = 0 gia kje x > 0, h opoa ikanopoie thn
f (x)2 = 2
0
f (t)dt
gia kje x 0. Dexte ti f (x) = x gia kje x 0.
3.
'Estw f, g : [a, b] R. Upojtoume ti h f enai suneqc sto [a, b] kai h g enai montonh kai suneqc paragwgsimh sto [a, b]. Dexte ti uprqei [a, b] ste
b b
f (x)g(x)dx = g(a)
a a
f (x)dx + g(b)
f (x)dx.
4.
'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc paragwgsimh sunrthsh. Dexte ti

b n b
lim
f (x) cos(nx)dx = 0
a
kai
lim
f (x) sin(nx)dx = 0.
a
5.
Exetste wc proc th sgklish tic akoloujec

an =
0
sin(nx)dx kai
bn =
0
| sin(nx)|dx.
'Estw f : [0, +) R suneqc paragwgsimh sunrthsh. Dexte ti uprqoun suneqec, axousec kai jetikc sunartseic g, h : [0, +) R ste f = g h.
6.
Keflaio 6
Basikc pragmatikc sunartseic

Skopc mac se aut to Keflaio enai na jumhjome tic basikc trigwnometrikc sunartseic kai tic antstrofec trigwnometrikc sunartseic, na dsoume austhr orism thc ekjetikc sunrthshc ax , a > 0 kai thc (antstrofhc thc) logarijmikc sunrthshc loga x, a > 0, kai na apodexoume tic basikc touc idithtec. Gia tic teleutaec, ja perigryoume sunoptik do trpouc orismo.
6.1 Trigwnometrikc sunartseic

Se aut th sntomh pargrafo upenjumzoume kpoiec basikc tautthtec kai anisthtec gia tic trigwnometrikc sunartseic sin (hmtono), cos (sunhmtono) kai tan (efaptomnh).
Prtash 6.1.1.
(6.1.1)
kai
Gia kje x R isqoun oi
| sin x| 1,
| cos x| 1
kai
sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
(6.1.2)
sin
x = cos x, 2
cos
x = sin x. 2
Oi sunartseic sin : R [1, 1] kai cos : R [1, 1] enai periodikc, me elqisth perodo 2 . H sin enai peritt sunrthsh, en h cos enai rtia.
Prtash 6.1.2.
(6.1.3)
An 0 < x <
2,
tte
sin x < x < tan x :=
sin x . cos x
'Epetai ti, gia kje x (/2, /2) isqoun oi anisthtec
(6.1.4)
| sin x| |x| | tan x|
98 Basikec pragmatikec sunarthseic kai ti gia kje x R isqei h
(6.1.5)
| sin x| |x|.
Prtash 6.1.3 (sunhmtono kai hmtono ajrosmatoc kai diaforc). Gia kje a, b R isqoun oi tautthtec
cos(a b) = cos(a + b) = sin(a + b) = sin(a b) = cos a cos b + sin a sin b cos a cos b sin a sin b sin a cos b + cos a sin b sin a cos b cos a sin b. 2a). Gia kje a R
Prtash 6.1.4 (sunhmtono kai hmtono tou

isqoun oi tautthtec
cos(2a) = sin(2a) =
cos2 a sin2 a = 2 cos2 a 1 = 1 2 sin2 a 2 sin a cos a.

Gia
Prtash 6.1.5 (metasqhmatismc ajrosmatoc se ginmeno).

kje x, y R isqoun oi tautthtec
sin x + sin y sin x sin y cos x + cos y cos x cos y
x+y xy cos 2 2 xy x+y = 2 sin cos 2 2 xy x+y cos = 2 cos 2 2 x+y yx = 2 sin sin . 2 2 = 2 sin
Prtash 6.1.6.
H sunrthsh sin : R [1, 1] enai suneqc.
Apdeixh. 'Estw x0 R. Gia kje x R qoume
(6.1.6)
| sin x sin x0 | = 2 sin
x x0 x + x0 x x0 cos 2 sin . 2 2 2
Ap thn Prtash 6.1.2 qoume
(6.1.7)
Sunepc,
sin
x x0 x x0 . 2 2
(6.1.8)
| sin x sin x0 | 2
x x0 = |x x0 |. 2
Tra, enai ekolo na dome ti h sin enai suneqc sto x0 (prte = kai epalhjeste ton orism thc sunqeiac). H cos enai suneqc wc snjesh thc suneqoc x x me thn sin. 2 2
6.1 Trigwnometrikec sunarthseic 99
Prtash 6.1.7 (basik rio).

(6.1.9)
Apdeixh. H sunrthsh x dexoume (exhgste giat) ti
x0 sin x x
lim
sin x = 1. x
enai rtia sto R \ {0}. Arke loipn na
(6.1.10)
x0+
lim
sin x = 1. x
Ap thn Prtash 6.1.2 qoume sin x < x < tan x sto 0, . Sunepc, 2
(6.1.11)
cos x <
sin x <1 x
x0+
sto 0, . Afo h cos enai suneqc, qoume lim cos x = cos 0 = 1. Ap to 2 kritrio parembolc petai to zhtomeno.
Prtash 6.1.8.
1 1 Ta ria lim sin x kai lim cos x den uprqoun. x0 x0
Apdeixh. Ap thn arq thc metaforc, arke na brome do akoloujec xn 0, yn 0 (me xn , yn = 0) ste lim sin x1 = lim sin y1 . Jewrome tic akoloujec n n 1 1 xn = n kai yn = 2n+ (n N). Ekola elgqoume ti limn xn = 0 = limn yn . 2 'Omwc,
(6.1.12)
kai
sin
1 = sin(n) = 0 0 xn
(6.1.13)
sin
1 = sin 2n + yn 2
= 1 1. 2
1 Telewc anloga, mporete na dexete ti to rio lim cos x den uprqei. x0
Prtash 6.1.9.
Oi sunartseic sin : R [1, 1] kai cos : R [1, 1] enai paragwgsimec, me paraggouc (sin x) = cos x kai (cos x) = sin x antstoiqa.
Apdeixh. Parathrome ti, gia kje x0 R kai gia kje h = 0,
(6.1.14)
sin(x0 + h) sin x0 1 h h = 2 sin cos x0 + h h 2 2
cos x0
kajc to h 0, afo limh0 sin(h/2) = 1 kai limh0 cos(x0 + h/2) = cos x0 . h/2 Me anlogo trpo mporome na dexoume ti h cos x enai paragwgsimh se kje x0 R kai cos (x0 ) = sin x0 . 2
sin Paratrhsh. An cos x0 = 0, tte h sunrthsh efaptomnhc tan x = cos x enai x 1 paragwgsimh sto x0 , kai tan (x0 ) = cos2 x0 . Aut prokptei mesa ap thn prohgomenh Prtash kai touc klasikoc kannec paraggishc.
100 Basikec pragmatikec sunarthseic
6.2 Antstrofec trigwnometrikc sunartseic

Txo hmitnou
H sunrthsh sin : R [1, 1] enai periodik, me elqisth jetik perodo sh me 2 . O periorismc thc sto [/2, /2] enai mia gnhswc axousa sunrthsh me snolo timn to [1, 1]. Mporome loipn na orsoume thn antstrof thc, h opoa lgetai txo hmitnou kai sumbolzetai me arcsin. Dhlad, arcsin : [1, 1] [/2, /2] kai arcsin y = x an kai mno an x [/2, /2] kai sin x = y . Parathrntac ti h sin enai paragwgsimh sto [/2, /2] kai sin (x) = cos x = 0 an x (/2, /2), sumperanoume ti h arcsin enai paragwgsimh sto (1, 1), kai
(6.2.1)
arcsin (y) =
1 1 , = cos x sin (x)
pou sin x = y . 'Epetai ti
(6.2.2)
dhlad
cos x =
1 sin2 x =
1 y2 ,
(6.2.3)
arcsin (y) =
1 1 y2
y (1, 1).
Txo sunhmitnou
H sunrthsh cos : R [1, 1] enai periodik, me elqisth jetik perodo sh me 2 . O periorismc thc sto [0, ] enai mia gnhswc fjnousa sunrthsh me snolo timn to [1, 1]. Mporome loipn na orsoume thn antstrof thc, h opoa lgetai txo sunhmitnou kai sumbolzetai me arccos. Dhlad, arccos : [1, 1] [0, ] kai arccos y = x an kai mno an x [0, ] kai cos x = y . Parathrntac ti h cos enai paragwgsimh sto [0, ] kai cos (x) = sin x = 0 an x (0, ), sumperanoume ti h arccos enai paragwgsimh sto (1, 1), kai
(6.2.4)
arccos (y) =
1 1 = , cos (x) sin x
pou cos x = y . 'Epetai ti
(6.2.5)
dhlad
sin x =
1 cos2 x =
1 y2 ,
(6.2.6)
arccos (y) =
1 1 y2
y (1, 1).
Txo efaptomnhc
6.3 Logarijmikh kai ekjetikh sunarthsh: prwtoc orismoc 101 H sunrthsh tan : (/2, /2) R enai gnhswc axousa kai ep. Mporome loipn na orsoume thn antstrof thc, h opoa lgetai txo efaptomnhc kai sumbolzetai me arctan. Dhlad, arctan : R (/2, /2) kai arctan y = x an kai mno an x (/2, /2) kai tan x = y . Parathrntac ti h tan enai paragwgsimh sto (/2, /2) kai tan (x) = 1+tan2 x = 0 an x (/2, /2), sumperanoume ti h arctan enai paragwgsimh sto R, kai
(6.2.7)
arctan (y) =
1 1 = , tan (x) 1 + tan2 x
pou tan x = y . 'Epetai ti
(6.2.8)
arctan (y) =
1 , 1 + y2
y R.
6.3 Logarijmik kai ekjetik sunrthsh: prtoc orismc

'Estw a nac jetikc pragmatikc arijmc. Mporome na orsoume ton ax tan o x enai rhtc, akoloujntac ta exc apl bmata: (i) An x N, jtoume ax = a a a (x forc). (ii) An x = 0, jtoume a0 = 1.
1 (iii) An x Z kai x < 0, jtoume ax = ax (tte, exakolouje na isqei h isthta ax+y = ax ay gia kje x, y Z). (iv) An x = 1/n gia kpoion n N, jtoume a1/n = n a (qoume apodexei thn parxh kai to monosmanto jetikc n-ostc rzac gia kje jetik pragmatik arijm).
(v) An x = m/n pou m Z kai n N enai tuqn rhtc, jtoume
ax = a1/n
Ekola elgqoume ti an x =
m n
=
m
m1 n1 ,
tte
m1
a1/n
= a1/n1
Dhlad, o ax orzetai kal me aut ton trpo. To prblhma enai me poin trpo ja epektenoume ton orism tou ax gia rrhtouc ekjtec x, tsi ste na prokyei mia suneqc sunrthsh fa : R R+ pou na ikanopoie ta exc: (i) fa (x) = ax , x Q. (ii) fa (x + y) = fa (x)fa (y), x, y R.
102 Basikec pragmatikec sunarthseic (iii) fa (1) = a. Parathrste ti h prth idithta enai sunpeia twn llwn do. Ac upojsoume ti kataframe na orsoume mia ttoia sunrthsh fa kai mlista me ttoio trpo ste h fa na enai paragwgsimh. Logik enai epshc na zhtme h fa na enai ep tou (0, +) an a = 1, gnhswc axousa an a > 1 kai gnhswc fjnousa an 0 < a < 1. Tte, gia kje x R prpei na qoume
fa (x) = = = =
fa (x + h) fa (x) h0 h fa (x)fa (h) fa (x)fa (0) lim h0 h fa (h) fa (0) fa (x) lim h0 h fa (0) fa (x). lim
Dhlad, h pargwgoc thc fa prpei na ikanopoie thn
(6.3.1)
fa (x) = fa (0) fa (x)
gia kje x R. 1 H antstrofh sunrthsh loga := fa thc fa ja enai ki aut paragwgsimh (parathrste ti fa (0) = 0 afo h fa den enai stajer sunrthsh) kai ja ikanopoie thn
(6.3.2)
loga (x) =
1 1 1 = = fa (loga x) fa (0)fa (loga x) fa (0)x
gia kje x > 0. Dhlad, h pargwgoc thc loga x enai {upoqrewmnh} na qei thn pol apl morf
1 cx pou c = fa (0). Morf pou ja enai akma aplosterh gia ekeno to a > 0 (an uprqei) pou ikanopoie thn (6.3.3) (loga ) (x) = (6.3.4) fa (0) = c = 1.
Aut h tim tou a enai h pi {fusiologik} kai autc thc fa h antstrofh sunrthsh enai h pi {fusiologik} logarijmik sunrthsh (me pargwgo thn 1/x). Autc oi parathrseic mac odhgon ston exc orism:
Orismc 6.3.1.
(6.3.5)
Orzoume mia sunrthsh log : (0, +) R me

x
log x =
1
1 dt. t
O orismc autc upagoreetai ap to jemelidec jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo: h 1 enai suneqc sto [1, x] an x > 1 sto [x, 1] an 0 < x < 1, ra h t log x orzetai kal gia kje x > 0. Epiplon,
(6.3.6)
1 . x Dhlad, h log enai h {fusiologik} logarijmik sunrthsh pou zhtosame. log (x) =
6.3 Logarijmikh kai ekjetikh sunarthsh: prwtoc orismoc 103 Mporome ekola na dexoume ti h log ikanopoie th basik idithta twn logarjmwn:
Jerhma 6.3.2.
An x, y > 0 tte log(xy) = log x + log y .
Apdeixh. Stajeropoiome x > 0 kai orzoume f : (0, +) R me

xy
(6.3.7)
Tte,
f (y) = log(xy) =
1
1 dt. t
(6.3.8)
f (y) =
1 d(xy) 1 1 = x = = log (y). xy dy xy y
'Ara, uprqei stajer c R ste
(6.3.9)
log(xy) = log y + c
gia kje y > 0. Gia na upologsoume thn tim thc stajerc c, jtoume y = 1. 'Eqoume
1
(6.3.10)
log x = log 1 + c =
1
1 dt + c = 0 + c = c. t 2
'Ara, log(xy) = log x + log y . 'Amesec sunpeiec tou Jewrmatoc 6.3.2 enai oi exc: an x, y > 0, tte (a) log(xn ) = n log x gia kje n N. (b) log
x y
= log x log y .
Ap ton Orism 6.3.1 enai faner ti h log enai suneqc kai mlista paragwgsimh sto (0, +). Epshc, h log enai gnhswc axousa afo h pargwgc 1 thc enai x > 0 gia kje x > 0. Tloc, to snolo timn thc log enai olklhro to R. Aut fanetai ekola wc exc: qoume
2
(6.3.11)
epomnwc
log 2 =
1
1 dt > 0, t
(6.3.12)
log(2n ) = n log 2 +
kajc to n . Dhlad, h log parnei osodpote meglec jetikc timc. Afo log 1 = 0, h sunqeia thc log kai to jerhma endimeshc timc mac exasfalzoun ti h log parnei lec tic timc sto [0, +) gia x 1. Dhlad,
(6.3.13)
f ([1, +)) = [0, +).
Ap thn log(1/x) = log x sumperanoume ti
(6.3.14)
f ((0, 1]) = (, 0].
Sunoyzoume ta parapnw sto exc:
Jerhma 6.3.3.
(6.3.15)
gia kje x > 0.
H log : (0, +) R enai paragwgsimh, gnhswc axousa kai ep sunrthsh, me pargwgo
log (x) =
1 x 2
Mporome tra na orsoume thn antstrofh sunrthsh exp : R (0, +) thc log, jtontac exp(x) = log1 (x). Orzoume e = exp(1) kai grfoume exp(x) =: ex . H x ex ikanopoie thn basik idithta miac {ekjetikc sunrthshc}:
Jerhma 6.3.4.
ex+y = ex ey .
An x, y R, tte exp(x + y) = exp(x) exp(y). Dhlad,
Apdeixh. Jtoume z = exp(x) kai w = exp(y). Tte, zw = exp(x) exp(y) kai to Jerhma 6.3.2 deqnei ti
(6.3.16) log(zw) = log(exp(x) exp(y)) = log(exp(x)) + log(exp(y)) = x + y.

'Epetai ti
(6.3.17)
zw = log1 (x + y) = zw = exp(x + y). 2
Dhlad, exp(x) exp(y) = exp(x + y).
Jerhma 6.3.5.
H exp enai paragwgsimh kai exp (x) = exp(x).
Apdeixh. Ap ton tpo thc paraggou antstrofhc sunrthshc,
exp (x)
(log1 ) (x) =
1 log (log1 (x))
= log1 (x) = exp(x). 2

dsame) ti isqei h
Paratrhsh 6.3.6.
Axzei ton kpo na elgxoume (me ton orism tou e pou
e = lim
An an = 1 +
1 n , n
1+
1 n
qoume
(6.3.18)
log an = n log 1 +
1 n
1 n
1 log 1 + n log 1 . 1/n
'Otan n qoume
0. 'Ara,
(6.3.19)
1 log 1 + n log 1 log (1) = 1. 1/n
Afo log an 1, ap th sunqeia thc exp parnoume an = exp(log an ) exp(1) = e.
6.3 Logarijmikh kai ekjetikh sunarthsh: prwtoc orismoc 105 Gia aujareto a > 0 orzoume tic sunartseic x ax , x R kai x loga (x), x > 0 wc exc: (i) ax = exp(x log a) = ex log a . (ii) loga (x) =
log x log a ,
Orismc 6.3.7.
an a = 1.
Qrhsimopointac tic antstoiqec idithtec twn exp kai log elgqoume ekola ti (i) An x, y R, tte ax+y = ax ay . (ii) An a = 1 kai x, y > 0, tte loga (xy) = loga (x) + loga (y). Oi basikc idithtec twn sunartsewn x ax kai x loga (x) perigrfontai stic epmenec do Protseic (h apdeixh touc enai mia apl skhsh).
Prtash 6.3.8 (monotona kai sumperifor sto peiro).

(i) An 0 < a < 1, tte h ax enai gnhswc fjnousa kai
x
lim ax = +
kai
x+
lim ax = 0.
(ii) An a > 1, tte h ax enai gnhswc axousa kai

x
lim ax = 0
kai
x+
lim ax = +.
(iii) An 0 < a < 1, tte h loga (x) enai gnhswc fjnousa kai
x0+
lim loga (x) = +
kai
x+
lim loga (x) = .
(iv) An a > 1, tte h loga (x) enai gnhswc axousa kai

x0+
lim loga (x) =
kai
x+
lim loga (x) = +.
Prtash 6.3.9 (pargwgoc).

(i) An 0 < a < 1 a > 1, tte
(loga ) (x) =
(ii) Gia kje a > 0,
1 . x log a
(ax ) = ax log a. 2
Epshc, h ax enai kurt sto R kai h loga x enai kolh sto (0, +).
Jerhma 6.3.10.
kje s > 0,
Oi sunartseic log kai exp ikanopoion ta exc: (a) gia
(6.3.20)
kai (b)
ex = + x+ xs lim log x = 0. xs
(6.3.21)
x+
lim
Dhlad, h exp auxnei sto + taqtera ap opoiadpote (meglh) dnamh tou x, en h log auxnei sto + bradtera ap opoiadpote (mikr) dnamh tou x.
106 Basikec pragmatikec sunarthseic Apdeixh. (a) Deqnoume prta ti ex > x an x > 1. Arke na dexoume ti log x < x. 'Omwc,
x
(6.3.22)
log x =
1
1 dt t
1dt = x 1 < x.
1
Aut h anisthta dh deqnei ti limx+ ex = + (giat?). Tra,
(6.3.23)
ex 1 ex/2 x/2 1 = e > ex/2 x 2 x/2 2
an x > 2. Afo limx+ ex/2 = +, sumperanoume ti
(6.3.24)
ex +. x
'Estw tra tuqn s > 0. Epilgoume fusik arijm n > s, opte gia kje x > 1 qoume ex /xs > ex /xn . Arke loipn na dexoume ti gia kje n N
(6.3.25)
tan x +. Grfoume
ex + xn
(6.3.26)
ex ex/n . . . ex/n 1 = = n xn x...x n
ex/n x/n
'Omwc, tan x + qoume x/n +, opte to prohgomeno bma deqnei ti ex/n /(x/n) +. 'Epetai ti
(6.3.27)
ex 1 = n lim n x+ x n x+ lim
ex/n x/n
= +.

