The Miracle Drug: The Revolution, Reaction and Reform of Penicillin

Maile Allan, Jessica Newton, Maeve O'Connor and Helen Simecek Senior Division Group Website

Works Consulted Primary Sources "1,000 More Hospitals to Receive Penicillin." New York Times 10 June 1944. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 8 Jan. 2012. This article is about the War Production Board allowing 1,000 more hospitals across the country to have access to penicillin. We included this article in the timeline because it shows that as more penicillin was produced, it was allowed to be used more throughout the country. This article is a primary source because it was written when penicillin was being given to these 1,000 hospitals. "500 Cases Prove Penicillin's Value." New York Times 26 Aug. 1943. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Jan. 2012. This article is about a group of scientists' conclusions about how penicillin is most effective, when injected intravenously and what diseases it treats. This article was used in the timeline to show how effective penicillin really was. It's a primary source because it was a newspaper article written when the scientists came to their conclusion. "9 Firms Expand to Make Penicillin." New York Times 30 Aug. 1943. ProQuest Health and Medical Complete. Web. 7 Jan. 2012. This article is about nine new companies being contracted by the U.S. government to increase the production of penicillin. This article was used in the timeline to show that demand went up for the new drug so production was increased. It's a primary source because it was written when these companies increased their production.

"Agency to Continue Penicillin Controls." Spokesman-Review [Spokane, WA] 3 May 1946.Google News Archive. Web. 8 Jan. 2012. This article is about penicillin to be continued monitored, we included this article in our timeline because it showed that although there was a lot of penicillin, there still wasn't enough for there to be no restrictions. This article is a primary source because it was written while penicillin was still being controlled. Alexander Fleming. Photograph. Scientists, Famous Scientists, Great Scientists Information, Biography, Photo, Name, History. Braj Kishor Singh, 31 July 2010. Web. 3 Jan. 2012. This is a picture of Fleming which we used in the website to show who discovered penicillin. This is a primary source because it was taken at the time of our research and is a direct picture of who we are researching. Alexander Fleming's Photo of Petri Dish. Photograph. PBS. Public Broadcasting System. Web. 15 Jan. 2012. This is a picture that Alexander Fleming took of the petri dish that he discovered to be growing mold, since Alexander Fleming took it of his discovery it is a primary source. We used it on the discovery page because it is what he discovered. A Miracle From A Mould. British Pathe Film Library. British Pathe. Web. 14 Jan. 2012. This video gives a brief overview of what penicillin is, we used it on the homepage as an introduction to what penicillin is. It's a primary source because it was recorded in the 1940's, when penicillin was being refined and perfected for use as a drug. Atkins, William. "RE: Information Regarding Penicillin." Message to the author. 14 Nov. 2011. Web. This interview helped our project because it was about what penicillin does on a

cellular level which really helped our groups understanding of the drug. We classified this interview as a primary source because he is a professor of medicinal chemistry and has probably seen penicillin kill bacteria in person before. Bauer, Larry. "RE: Information Regarding Penicillin." Message to the author. 13 Nov. 2011. Web. This interview from a Pharmaceuticals professor was very helpful because he told us a lot about how penicillin is used today which we used on our reform section. It is a primary source because it was an interview with someone who was talking about how the drug is currently used. Blakeslee, Howard W. "Penicillin in Pill Formed Developed To Replace Injections by Needle." Montreal Gazette 16 Feb. 1945. Google News Archive. Web. 8 Jan. 1945. This article is about penicillin being given to people by pill so that it would be easier to have people give themselves penicillin. We included this article to show yet another advancement in the penicillin field. This article is a primary source because it was written soon after penicillin pills were first invented. "Boy, 12, Still Improving." New York Times 15 Sept. 2011. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Jan. 2012. This article is about a boy who broke his arm and doctors had to amputate it but he survived with the help of penicillin to prevent infection. We used it on the timeline to show how penicillin could save someone from a common injury. It's a primary source because it was written soon after the boy's arm was amputated. Burt Glinn. 1957. The Rafa Antibiotic Factory Which Mainly Produces Penicillin. (PAR123088).

Magnum Photos. 01 Jan. 1957. eLibrary. Web. 04 Jan. 2012. This is a photograph taken at the time of some of the first mass production of penicillin. It is a picture of women producing penicillin in an antibiotic factory. "Child Snatched From Death Jaws By Magic Of New Penicillin Drug." Deseret News [Salt Lake City] 14 Aug. 1943. Google News Archive. Web. 12 Jan. 2012. This article is about a 2year old girl named Patricia Malone who was saved by penicillin. It's a primary source because it was written while the girl was still being treated, we used it on the personal accounts page to show a specific person that was saved. Death of Sir Alexander Fleming. British Pathe Film Library. British Pathe. Web. 14 Jan. 2012. This video is about the death of Sir Alexander Fleming, we used it on the timeline to show when the discoverer or penicillin passed away. It is a primary source because it was a news video from the time period when he died. "Drop in Efficacy of 2 Drugs Noted." New York Times 14 Mar. 1946. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Jan. 2012. This article is about penicillin and one other drug being less effective against germs than it once was, we included this article in our timeline and the title of this article on the reform page to show that even as far back as 1946 people knew about resistance problems. This article is a primary source because it was written when penicillin's efficacy dropped. Ernest, Brooks. Trenches of the First World War. 1916. Photograph. Ministry of Information First World War Official Collection, Somme, France. Imperial War Museums. IWM. Web. 21 Dec. 2011. This is a photo of a trench at the Battle of Somme in the first world war.