(b) Aut enai aplostero. 'Eqoume aprosdiristh morf ton kanna tou lHospital. 'Eqoume
kai efarmzoume
(6.3.28)
tan x +. 'Ara,
1 (log x) 1 = x = s 0 (xs ) sxs1 sx
(6.3.29)
x+
lim
log x = 0. xs
6.4 Ekjetik kai logarijmik sunrthsh: deteroc orismc

Se aut thn pargrafo upojtoume ti o ax qei oriste gia kje x Q pwc sthn arq thc prohgomenhc paragrfou, kai dnoume mia sntomh perigraf tou {fusiologiko} trpou orismo thc ekjetikc sunrthshc ax : epektenoume ton orism gia rrhtouc ekjtec x. O orismc tou ax , x Q ja basiste sto akloujo Lmma: /
6.4 Ekjetikh kai logarijmikh sunarthsh: deuteroc orismoc 107
Tte,
Lmma 6.4.1.
'Estw a > 0 kai (qn ) akolouja rhtn arijmn me qn 0.
(6.4.1)
aqn 1.
Apdeixh. An a = 1 den qoume tpota na dexoume. H perptwsh 0 < a < 1 angetai sthn a > 1. Upojtoume loipn ti a > 1. Ekola blpoume ti an q, q Q kai q < q tte aq < aq . Afo |qn | qn |qn |, qoume
(6.4.2)
a|qn | aqn a|qn |
gia kje n N. An loipn dexoume ti a|qn | 1, tte efarmzontac to kritrio isosugklinousn akoloujin ja qoume aqn 1. Afo qn 0, mporome na upojsoume ti 0 |qn | < 1. An qn = 0, tte o 1 |qn | grfetai sth morf n +sn pou 0 sn < 1 kai n = [1/|qn |] N. Sunepc,
(6.4.3)
an |qn | = 0 kai
a|qn | = a n +sn a n
(6.4.4)
a|qn | = 1
an qn = 0. Grfoume a1/n = 1 + n an |qn | = 0. Arke na dexoume ti n 0. Ap thn anisthta Bernoulli qoume
(6.4.5)
'Ara,
a = (1 + n )n 1 + n n .
(6.4.6)
afo |qn | 0.
0 n <
a = n
1 |qn |
a 0 1 2
x
H ida mac gia na epektenoume ton orism tou a gia rrhto x enai h exc: oi rhto arijmo enai pukno sto R, epomnwc an mac dsoun x Q uprqoun / (pollc) akoloujec rhtn qn x. Ja dexoume ti gia kpoia ap autc to limn aqn uprqei kai ja orsoume
(6.4.7)
ax = lim aqn .
n
Gia na enai kalc o orismc, ja prpei an proume mia llh akolouja rhtn arijmn qn x na uprqei to limn aqn kai na isqei h
(6.4.8)
x
lim aqn = lim aqn .

n n
Aut ja deqnei ti h tim a pou orsame enai anexrthth ap thn epilog thc akoloujac rhtn qn x.
Jerhma 6.4.2.
a > 1, tte
'Estw x R kai qn , qn Q me limn qn = limn qn = x. An
108 Basikec pragmatikec sunarthseic (i) ta limn aqn kai limn aqn uprqoun. (ii) limn aqn = limn aqn . Apdeixh. Jewrome mia axousa akolouja rhtn rn x. 'Estw q rhtc me q > x. Tte arn < aq , dhlad h arn enai nw fragmnh. Epshc, ap thn rn rn+1 petai ti arn arn+1 , dhlad h arn enai axousa. Sunepc, h arn sugklnei. Parnoume tra opoiadpote ap tic (qn ), (qn ). 'Eqoume qn rn x x = 0, opte to Lmma 6.4.1 deqnei ti aqn rn 1. Tte,
(6.4.9)
Omowc,
aqn = aqn rn arn lim arn .

n
(6.4.10)
aqn lim arn .

n
Afo limn aqn = limn aqn = limn arn , parnoume ta (i) kai (ii) tautqrona.
'Eqoume loipn orsei ton ax gia kje x R. Sth sunqeia, prpei na apodexoume diadoqik ta exc (oi apodexeic enai mia kal skhsh pnw sth sgklish akoloujin).
Prtash 6.4.3.
(6.4.11)
'Estw a, b > 0 kai x, y R. Tte,
ax+y = ax ay ,
(ax )y = axy ,
ax =
1 , ax
(ab)x = ax bx .
Prtash 6.4.4. Prtash 6.4.5. Prtash 6.4.6.
'Estw a > 0. H x ax enai gnhswc axousa an a > 1 kai gnhswc fjnousa an 0 < a < 1. 'Estw a > 0. Tte, lim ax = 1.
x0
'Estw a > 0. H x ax enai suneqc.
Apdeixh. 'Estw x0 R. Parathrste ti ax ax0 = ax0 (axx0 1) kai ti axx0 1 0 tan to x x0 . 2
Prtash 6.4.7.
(6.4.12)
'Estw a > 0. Tte, to rio
ca := lim
ah 1 h0 h
uprqei. H x ax enai paragwgsimh kai
(6.4.13)
(ax ) = ca ax .
n
1 O arijmc e orzetai wc to rio thc akoloujac an = 1 + n . Gia th sugkekrimnh tim tou a h tim thc stajerc ca isotai me 1. Dhlad, gia th sunrthsh exp(x) := ex qoume
(6.4.14)
(exp) (x) = exp x.
6.5 Askhseic 109 Tloc, oi logarijmikc sunartseic orzontai sto (0, +) wc antstrofec sunartseic twn ekjetikn sunartsewn: gia kje a > 0 orzoume loga : (0, +) R thn antstrofh sunrthsh thc x ax . Eidiktera,
(6.4.15)
Parathrste ti
log := (exp)1 .
(6.4.16)
(log) (x) =
1 1 1 = = , (exp) (exp)1 (x) exp(exp)1 (x) x
katalgoume dhlad sthn afethra tou orismo thc 6.3.
6.5 Askseic
A. Basikc Askseic 1.
Dexte ti gia kje n = 2, 3, . . . isqei
cosn x dx =
sin x cosn1 x n 1 + n n
cosn2 x dx.
2.
Gia kje k N upologste ta oloklhrmata

/2 0
cos2k x dx
/2
kai
cos2k+1 x dx.
3.
Dexte ti gia kje x 0, isqei 2
sin x
2x .
4.
Dexte ti gia kje > 0 isqei

/2 0
e sin t dt <
(1 e ). 2
5.
Dexte ti gia kje x > 0 isqei
1 log x x 1. x
6. 7.
Dexte ti gia kje x R isqei ex 1 + x. Dexte ti gia kje x > 0 kai gia kje n N isqei log x n n x 1 n x log x.
Sumpernate ti limn n ( n x 1) = log x gia x > 0.
8.
Dexte ti gia kje x R isqei

n
lim n log 1 +
x = x. n
9.
Dexte ti gia kje x R isqei

n
lim
1+
x n
= ex .
10.
Meletste th sunrthsh
f (x) =
log x x
sto (0, +) kai sqediste th grafik thc parstash. Poic enai megalteroc, o e o e ?
B. Askseic
(a) 'Estw f : R R do forc paragwgsimh sunrthsh. Upojtoume ti f (0) = f (0) = 0 kai f (x) + f (x) = 0 gia kje x R. Dexte ti f (x) = 0 gia kje x R. [Updeixh: Jewrste thn g = f 2 + (f )2 .] (b) 'Estw f : R R do forc paragwgsimh sunrthsh. Upojtoume ti f (0) = 1, f (0) = 0 kai f (x)+f (x) = 0 gia kje x R. Dexte ti f (x) = cos x gia kje x R.
11.
12. (a) Dexte ti h exswsh tan x = x qei akribc ma lsh se kje disthma thc morfc Ik = k , k + . 2 2
(b) 'Estw ak h lsh thc parapnw exswshc sto disthma Ik , k N. Brete, an uprqei, to rio limk (ak+1 ak ) kai dste gewmetrik ermhnea.
13.
Dexte ti
n
2n
lim
k=n
1 = log 2. k
n 1 k=1 k
[Updeixh: Jumhjete ti h akolouja n =
log n sugklnei.]
14. 'Estw f : R R paragwgsimh sunrthsh me thn idithta f (x) = cf (x) gia kje x R, pou c mia stajer. Dexte ti uprqei a R ste f (x) = aecx gia kje x R. 15.
'Estw f : R R sunrthsh me thn idithta
x
f (x) =
0
f (t)dt
gia kje x R. Dexte ti f (x) = 0 gia kje x R.
16. 17.
'Estw a > 0 kai stw f : [0, a] R suneqc, paragwgsimh sto (0, a), ste f (0) = 1 kai f (a) = ea . Dexte ti uprqei (0, a) ste f () = f (). 'Estw f : [a, b] R suneqc, paragwgsimh sto (a, b), ste f (a) = f (b) = 0. Dexte ti: gia kje R, h sunrthsh g : [a, b] R me
g (x) := f (x) + f (x)

qei mia rza sto disthma (a, b).
6.5 Askhseic 111
18. 19.
'Estw a, b R me a f (). [Updeixh: Jewrste thn ex f (x).] (a) 'Estw f : [1, +) R axousa sunrthsh. Dexte ti
n
f (1) + + f (n 1)
1
f (x)dx f (2) + + f (n).
(b) Parnontac f (x) = log x sto (a), dexte ti
nn nn+1 < n! < n1 . n1 e e

(g) Dexte ti
n
n lim
n! 1 = . n e
20.
'Estw a, b > 0. Dexte ti
lim
a1/n + b1/n 2
ab.
Keflaio 7
Kurtc kai kolec sunartseic

7.1 Orismc
Se aut to keflaio, me I sumbolzoume na (kleist, anoikt hmianoikt, peperasmno peiro) disthma sto R. 'Estw a, b R me a < b. Sto epmeno Lmma perigrfoume ta shmea tou eujgrammou tmmatoc [a, b].
Lmma 7.1.1.
(7.1.1)
An a < b sto R tte
[a, b] = {(1 t)a + tb : 0 t 1}.
Eidiktera, gia kje x [a, b] qoume
(7.1.2)
x=
bx xa a+ b. ba ba
Apdeixh. Ekola elgqoume ti, gia kje t [0, 1] isqei
(7.1.3)
dhlad
a (1 t)a + tb = a + t(b a) b,
(7.1.4)
{(1 t)a + tb : 0 t 1} [a, b].
Antstrofa, kje x [a, b] grfetai sth morf
(7.1.5)
x=
bx xa a+ b. ba ba
Parathrntac ti t := (xa)/(ba) [0, 1] kai 1t = (bx)/(ba), blpoume ti
(7.1.6)
[a, b] {(1 t)a + tb : 0 t 1}. 2
Ta shmea (1 t)a + tb tou [a, b] lgontai kurto sunduasmo twn a kai b.
114 Kurtec kai koilec sunarthseic
Orismc 7.1.2.
(7.1.7)
'Estw f : I R mia sunrthsh.
(a) H f lgetai kurt an
f ((1 t)a + tb) (1 t)f (a) + tf (b)
gia kje a, b I kai gia kje t R me 0 < t < 1 (parathrste ti, afo to I enai disthma, to Lmma 7.1.1 deqnei ti to shmeo (1 t)a + tb [a, b] I , dhlad h f orzetai kal se aut). H gewmetrik shmasa tou orismo enai h exc: h qord pou qei san kra ta shmea (a, f (a)) kai (b, f (b)) den enai poujen ktw ap to grfhma thc f . (b) H f lgetai gnhswc kurt an enai kurt kai qoume gnsia anisthta sthn (7.1.7) gia kje a < b sto I kai gia kje 0 < t < 1. (g) H f : I R lgetai kolh (antstoiqa, gnhswc kolh) an h f enai kurt (antstoiqa, gnhswc kurt).
Paratrhsh 7.1.3.
Isodnamoi trpoi me touc opoouc mpore na perigrafe h kurtthta thc f : I R enai oi exc: (a) An a, b, x I kai a < x < b, tte
(7.1.8)
f (x)
bx xa f (a) + f (b). ba ba
Parathrste ti to dexi mloc autc thc anisthtac isotai me
(7.1.9)
f (a) +
f (b) f (a) (x a). ba
(b) An a, b I kai an t, s > 0 me t + s = 1, tte
(7.1.10)
f (ta + sb) tf (a) + sf (b).
7.2 Kurtc sunartseic orismnec se anoikt disthma

Se aut thn Pargrafo meletme wc proc th sunqeia kai thn paragwgisimthta mia kurt sunrthsh pou orzetai se anoikt disthma. 'Ola ta apotelsmata pou ja apodexoume enai sunpeiec tou akloujou {lmmatoc twn trin qordn}:
Prtash 7.2.1 (to lmma twn trin qordn).

kurt sunrthsh. An y < x < z sto (a, b), tte
'Estw f : (a, b) R
(7.2.1)
f (x) f (y) f (z) f (y) f (z) f (x) . xy zy zx
Apdeixh. Afo h f enai kurt, qoume
(7.2.2)
f (x)
xy zx f (y) + f (z). zy zy
7.2 Kurtec sunarthseic orismenec se anoikto diasthma 115 Ap aut thn anisthta blpoume ti
(7.2.3)
f (x) f (y)
yx xy xy f (y) + f (z) = [f (z) f (y)], zy zy zy
to opoo apodeiknei thn arister anisthta sthn (7.2.1). Xekinntac pli ap thn (7.2.2), grfoume
(7.2.4)
f (x) f (z)
zx xz zx f (y) + f (z) = [f (z) f (y)], zy zy zy 2
ap pou prokptei h dexi anisthta sthn (7.2.1).
Ja qrhsimopoisoume epshc thn exc apl sunpeia tou lmmatoc twn trin qordn.
(a, b), tte (7.2.5)
Lmma 7.2.2.
'Estw f : (a, b) R kurt sunrthsh. An y < x < z < w sto
f (x) f (y) f (w) f (z) . xy wz
Apdeixh. Efarmzontac thn Prtash 7.2.1 gia ta shmea y < x < z , parnoume
(7.2.6)
f (x) f (y) f (z) f (x) . xy zx
Efarmzontac pli thn Prtash 7.2.1 gia ta shmea x < z < w, parnoume
(7.2.7)
'Epetai to sumprasma.
f (z) f (x) f (w) f (z) . zx wz 2
Jerhma 7.2.3.
'Estw f : (a, b) R kurt sunrthsh. An x (a, b), tte uprqoun oi pleurikc pargwgoi
(7.2.8) f (x) = lim

h0
f (x + h) f (x) h
kai f+ (x) = lim
h0+
f (x + h) f (x) . h
Apdeixh. Ja dexoume ti uprqei h dexi pleurik pargwgoc f+ (x) (me ton dio trpo douleoume gia thn arister pleurik pargwgo f (x)). Jewrome th sunrthsh gx : (x, b) R pou orzetai ap thn
(7.2.9)
gx (z) :=
f (z) f (x) . zx
H gx enai axousa: an x < z1 < z2 < b, to lmma twn trin qordn deqnei ti
(7.2.10)
gx (z1 ) =
f (z1 ) f (x) f (z2 ) f (x) = gx (z2 ). z1 x z2 x
Epshc, an jewrsoume tuqn y (a, x), to lmma twn trin qordn (gia ta y < x < z ) deqnei ti
(7.2.11)
f (x) f (y) f (z) f (x) = gx (z) xy zx
116 Kurtec kai koilec sunarthseic gia kje z (x, b), dhlad h gx enai ktw fragmnh. 'Ara, uprqei to
(7.2.12)
zx+
lim gx (z) = lim+

zx
f (z) f (x) f (x + h) f (x) = lim+ . zx h h0 2
Dhlad, uprqei h dexi pleurik pargwgoc f+ (x).
Jerhma 7.2.4.
'Estw f : (a, b) R kurt sunrthsh. Oi pleurikc pargwgoi f , f+ enai axousec sto (a, b) kai f f+ sto (a, b).
Apdeixh. 'Estw x < y sto (a, b). Gia arket mikr jetik h qoume xh, yh (a, b) kai x + h < y h. Ap thn Prtash 7.2.1 kai ap to Lmma 7.2.2 blpoume ti (7.2.13) f (x) f (x h) f (x + h) f (x) f (y) f (y h) f (y + h) f (y) . h h h h Parnontac ria kajc h 0+ , sumperanoume ti
(7.2.14)
f (x) f+ (x) f (y) f+ (y).
Oi anisthtec f (x) f (y) kai f+ (x) f+ (y) deqnoun ti oi f , f+ enai axousec sto (a, b). H arister anisthta sthn (7.2.14) deqnei ti f f+ sto (a, b). 2 H parxh twn pleurikn paraggwn exasfalzei ti kje kurt sunrthsh f : I R enai suneqc sto eswterik tou I :
Jerhma 7.2.5.
Kje kurt sunrthsh f : (a, b) R enai suneqc.
Apdeixh. 'Estw x (a, b). Tte, gia mikr h > 0 qoume x + h, x h (a, b) kai
(7.2.15)
f (x + h) = f (x) +
f (x + h) f (x) h f (x) + f+ (x) 0 = f (x) h
tan h 0+ , en, telewc anloga,
(7.2.16) f (x h) = f (x) +
f (x h) f (x) (h) f (x) + f (x) 0 = f (x) h 2
tan h 0+ . 'Ara, h f enai suneqc sto x.
7.3 Paragwgsimec kurtc sunartseic

Sto Keflaio 1 djhke nac diaforetikc orismc thc kurtthtac gia mia paragwgsimh sunrthsh f : (a, b) R. Gia kje x (a, b), jewrsame thn efaptomnh
(7.3.1)
u = f (x) + f (x)(u x)
tou grafmatoc thc f sto (x, f (x)) kai epame ti h f enai kurt sto (a, b) an gia kje x (a, b) kai gia kje y (a, b) qoume
(7.3.2)
f (y) f (x) + f (x)(y x).
7.3 Paragwgisimec kurtec sunarthseic 117 Dhlad, an to grfhma {(y, f (y)) : a < y < b} brsketai pnw ap kje efaptomnh. To epmeno jerhma deqnei ti, an perioristome sthn klsh twn paragwgsimwn sunartsewn, oi {do orismo} sumfwnon.
Jerhma 7.3.1.
enai isodnama: (a) H f enai kurt.
'Estw f : (a, b) R paragwgsimh sunrthsh. Ta exc
(b) H f enai axousa. (g) Gia kje x, y (a, b) isqei h
(7.3.3)
f (y) f (x) + f (x)(y x).
Apdeixh. Upojtoume ti h f enai kurt. Afo h f enai paragwgsimh, qoume f = f = f+ sto (a, b). Ap to Jerhma 7.2.4 oi f , f+ enai axousec, ra h f enai axousa. Upojtoume tra ti h f enai axousa. 'Estw x, y (a, b). An x < y , efarmzontac to jerhma mshc timc sto [x, y], brskoume (x, y) ste f (y) = f (x) + f ()(y x). Afo > x kai h f enai axousa, qoume f () f (x). Afo y x > 0, petai ti
(7.3.4)
f (y) = f (x) + f ()(y x) f (x) + f (x)(y x).
An x > y , efarmzontac to jerhma mshc timc sto [y, x], brskoume (y, x) ste f (y) = f (x) + f ()(y x). Afo < x kai h f enai axousa, qoume f () f (x). Afo y x < 0, petai pli ti
(7.3.5)
f (y) = f (x) + f ()(y x) f (x) + f (x)(y x).
Tloc, upojtoume ti h (7.3.3) isqei gia kje x, y (a, b) kai ja dexoume ti h f enai kurt. 'Estw x < y sto (a, b) kai stw 0 < t < 1. Jtoume z = (1 t)x + ty . Efarmzontac thn upjesh gia ta zeugria x, z kai y, z , parnoume
(7.3.6)
'Ara,
f (x) f (z) + f (z)(x z) kai f (y) f (z) + f (z)(y z).
(1 t)f (x) + tf (y)
(1 t)f (z) + tf (z) + f (z)[(1 t)(x z) + t(y z)] = f (z) + f (z)[(1 t)x + ty z] = f (z).
Dhlad, (1 t)f (x) + tf (y) f ((1 t)x + ty).
Sthn perptwsh pou h f enai do forc paragwgsimh sto (a, b), h isodunama twn (a) kai (b) sto Jerhma 7.3.1 dnei nan apl qarakthrism thc kurtthtac msw thc deterhc paraggou.
Jerhma 7.3.2. 'Estw f : (a, b) R do forc paragwgsimh sunrthsh. H f enai kurt an kai mno an f (x) 0 gia kje x (a, b).
Apdeixh. H f enai axousa an kai mno an f 0 sto (a, b). 'Omwc, sto Jerhma 7.3.1 edame ti h f enai axousa an kai mno an h f enai kurt. 2
118 Kurtec kai koilec sunarthseic
7.4 Anisthta tou Jensen

H anisthta tou Jensen apodeiknetai me epagwg kai {genikeei} thn anisthta tou orismo thc kurtc sunrthshc.
Prtash 7.4.1 (anisthta tou
Jensen). 'Estw f : I R kurt sunrthsh. An x1 , . . . , xm I kai t1 , . . . , tm 0 me t1 + + tm = 1, tte m i=1 ti xi I kai (7.4.1) f (t1 x1 + + tm xm ) t1 f (x1 ) + + tm f (xm ).
Apdeixh. 'Estw a = min{x1 , . . . , xm } kai b = max{x1 , . . . , xm }. Afo to I enai disthma kai a, b I , sumperanoume ti {x1 , . . . , xm } [a, b] I . Afo ti 0 kai t1 + + tm = 1, qoume
(7.4.2)
a = (t1 + + tm )a t1 x1 + + tm xm (t1 + + tm )b = b,
dhlad, t1 x1 + + tm xm I . Ja dexoume thn (7.4.1) me epagwg wc proc m. Gia m = 1 den qoume tpota na dexoume, en gia m = 2 h (7.4.1) ikanopoietai ap ton orism thc kurtc sunrthshc. Gia to epagwgik bma upojtoume ti m 2, x1 , . . . , xm , xm+1 I kai t1 , . . . , tm , tm+1 0 me t1 + + tm + tm+1 = 1. Mporome na upojsoume ti kpoioc ti < 1 (allic, h anisthta isqei tetrimmna). Qwrc periorism thc genikthtac upojtoume ti tm+1 < 1. Jtoume t = t1 + + tm = 1 tm+1 > 0. Afo x1 , . . . , xm I kai tt1 + + tm = 1, h epagwgik upjesh mac dnei t
(7.4.3)
kai
x=
t1 tm x1 + + xm I t t
(7.4.4)
tf (x) = tf
t1 tm x1 + + xm t t
t1 f (x1 ) + + tm f (xm ).
Efarmzontac tra ton orism thc kurtc sunrthshc, parnoume
(7.4.5)
f (tx + tm+1 xm+1 ) tf (x) + tm+1 f (xm+1 ).
Sunduzontac tic do prohgomenec anisthtec, qoume
f (t1 x1 + + tm xm + tm+1 xm+1 )
= f (tx + tm+1 xm+1 ) t1 f (x1 ) + + tm f (xm ) +tm+1 f (xm+1 ). 2
Qrhsimopointac thn anisthta tou Jensen ja dexoume kpoiec klasikc anisthtec. H prth ap autc genikeei thn anisthta arijmhtiko-gewmetriko msou.
7.4 Anisothta tou Jensen 119
Anisthta arijmhtiko-gewmetriko msou.

n n
'Estw x1 , . . . , xn kai r1 , . . . , rn jetiko pragmatiko arijmo me r1 + + rn = 1. Tte,
(7.4.6)
i=1
xri i
i=1
ri xi .
Apdeixh. H sunrthsh x log x enai kolh sto (0, +). Afo ri > 0 kai r1 + + rn = 1, h anisthta tou Jensen (gia thn kurt sunrthsh log) deqnei ti
(7.4.7)
Dhlad,
r1 log x1 + + rn log xn log(r1 x1 + + rn xn ).
(7.4.8)
log(xr1 xrn ) log(r1 x1 + + rn xn ). n 1
To zhtomeno prokptei mesa ap to gegonc ti h ekjetik sunrthsh x ex enai axousa. 2 Eidikc periptseic thc prohgomenhc anisthtac enai oi exc: (a) H klasik anisthta arijmhtiko-gewmetriko msou
(7.4.9)
(x1 xn )1/n
x1 + + xn n
pou x1 , . . . , xn > 0, h opoa prokptei ap thn (7.4.6) an proume r1 = = 1 rn = n . (b) H
anisthta tou
Young: An x, y > 0 kai t, s > 0 me t + s = 1, tte xt y s tx + sy.
(7.4.10)
H (7.4.10) emfanzetai pol suqn sthn exc morf: an x, y > 0 kai p, q > 1 me 1 1 p + q = 1, tte
(7.4.11)
xy
xp yq + p q
1 Prgmati, arke na proume touc xp , y q sth jsh twn x, y kai touc p , 1 sth q jsh twn t, s. Oi p kai q lgontai suzugec ekjtec. Qrhsimopointac aut thn anisthta mporome na dexoume thn klasik anisthta tou Hlder: o 'Estw p, q suzugec ekjtec. An a1 , . . . , an kai b1 , . . . , bn enai jetiko pragmatiko arijmo, tte n n 1/p n 1/q
(7.4.12)
i=1
ai bi
i=1 n
ap i
i=1 n 1/p
bq i
.
1/q
Apdeixh. Jtoume A = ( i=1 ap ) , B = ( i=1 bq ) kai xi = ai /A, yi = i i bi /B . Tte, h zhtomenh anisthta (7.4.12) parnei th morf
n
(7.4.13)
i=1
xi yi 1.
120 Kurtec kai koilec sunarthseic Ap thn (7.4.11) qoume

n n
(7.4.14)
i=1
xi yi
i=1
xp yq i + i p q
1 p
xp + i
i=1
1 q
n q yi . i=1
Parathrome ti
n
(7.4.15)
i=1
xp = i
1 Ap
ap = 1 i
i=1
kai
i=1
q yi =
1 Bq
bq = 1. i
i=1
'Ara,
n
(7.4.16)
i=1
xi yi
1 1 1 + 1 = 1. p q 2.
'Epetai h (7.4.12).
Epilgontac p = q = 2 parnoume thn anisthta Cauchy-Schwarz: an a1 , . . . , an kai b1 , . . . , bn enai jetiko pragmatiko arijmo, tte
n n 1/2 n 1/2
(7.4.17)
i=1
ai bi
i=1
a2 i
i=1
b2 i
Keflaio 8
Upodexeic gia tic Askseic

8.1 Pargwgoc kai melth sunartsewn
A. Erwtseic katanhshc A1.
Exetste an oi paraktw protseic enai alhjec yeudec (aitiologste plrwc thn apnthsh sac).
1. Swst. 'Estw x (a, b). Ap thn upjesh, h f enai paragwgsimh sto x, ra enai suneqc sto x. 2.
Swst. Afo f (0) = f (0) = 0, qoume
0 = f (0) = lim
x0
f (x) f (0) f (x) = lim . x0 x x

n f (xn ) xn = lim f (1/n) n 1/n
Ap thn arq thc metaforc gia to rio, an xn = 0 kai xn 0, tte lim
0. Jewrntac thn akolouja xn = 0.
1 n
0, parnoume lim nf (1/n) =

n
3. Ljoc. Jewrste th sunrthsh f : [0, 1] R me f (x) = 1 x. H f enai paragwgsimh sto [0, 1] kai parnei th mgisth tim thc sto x0 = 0, mwc f (x) = 1 gia kje x [0, 1], ra f (0) = 1 = 0. 4. Swst. 'Estw x > 0. Efarmzoume to jerhma mshc timc sto [0, x]: uprqei x (0, x) ste
f (x) = f (x) f (0) = xf (x ).
Afo x > 0 kai f () 0, sumperanoume ti f (x) 0.
122 Upodeixeic gia tic Askhseic Gia x = 0, qoume f (x) = f (0) = 0. Swst. Efarmzontac to jerhma Rolle gia thn f sta [0, 1] kai [1, 2], brskoume y1 (0, 1) me f (y1 ) = 0 kai y2 (1, 2) me f (y2 ) = 0. Efarmzontac pli to jerhma Rolle gia thn f sto [y1 , y2 ], brskoume x0 (y1 , y2 ) me f (x0 ) = 0. Tloc, 0 < y1 < x0 < y2 < 2, dhlad x0 (0, 2).
5.
6.
Swst. Arke na dexoume ti lim
'Estw x (a, b) me x0 < x < x0 + . Ap tic upojseic mac petai ti f enai suneqc sto [x0 , x] kai paragwgsimh sto (x0 , x), opte, efarmzontac to (x jerhma mshc timc sto [x0 , x], brskoume yx (x0 , x) ste f (x)f 0 0 ) = xx f (yx ). 'Omwc, 0 < |yx x0 | < |x x0 | < , ra |f (yx ) | < . Sunepc,
xx0
lim f (x) = R, uprqei > 0 ste: an 0 < |y x0 | < , tte |f (y) | < .
xx0
f (x)f (x0 ) xx0
= . 'Estw > 0. Afo
()
f (x) f (x0 ) x x0
= |f (yx ) | < .
Afo to > 0 tan tuqn kai h () isqei gia kje x (x0 , x0 +), sumperanoume (x ti lim f (x)f 0 0 ) = . Me ton dio trpo deqnoume ti to rio ap arister xx isotai me , ra h f enai paragwgsimh sto x0 , kai f (x0 ) = . Ljoc. Jewrome th sunrthsh f : R R me f (x) = x2 an x Q kai f (x) = x2 an x Q. H f enai asuneqc se kje x = 0, ra den uprqei > 0 / ste h f na enai suneqc sto (, ). 'Omwc, h f enai paragwgsimh sto 0: qoume |x2 | f (x) f (0) |f (x)| = = |x| 0 tan x 0, = x |x| |x| ra f (0) = 0. Ljoc. Qrhsimopoiome mia parallag tou prohgomenou paradegmatoc. Jewrome th sunrthsh f : R R me f (x) = x + x2 an x Q kai f (x) = x x2 an x Q. H f enai paragwgsimh sto 0 kai f (0) = 1 > 0 (exhgste giat). Ja / dexoume mwc ti, gia kje > 0, h f den enai axousa sto (0, ). Jewrste tuqnta rht x (0, ). Ap thn puknthta twn arrtwn sto R, uprqei rrhtoc y ste x < y < min{, x + x2 }. Tte, y (0, ) kai x < y , mwc
xx+ 0
7.
8*.
f (y) = y y 2 < y < x + x2 = f (x).

'Ara, h f den enai axousa sto (0, ).
A2.
Dste pardeigma sunrthshc f : R R me tic exc idithtec:
(a) f (1) = 0, f (2) = 1 kai f (1) > 0: Jewrste thn f : R R me f (x) = x+1 3 (th grammik sunrthsh me f (1) = 0 kai f (2) = 1). 'Eqoume f (x) = 1 > 0 gia 3 kje x R, ra, f (1) > 0.
8.1 Paragwgoc kai meleth sunarthsewn 123 (b) f (1) = 0, f (2) = 1 kai f (1) < 0: Jewrste sunrthsh thc morfc f (x) = ax2 + bx + c. Zhtme: f (1) = a b + c = 0 kai f (2) = 4a + 2b + c = 1, ra c = 1 2a kai b = 1 a. Epshc, f (x) = 2ax + b, ra 3 3
f (1) = 2a + b = a +
1 <0 3
1 an a < . 3
Tra, mporome na epilxoume: a = 2 , b = 1, c = 5 . Elgxte ti h sunrthsh 3 3 2 f (x) = 3 x2 + x + 5 ikanopoie to zhtomeno. 3 (g) f (0) = 0, f (3) = 1, f (1) = 0 kai h f enai gnhswc axousa sto [0, 3]: To tupik pardeigma gnhswc axousac paragwgsimhc sunrthshc pou h pargwgc thc mhdenzetai se na shmeo enai h g(x) = x3 . Jewrste sunrthsh thc morfc f (x) = a(x 1)3 + b. Zhtme: f (0) = a + b = 0, ra b = a. Epshc, 3 f (3) = 8a + a = 1, ra a = 1 . Elgxte ti h sunrthsh f (x) = (x1) +1 9 9 ikanopoie to zhtomeno.
1 (d) f (m) = 0 kai f (m) = (1)m gia kje m Z, |f (x)| 2 gia kje x R: Jewrste th sunrthsh f (x) = a sin(x). Tte, f (m) = 0 gia kje m Z kai f (m) = a cos(m) = (1)m a gia kje m Z. Prpei loipn na epilxoume 1 a = ste na ikanopoiontai oi do prtec sunjkec. Tte,
|f (x)| =
1 1 1 sin(x) 2
gia kje x R, afo > 2. Dhlad, ikanopoietai kai h trth sunjkh.
B. Basikc askseic
(a) f (x) = x3 x2 8x + 1 sto [2, 2]. H f enai paragwgsimh sto (2, 2) 4 kai f (x) = 3x2 2x 8. Oi rzec thc paraggou enai: x1 = 2 kai x2 = 3 . 'Ara, to monadik krsimo shmeo thc f sto (2, 2) enai to x2 . Upologzoume tic timc f (2) = 5, f (2) = 11, f (4/3) = 203/27. 'Epetai ti max(f ) = 203/27 kai min(f ) = 11. (b) f (x) = x5 + x + 1 sto [1, 1]. H f enai paragwgsimh sto (1, 1) kai f (x) = 5x4 + 1 > 0, dhlad h f den qei krsima shmea. Upologzoume tic timc f (1) = 1 kai f (1) = 3. 'Epetai ti max(f ) = 3 kai min(f ) = 1. (g) f (x) = x3 3x sto [1, 2]. H f enai paragwgsimh sto (1, 2), me pargwgo f (x) = 3x2 3. Ta shmea sta opoa mhdenzetai h pargwgoc enai ta x1 = 1 kai x2 = 1. 'Ara, to monadik krsimo shmeo thc f sto (1, 2) enai to x2 . Upologzoume tic timc
1.
f (1) = 2,
f (1) = 2,
f (2) = 2.
'Epetai ti max(f ) = 2 kai min(f ) = 2.
2.
(a) H exswsh 4ax3 +3bx2 +2cx = a+b+c qei toulqiston ma rza sto (0, 1). Jewrste th sunrthsh f : [0, 1] R me f (x) = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 ax bx cx.
124 Upodeixeic gia tic Askhseic Parathrste ti f (0) = f (1) = 0. Efarmzontac to jerhma Rolle brskoume mia rza thc exswshc sto (0, 1). (b) H exswsh 6x4 7x + 1 = 0 qei to pol do pragmatikc rzec. Jewrome th sunrthsh f (x) = 6x4 7x + 1. Ac upojsoume ti uprqoun x1 < x2 < x3 ste f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = f (x3 ) = 0 (dhlad, ti h exswsh qei perissterec ap do pragmatikc rzec). Efarmzontac to jerhma Rolle gia thn f sta [x1 , x2 ] kai [x2 , x3 ], brskoume x1 < y1 < x2 < y2 < x3 ste f (y1 ) = f (y2 ) = 0. Dhlad, h exswsh f (x) = 0 qei toulqiston do (diaforetikc) pragmatikc rzec. 'Omwc, f (x) = 24x3 7 = 0 an kai mno an x = 3 7/24, dhlad h f (x) = 0 qei akribc ma pragmatik rza. Katalxame se topo, ra h arqik exswsh qei to pol do pragmatikc rzec. (g) H exswsh x3 +9x2 +33x8 = 0 qei akribc ma pragmatik rza. Jewrome th sunrthsh f (x) = x3 +9x2 +33x8. Afo f (0) = 8 < 0 kai f (1) = 35 > 0, ap to jerhma endimeshc timc sumperanoume ti h exswsh f (x) = 0 qei toulqiston ma rza sto (0, 1). An upojsoume ti h f (x) = 0 qei do diaforetikc pragmatikc rzec, tte h f (x) = 0 qei toulqiston ma pragmatik rza (jerhma Rolle). 'Omwc, f (x) = 3x2 + 18x + 33 = 3(x2 + 6x + 11) > 0 gia kje x R (elgxte ti h diakrnousa tou triwnmou enai arnhtik). Aut enai topo, ra h f (x) = 0 qei to pol ma pragmatik rza. Ap ta parapnw, h f (x) = 0 qei akribc ma pragmatik rza. Jewrome thn f (x) = xn + ax + b kai upojtoume prta ti o n 4 enai rtioc (gia n = 2 den qoume tpota na dexoume). 'Estw ti h f (x) = 0 qei trec diaforetikc pragmatikc rzec. Ap to jerhma Rolle, h f (x) = nxn1 + a = 0 qei toulqiston do diaforetikc pragmatikc rzec. Aut enai topo: o n 1 enai perittc, ra nxn1 + a = 0 an kai mno an x = n1 a/n (monadik pragmatik rza). 'Estw tra ti o n 3 enai perittc. Tte, o n 1 enai rtioc kai h nxn1 + a = 0 qei to pol do rzec: tic n1 a/n an a < 0, thn x = 0 an a = 0, kama an a > 0. 'Ara, h f (x) = 0 qei to pol trec pragmatikc rzec (exhgste giat, qrhsimopointac to jerhma Rolle).
3.
4. An upojsoume ti h f (x) = 0 qei n diaforetikc pragmatikc rzec, tte efarmzontac to jerhma Rolle blpoume ti h f (x) = 0 qei n 1 diaforetikc pragmatikc rzec, kai, suneqzontac me ton dio trpo, ti h f (n) (x) = 0 qei (toulqiston) ma pragmatik rza. 'Omwc, f (n) (x) = n! = 0 gia kje x R, kai katalgoume se topo. 'Ara, h f (x) = 0 qei to pol (n 1) pragmatikc rzec. Parathrome tra ti: gia kje i = 1, . . . , n 1 qoume f (ai ) = f (ai+1 ) = 0, opte to jerhma Rolle deqnei ti uprqei yi (ai , ai+1 ) ste f (yi ) = 0. Ta y1 , . . . , yn1 enai diaforetik an do giat ta (ai , ai+1 ) enai xna an do (diadoqik) diastmata. 'Ara, h f (x) = 0 qei toulqiston n 1 pragmatikc rzec. Sunduzontac ta parapnw, sumperanoume ti h f (x) = 0 qei akribc n 1 pragmatikc rzec.
8.1 Paragwgoc kai meleth sunarthsewn 125 (a) Jloume na megistopoisoume thn posthta ab me thn upjesh a2 + b2 = d2 , pou d > 0 (exhgste giat). Parathrste ti
6.
'Alloc trpoc. Jewrste th sunrthsh f : [0, d] R me f (a) = a d2 a2 , isodnama, thn g = f 2 : [0, d] R me g(a) = a2 (d2 a2 ). Jloume na dexoume ti max(g) = f (d/ 2) (exhgste giat). Paragwgizontac, qoume g (a) = 2 2ad 3 2 2 4a = 2a(d 2a ). 'Epetai ti h g enai gnhswc axousa sto [0, d/ 2] kai gnhswc fjnousa sto [d/ 2, d], ra parnei th mgisth tim thc an kai mno an a = d/ 2.
(b) Jloume na megistopoisoume thn posthta ab me thn upjesh a + b = d, pou d > 0 (exhgste giat). Parathrste ti
a2 + b2 d2 = 2 2 me isthta an kai mno an a = b (= d/ 2). ab
ab
(a + b)2 d2 = 4 4
me isthta an kai mno an a = b (= d/2). 'Alloc trpoc. Jewrste th sunrthsh g : [0, d] R me g(a) = a(d a). Jloume na dexoume ti max(g) = f (d/2) (exhgste giat). Paragwgizontac, qoume g (a) = d 2a. 'Epetai ti h g enai gnhswc axousa sto [0, d/2] kai gnhswc fjnousa sto [d/2, d], ra parnei th mgisth tim thc an kai mno an a = d/2. 'Estw (x, y) na shmeo thc uperbolc x2 y 2 = 1. To tetrgwno thc apstashc tou (x, y) ap to (0, 1) isotai me x2 + (y 1)2 = 1 + y 2 + (y 1)2 = 2y 2 2y + 2. Parathrste ti gia kje y R uprqoun do timc tou x (oi 1 + y 2 ) ste to (x, y) na ankei sthn uperbol. Arke loipn (exhgste giat) na brome thn elqisth tim thc sunrthshc g : R R me g(y) = 2y 2 2y + 2. Paragwgzontac, blpoume ti to min(g) pinetai tan
7.
y = 1/2, opte parnoume do shmea, ta
5 1 2 , 2
Mporome na upojsoume ti A = (1, 0) kai B = (1, 0). Arke na jewrsoume shmea thc morfc (cos x, sin x), pou 0 x . Aut enai ta shmea tou nw hmikuklou, gia to ktw hmikklio ergazmaste anloga. Parathrste ti to mkoc tou A enai 2 sin x kai to mkoc tou B enai 2 sin x = 2 cos x . 2 2 2 Arke loipn na megistopoisoume thn g : [0, ] R me g(x) = sin x + cos x 2 2 (exhgste giat). Afo g (x) = 1 cos x 1 sin x , sumperanoume ti h g parnei 2 2 2 2 mgisth tim tan x = , dhlad x = /2. 'Ara, ta zhtomena shmea enai ta 2 4 1 = (0, 1) kai 2 = (1, 0).
8.
9.
Parathrste ti
n
f (x) =
(x2 2ak x + a2 ) = nx2 2(a1 + + an )x + (a2 + + a2 ). k 1 n

k=1
126 Upodeixeic gia tic Askhseic H pargwgoc thc f enai h
f (x) = 2nx 2(a1 + + an ).

1 'Epetai ti h f parnei thn elqisth tim thc sto x0 = n (a1 + + an ). H 1 elqisth tim enai sh me min(f ) = (a2 + + a2 ) n (a1 + + an )2 . n 1
10.
Meletste thn f qwrist sta diastmata (, 0], [0, a] kai [a, +) (ste na {dixete} tic aplutec timc). Paragwgzontac, elgxte ti h f enai axousa sto (, 0], fjnousa sto [a, +), en sto [0, a] qoume ti h f enai fjnousa sto [0, a/2] kai axousa sto [a/2, a]. Sunepc, h mgisth tim thc f enai ma ap tic f (0) kai f (a). Parathrste 1 2+a 2+a ti f (0) = 1 + 1+a = 1+a = f (a). Sunepc, max(f ) = 1+a .
11.
'Eqoume f (x0 ) = lim
xx0
f (x)f (x0 ) xx0
> 0. Efarmzontac ton orism tou orou
me = f (x0 ) > 0, blpoume ti uprqei > 0 ste: an 0 < |x x0 | < , tte 2 x (a, b) kai f (x) f (x0 ) > 0. x x0 Katpin, diakrnoume tic periptseic x (x0 , x0 + ) kai x (x0 , x0 ). Gia pardeigma, an x0 < x < x0 + , tte
f (x) f (x0 ) =
f (x) f (x0 ) (x x0 ) > 0, x x0
ra f (x) > f (x0 ).
12.
(a) Afo h f qei topik elqisto sto x0 , qoume f (x0 ) = 0 (to x0 enai krsimo shmeo thc f ). An eqame f (x0 ) < 0, tte h f ja eqe topik mgisto sto x0 , kai mlista gnsio, me thn exc nnoia: ja uprqe > 0 ste f (x) < f (x0 ) gia kje x (x0 , x0 ) (x0 , x0 + ) (qei apodeiqje sth jewra). Aut enai topo, afo upojsame ti h f qei topik elqisto sto x0 . 'Ara, f (x0 ) 0. (b) Me ton dio trpo (apagwg se topo). Jloume na dexoume ti uprqei x (a, b) ste f (x) = g (x) (aut shmanei ti oi efaptmenec twn grafikn parastsewn twn f kai g sta (x, f (x)) kai (x, g(x)) enai parllhlec tautzontai). Jewrome th sunrthsh h = f g : [a, b] R. Afo f (a) = g(a) kai f (b) = g(b), qoume h(a) = h(b) = 0. Efarmzontac to jerhma Rolle, brskoume x (a, b) ste h (x) = 0, dhlad, f (x) g (x) = 0.
13.
14. Upojtoume ti uprqoun x1 < x2 sto (a, b) ste f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = 0, kai ti h g den mhdenzetai sto (x1 , x2 ) (apagwg se topo). Efarmzontac thn upjesh f (x)g (x) f (x)g(x) = 0 sta x1 kai x2 , blpoume ti f (x1 )g(x1 ) = 0 kai f (x2 )g(x2 ) = 0, ra h g den mhdenzetai sta x1 , x2 . Me lla lgia, h g den mhdenzetai sto [x1 , x2 ].
8.1 Paragwgoc kai meleth sunarthsewn 127 Tte, mporome na orsoume thn h := f : [x1 , x2 ] R. H h enai suneqc g sto [x1 , x2 ], paragwgsimh sto (x1 , x2 ), kai h(x1 ) = h(x2 ) = 0 (exhgste giat). Ap to jerhma Rolle, uprqei x (x1 , x2 ) ste
h (x) =
f (x)g(x) f (x)g (x) = 0. [g(x)]2
Aut enai topo: afo x (a, b), qoume f (x)g (x)f (x)g(x) = 0, ra h (x) = 0. Jtoume = a+b . Efarmzontac to jerhma mshc timc sta [a, ] kai 2 [, b] brskoume x1 (a, ) kai x2 (, b) pou ikanopoion tic
15.
f (x1 ) =
f () f (a) a
ba 2
kai f (x2 ) =
f (b) f () . b
Qrhsimopointac thn a = f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) = 0.
= b kai thn f (a) = f (b), elgxte ti
16.
'Estw > 0. Afo lim f (y) = 0, uprqei M > 0 ste: gia kje y > M
y+
isqei |f (y)| < . 'Estw x > M . Efarmzoume to jerhma mshc timc sto disthma [x, x + 1]: uprqei yx (x, x + 1) ste
f (x + 1) f (x) = f (yx )((x + 1) x) = f (yx ).

'Omwc yx > x > M , ra |f (yx )| < . Dhlad,
|f (x + 1) f (x)| < .
'Epetai ti lim (f (x + 1) f (x)) = 0.
x+
'Estw x > 1. Efarmzoume to jerhma mshc timc sto disthma [x, x+ x]: uprqei yx (x, x + x) ste f (x + x) f (x) = f (yx ) x.
17.
'Omwc yx > x > 1, ra |f (yx )|
1 yx
1 < x . Dhlad,
|f (x +
'Epetai ti lim (f (x +
x+
x) f (x)| <
1 1 x= . x x
x) f (x)) = 0.
f (x) x
18.
(a) H pargwgoc thc h(x) =
sto x (0, a) isotai me
h (x) =
f (x)x f (x) . x2
Efarmzontac to jerhma mshc timc sto disthma [0, x] gia thn f , brskoume (0, x) ste f (x) = f (x) f (0) = f ()x.
128 Upodeixeic gia tic Askhseic 'Omwc h f enai axousa kai < x, ra f () f (x). Sunepc, f (x) f (x)x. 'Epetai ti h 0 sto (0, a), ra h h enai axousa. (b) H sunrthsh h(x) =
f g f (x) g(x)
enai kal orismnh sto (0, a). Prgmati, parath-
orzetai kal sto (0, a) kai ti g > 0 (ap thn upjesh). Aut rste ti h qei san sunpeia kai thn g(x) > 0 sto (0, a) (dete thn erthsh katanhshc 4). 'Eqoume f (x)g(x) g (x)f (x) h (x) = . [g(x)]2 Efarmzontac to jerhma mshc timc sto disthma [0, x] gia thn zx (t) = f (t)g(x) g(t)f (x), brskoume (0, x) ste
0 = zx (x) zx (0) = f ()g(x) g ()f (x).

Afo h
f g
enai axousa kai < x, parnoume
f (x) f () f (x) = . g(x) g () g (x)

Sunepc, f (x)g(x) g (x)f (x) 0. 'Epetai ti h 0 sto (0, a), ra h h enai axousa.
G. Askseic* 1.
Meletste thn g qwrist sta diastmata (, a1 ], [a1 , a2 ], . . . , [an1 , an ] kai [an , +) (gia na {dixete} tic aplutec timc). Ja qreiaste na diakrnete tic periptseic n perittc kai n rtioc. (a) An n = 2s 1 gia kpoion s N, elgxte ti h g enai fjnousa sto (, as ] kai axousa sto [as , +). Sunepc,
2s1 2s1 s1
min(g) =
k=1
|as ak | =
k=s+1
ak
k=1
ak .
(b) An n = 2s gia kpoion s N, elgxte ti h g enai fjnousa sto (, as ], stajer sto [as , as+1 ], kai axousa sto [as+1 , +). Sunepc,
2s 2s 2s s
min(g) =
k=1
|as ak | =
k=1
|as+1 ak | =
k=s+1
ak
k=1
ak .
2.
1 1 m, n
'Estw n < m sto N. Efarmzontac to jerhma mshc timc sto disthma 1 1 brskoume nm m , n ste
1 n
1 m
= |f (nm )|
1 1 . n m
Ap thn upjesh qoume |f (nm )| 1, ra
|am an |
1 1 1 . n m n
8.1 Paragwgoc kai meleth sunarthsewn 129 Qrhsimopointac to parapnw dexte ti h (an ) enai akolouja Cauchy.
3. (a) Efarmzontac to jerhma tou Rolle dexte epagwgik to exc: gia kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n1, h exswsh f (k) (x) = 0 qei k diaforetikc lseic sto disthma (1, 1) kai f (k) (1) = f (k) (1) = 0.
(b) Dexte ti h exswsh f (n) (x) = 0 qei n diaforetikc lseic sto disthma (1, 1). (g) Dexte ti h exswsh f (n) (x) = 0 qei to pol n diaforetikc lseic. [Updeixh: An h f (n) (x) = 0 eqe n + 1 diaforetikc lseic, tte h f (2n) (x) = 0 ja eqe lsh.]
4. 'Estw a > 0. Upojste ti uprqei paragwgsimh sunrthsh f : [0, 1] R me f (0) = 0 kai f (x) a gia kje x (0, 1].
(a) Qrhsimopointac to jerhma mshc timc sto [0, x] dexte ti gia kje x (0, 1) qoume f (x) f (0) a. x (b) Qrhsimopointac thn f (0) = lim topo.
x0+ f (x)f (0) , x
mporete na katalxete se
5. Qwrc periorism thc genikthtac, upojtoume ti gia kpoio x0 (a, b) isqei lim f (x) = > f (x0 ),
xx0
kai ja katalxoume se topo. (a) Jewrome m R o opooc ikanopoie thn > m > f (x0 ). Dexte ti uprqei > 0 ste (x0 , x0 + ) (a, b) kai f (x) > m gia kje x (x0 , x0 ) (x0 , x0 + ). (b) Dexte ti h f den qei thn idithta Darboux sto (x0 , x0 +) kai katalxte tsi se topo.
6.
Upojtoume ti lim f (x) < +.

xb
(a) Dexte ti uprqoun R kai x0 (a, b) ste f (y) gia kje y (x0 , b). (b) Jewrste x (x0 , b) kai efarmzontac to jerhma mshc timc sto [x0 , x] dexte ti f (x) f (x0 ) + (x x0 ) f (x0 ) + (b a). (g) Ap to (b) h f enai nw fragmnh sto [x0 , b). Qrhsimopointac thn upjesh ti lim f (x) = + mporete na katalxete se topo.
xb
7.
Upojtoume ti lim f (x) = = 0.

x+ | | 2 .
(a) Dexte ti uprqei M > 0 ste gia kje x > M na qoume |f (x)| >
130 Upodeixeic gia tic Askhseic (b) Jewrste x > M kai efarmzontac to jerhma mshc timc sto [M, x] dexte ti | |(x M ) |f (x) f (M )| . 2 (g) Afo lim f (x) = L, qoume lim |f (x) f (M )| = |L f (M )|. Ap
x+ x+
thn llh pleur, topo.
lim | |(xM ) 2 x+
x+
= +. Ap to (b) mporete na katalxete se
(d) Upojtontac ti
lim f (x) = , mporete pli na dexete ti uprqei
M > 0 ste gia kje x > M na qoume |f (x)| > 1. Sunepc, epanalambnontac ta bmata (b) kai (g), katalgete se topo.
8.2 Seirc pragmatikn arijmn

A. Erwtseic katanhshc 1. 2.
1 1 Ljoc. H akolouja ak = k 0, mwc h akolouja sn = 1 + 1 + + n den 2 enai fragmnh (tenei sto +).
Ljoc. An jewrsoume thn akolouja ak = (1)k1 , tte qoume sn = 1 an o n enai perittc kai sn = 0 an o n enai rtioc. Dhlad, h akolouja
sn = a1 + + an enai fragmnh. 'Omwc, h seir ak 0.
k=1
(1)k1 apoklnei, diti
3.
Ljoc. Jewrste thn ak =

k=1
1 k.
Tte, |ak | =
1 k
0 kai h
k=1
|ak | =
k=1
1 k
apoklnei sto +, dhlad h
ak den sugklnei apoltwc.
4. 5.
Swst. Apodexame (sth jewra) ti an mia seir sugklnei apoltwc tte sugklnei. Ljoc. Jewrste thn ak =
1 k.
Tte, ak > 0 gia kje k N kai

k=1 1 k
ak+1 ak
k k+1
< 1 gia kje k N. 'Omwc, h seir
apoklnei. kje k N kai lim

ak+1 ak
6.

2
lim k 2 k (k+1)
= 1. 'Omwc, h
1 k2 . Tte, ak > 0 gia 1 seir k2 sugklnei. k=1
k+1 k+1 Swst. An aak +, uprqei N N ste aak 1 gia kje k N . Afo h (ak ) qei jetikoc rouc, sumperanoume ti 0 < aN aN +1
7.
ak , dhlad ak 0. Sunepc, h seir
k=1
ak apoklnei.
8.2 Seirec pragmatikwn arijmwn 131
8.
Ljoc. An jewrsoume thn ak =
(1) ak =
(1)k k ,
tte ak 0. 'Omwc, h seir
k=1
k=1
1 k
apoklnei.
1 k2 . k=1
9.

1 k2
k=1
sugklnei. 'Omwc, h seir
Tte, ak > 0 gia kje k N kai h seir 1 ak = k apoklnei.

k=1 k=1 (1)k k
10.
Ljoc. Ap to kritrio tou Dirichlet, h seir

k=1
sugklnei. 'Omwc, h
seir
a2 = k
k=1
1 k
apoklnei.
k=1
11.
Swst. Afo h
ak sugklnei, qoume ak 0. 'Ara, uprqei m N
ste: gia kje k m, 0 ak 1. Tte, gia kje k m qoume 0 a2 ak . k Ap to kritrio sgkrishc, h seir
k=1
a2 sugklnei. k
12.
Ljoc. Jtoume ak =
246(2k) . k!
Tte, ak > 0 kai
ak+1 [2 4 6 (2k)(2k + 2)]k! 2k + 2 = = = 2 2 > 1. ak [2 4 6 (2k)](k + 1)! k+1

Ap to kritrio tou lgou, h seir
k=1 246(2k) k!
apoklnei.
1 p k2
13.
Swst. Parathrome ti lim
to oriak kritrio sgkrishc, h seir h seir

k=1 1 k(2p+1)
k(1+k2 )p 2p+1 k k k=1
= lim 1 +
k
= 1 > 0. Ap
k(1 + k 2 )p sugklnei an kai mno an
sugklnei. Aut sumbanei an kai mno an (2p + 1) > 1,
dhlad an kai mno an p < 1.
To n-ost merik jroisma thc seirc isotai me
sn = (b1 b2 ) + (b2 b3 ) + + (bn bn+1 ) = b1 bn+1 .

Afo lim bk = b, blpoume ti lim sn = b1 b. Sunepc,
k n
(bk bk+1 ) =
b1 b.
k=1
2.
(a) Jtoume bk =
1 2k1 .
Parathrome ti
bk bk+1 =
1 1 2 = . 2k 1 2k + 1 (2k 1)(2k + 1)
132 Upodeixeic gia tic Askhseic 'Eqoume b1 = 1 kai bk 0. Ap thn 'Askhsh 1,

k=1
1 1 = (2k 1)(2k + 1) 2
k=1
2 1 1 = (b1 b) = . (2k 1)(2k + 1) 2 2
(b) Gnwrzoume ti an 0 < x < 1, tte

xk = x
k=1 k=0
xk =
x . 1x
Sunepc,
k=1
2k + 3k = 6k
k=1
1 3
+
k=1
1 2
1/3 1/2 1 3 + = +1= . 1 (1/3) 1 (1/2) 2 2
(g) Grfoume
k=1
k+1 k = k2 + k k=1
1 1 k+1 k
1 k
= 1 0 = 1,
qrhsimopointac thn 'Askhsh 1 gia thn bk =
0.
3.
Parathrome ti
1 1 2(k + 1) 1 = = . 2 2k(k + 1) 2(k + 1)(k + 2) 2k(k + 2)(k + 1) k(k + 1)(k + 2)

Qrhsimopointac thn 'Askhsh 1 gia thn bk =
k=1 1 2k(k+1)
0, sumperanoume ti
1 1 = b1 = . k(k + 1)(k + 2) 4
4.
1 Parathrome ti: an |x| < 1 tte 1+xk 1 = 0, ra h seir apoklnei. An 1 1 1 x = 1, tte 1+xk = 2 2 = 0, ra h seir apoklnei. An x = 1, o k -ostc roc den orzetai sthn perptwsh pou o k enai perittc, ra den qei nhma na exetsoume th sgklish thc seirc.
Upojtoume loipn ti |x| > 1. Tte, sugkrnontac me thn sugklnei wc gewmetrik seir me lgo
1 |x|
< 1) blpoume ti
k=1
1 |x|k
(h opoa
1 1 |x| 1 k| k 1 |1 + x |x| |x| 1 |x|k

gia kje k N (elgxte to, qrhsimopointac thn |x| > 1). Ap to kritrio sgkrishc, h seir
k=1 1 1+xk
sugklnei apoltwc.
5.
Exetzoume merikc ap autc:
8.2 Seirec pragmatikwn arijmwn 133 (a)

k=1
k k xk : Me to kritrio tou lgou. An x = 0, qoume (k + 1)k+1 |x|k+1 1 = (k + 1) 1 + k k |x|k k

k
|x| +.
Sunepc, h seir apoklnei. H seir sugklnei mno an x = 0. Sto dio sumprasma ja katalgate an qrhsimopoiosate to kritrio thc rzac: parathrste ti k k k |x|k = k|x| + an x = 0. (b)
k=0 xk k! :
Me to kritrio tou lgou. An x = 0, qoume
|x| |x|k+1 /(k + 1)! = 0 < 1. |x|k /k! k+1

Sunepc, h seir sugklnei apoltwc. H seir sugklnei gia kje x R. (st)
k=1 2k x k k2 :
Me to kritrio tou lgou. An x = 0, qoume
2k+1 |x|k+1 /(k + 1)2 k2 = 2|x| 2|x|. k |x|k /k 2 2 (k + 1)2

Sunepc, h seir sugklnei apoltwc an |x| < 1/2 kai apoklnei an |x| > 1/2. Exetzoume th sgklish qwrist stic periptseic x = 1/2. Parathrntac ti oi seirc
sugklnei an kai mno an |x| 1/2.
k=1
(1)k k2
kai
k=1
1 k2
sugklnoun, sumperanoume telik ti h seir
6.
(a) Parathrste ti to (2n)-ost merik jroisma thc seirc
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + + 2 + 2 + 3 + 3 + 4 + 4 + 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
isotai me
n
s2n =
k=1
1 + 2k
n k=1
1 3k
k=1
1 + 2k
k=1 3 2
1 1 3 =1+ = . 3k 2 2
Afo h seir qei jetikoc rouc kai s2n sugklnei (exhgste giat).
gia kje n, petai ti h seir
(b) Parathrste ti to (2n)-ost merik jroisma thc seirc
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 +1+ + + + + + + 2 8 4 32 16 128 64
isotai me
2n1
s2n =
k=0
1 < 2k
k=0
1 = 2. 2k
Afo h seir qei jetikoc rouc kai s2n 2 gia kje n, petai ti h seir sugklnei.
134 Upodeixeic gia tic Askhseic
(a) An ak = k + 1 k , tte sn = a1 + + an = n + 1 1 +, ra h seir apoklnei. ak 1 k (b) 'Eqoume ak = 1 + k 2 k = 1+k2 +k . Parathrome ti 1/k = 1+k2 +k
7.
1 2
> 0. Afo h
sgkrishc.
k=1
k=1
1 k
apoklnei, h seir
k=1
ak apoklnei ap to oriak kritrio

Parathrome ti
ak 1/k3/2
(g) 'Eqoume ak =
k+1 k k
0. Afo h
sgkrishc.
1 k3/2
sugklnei, h seir
1 . k( k+1+ k) k=1
1 2
>
ak sugklnei ap to oriak kritrio k ak = k k 1 0 < 1, ra
(d) Qrhsimopoiome to kritrio thc rzac: qoume h seir sugklnei.
8.
(a)
k=1
k+ k 2k3 1 :
parathrome ti
ak k3 + k2 k 1 = > 0. 1/k 2 2k 3 1 2
Afo h shc. (b)
k=1 k=1 1 k2
sugklnei, h seir
k=1
ak sugklnei ap to oriak kritrio sgkri-
( k k 1): jtoume k = k k 1 0. Tte, k = (1 + k )k . Parathrome
ti, gia kje k 3,
1+
'Ara, k > aut. (g)
k=1 k=1 cos2 k k2 : 1 k
1 k
< e < 3 k = (1 + k )k .
k=1 1 k
gia kje k 3. Afo h
apoklnei, h seir
k=1
k=1
k apoklnei ki
parathrome ti |ak |
1 k2 .
Afo h
1 k2
sugklnei, h seir
ak sugklnei ap to kritrio sgkrishc.

k=1 k! : kk
(d)
qrhsimopoiome to kritrio lgou. 'Eqoume
ak+1 (k + 1)!k k kk 1 = = = k+1 k 1 ak k!(k + 1) (k + 1) 1+ k

ra h seir sugklnei.
1 < 1, e
9.
(a)
1+
1+
k=1 1 k 1 k e
2 1 k : k
qrhsimopoiome to kritrio thc rzac. 'Eqoume
ak =
< 1, ra h seir sugklnei.
8.2 Seirec pragmatikwn arijmwn 135 (b)

k=1
pk k p : qrhsimopoiome to kritrio tou lgou. 'Eqoume ak+1 (k + 1)p =p p, ak kp
ra h seir sugklnei an 0 1. Gia p = 1 parnoume th seir (g) h
k=2 k=1
k , h opoa apoklnei (k 0 tan k !).

jewrome thn bk = 1/k p . Afo q < p, qoume
ak bk
1 kp kq :
1 1k(pq)
1 > 0. Ap to oriak kritrio sgkrishc, h seir mac sugklnei an kai mno an

1 kp k=1
sugklnei, dhlad an kai mno an p > 1 (kai 0 < q < p).

1
1
(d)
1+ k=1 k k
: jewrome thn bk = 1/k . 'Eqoume
ak bk
k k
to oriak kritrio sgkrishc, h seir apoklnei (diti h (e)

1 : pk q k
=
1 k
1 k k
1 > 0. Ap
k=1
apoklnei).
ak bk
k=1 1 1(q/p)k
jewrome thn bk = 1/pk . Afo 0 < q < p, qoume

k=1
1 > 0 (diti (p/q)k 0 afo 0 < p/q < 1). Ap to oriak kritrio
1 pk
sgkrishc, h seir mac sugklnei an kai mno an h kai mno an p > 1 (kai 0 < q < p). (st)
k=1 k=1 2+(1)k : 2k
sugklnei, dhlad an
k=1 1 2k
parathrome ti 0 < ak
3 . 2k
Afo h
sugklnei, h
ak sugklnei ap to kritrio sgkrishc.

k=1
(z)
kp
1 k
1 k+1
: parathrome ti
k+1 k kp . ak = k p = k k+1 k k + 1( k + 1 + k)
kp k3/2 k=1
Jewrome thn bk = kritrio sgkrishc, h Dhlad, an (h)

k=1 3 2
kai parathrome ti
ak bk
1 2
> 0. Ap to oriak
k=1 1 k(3/2)p
ak sugklnei an kai mno an h
sugklnei.
kp
p > 1, to opoo isqei an p < 1 . 2 k + 1 2 k + k 1 : parathrome ti, gia k 2, ak = k p ( k + 1 k + k 1 k) 1 1 = kp k k+1 k k1 1 1 = 2k p 2 . k 1 k + 1( k + 1 + k 1)

kp k2
Dhlad, h (ak )k2 qei arnhtikoc rouc. 'Ara, sugklnei an kai mno an h
k=2
(ak ) sugklnei (exhgste giat). Jewrome thn bk =
kai parathrome
136 Upodeixeic gia tic Askhseic ti

ak bk
1 > 0. Ap to oriak kritrio sgkrishc, h

k=1 1 k2p
k=1
ak sugklnei an kai
mno an h
sugklnei. Dhlad, an 2 p > 1, to opoo isqei an p < 1.
10.
a 1 Parathrste ti 0 1+kk ak k2 gia kje k N. Aut enai faner an 2 ak = 0, en an ak > 0 mporete na gryete
0<
Afo h seir shc.
k=1 1 k2
ak ak 1 < 2 = 2. 1 + k 2 ak k ak k
sugklnei, to sumprasma prokptei ap to kritrio sgkri-
11.
H seir qei jetikoc rouc. Arke na dexete ti h akolouja twn merikn ajroismtwn enai nw fragmnh. Parathrste ti gia kje m N qoume
m2 m
sm 2 =
k=1
ak
=
k=1 m
ak2 +
km2 k=s2
ak
m2 k=1
k=1
1 + k2
1 k2
k=1
1 = M < +. k2
An n N, tte sn sn2 M . Dhlad, h (sn ) enai nw fragmnh.
12.
An p > 0, tte h seir
k=1
(1)k k1p sugklnei ap to kritrio tou Dirichlet.
An p 0, tte (1)k k1p 0, ra h seir apoklnei.
13.
Grfoume (1)n (s sn ) = (1)n
k=n+1
(1)k1 ak =
Parathrste ti: gia kje m N,

n+2m
k=n+1
(1)n+k1 ak .
(1)n+k1 ak = (an+1 an+2 ) + + (an+2m1 an+2m ) 0,

k=n+1
ra
n+2m
(1)n (s sn ) = lim
Epshc,
n+2m+1
(1)n+k1 an 0.
k=n+1
(1)n+k1 ak = an+1 (an+2 an+3 ) (an+2m an+2m+1 ) an+1 ,

k=n+1
8.2 Seirec pragmatikwn arijmwn 137 ra

n+2m+1
(1)n (s sn ) = lim
(1)n+k1 an an+1 .
k=n+1
14.
'Estw > 0. Afo h
k=1
ak sugklnei, h (sn ) enai akolouja Cauchy. 'Ara, . 2
uprqei n0 N ste: an n > m n0 tte
am+1 + + an = |sn sm | <
Eidiktera, an n 2n0 , parnontac m = n0 kai qrhsimopointac thn upjesh ti h (an ) enai fjnousa, qoume
nan > an0 +1 + + an (n n0 )an , 2 2

diti n n0 0.
n 2.
Dhlad, an n 2n0 qoume nan < . 'Epetai ti lim (nan ) =

n k=1
15.
(a) Afo h
ak sugklnei, qoume ak 0. 'Ara, uprqei m N ste:
gia kje k m, 0 ak 1. Tte, gia kje k m qoume 0 a2 ak . Ap k to kritrio sgkrishc, h seir (b) Parathrste ti 0 h seir
k=1 ak 1+ak ak 1+ak k=1
a2 sugklnei. k
ak gia kje k N. Ap to kritrio sgkrishc,
sugklnei.
a2 k 1+a2 k
(g) Parathrste ti 0
a2 gia kje k N. k
a +a Parathrste ti 0 ak ak+1 k 2 k+1 gia kje k N kai efarmste to kritrio sgkrishc. Me thn upjesh ti h (ak ) enai fjnousa, parathrste ti 0 ak+1 ak ak+1 gia kje k N kai efarmste to kritrio sgkrishc.
16.
17.
Ap thn anisthta Cauchy-Schwarz, gia kje n N qoume

n k=1
ak k
1/2
n k=1
ak
k=1
1 k2
1/2
M1 M2 ,
pou
M1 =
k=1
ak < + kai
M2 =
k=1
1 < +. k2
18.
An b0 = 1 kai
bk =
1 (1 + a1 )(1 + a2 ) (1 + ak )
138 Upodeixeic gia tic Askhseic gia k N, dexte ti
ak = bk1 bk (1 + a1 )(1 + a2 ) (1 + ak )
gia kje k N, ra
n k=1
ak = b0 bn = 1 bn . (1 + a1 )(1 + a2 ) (1 + ak )
Parathrntac ti
(1 + a1 )(1 + a2 ) (1 + an ) > a1 + + an +
dexte ti
n k=1
ak = 1 bn 1. (1 + a1 )(1 + a2 ) (1 + ak )
G. Askseic* 1.
Upojtoume ti h seir
k=1 1 min ak , k
sugklnei. Afo h (ak ) fjnei proc
1 to 0, to dio isqei gia thn min{ak , k } (exhgste giat). Ap to kritrio sumpknwshc, h seir
2k min a2k ,
k=1 k
1 2k
=
k=1
min 2k a2k , 1
sugklnei. Eidiktera, min 2 a2k , 1 0, ra telik qoume min 2k a2k , 1 = 2k a2k (exhgste giat). 'Epetai ti h seir
k=1
2k a2k sugklnei. Qrhsimopointac xan to kritrio

k=1
sumpknwshc, aut th for gia th seir Aut enai topo ap thn upjesh.
ak , blpoume ti h
k=1
ak sugklnei.
2.
(a) 'Estw ti h
k=1
ak 1+ak
sugklnei. Tte,
ak 0 1 + ak
3 ak 2 1+ak
1 ak =1 1 1 + ak 1 + ak
3 2
1 + ak 1.
Sunepc, uprqei m N ste: 1 + ak <
gia kje k m. 'Epetai ti

k=1
0 ak
topo.
gia kje k m. Ap to kritrio sgkrishc, h
ak sugklnei,
(b) Parathrste ti h (sn ) enai axousa. 'Ara, an 1 m < n qoume
am+1 an + + sm+1 sn
am+1 an am+1 + + an + + = sn sn sn sm sn sm =1 . sn sn
8.2 Seirec pragmatikwn arijmwn 139 Ac upojsoume ti h mporome na brome

ak sk
k=1 n0
sugklnei. Ap to kritrio Cauchy, gia =
1 2
> 0,
N ste: an n > m n0 tte am+1 an 1 + + < , sm+1 sn 2
dhlad
1 sm < sn 2
sm 1 > . sn 2
k=1
Stajeropoiste m n0 kai afste to n . Afo h
ak apoklnei, qoume
sn . 'Ara, lim
sm n sn
= 0, to opoo odhge se topo.
(g) Parathrste ti
sn sn1 sn sn1 1 1 an = = . s2 s2 sn sn1 sn1 sn n n

An tn enai to n-ost merik jroisma thc
k=1 ak , s2 k
tte
tn =
a2 an 1 a1 + 2 + + 2 + s2 s2 sn s1 1
k=1
1 1 s1 s2
ak s2 k
+ +
1 1 sn1 sn
2 . s1
H (tn ) enai nw fragmnh, ra h
sugklnei.
3.
Afo h
k=1
ak sugklnei, qoume rn 0. Parathrste epshc ti h (rn ) enai
fjnousa.
(a) An 1 m < n,
an am + + rm rn
am an am + + an + + rm rm rm rn+1 rn rm rn+1 =1 1 . rm rm rm
Ac upojsoume ti h
k=1
ak rk
sugklnei. Ap to kritrio Cauchy uprqei n0 N
ste: gia kje n > m n0 ,
am an 1 rn + + < . rm rm rn 2
Stajeropointac m n0 kai afnontac to n katalxte se topo. (b) Parathrste ti
rn
rn+1 =
rn rn+1 an an = . rn + rn+1 rn + rn+1 2 rn
'Ara, gia kje n N,

n k=1
ak 2 r1 r2 + r2 r3 + + rn rn+1 2 r1 . rk
140 Upodeixeic gia tic Askhseic 'Epetai ti h

k=1 ak rk
sugklnei.
k=1 bk k
4.
Jtoume bk = kak . Tte, jloume na dexoume ti: an h seir

k=1
apoklnei
tte kai h seir
bk apoklnei.
k=1
Parathrste ti an h Afo h
1 k
bk sugklnei, tte qei fragmna merik ajrosmata.

k=1 k=1 bk k
fjnei proc to 0, to kritrio Dirichlet deqnei ti h

k=1
sugklnei,
to opoo enai topo.
5.
'Estw sn kai tn ta merik ajrosmata twn seirn
ak kai
bk antstoiqa.
Ja sugkrnoume ta s2n kai tn . 'Eqoume
1 1 1 tn = b1 +b2 + +bn = a2 + (a3 +a4 )+ (a4 +a5 +a6 )+ + (an+1 + +a2n ). 2 3 n

Dexte ti sto tn emfanzontai mno oi a2 , . . . , a2n kai ti o suntelestc kajenc ak sto tn enai mikrteroc soc tou 1. 'Epetai ti tn s2n gia kje n N. Sunepc, an h
Ap thn llh pleur, jewrste to merik jroisma t2n , kai dexte ti kje 1 1 ak , 2 k n, emfanzetai eke me suntelest k = m + + 2m1 an o k 1 1 enai rtioc, kai suntelest k = m+1 + + 2m an o k enai perittc. Se kje perptwsh, k 1 . 'Ara, 2
k=1
ak sugklnei tte h
k=1
bk sugklnei.
sn = a1 + a2 + + an a1 + 2t2n .
'Epetai ti, an h
k=1
bk sugklnei tte h
k=1
ak sugklnei.
6.
Afo ak 0, uprqei m N ste: an k m tte
ak < .
Afo
k=1
ak = +, uprqei elqistoc fusikc am + + a .
m ste
(a) Dexte ti
> m.
(b) An n = 1, parathrste ti n m kai
am + + an < ,
en
am + + an a > ( ) = .
7.
1 Efarmste thn prohgomenh skhsh gia thn ak = k .
8.3 Omoimorfh sunqeia

Exetste an oi paraktw protseic enai alhjec yeudec (aitiologste plrwc thn apnths sac).
1. Ljoc. An mia sunrthsh f : (0, 1) R enai omoimorfa suneqc, tte uprqoun ta lim f (x) kai lim f (x) (kai enai pragmatiko arijmo). Gia thn
f (x) = x2 +
x0+ 1 x qoume
f (x) + tan x 0+ .
x1
2. Ljoc. An mia sunrthsh f : (0, 1) R enai omoimorfa suneqc, tte uprqoun ta lim f (x) kai lim f (x) (kai enai pragmatiko arijmo). Gia thn
f (x) =
1 x1
qoume f (x) tan x 1 .
x0+
x1
3. Swst. 'Estw ti h sunrthsh f : (0, 1) R enai omoimorfa suneqc. Tte, uprqoun ta lim f (x) kai lim f (x) (kai enai pragmatiko arijmo). 'E petai (dete thn 'Askhsh 12) ti uprqei suneqc sunrthsh f : [0, 1] R ste (x) = f (x) gia kje x (0, 1). H f enai fragmnh (wc suneqc sunrthsh ori f smnh se kleist disthma). Sunepc, h f enai epshc fragmnh (wc periorismc fragmnhc sunrthshc).
x0+ x1
4. 5.
Swst. Apodeqjhke sth jewra.
1 Swst. H akolouja n n2 enai akolouja Cauchy sto (0, 1). Afo h f 1 enai omoimorfa suneqc, h akolouja f n enai akolouja Cauchy (ap to 1 prohgomeno erthma). Sunepc, h f n sugklnei.
6. Swst. Oi f kai g qoun fragmnh pargwgo, ra enai Lipschitz suneqec (me stajer 1, exhgste giat). Sunepc, enai omoimorfa suneqec sto R. 'Omwc, h (f g)(x) = x sin x den enai omoimorfa suneqc sto R: dete thn 'Askhsh 13(z). 7.
Swst. H f eqei fragmnh pargwgo (sh me 1) sto (0, +), ra enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [0, +). Omowc, h f qei fragmnh pargwgo (sh me 2) sto (, 0), ra enai omoimorfa suneqc sto (, 0]. Qrhsimopointac th mjodo thc 'Askhshc 7, mporete na dexete ti h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto R.
Ljoc. H sunrthsh f : R R me f (x) = cos(x2 ) enai fragmnh kai suneqc, mwc den enai omoimorfa suneqc. Gia tic akoloujec xn = n + kai yn = n qoume xn yn 0, all |f (xn ) f (yn )| = 2 2 = 0 tan n .
8.
B. Basikc askseic
1.
(a) 'Estw > 0. Epilgoume = () = M > 0. An x, y X kai |x y| < , tte |f (x) f (y)| M |x y| < M = .
'Ara, h f enai omoimorfa suneqc.
(b) H sunrthsh f : [0, 1] R me f (x) = x enai suneqc sto kleist disthma [0, 1], ra enai omoimorfa suneqc. 'Omwc, h f den ikanopoie sunjkh Lipschitz sto [0, 1]. Ja uprqe M > 0 ste: gia kje 0 < x < 1 na isqei | x 0| M |x 0|, dhlad 1 M x.
Aut odhge se topo tan x 0+ . 'Estw ti h f ikanopoie sunjkh Lipschitz, dhlad uprqei M > 0 ste |f (x) f (y)| M |x y| gia kje x, y [a, b]. Jewrome x0 (a, b). Tte, (x f (x0 ) = lim f (x)f 0 0 ) . 'Omwc, an x = x0 sto (a, b), qoume xx
xx0
2.
|f (x) f (x0 )| M |x x0 |
ra
|f (x0 )| = lim
xx0
|f (x) f (x0 )| M. |x x0 |
Dhlad, h f enai fragmnh. Antstrofa, ac upojsoume ti uprqei M > 0 ste |f ()| M gia kje (a, b). 'Estw x < y sto [a, b]. Ap to jerhma mshc timc uprqei (x, y) ste |f (x) f (y)| = |f ()| |x y| M |x y|. Dhlad, h f enaiLipschitz suneqc.
3. 4.
Dete thn 'Askhsh 1(b).
Ap thn 'Askhsh 2 arke na exetsete an kajema ap tic f kai g qei fragmnh pargwgo sto (0, 1).
5. 'Estw > 0. Afo h g enai omoimorfa suneqc, uprqei = () > 0 ste an u, v [m, M ] kai |u v| < tte |g(u) g(v)| < . H f enai omoimorfa suneqc, ra uprqei = () > 0 ste an x, y [a, b] kai |x y| < tte |f (x) f (y)| < . Parathrste ti to exarttai mno ap to , afo to exarttai mno ap to . Jewrste x, y [a, b] me |xy| < . Tte, ta u = f (x) kai v = f (y) ankoun sto [m, M ] kai |u v| = |f (x) f (y)| < . 'Ara,
|(g f )(x) (g f )(y)| = |g(u) g(v)| < .
'Epetai ti h g f enai omoimorfa suneqc.
6. (a) 'Estw > 0. Afo h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto I , uprqei 1 > 0 ste an x, y I kai |x y| < 1 tte |f (x) f (y)| < 2 . Omowc, afo h g enai omoimorfa suneqc sto I , uprqei 2 > 0 ste an x, y I kai |x y| < 2 tte |g(x) g(y)| < 2 .
8.3 Omoiomorfh suneqeia 143 Orzoume = min{1 , 2 } > 0. Tte, an x, y I kai |x y| < , qoume
|(f + g)(x) (f + g)(y)|
|(f (x) f (y)) + (g(x) g(y))|
|f (x) f (y)| + |g(x) g(y)| < + = . 2 2

'Epetai ti h f + g enai omoimorfa suneqc sto I . (b) An oi f, g enai omoimorfa suneqec sto I tte h f g den enai anagkastik omoimorfa suneqc sto I : jewrste tic f, g : [0, +) R me f (x) = g(x) = x. Autc enai omoimorfa suneqec sto [0, +), mwc h (f g)(x) = x2 den enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [0, +). An mwc oi omoimorfa suneqec sunartseic f, g : I R upotejon kai fragmnec, tte h f g enai omoimorfa suneqc sto I . Uprqoun M, N > 0 ste |f (x)| M kai |g(x)| N gia kje x I . 'Estw > 0. Ap thn omoimorfh sunqeia twn f kai g mporome na brome > 0 ste an x, y I kai |x y| < tte
|f (x) f (y)| <
M +N
kai |g(x) g(y)| <
. M +N
Tte, an x, y I kai |x y| < qoume
|f (x)g(x) f (y)g(y)|
|f (x)| |g(x) g(y)| + |g(y)| |f (x) f (y)| < M +N = . M +N M +N
7. 'Estw > 0. Ap thn upjesh, uprqei M = M () > 0 ste an |x| M tte |f (x)| < /3. Epshc, h f enai suneqc sto kleist disthma [M, M ], opte enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [M, M ]. 'Ara, uprqei = () > 0 me < M , ste an x, y [M, M ] kai |x y| < tte |f (x) f (y)| < /3. Ja dexoume ti an x, y R kai |xy| < tte |f (x)f (y)| < . Diakrnoume tic exc periptseic:
(i) x, y (, M ]: tte, |f (x) f (y)| |f (x)| + |f (y)| < (ii) x, y [M, +): tte, |f (x) f (y)| |f (x)| + |f (y)| <
3 3
+ +
3 3
< . < .
3
(iii) x, y [M, M ]: tte, ap thn epilog tou qoume |f (x) f (y)| <
< .
(iv) x < M < y : tte, x [M, M ] (diti < M ) kai |x M | < |x y| < , ra |f (x) f (M )| < 3 . Epshc, M, y M ra |f (M )| < 3 kai |f (y)| < 3 . Sunepc,
|f (x) f (y)| <
|f (x) f (M )| + |f (M ) f (y)| |f (x) f (M )| + |f (M )| + |f (y)| + + = . 3 3 3
(v) x < M < y : moia me thn prohgomenh perptwsh.
144 Upodeixeic gia tic Askhseic To > 0 tan tuqn, ra h f enai omoimorfa suneqc.
8.
'Estw
:= lim f (x). Jewrome th sunrthsh g : [a, +) R me g(x) =

x+ x+
f (x) . Tte,
lim g(x) = 0. 'Ara, gia kje > 0 uprqei M = M () > a
ste an x M tte |g(x)| < . To epiqerhma thc 'Askhshc 9 deqnei ti h g enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [a, +). Afo h stajer sunrthsh h(x) = enai epshc omoimorfa suneqc sto [a, +), petai ti h f = g + h enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [a, +). Afo h f : R R enai omoimorfa suneqc, gia = 1 mporome na brome > 0 ste: an x, y R kai |x y| < tte |f (x) f (y)| < 1. 'Estw x > 0. Jewrome ton elqisto fusik n = nx gia ton opoo nx 2 > x (autc uprqei, ap thn Arqimdeia idithta kai ap thn arq tou elaqstou). Tte,
9.
()
(nx 1)
x < nx . 2 2
Jewrome ta shmea: x0 = 0, x1 = 2 , . . . , xn = n 2 . 'Eqoume |xk+1 xk | < gia kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 kai |x xn | < . 'Ara,
|f (x) f (0)| |f (x) f (xn )| + + |f (x1 ) f (x0 )| < n + 1 = nx + 1 <

ap thn (). Dhlad, gia kje x > 0.
2 x+2
|f (x)|
2 x + 2 + |f (0)|.
Douleontac me ton dio trpo gia x < 0 dexte ti
|f (x)|
2 |x| + 2 + |f (0)|
2
gia kje x R. Epomnwc, to zhtomeno isqei me A =
kai B = |f (0)| + 2.
10.
'Estw n > 1. Upojtoume ti h sunrthsh f (x) = xn , x R enai omoimorfa suneqc. Ap thn 'Askhsh 11 uprqoun A, B > 0 ste xn Ax+B gia kje x > 0. Tte, B xn1 A + x
x+ x+
gia kje x > 0. Afo n > 1, qoume lim xn1 = +. 'Omwc, lim
A+
B x
A. Aut odhge se topo.
11.
(a) 'Eqoume upojsei ti uprqei a > 0 ste h f na enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [a, +). Epshc, h f enai suneqc sto kleist disthma [0, a], ra enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [0, a]. Dexte ti h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [0, +) qrhsimopointac thn teqnik thc 'Askhshc 7(diakrnontac periptseic).
8.3 Omoiomorfh suneqeia 145 (b) H f (x) =
x enai suneqc sto [0, +). An x, y [1, +), tte
|x y| 1 |f (x) f (y)| = | x y| = |x y|, 2 x+ y

dhlad h f ikanopoie sunjkh Lipschitz sto [1, +). Sunepc, h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [1, +). Tra, mporete na efarmsete to (a).
12. Edame (sth jewra) ti an h f : (a, b) R enai omoimorfa suneqc sunrthsh, tte uprqoun ta
xa+
lim f (x) =
kai
xb
lim f (x) = m
kai enai pragmatiko arijmo. An epektenoume thn f sto [a, b] orzontac f (a) = , f (b) = m kai f (x) = f (x) gia x (a, b), tte h f : [a, b] R enai suneqc sto [a, b].
13.
'Olec oi sunartseic enai suneqec sto pedo orismo touc.
(a) f : R R me f (x) = 3x + 1. H f enai omoimorfa suneqc: enai Lipschitz suneqc me stajer 3.

1 (b) f : [2, +) R me f (x) = x . H f enai omoimorfa suneqc: enai Lipschitz suneqc, afo 1 1 |f (x)| = 2 x 4 sto [2, +).
(g) f : (0, ] R me f (x) = (0, ] kai

x0+
1 x
sin2 x. H f orzetai sto hmianoikt disthma sin x sin x = 1 0 = 0. x lim 21 x x +4 = 0, h f ikanopoie thn
lim f (x) = lim+

x0 1 x2 +4 . x 1+|x| .
Sunepc, h f enai omoimorfa suneqc. (d) f : R R me f (x) = (e) f : R R me f (x) = Afo Afo upjesh thc 'Askhshc 7. Sunepc, h f enai omoimorfa suneqc. suneqc sto [0, +), ap thn 'Askhsh 10. Afo
x+
lim f (x) = 1, h f enai omoimorfa

x
lim f (x) = 1, h f enai
omoimorfa suneqc sto (, 0], pli ap thn 'Askhsh 8. 'Epetai ti enai omoimorfa suneqc sto R (qrhsimopoiste thn teqnik thc 'Askhshc 11(a)). (st) f : [2, 0] R me f (x) = x2x . Kje suneqc sunrthsh orismnh se +1 kleist disthma enai omoimorfa suneqc, ra h f enai omoimorfa suneqc. (z) f : R R me f (x) = x sin x. H f den enai omoimorfa suneqc. Parathrome ti h f (x) = x cos x + sin x den enai fragmnh kai ti parnei meglec timc sta shmea thc morfc 2n pou n megloc fusikc. Orzoume xn = 2n kai 1 1 yn = 2n + n . Tte, yn xn = n 0, all
f (yn )f (xn ) = 2n+(1/n) sin(1/n) = 2
sin(1/n) sin(1/n) + 21+0 = 2 = 0 1/n n
146 Upodeixeic gia tic Askhseic tan n . Ap ton qarakthrism thc omoimorfhc sunqeiac msw akoloujin petai ti h f den enai omoimorfa suneqc. (h) f : [0, +) R me f (x) =
cos(x2 ) x+1 .
Afo
omoimorfa suneqc sto [0, +), ap thn 'Askhsh 8.
x+
lim f (x) = 0, h f enai
: (0, 1) (1, 2) R me f (x) = 0 an x (0, 1) kai f (x) = 1 an x (1, 2) enai suneqc: stw x0 (0, 1) kai stw > 0. Epilgoume = (x0 ) > 0 (den exarttai ap to > 0) ste (x0 , x0 + ) (0, 1). An x (0, 1) (1, 2) kai |x x0 | < , tte x (0, 1). 'Ara, |f (x) f (x0 )| = |0 0| = 0 < . Dhlad, h f enai suneqc sto x0 . Me ton dio trpo mporete na dexete ti h f enai suneqc se kje x0 (1, 2). 'Ara, h f enai suneqc sto (0, 1) (1, 2). 'Omwc, h f den enai omoimorfa suneqc. Jewrste tic akoloujec xn = 1 1 2 1 n+1 kai yn = 1+ n+1 . 'Eqoume xn (0, 1), yn (1, 2) kai yn xn = n+1 0. 'Omwc, f (yn ) f (xn ) = 1 0 = 1 0. Ap ton qarakthrism thc omoimorfhc sunqeiac msw akoloujin petai to sumprasma.
G. Askseic* 1. H sunrthsh f
2.
'Estw > 0. H f enai suneqc sto kleist disthma [a, b], ra enai omoimorfa suneqc. Uprqei > 0 ste an x, y [a, b] kai |x y| < tte |f (x) f (y)| < . Epilgoume fusik arijm n ste ba < kai qwrzoume to n [a, b] sta diadoqik upodiastmata
[xk , xk+1 ] = a + k
(b a) ba , a + (k + 1) , n n
k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1.
An ta x, y ankoun sto dio upodisthma [xk , xk+1 ], tte |x y| xk+1 xk = ba n < . 'Ara, |f (x) f (y)| < .
3.
Qwrc periorism thc genikthtac upojtoume ti h f enai axousa. Afo h f : R R enai fragmnh kai axousa sunrthsh, uprqoun ta
x+
lim f (x) = = sup{f (x) : x R}
kai
x
lim f (x) = m = inf{f (x) : x R}.

x+
Afo h f enai suneqc kai lim f (x) = R, h 'Askhsh 8 deqnei ti h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [0, +). To dio akribc epiqerhma deqnei ti h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto (, 0]. Tloc, mporete na dexete thn omoimorfh sunqeia sto R me thn teqnik thc 'Askhshc 11(a) (diakrnontac periptseic).
4. H f enai suneqc sto [0, 2T ], ra enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [0, 2T ]. 'Estw > 0. Uprqei 0 < = () < T ste an x, y [0, 2T ] kai |x y| < tte |f (x) f (y)| < 2 . Dexte ti an x, y R kai |x y| < tte |f (x) f (y)| < : mporete na upojsete ti x < y . Uprqei m Z ste mT x (m + 1)T . Tte,
y < x+ < (m+1)T +T = mT +2T . Parathrste ti xmT, y mT [0, 2T ] kai ti |f (x) f (y)| = |f (x mT ) f (y mT )|
ap thn periodikthta thc f .
5.
Uprqei kleist disthma [a, b] ste X [a, b]. Gia = 1 uprqei > 0 ste an x, y X kai |x y| < tte |f (x) f (y)| < 1. Epilgoume diamrish
P = {a = t0 < t1 < < tn = b}

tou [a, b] ste tk+1 tk < gia kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1. Jtoume
Xk = [tk , tk+1 ] X
gia kje
k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1.
An orsoume F = {k : Xk = }, qoume
X=
kF
Xk .
Gia kje k F epilgoume tuqn xk Xk kai jtoume
= max{|f (xk )| : k F }.
Parathrste ti an x X tte uprqei k F ste x Xk . Tte, |x xk | tk+1 tk < , ra
|f (x)| |f (x) f (xk )| + |f (xk )| < 1 + .

Dhlad, |f (x)| M := 1 + gia kje x X .
6. (a) 'Estw x, y R. Gia kje a A qoume f (x) |x a| kai |x a| |x y| + |y a| ap thn trigwnik anisthta. 'Ara,
f (x) |x y| + |y a|.
Afo
f (x) |x y| |y a|
sumperanoume ti
gia kje
a A,
f (x) |x y| inf{|y a| : a A} = f (y).

Dhlad,
f (x) f (y) |x y|.

Me ton dio trpo deqnoume ti f (y) f (x) |y x| = |x y|. 'Epetai ti |f (x) f (y)| |x y|. (b) Ap to (a) h f enai Lipschitz suneqc me stajer 1, ra enai omoimorfa suneqc.
8.4 Oloklrwma Riemann

'Estw f : [a, b] R. Exetste an oi paraktw protseic enai alhjec yeudec (aitiologste plrwc thn apnths sac).
1.
Swst. Ap ton orism tou oloklhrmatoc Riemann: exetzoume an h f : [a, b] R enai oloklhrsimh mno an h f enai fragmnh.
2. Ljoc. H sunrthsh f : [0, 1] R me f (0) = 0 kai f (x) = 1 x an 0 < x 1 den parnei mgisth tim, enai mwc oloklhrsimh: gia kje 0 < b < 1, h f enai suneqc sto [b, 1], ra enai oloklhrsimh sto [b, 1]. Ap thn {basik skhsh} 1, h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [0, 1]. 3.
Ljoc. H f : [0, 1] R me f (x) = 1 an x Q kai f (x) = 1 an x Q enai / fragmnh, all den enai oloklhrsimh: gia kje diamrish P tou [0, 1] qoume U (f, P ) = 1 kai L(f, P ) = 1, ra
b 1
f (x) dx = 1 < 1 =
a 0
f (x) dx.
4.
Ljoc. Gia th sunrthsh f tou prohgomenou erwtmatoc qoume |f (x)| = 1 gia kje x [0, 1]. 'Ara, h |f | enai oloklhrsimh, en h f den enai oloklhrsimh. Ljoc. H f : [0, 2] R me f (x) = 1 an x [0, 1] kai f (x) = 1 an x (1, 2] 2 enai oloklhrsimh kai 0 f (x) dx = 0 (exhgste giat). 'Omwc, den uprqei 2 c [0, 2] ste 2f (c) = 0 f (x) dx. Ja eqame f (c) = 0, en h f den mhdenzetai poujen sto [0, 2].
5.
6. Swst. 'Estw ti h f den enai stajer. Tte, uprqoun y, z [a, b] ste f (y) < f (z). Jewrste th diamrish Q = {a, b} tou [a, b] (pou periqei mno ta kra a kai b tou diastmatoc [a, b]). Tte,
U (f, Q) L(f, Q) = (M0 m0 )(b a)
pou
m0 = inf{f (x) : x [a, b]} f (y) < f (z) sup{f (x) : x [a, b]} = M0 .
'Ara, M0 m0 > 0 opte U (f, Q) L(f, Q) > 0. Aut enai topo: ap thn upjesh qoume L(f, P ) = U (f, P ) gia kje diamrish P tou [a, b]. 'Ara, h f enai stajer: uprqei c R ste f (x) = c gia kje x [a, b], kai to oloklrwma thc f sto [a, b] isotai me c(b a).
8.4 Oloklhrwma Riemann 149 Swst. Jewrste tuqosa diamrish P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} tou [a, b]. Se kje upodisthma [xk , xk+1 ] uprqei rhtc arijmc qk . Ap thn upjesh qoume f (qk ) = 0, ra mk 0 Mk . 'Epetai ti
n1 n1
7.
L(f, P ) =
k=0
mk (xk+1 xk ) 0
k=0 P
Mk (xk+1 xk ) = U (f, P ).
'Ara, sup L(f, P ) 0 kai inf U (f, P ) 0. H f enai oloklhrsimh, ra

P b b
f (x)dx = sup L(f, P ) 0

a P
kai
f (x)dx = inf U (f, P ) 0.

a P
Dhlad,
a
f (x)dx = 0.
8. Swst. Mporome mlista na dexoume ti h f enai stajer. 'Estw P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} diamrish tou [a, b] ste U (f, P ) = L(f, P ). Aut shmanei ti
n1
(Mk mk )(xk+1 xk ) = U (f, P ) L(f, P ) = 0,

k=0
kai, afo mk Mk gia kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1, sumperanoume ti
mk = inf{f (x) : x [xk , xk+1 ]} = sup{f (x) : x [xk , xk+1 ]} = Mk

gia kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n1. Dhlad, h f (x) = mk = Mk gia kje x [xk , xk+1 ]. Parathrste tra ti: x0 , x1 [x0 , x1 ], ra f (x0 ) = f (x1 ) = m0 = M0 . 'Omwc, x1 [x1 , x2 ], ra f (x1 ) = m1 = M1 . Dhlad, m0 = M0 = m1 = M1 . Suneqzontac me ton dio trpo (gia ta epmena upodiastmata), sumperanoume ti uprqei R ste
m0 = M0 = m1 = M1 = = mk = Mk = = mn1 = Mn1 .
'Epetai ti f (x) = gia kje x [a, b]. Dhlad, h f enai stajer.
uprqei A > 0 ste |f (x)| A gia kje x [0, 1]. Ja dexoume ti h f enai oloklhrsimh qrhsimopointac to kritrio tou Riemann. 'Estw > 0. Epilgoume 0 < b < 1 arket mikr ste na ikanopoietai h 2Ab < . 2 Ap thn upjesh, h f enai oloklhrsimh sto disthma [b, 1], ra uprqei diamrish Q tou [b, 1] me thn idithta
B. Basikc askseic 1. H f enai fragmnh, ra
U (f, Q) L(f, Q) <
. 2
150 Upodeixeic gia tic Askhseic Jewrome th diamrish P = {0} Q tou [0, 1]. Tte,
U (f, P ) L(f, P ) = b(M0 m0 ) + U (f, Q) L(f, Q) < b(M0 m0 ) + , 2

pou
M0 = sup{f (x) : 0 x b} A
kai m0 = inf{f (x) : 0 x b} A.
Ap tic teleutaec anisthtec parnoume M0 m0 2A, ra
U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < 2Ab +
< + = . 2 2 2
Ap to kritrio tou Riemann, h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [0, 1].
2. Deqnoume prta ti h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [0, 1]. Parathrste ti h f 1 enai fragmnh sto [0, 1] kai, gia kje 0 < b < 1, h f (x) = sin x enai suneqc sto [b, 1], ra oloklhrsimh sto [b, 1]. Ap thn 'Askhsh 1, h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [0, 1]. Omowc deqnoume ti h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [1, 0]. 'Ara, h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [1, 1]. 3.
Akribc pwc sthn prohgomenh 'Askhsh, dexte ti h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [a, x0 ] kai sto [x0 , b]. Shmewsh. To dio akribc epiqerhma deqnei ti an mia fragmnh sunrthsh f : [a, b] R qei peperasmna to pljoc shmea asunqeiac sto [a, b], tte h f enai oloklhrsimh.
4.
(a) f : [0, 1] R me f (x) = x. H f enai axousa. Jewrste th diamrish Pn tou [0, 1] se n sa upodiastmata mkouc 1/n. Dexte ti
U (f, Pn ) L(f, Pn ) =
f (1) f (0) 1 = 0. n n
Ap to kritrio tou Riemann, h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [0, 1]. (b) f : [0, /2] R me f (x) = sin x. H f enai axousa. Jewrste th diamrish Pn tou [0, /2] se n sa upodiastmata mkouc /(2n). Dexte ti
U (f, Pn ) L(f, Pn ) =
(f (/2) f (0)) = 0. 2n 2n
Ap to kritrio tou Riemann, h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [0, /2].
5. (a) f (x) = x + [x]. H f enai axousa sto [0, 2], ra enai oloklhrsimh. Mporete na gryete
2 2 2
f (x)dx =
0 0
xdx +
0
[x]dx.
To prto oloklrwma enai so me 2 kai to detero so me 1 (exhgste giat).

1 (b) f (x) = 1 an x = k gia kpoion k N, kai f (x) = 0 allic. H f enai oloklhrsimh sto [0, 2]. Dexte diadoqik ta exc:
8.4 Oloklhrwma Riemann 151
(i) H f enai fragmnh. (ii) An 0 < b < 2, tte h f qei peperasmna to pljoc shmea asunqeiac sto [b, 2]. (iii) An 0 < b < 2, tte h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [b, 2] (ap thn shmewsh met thn 'Askhsh 3). (iv) H f enai oloklhrsimh sto [0, 2] (ap thn 'Askhsh 1).
'Estw ti a f (x)dx = 0. Upojtoume ti h f den enai tautotik mhdenik. Tte, uprqei x0 [a, b] ste f (x0 ) > 0. Lgw sunqeiac, h f parnei jetikc timc se mia (arket mikr) perioq tou x0 , mporome loipn na upojsoume ti a < x0 0 kai efarmzoume ton orism thc sunqeiac: mporome na brome > 0 (kai an qreizetai na to mikrnoume) ste a < x0 < x0 + 
f (x0 ) . 2
Afo h f enai mh arnhtik panto sto [a, b], qoume

b x0 x0 + b
f (x)dx =
a a
f (x)dx +
x0 x0 +
f (x)dx +
x0 +
f (x)dx
0+
x0
f (x)dx + 0 2
f (x0 ) = f (x0 ) > 0. 2
Katalxame se topo, ra f (x) = 0 gia kje x [a, b]. O antstrofoc isqurismc isqei profanc.
7. Jewrntac thn h = f g blpoume ti arke na dexoume to exc: an h : b [a, b] R suneqc sunrthsh kai a h(x)dx = 0, tte uprqei x0 [a, b] ste h(x0 ) = 0. Ac upojsoume ti h(x) = 0 gia kje x [a, b]. Tte, ete h(x) > 0 panto sto [a, b] h(x) < 0 panto sto [a, b] (an h h pairne kai arnhtikc kai jetikc timc sto [a, b] tte, ap to jerhma endimeshc timc, ja uprqe shmeo sto opoo ja mhdeniztan). 'Estw loipn ti h(x) > 0 gia kje x [a, b]. H h parnei elqisth jetik tim sto [a, b]: uprqei y [a, b] ste h(x) h(y) > 0 gia kje x [a, b]. Tte,
b
h(x)dx h(y)(b a) > 0,

a
to opoo enai topo. Omowc katalgoume se topo an upojsoume ti h(x) < 0 gia kje x [a, b]. Ap thn upjesh, gia kje suneq sunrthsh g : [a, b] R isqei a f (x)g(x)dx = 0. H f enai suneqc, mporome loipn na efarmsoume thn upjesh gia thn
8.
g = f . Tte, a f 2 (x)dx = 0. H f 2 enai suneqc kai mh arnhtik. Ap thn 'Askhsh 6 sumperanoume ti f 2 (x) = 0 gia kje x [a, b], ra f (x) = 0 gia kje x [a, b].
9.
Upojtoume ti h f den enai tautotik mhdenik. Tte, qwrc periorism thc genikthtac, mporome na upojsoume ti uprqei x0 (a, b) ste f (x0 ) > 0. 'Opwc sthn 'Askhsh 6, mporome na brome > 0 ste a < x0 < x0 + f (x0 )/2 > 0 gia kje x [x0 , x0 + ]. Orzoume mia suneq sunrthsh g : [a, b] R wc exc: jtoume g(x) = 0 sta [a, x0 ] kai [x0 + , b], orzoume g(x0 ) = f (x0 ), kai epektenoume grammik sta [x0 , x0 ] kai [x0 , x0 + ]. Afo g(a) = g(b) = 0, ap thn upjesh prpei na b isqei a f (x)g(x)dx = 0. 'Omwc,
b x0 +
0=
a
f (x)g(x)dx =
x0
f (x)g(x)dx
kai h f g enai mh arnhtik sto [x0 , x0 + ]. Ap thn 'Askhsh 6, qoume f (x)g(x) = 0 gia kje x [x0 , x0 + ]. Eidiktera, 0 = f (x0 )g(x0 ) = f 2 (x0 ), to opoo enai topo.
10.
Jewrste th sunrthsh P : R R pou orzetai ap thn

b
P (t) =
a
(tf (x) + g(x))2 dx.
H P orzetai kal: afo oi f, g enai oloklhrsimec, h tf + g (ra kai h (tf + g)2 ) enai oloklhrsimh sto [a, b] gia kje t R. Parathrste ti h P enai polunumo deutrou bajmo:
P (t) = t2
a
f 2 (x)dx
+ 2t
a
f (x)g(x)dx
+
a
g 2 (x)dx .
Afo P (t) 0 gia kje t R, h diakrnousa enai mh arnhtik:

b 2 b
4
a
f (x)g(x)dx
4
a
f 2 (x)dx
g 2 (x)dx
0.
11.
Efarmste thn anisthta Cauchy-Schwarz gia thn f kai th stajer sunrthsh g 1:

1 2 1
f (x) 1 dx
0
f 2 (x)dx
0
12 dx
=
0
f 2 (x)dx.
H dia anisthta isqei an antikatastsoume to [0, 1] me opoiodpote disthma [a, b] pou qei mkoc mikrtero so tou 1 (an mwc prete san [a, b] to [0, 2] kai san f th stajer sunrthsh f (x) = 1, tte h anisthta parnei th morf 4 2, topo).
12.
'Estw > 0. H f enai suneqc sto 0, ra uprqei > 0 ste: an 0 t < tte |f (t) f (0)| < . 'Estw x (0, ). Tte,
1 x
f (t)dt f (0)
0
= =
1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x
x
f (t)dt
0 x
1 x
f (0)dt
0
(f (t) f (0))dt
0 x
|f (t) f (0)| dt
0 x
dt =
0
x = . x
'Epetai ti
x0
lim+
1 x
f (t)dt = f (0).
0
1 2 Jewrome thn akolouja diamersewn P (n) = 0 < n < n < < 1 kai 1 2 (n) thn epilog shmewn = n , n , . . . , 1 . Afo to pltoc thc diamrishc P (n) 1 enai P (n) = n 0, ap ton orism tou Riemann qoume
13.
an =
1 n
f
k=1
k n
f, P (n) , (n)
a
f (x) dx.
14.
Efarmzontac to sumprasma thc prohgomenhc 'Askhshc gia thn oloklh rsimh sunrthsh f (x) = x sto [0, 1], parnoume n 1 1 1 + 2 + + n k 2 = x dx = . n n 3 n n 0
k=1
15. H f enai suneqc, ra uprqei M > 0 ste |f (y)| M gia kje y [0, 1]. 'Estw 0 < < 1. Ap th sunqeia thc f sto 0, uprqei 0 < < 1 ste: an 0 y tte |f (y) f (0)| < . 2 Epilgoume n0 N me thn idithta: gia kje n n0 isqei
1 4M + 1
n
< .
Tte, gia kje n n0 mporome na gryoume (parathrste ti an 0 < x < 1 4M +1 tte |f (xn ) f (0)| < /2)
|an f (0)|
=
0
1 4M +1
(f (xn ) f (0))dx + |f (xn ) f (0)| dx +
1
1 4M +1
(f (xn ) f (0))dx (|f (xn )| + |f (0)|) dx
1 4M +1
1
1 4M +1
4M + 1
+ 2M 2 4M + 1
< .
154 Upodeixeic gia tic Askhseic 'Ara, an f (0).
16.
H f (x) =
1 x
enai fjnousa sto [1, +), ra
1 k+1
gia kje k N. 'Epetai ti
k+1 k
1 1 dx x k
n+1 n =
1 n+1
n+1 n
1 dx 0, x
dhlad h (n ) enai fjnousa. Epshc,

n 1
1 dx = x
2 1
1 dx + x
3 2
1 dx + + x
n n1
1 1 1 dx 1 + + + , x 2 n1
n 1
ra
n = 1 +
1 1 1 + + + 2 n1 n
1 1 dx > 0 x n
gia kje n N. Afo h (n ) enai fjnousa kai ktw fragmnh ap to 0, sugklnei.
17.
Parathrste ti
1
f (x)dx
0
1 n
f
k=1
k n
k/n
k=1 (k1)/n
|f (x) f (k/n)|dx.
Sto disthma
k1 k n , n
qoume
|f (x) f (k/n)| M
ra
k/n k/n
k x , n
|f (x) f (k/n)| M
(k1)/n (k1)/n
k x n
n
1/n
dx = M
0
y dy =
M . 2n2
'Ara,
1
f (x)dx
0
1 n
f
k=1
k n
k=1
M M = . 2n2 2n
G. Askseic* 1.
Kje diamrish P = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xk < xk+1 < < xn = b} tou [a, b] orzei me fusiologik trpo mia diamrish tou [f (a), f (b)]: thn
Q = {f (a) = f (x0 ) < f (x1 ) < < f (xk ) < f (xk+1 ) < < f (xn ) = f (b)}.
8.4 Oloklhrwma Riemann 155 H f enai axousa, ra

n1
L(f, P ) =
k=0
f (xk )(xk+1 xk ).
H f 1 enai epshc axousa, ra

n1 n1
U (f 1 , Q) =
k=0
f 1 (f (xk+1 ))(f (xk+1 ) f (xk )) =

k=0
xk+1 (f (xk+1 ) f (xk )).
Prosjtontac, parnoume
n1
()
L(f, P ) + U (f
, Q) =
k=0
(xk+1 f (xk+1 ) xk f (xk )) = bf (b) af (a).
Oi f kai f 1 enai suneqec, ra oloklhrsimec. Ap thn () parnoume
bf (b) af (a) = L(f, P ) + U (f 1 , Q) L(f, P ) +
f (b) f (a)
f 1 (x)dx
kai, afo h P tan tuqosa, parnontac supremum wc proc P qoume

b f (b)
bf (b) af (a)
a
f (x)dx +
f (a)
f 1 (x)dx.
Me anlogo trpo dexte ti gia tic diamerseic P kai Q isqei
()
Tte,
U (f, P ) + L(f 1 , Q) = bf (b) af (a).
f (b)
U (f, P ) +
f (a)
f 1 (x)dx U (f, P ) + L(f 1 , Q) = bf (b) af (a),
kai parnontac inmum wc proc P qoume

b f (b)
f (x)dx +
a f (a)
f 1 (x)dx bf (b) af (a).
'Ara,
a
f (b)
f (x)dx +
f (a)
f 1 (x)dx = bf (b) af (a).
2.
Upojtoume prta ti f (a) b. An b = f (y) tte y a (diti h f enai axousa) kai ap thn prohgomenh 'Askhsh (ja qreiastete thn upjesh ti f (0) = 0) qoume
y b
yb = yf (y) =
0
f (x)dx +
0
f 1 (x)dx.
156 Upodeixeic gia tic Askhseic Gia na dexoume ti
ab
0
f (x)dx +
0
f 1 (x)dx
arke na elgxoume (exhgste giat) ti

a
b(a y)
y
f (x)dx.
'Omwc, h f enai gnhswc axousa kai suneqc sto [y, a], ra

a
f (x)dx f (y)(a y) = b(a y)

y
me isthta mno an a = y , dhlad an f (a) = b. Exetste thn perptwsh f (a) b me ton dio trpo.
3.
H f enai suneqc, ra uprqei A > 0 ste |f (t)| A gia kje t [a, b]. Aut deqnei ti
x x
|f (x)| M
a
|f (t)|dt M
a
A dt = M A(x a)
gia kje x [a, b]. Eisgontac aut thn ektmhsh pli sthn upjesh, parnoume
x
|f (x)| M
a
|f (t)|dt M 2 A
a
(t a) dt =
M 2A (x a)2 2
gia kje x [a, b], kai epagwgik,
|f (x)|
M nA (x a)n n!
gia kje x [a, b] kai gia kje n N. 'Omwc,
M nA (x a)n = 0, n n! lim
ra f (x) = 0 gia kje x [a, b].
4.
'Estw ti uprqei jetik suneqc sunrthsh f : [0, 1] R pou ikanopoie tic

1 1 1
f (x)dx = 1,
0 0
xf (x)dx = a
kai
x2 f (x)dx = a2 .
Tte,
1 0
(xa)2 f (x)dx =
0
x2 f (x)dx2a
0
xf (x)dx+a2
0
f (x)dx = a2 2aa+a2 1 = 0.
Afo h (x a)2 f (x) enai mh arnhtik kai suneqc, h 'Askhsh 6 deqnei ti (x a)2 f (x) = 0 gia kje x [0, 1]. 'Omwc h f enai panto jetik, ra x = a gia kje x [0, 1]. Aut enai topo.
5.
'Estw > 0. Parathrste ti

b 1/n
n =
a
[f (x)] dx
1/n
M dx
= M (b a)1/n
kai M (b a)1/n M tan n , ra uprqei n1 N ste
n < M +
gia kje
n n1 .
Afo h f enai suneqc sto [a, b], parnei th mgisth tim thc: uprqei x0 [a, b] ste f (x0 ) = M . Afo h f enai suneqc sto x0 , uprqei kpoio disthma J [a, b] me mkoc > 0 kai x0 J , ste f (x) > M 2 gia kje x J . 1/n Epshc, afo 1, uprqei n2 N ste: gia kje n n2 ,
b a 1/n 1/n
[f (x)]n dx
[f (x)]n dx
1/n > M . 2
Tte, gia kje n n0 = max{n1 , n2 } qoume

b 1/n
|n M | =
a
[f (x)] dx
M < .
Dhlad, n M .
6. (a) Afo h f enai oloklhrsimh, mporome na brome diamrish P1 = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} tou [a, b] ste U (f, P1 ) L(f, P1 ) < b a. Pernntac an qreiaste se eklptunsh thc P1 mporome na upojsoume ti to pltoc thc P1 enai mikrtero ap 1. Afo
n1 n1
(Mk mk )(xk+1 xk ) < b a =

k=0 k=0
(xk+1 xk ),
uprqei k {0, 1, . . . , n 1} ste Mk mk < 1. An jsoume a1 = xk kai b1 = xk+1 , blpoume ti a1 < b1 , a1 , b1 [a, b], b1 a1 < 1 kai
sup{f (x) : a1 x b1 } inf{f (x) : a1 x b1 } = Mk mk < 1.

(b) Me ton dio trpo dexte ti uprqei [a2 , b2 ] (a1 , b1 ) me mkoc mikrtero ap 1/2 ste
sup{f (x) : a2 x b2 } inf{f (x) : a2 x b2 } <
1 . 2
Gia na petqete ton egkleism [a2 , b2 ] (a1 , b1 ) xekinste ap na upodisthma [c, d] tou [a1 , b1 ] me a1 < c < d < b1 (h f enai oloklhrsimh kai sto [c, d]). Brete diamrish P2 tou [c, d] me U (f, P2 ) L(f, P2 ) < dc kai pltoc mikrtero 2 ap 1/2 kai suneqste pwc prin.
158 Upodeixeic gia tic Askhseic Epagwgik mporete na brete [an , bn ] (an1 , bn1 ) ste bn an < 1/n kai
sup{f (x) : an x bn } inf{f (x) : an x bn } <
1 . n
(g) H tom twn kibwtismnwn diasthmtwn [an , bn ] periqei akribc na shmeo x0 . Ja dexoume ti h f enai suneqc sto x0 : stw > 0. Epilgoume n N 1 me n < . Afo x0 [an+1 , bn+1 ], qoume x0 (an , bn ). Uprqei > 0 ste (x0 , x0 + ) (an , bn ). Tte, gia kje x (x0 , x0 + ) qoume
|f (x) f (x0 )| sup{f (x) : an x bn } inf{f (x) : an x bn } <

Aut deqnei th sunqeia thc f sto x0 .
1 < . n
(d) Ac upojsoume ti h f qei peperasmna to pljoc shmea sunqeiac sto [a, b]. Tte, uprqei disthma [c, d] [a, b] sto opoo h f den qei kanna shmeo sunqeiac (exhgste giat). Aut enai topo ap to prohgomeno bma: h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [c, d], ra qei toulqiston na shmeo sunqeiac se aut. Gia thn akrbeia, to epiqerhma pou qrhsimopoisame deqnei kti isqurtero: an h f enai oloklhrsimh tte qei toulqiston na shmeo sunqeiac se kje upodisthma tou [a, b]. Me lla lgia, to snolo twn shmewn sunqeiac thc f enai pukn sto [a, b]. Ap thn prohgomenh 'Askhsh, afo h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [a, b], uprqei x0 [a, b] sto opoo h f enai suneqc. Afo f (x0 ) > 0, uprqei disthma J [a, b] me mkoc > 0 ste: gia kje x J isqei f (x) > f (x0 )/2. Suneqste pwc sthn 'Askhsh 6.
7.
8.5 Pargwgoc kai Oloklrwma

A. Basikc Askseic 1. Jewrste th sunrthsh g : [a, b] R me
s b s b s
g(s) =
a
f (t)dt
s s
f (t)dt =
a b
f (t)dt
a
f (t)dt
a
f (t)dt
= 2
a
f (t)dt
a
f (t)dt.
Afo h f enai oloklhrsimh, h g enai suneqc. Parathrste ti

b b
g(a) =
a
f (t)dt
2
kai
g(b) =
a
f (t)dt.
Afo g(a)g(b) = ttoio s isqei h
b a
f (t)dt
0, uprqei s [a, b] ste g(s) = 0. Gia kje

b
f (t)dt =
a s
f (t)dt.
8.5 Paragwgoc kai Oloklhrwma 159 Mporome na epilxoume na ttoio s sto anoikt disthma (a, b) an a f (t)dt = 0 (exhgste giat). An mwc prete thn f (x) = x sto [1, 1], tte ta mna shmea s [1, 1] gia ta opoa g(s) = 0 enai ta s = 1 (se aut to pardeigma, to oloklrwma thc f sto [1, 1] isotai me mhdn). Jewrste th sunrthsh F : [0, 1] R me F (t) = 0 f (x)dx. Afo h f enai oloklhrsimh kai jetik, h F enai suneqc kai axousa sto [0, 1]. Afo 1 f (x)dx = 1, qoume F (0) = 0 kai F (1) = 1. 0 'Estw n N. Ap to jerhma endimeshc timc, gia kje k = 1, . . . , n 1 k uprqei tk [0, 1] ste F (tk ) = n . Jtoume t0 = 0 kai tn = 1: tte F (t0 ) = 0 = 0 n n kai F (tn ) = 1 = n . Parathrste ti tk < tk+1 gia kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1. An gia kpoio k eqame tk tk+1 , tte ja parname
b
2.
k = n
tk
tk+1
tk
tk+1
f (x)dx =
0 0
f (x)dx +
tk+1
f (x)dx
0
f (x)dx =
k+1 , n
to opoo enai topo. 'Ara, 0 = t0 < t1 < < tn = 1 kai

tk+1 tk+1 tk
f (x)dx =
tk 0
f (x)dx
0
f (x)dx =
k+1 k 1 = n n n
gia kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1.
3.
Smfwna me to jerhma mshc timc tou Oloklhrwtiko Logismo, an h f : [0, 1] R enai suneqc kai h mh arnhtik sunrthsh g : [0, 1] R enai oloklhrsimh, uprqei s [0, 1] ste
1 1
f (x)g(x)dx = f (s)
0 0
g(x)dx.
Efarmste to parapnw gia thn g(x) = x2 .
4.
Ap thn upjesh petai ti

x 1
2
0
f (t)dt =
0
f (t)dt
x
gia kje x [0, 1]. Dhlad, h sunrthsh F : [0, 1] R me F (x) = 0 f (t)dt enai stajer. Afo h f enai suneqc, h F enai paragwgsimh kai F (x) = f (x) gia kje x [0, 1]. Afo h F enai stajer, qoume F 0. 'Ara, f (x) = 0 gia kje x [0, 1].
5.
Afo h h enai suneqc, h sunrthsh G(y) = 0 h(t)dt enai paragwgsimh sto [0, +) kai G (y) = h(y). Parathrste ti F (x) = G(f (x)) = (G f )(x). Afo h f enai paragwgsimh, efarmzontac ton kanna thc alusdac parnoume
F (x) = G (f (x)) f (x) = h(f (x)) f (x).
6.
Grfoume
x+ x+ x
g(x) =
x
f (t)dt =
0 x+
f (t)dt
0
f (t)dt = H1 (x) H2 (x),

x
pou
H1 (x) =
0
f (t)dt
kai
H2 (x) =
0
f (t)dt.
To epiqerhma thc prohgomenhc 'Askhshc deqnei ti oi H1 , H2 enai paragwgsimec, H1 (x) = f (x + ) kai H2 (x) = f (x ) (an 0 > x + 0 > x , a b to sumprasma exakolouje na isqei: jumhjete th smbash b f = a f ). 'Epetai ti g (x) = f (x + ) f (x ).
7.
Grfoume
g(x)
G(x) =
h(x)
t2 dt =
0
g(x)
t2 dt
0
h(x)
t2 dt.
Afo oi g, h enai paragwgsimec kai h f (t) = t2 enai suneqc, h G enai paragwgsimh sto R (dete tic prohgomenec do Askseic) kai G (x) = g 2 (x)g (x) h2 (x)h (x).
8.
x Jtoume u = x . Tte, dt = u2 du kai t 1
F (x) =
x
(u) du = u2
x
1
(u) du = x u2
x 1
x 1
(u) du. u2
'Ara,
F (x) =
1
(x) (u) du + x 2 = u2 x
(x) (u) du + . u2 x
9.
Jewrste tic sunartseic

x x x
F (x) =
0
f (u)(x u)du = x
0 x u
f (u)du
0 x
f (u)u du
kai
G(x) =
0 0
f (t)dt du =
0 u
R(u)du,
pou
R(u) =
0
f (t)dt.
Afo h f enai suneqc sto [0, a], to prto jemelidec jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo deqnei ti oi F, G kai R enai paragwgsimec. Epshc,
x x
F (x) =
0
f (u)du + xf (x) f (x)x =

0 x x
f (u)du
kai
G (x) = R(x) =
0
f (t)dt =
0
f (u)du.
8.5 Paragwgoc kai Oloklhrwma 161 'Ara,

x x
(G F ) (x) = G (x) F (x) =

0
f (u)du
0
f (u)du = 0.
'Epetai ti h G F enai stajer sto [0, a]. Parathrntac ti F (0) = G(0) = 0, sumperanoume ti G F sto [0, a]. Dhlad,
x x u
f (u)(x u)du =
0 0 0
f (t)dt du
gia kje x [0, a].
10. Gia kje k = 0, . . . , n 1, h f enai suneqc paragwgsimh sto [xk , xk+1 ]. Ap to detero jemelidec jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo (gia th suneq sunrthsh f ) qoume
xk+1 xk+1
|f (xk+1 ) f (xk )| =
xk
f (x) dx
xk
|f (x)| dx.
'Ara,
n1 n1 xk+1 b
|f (xk+1 ) f (xk )|
k=0 k=0 xk
|f (x)| dx =
a
|f (x)| dx.
11.
Jewrome tic sunartseic L, R : [0, +) [0, ) me

x f (x)
L(x) =
0
f (t) dt +
0
f 1 (t) dt kai
R(x) = xf (x).
Oi L, R enai paragwgsimec (exhgste giat) kai L(0) = 0 = R(0). Parathrste ti L (x) = f (x) + f 1 (f (x)) f (x) = f (x) + xf (x) = R (x) gia kje x 0. 'Epetai ti L(x) = R(x) gia kje x 0.
B. Askseic
H f enai suneqc, ra enai oloklhrsimh. Qrhsimopointac thn f (0) = 0, to detero jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo kai thn anisthta Cauchy-Schwarz, gia kje x [0, 1] grfoume
x x
1.
|f (x)|
|f (x) f (0)| =
x 0 1 1/2 0 1/2
f (t)dt
x 0 0 1/2
|f (t)| 1 dt
x 1/2
|f (t)|2 dt |f (t)| dt
2
12 dt
=
0
|f (t)|2 dt
2.
An upojsoume ti h f enai paragwgsimh, tte paragwgzontac ta do mlh

x
thc
()
parnoume
f (x)2 = 2
0
f (t)dt
2f (x)f (x) = 2f (x)

gia kje x > 0, kai qrhsimopointac thn upjesh ti f (x) = 0 gia kje x > 0 sumperanoume ti f (x) = 1 gia kje x > 0. Ap thn () blpoume (jtontac x = 0) ti f (0) = 0, ra
x x
f (x) = f (0) +
0
f (t)dt =
0
dt = x
gia kje x 0. Mnei na dexoume ti h f enai paragwgsimh. Ap thn () kai x thn f (x) = 0 qoume: gia kje x > 0 isqei 0 f (t)dt > 0 kai
f (x) = g(x) :=
2
0
f (t)dt
f (x) = h(x) := 2
0
f (t)dt.
Afo h f enai suneqc kai den mhdenzetai sto (0, +), to jerhma endimeshc timc deqnei ti ete f g sto [0, +) f h sto [0, +). H deterh perptwx sh apokleetai, afo h h parnei arnhtikc timc sto (0, +) kai 0 f (t)dt > 0 gia kje x > 0. 'Ara,
f (x) = g(x) :=
2
0
f (t)dt
gia kje x 0. Afo h f enai suneqc, petai ti h g (dhlad, h f ) enai paragwgsimh. Jewrste to aristo oloklrwma F (x) = a f (t)dt thc f sto [a, b]. Tte, to zhtomeno parnei thn exc morf: uprqei [a, b] ste
b
3.
(1)
a
F (x)g(x)dx = g(a)F () + g(b)(F (b) F ()).
H g enai suneqc paragwgsimh, ra mporome na efarmsoume oloklrwsh kat mrh sto arister mloc. 'Eqoume (2)
b b b
F (x)g(x)dx = F (b)g(b)F (a)g(a)

a a
F (x)g (x)dx = F (b)g(b)

a
F (x)g (x)dx,
afo F (a) = 0. Efarmste to jerhma mshc timc tou Oloklhrwtiko Logismo: h g enai montonh, ra h g diathre prshmo sto [a, b]. H F enai suneqc kai h g oloklhrsimh, ra uprqei [a, b] ste
b b
(3)
a
F (x)g (x)dx = F ()
a
g (x)dx = F ()(g(b) g(a)).
8.5 Paragwgoc kai Oloklhrwma 163 Antikajistntac sthn (2) parnoume

b
F (x)g(x) = F (b)g(b) F ()(g(b) g(a)) = g(a)F () + g(b)(F (b) F ()),

a
dhlad thn (1).
4.
Afo h f enai suneqc, mporome na efarmsoume oloklrwsh kat mrh:

b b
f (x) cos(nx)dx
a
=
a
f (x)
sin(nx) n
dx
b
1 f (b) sin(nb) f (a) sin(na) n n
f (x) sin(nx)dx.
a
H f enai suneqc sto [a, b], ra uprqei M > 0 ste |f (x)| M gia kje x [a, b]. 'Epetai ti
|f (a)| + |f (b)| f (b) sin(nb) f (a) sin(na) 0 n n

kai
1 n
f (x) sin(nx)dx
a
1 n
|f (x)|dx
a
M (b a) 0 n
kajc to n . Sunepc,
b n b
lim
f (x) cos(nx)dx = 0,
a
kai moia,
lim
f (x) sin(nx)dx = 0.
a
5.
Grfoume

an =
0
sin(nx)dx =
0
cos(nx) n
dx =
cos 0 cos(n) . n
'Ara, |an | 2/n gia kje n N. 'Epetai ti an 0 kajc to n . Gia thn (bn ) knoume thn antikatstash y = nx:
bn =
0
| sin(nx)| dx =
1 n
| sin y| dy.
0
Parathrste ti
(k+1)
| sin y| dy =
k 0
| sin y| dy
gia kje k Z (knte thn antikatstash y = k + u). 'Ara,
bn
= = =
1 n 1 n
| sin y| dy =
0 n1 k=0 0
1 n
n1 k=0
(k+1)
| sin y| dy
k
| sin y| dy =
0
| sin y| dy
sin y dy = cos(0) cos() = 2

0
164 Upodeixeic gia tic Askhseic gia kje n N. 'Epetai ti bn 2.
6.
Ja qrhsimopoisoume to exc: an g, h : [0, +) R enai suneqec sunartseic tte oi max{g, h} kai min{g, h} enai suneqec. Aut petai ap tic
max{g, h} =
g + h + |g h| 2
kai
min{g, h} =
g + h |g h| . 2
H f : [0, +) R enai suneqc paragwgsimh, ra oi sunartseic
g := max{f , 0}
kai
h := min{f , 0}
enai suneqec kai mh arnhtikc sto [0, +). Epshc,
g h = max{f , 0} + min{f , 0} = f .
Orzoume
x x
G1 (x) =
0
g(t)dt
kai
H1 (x) =
0
h(t)dt.
Afo oi g, h enai suneqec kai mh arnhtikc, oi G1 , H1 enai paragwgsimec, axousec kai G1 (0) = H1 (0) = 0. Ap ton trpo orismo touc kai ap to detero jemelidec jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo blpoume ti
x x
G1 (x) H1 (x) =
0
(g(t) h(t)) dt =
0
f (t)dt = f (x) f (0)
gia kje x 0. Orzoume
G(x) = 1 + |f (0)| + G1 (x)
kai
H(x) = 1 + |f (0)| f (0) + H1 (x).
Tte, oi G, H enai paragwgsimec, axousec, jetikc kai
G(x) H(x) = G1 (x) H1 (x) + f (0) = f (x)

gia kje x 0. Dhlad, h f grfetai san diafor do suneqn, auxousn kai jetikn sunartsewn sto [0, +).
8.6 Basikc pragmatikc sunartseic

A. Basikc Askseic 1. Me oloklrwsh kat mrh parnoume
cosn x dx = = = = cosn1 x(sin x) dx cosn1 x sin x + (n 1) cosn1 x sin x + (n 1) cosn1 x sin x + (n 1) cosn2 x sin2 x dx cosn2 x (1 cos2 x) dx cosn2 x dx (n 1) cosn x dx.
8.6 Basikec pragmatikec sunarthseic 165 'Epetai ti
n
ra
cosn x dx = cosn1 x sin x + (n 1)
cosn2 x dx,
cosn x dx =
sin x cosn1 x n 1 + n n
cosn2 x dx.
2
Jtoume In = 0 cosn x dx, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .. Parathrste ti I0 = I1 = 1. Ap thn prohgomenh 'Askhsh,

/2
2.
/2
kai
In =
0
cosn x dx =
sin x cosn1 x n
x=/2
+
x=0
n1 n
/2 0
cosn2 x dx =
n1 In2 n
gia kje n 2. Sunepc,

/2 0
cos2k x dx = I2k
= = = =
2k 1 (2k 1)(2k 3) I2k2 = I2k4 2k 2k(2k 2) (2k 1)(2k 3) 3 1 I0 2k(2k 2) 4 2 (2k 1)(2k 3) 3 1 2k(2k 2) 4 2 2
kai
/2 0
cos2k+1 x dx = I2k+1
2k (2k)(2k 2) I2k1 = I2k3 2k + 1 (2k + 1)(2k 1) = (2k)(2k 2) 2 = I1 (2k + 1)(2k 1) 3 (2k)(2k 2) 2 = . (2k + 1)(2k 1) 3
Dexte tic parapnw sqseic me epagwg. Jewrste th sunrthsh g(x) = sin x g(0) = g(/2) = 0. Epshc,
3.
2x
sto [0, /2]. Parathrste ti
g (x) = cos x
kai
g (x) = sin x < 0
sto (0, /2).
'Ara, h g enai kolh. 'Epetai ti: gia kje x 0, isqei 2
g(x)
Dhlad,
2x 2x g(/2) + 1 2x .
g(0) = 0.
sin x
4.
H prohgomenh 'Askhsh deqnei ti sin t 2t gia kje t [0, /2]. Afo > 0 kai h x ex enai gnhswc axousa, sumperanoume ti
e sin t e2t/
kai h anisthta enai gnsia an t (0, /2). Sunepc,
/2 0
e sin t dt <
0
/2
e2t/ dt =
2t e 2
/2 0
(1 e ). 2
5.
()
(a) An x = 1, tte h
1 log x x 1 x
isqei wc isthta. (b) An x > 1, tte

x
log x =
1
1 dt t
x 1
1 dt = x 1
1
kai
log x =
1
1 dt t
1 1 1 dt = (x 1) = 1 . x x x
1 x
Dhlad, isqei h (). (g) An 0 < x < 1, efarmzontac to (b) gia ton
> 1, parnoume
1x=1
Afo log
1 x
1 1 1 log 1. 1/x x x
= log x, prokptei pli h ().
Jewrste th sunrthsh g : R R me g(x) = ex 1 x. H pargwgoc g (x) = ex 1 thc g enai arnhtik sto (, 0) kai jetik sto (0, +). 'Ara, h g qei olik elqisto sto 0. Dhlad, g(x) g(0) = 0 gia kje x R. 'Estw x > 0 kai stw n N. Efarmzontac thn anisthta thc 'Askhshc 5 gia ton jetik arijm n x, parnoume
6.
7.
1 1 log( n x) n x 1, n x
dhlad
x1 1 log x n x 1. n n x n x1 n x log x.
'Epetai ti
log x n
Afo lim
x = 1, to kritrio twn isosugklinousn akoloujin deqnei ti

n
lim n
x 1 = log x.
8.6 Basikec pragmatikec sunarthseic 167
8.
Efarmzontac thn anisthta thc 'Askhshc 5 gia ton jetik arijm 1 + parnoume x/n x x log 1 + . 1 + (x/n) n n
x n
'Ara,
x 1+
x n
n log 1 +
x x. n
To kritrio twn isosugklinousn akoloujin deqnei ti

n
lim n log 1 +
x = x. n
9.
Ap thn prohgomenh 'Askhsh qoume
log
1+
x n
tan to n . H y ey enai suneqc sunrthsh, opte h arq thc metaforc deqnei ti x n x n 1+ = elog((1+ n ) ) ex n tan to n .
10.
H pargwgoc thc f enai h
f (x) =
1 x
x log x 1 log x = . 2 x x2
Dhlad, f (x) > 0 an log x < 1 kai f (x) < 0 an log x > 1. 'Ara, h f enai gnhswc axousa sto (0, e] kai gnhswc fjnousa sto [e, +). Afo > 3 > e qoume f () < f (e), dhlad log log e < . e 'Epetai ti log( e ) = e log < log e = log(e ). 'Ara, e < e .
B. Askseic 11.
(a) Jewrste thn g = f 2 + (f )2 . Tte,
g = 2f f + 2f f = 2f (f + f ) = 0,
dhlad h g enai stajer. Afo g(0) = [f (0)]2 + [f (0)]2 = 0, sumperanoume ti
g(x) = [f (x)]2 + [f (x)]2 = 0

gia kje x R. 'Ara, f (x) = f (x) = 0 gia kje x R. (b) Parathrste ti h sunrthsh g(x) = f (x) cos x ikanopoie tic g(0) = 0, g (0) = 0 kai g (x) + g(x) = 0 gia kje x R. Ap to (a) petai ti f (x) cos x = g(x) = 0 gia kje x R.
ti
12.
(a) Jewrste th sunrthsh fk : Ik R me fk (x) = tan xx. Parathrste

x(k )+ 2
lim
fk (x) = kai
x(k+ )+ 2
lim
fk (x) = +.
Qrhsimopointac to jerhma endimeshc timc mporete na dexete ti uprqei ak Ik ste fk (ak ) = tan ak ak = 0. H lsh enai monadik giat h fk (x) = 1 tan x x enai gnhswc axousa sto Ik : parathrste ti fk (x) = cos2 x 1 > 0 an x = k kai = 0 sto shmeo k . (b) 'Estw > 0. Ap thn
2
an x > M tte 0 < arctan x < . Uprqei k0 N ste gia kje k k0 na isqei k > M . Tte, an 2 jewrsoume th lsh ak thc exswshc tan x = x sto Ik , qoume ak > M kai arctan ak = ak k . 'Ara,
x+
lim arctan x =
petai ti uprqei M > 0 ste
0<
'Omoia,
(ak k) < . 2
0<
'Epetai ti
(ak+1 (k + 1)) < . 2 |ak+1 ak | < .
To > 0 tan tuqn, ra lim (ak+1 ak ) = .

k
Sto prohgomeno Fulldio edame ti h akolouja n = sugklnei se kpoion pragmatik arijm . 'Ara,
n
13.
n 1 k=1 k
log n
lim (2n n ) = 0.
'Omwc,
2n
2n n
=
k=1 2n
1 log(2n) k
n k=1
1 log n k
=
k=n 2n
1 1 (log(2n) log n) k n 1 1 log 2 . k n
=
k=n
'Epetai ti
2n k=n
1 = k
2n k=n
1 1 log 2 k n
1 + log 2 log 2 n
tan to n .
14.
Jewrste th sunrthsh g(x) = f (x)ecx sto R. Parathrste ti
g (x) = f (x)ecx cf (x)ecx = ecx (f (x) cf (x)) = 0
8.6 Basikec pragmatikec sunarthseic 169 gia kje x R. Sunepc, uprqei a R ste g(x) = f (x)ecx = a gia kje x R. 'Epetai ti f (x) = aecx gia kje x R.
15.
x 0
Ap thn upjesh prokptei ti h f enai paragwgsimh: afo orzetai to f (t)dt, h f enai oloklhrsimh se kje disthma, kai afo
x
()
f (x) =
0
f (t)dt,
h f enai suneqc. Ap thn () kai ap to prto jemelidec jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo, h f enai paragwgsimh kai f (x) = f (x) gia kje x R. Ap thn prohgomenh 'Askhsh, uprqei a R ste f (x) = aex gia kje x R. 'Omwc, ap thn () blpoume ti f (0) = 0. Anagkastik, a = 0 kai f (x) = 0 gia kje x R. Jewrste th sunrthsh g : [0, a] R me g(x) = f (x)ex . H g enai suneqc, paragwgsimh sto (0, a), kai g(0) = 1 = g(a). Ap to jerhma mshc timc, uprqei (0, a) ste
16.
g () =
'Omwc, 'Ara, f () = f ().
g(a) g(0) = 0. a
g () = e (f () f ()).
17.
Jewrste th sunrthsh h : [a, b] R me h (x) = ex f (x). H h enai suneqc, paragwgsimh sto (a, b), kai h (a) = h (b) = 0. Ap to jerhma tou Rolle, h exswsh h (x) = 0 qei toulqiston ma rza sto disthma (a, b). Afo
h (x) = ex (f (x) + f (x)) = ex g (x),

petai ti h
g (x) := f (x) + f (x)

qei toulqiston ma rza sto (a, b). Jewrste th sunrthsh g(x) = ex f (x) sto (a, b). Stajeropoiste c (a, b). Afo limxb f (x) = + kai limxb ex = eb > 0, isqei
xb
18.
lim g(x) = lim ex f (x) = +.

xb
'Ara, uprqei d (c, b) ste g(c) < g(d). Ap to jerhma mshc timc sto [c, d], uprqei (c, d) ste g(d) g(c) g () = > 0. dc 'Omwc,
g () = e (f () f ()).
170 Upodeixeic gia tic Askhseic 'Ara, f () > f () (kai (a, b), afo a < c < < d < b).
19.
(a) Afo h f enai axousa, qoume

n 2 3 n
f (x)dx =
1 1
f (x)dx +
2
f (x)dx + +
n1
f (x)dx
=
kai
n
f (2) 1 + f (3) 1 + + f (n) 1 f (2) + + f (n)
f (x)dx =
1 1
f (x)dx +
2
f (x)dx + +
n1
f (x)dx
f (1) 1 + f (2) 1 + + f (n 1) 1 f (1) + + f (n 1).
(b) Efarmzoume to (a) gia th gnhswc axousa sunrthsh f (x) = log x. 'Eqoume
n
log x dx = (x log x x)
1
n 1
= n log n (n 1) = log
nn en1
opte
log((n1)!) = log 1+ +log(n1) < log

'Ara, 'Epetai ti (g) Ap to (b) qoume
nn en1
< log 2+ +log n = log(n!).
n! nn < n1 < n!. n e nn nn+1 < n! < n1 . en1 e n e n
n n! en < < . e n e Afo n e 1 kai n en 1 tan to n , ap to kritrio twn isosugklinousn akoloujin sumperanoume ti n n! 1 lim = . n n e
20. An a = b to sumprasma prokptei ekola. Mporome loipn na upojsoume ti a > b. Grfoume

a1/n + b1/n 2
Arke loipn na dexoume ti
n
=b
1 1 + 2 2
a b
1/n
1 1 + 2 2
a b
1/n
ab = b
a . b
8.6 Basikec pragmatikec sunarthseic 171 Isodnama, jtontac x = exc: an x > 1 tte
a b
kai parnontac logarjmouc, arke na dexoume to
n log
Parathrste ti
1+ n x 2
1+ nx 2
log x . 2
2n
x, ra log x log x = n log( 2n x) = n 2n 2
n log
1+ nx 2
gia kje n N. Epshc, ap thn 'Askhsh 5 qoume
n log
Dhlad,
1+ nx 2
n = n log 1 +
x1 2
n n
x1 log x e = 2 2
log x n
log x n
()
log x n log 2
1+ nx 2
eh 1 h
log x e 2
log x n
log x n
gia kje n N. 'Omwc, limh0+ metaforc,
= e0 = 1 kai 1 = 1.
log x n
0. Ap thn arq thc
lim
log x n
log x n
Tra, h () kai to kritrio twn isosugklinousn akoloujin deqnoun ti 1+ nx log x lim n log = . n 2 2

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Apeirostikc Logismc II

Tmma Majhmatikn Panepistmio Ajhnn Ajna, 2006

1.4 1.5 1.6

2 Seirc pragmatikn arijmn

5 To jemelidec jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo

6 Basikc pragmatikc sunartseic

7 Kurtc kai kolec sunartseic

8 Upodexeic gia tic Askseic

Pargwgoc kai melth sunartsewn

1.1 Krsima shmea

f (x + h) f (x) f (x + h) f (x) = lim . h h h0

Jerhma 1.1.4 (Fermat).

Sunepc, f (x0 ) 0. An < h < 0 tte

Sunepc, f (x0 ) 0. Ap tic do anisthtec petai ti f (x0 ) = 0.

1.2 Jerhma Mshc Timc

Efarmzontac ste: an 0 <

f (x) f (x0 ) f (x0 ) > 0. > f (x0 ) = x x0 2

(a) Gia kje x (x0 , x0 + ) qoume

f (x) f (x0 ) >

f (x0 ) (x x0 ) > 0 f (x) > f (x0 ). 2

(b) Gia kje x (x0 , x0 ) qoume

f (x) f (x0 ) <

f (x0 ) (x x0 ) < 0 f (x) < f (x0 ). 2

Jerhma 1.2.2 (Rolle).

f (x0 ) = max{f (x) : x [a, b]} f (x1 ) > f (a).

Jerhma 1.2.3 (jerhma mshc timc).

f (b) f (a) (x a). ba

Orzoume mia sunrthsh g : [a, b] R me

g(x) = f (x) h(x) = f (x) f (a)

f (b) f (a) (x a). ba

g(a) = f (a) h(a) = 0

kai g(b) = f (b) h(b) = 0.

Smfwna me to jerhma tou Rolle, uprqei x0 (a, b) ste g (x0 ) = 0. 'Omwc,

sto (a, b). 'Ara, to x0 ikanopoie thn (1.2.7).

6 Paragwgoc kai meleth sunarthsewn

'Estw f : (a, b) R paragwgsimh sunrthsh.

Jerhma 1.2.6 (jerhma mshc timc tou

[f (b) f (a)] 1 = (b a) f (x).

f (b) f (a) (x a). ba

[f (x) f (a)] (b a) [f (b) f (a)] (x a).

h(x) = [f (x) f (a)] (g(b) g(a)) [f (b) f (a)] (g(x) g(a)).

h (x0 ) = f (x0 ) (g(b) g(a)) g (x0 ) (f (b) f (a)), 2

parnoume thn (1.2.13).

f (x0 ) f (b) f (a) = . g(b) g(a) g (x0 )

Apdeixh. Ap to jerhma mshc timc tou Cauchy, uprqei x0 (a, b) ste

(f (b) f (a))g (x0 ) = (g(b) g(a))f (x0 ).

8 Paragwgoc kai meleth sunarthsewn

1.3 Gewmetrik shmasa thc deterhc paraggou

0 < f (x0 ) = lim

f (x) f (x0 ) f (x) = lim . xx0 x x0 x x0

f (y) f (x0 ) = f (x)(y x0 ) > 0.

f (y) f (x0 ) = f (x)(y x0 ) > 0.

1.3a Kurtc kai kolec sunartseic

y = f (x0 ) + f (x0 )(x x0 ).

Lme ti h f enai kurt sto (a, b) an gia kje x0 (a, b) qoume

f (x) f (x0 ) + f (x0 )(x x0 ) gia kje x (a, b).

f (x) f (x0 ) + f (x0 )(x x0 ) gia kje x (a, b).

'Estw f : (a, b) R paragwgsimh sunrthsh.

Afo x0 < x qoume f (x ) f (x0 ), kai afo x x0 > 0 blpoume ti

f (x) f (x0 ) = (x x0 )f (x ) (x x0 )f (x0 ).

Afo x < x0 qoume f (x ) f (x0 ), kai afo x x0 < 0 blpoume ti

f (x) f (x0 ) = (x x0 )f (x ) (x x0 )f (x0 ).

10 Paragwgoc kai meleth sunarthsewn

'Estw f : (a, b) R do forc paragwgsimh sunrthsh.