We used it on the Historical Context page to illustrate the awful conditions that often led to disease during WWI, we considered it to be a primary source because it was taken during WWI. "Ernst B. Chain ". Nobelprize.org. 16 Jan 2012. This is a photo of Ernst B. Chain that we used on the webpage about the Oxford team because he was a large part of the team. It is a primary source because it is a direct photo of him, taken while he was alive. Fleming Penicillin. 1952. Photograph. London. AP Images. Web. 3 Dec. 2011. We used this picture on the homepage to give an idea of what would be on the rest of the website, this picture showed that Alexander Fleming would be in some other section the website. It's a primary source because it was taken of him while he was alive. "Fleming and Two Co-Workers Get Nobel Award for Penicillin Boon." New York Times 26 Oct. 1945. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Jan. 2012. This article is also about Fleming, Florey and Chain winning the Nobel prize, we included this article on the timeline because it goes more in depth than the first article. This article is a primary source because it was written when they won the award. Fleming Working in Lab. Photograph. The Gaurdian. 2010. Web. 3 Jan. 2012. This is a picture of Fleming working in his lab, and we used this in the website to show what his lab looked like. This is a primary source because it is a direct picture of Fleming which was taken during the time period we are researching. "Germ Killer." New York Times 28 Feb. 1943. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Jan. 2012. This article is about another version of penicillin being discovered that is more

effective when diluted, in this article it is named Penatin. It shows how there were other variations of penicillin, some were more effective than others. It's a primary source because it was written when this substance was discovered. "Germs in Armour." The London Times 1 May 1941. Microform. This picture was from an advertisement in a London newspaper, the advertisement was for Milton brand Antiseptics which were used before the discovery of penicillin. It is a primary source because it was created in 1941, during the time period we are researching. Kaempffert, Waldemar. "A New 'Sulfanilamide'" New York Times 20 Oct. 1940. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 8 Jan. 2012. This article is about the discovery of a new drug called penicillin that could become as important as sulfa drugs. We used this article in the timeline to show how underestimated penicillin was when it was first being used because it became much more important than sulfa drugs. It's a primary source because it was written during the time period we are researching. Laurence, William L. "Chemicals Excelling Sulfa Drugs As Germ Killers Are Disclosed." New York Times 10 Sept. 1943. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Jan. 2012. This article is about the discovery of Penicillin B which is a stronger version of penicillin but is more rare as well. We used it in the timeline to show how there were several different kinds of penicillin that were all discovered at different times. It's a primary source because it is a newspaper article that was written at the time of the discovery. Laurence, William L. "'Giant' Germicide Yielded by Mold." New York Times 6 May 1941: 23. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 8 Jan. 2012. This article is about penicillin being

tested on humans and being seen as more successful, it shows how penicillin began to get more and more media attention as it saved more lives. It is a primary source because it was written during the time of what the article is about. Laurence, William L. "More Penicillin." New York Times 1 Aug. 1943: 1. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 29 Sept. 2011.This article is about how the U.S. increased production of penicillin so that they could use it in the war and it is a primary source because it was written in the time period we researched. It helped our research because it taught us about how penicillin revolutionized the world, more specifically, the allied war effort. Laurence, William L. "Science News in Review: More Penicillin." New York Times 1 Aug. 1943. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Jan. 2012. This article is about penicillin being mass produced in America to help the allied war effort. It was used on the timeline to show that much of the allied penicillin had to be produced in the United States because of the bombing raids in Britain. It's a primary source because it is a newspaper article from the time when it was being produced during the war. "Make Penicillin in Tanks." New York Times 4 Mar. 1944. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Jan. 2012. This article is about a new method to produce penicillin called deep tank fermentation, we used it on the timeline to show the advances in the penicillin manufacturing process. It's a primary source because it was written when this method was first being used. Misquith, Ayesha. Personal interview. 11 No. 2011. This interview was very helpful because as a medical scientist she knew a lot about penicillin which really helped our

understanding. This interview is a primary source because it was with a person who works first hand with infectious diseases. MRSA bacteria magnified 9560-times by a scanning electron micrograph. Digital image. The Guardian. Guardian News and Media. Web. 11 Feb. 2012. This is a picture of MRSA bacteria highly magnified, we used it on the problems with penicillin page because it is a type of bacteria that is resistant to many antibiotics. It is a secondary source because it was not taken during the time that penicillin was first used. "New Penicillin Being Made." New York Times 2 Oct. 1947. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Jan. 2012. This article is about Intracillin, a newfound drug in the penicillin family, we used this article to show another step in advancement in the penicillin field. This article is a primary source because it was written when this drug was first being produced. "New British Drug Said to Top Sulfa." New York Times 28 Aug. 1942. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Jan. 2012. This article is about penicillin now being considered better than penicillin, it was used on the timeline. It's a primary source because it is a newspaper article from the time period when penicillin was first being used. "New Discovery Made in Penicillin Field." New York Times 9 June 1946. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 8 Jan. 2012. This article is about another strain of penicillium being discovered, we used this article in the timeline to show another advancement in the penicillin field.

"New Penicillin Success." New York Times 10 Apr. 1945. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Jan. 1945. This article is about penicillin treating Verruga, an often deadly disease found in Peru. We used this article in our timeline to show again, how penicillin impacted the entire world, not just the U.S. Park, Miguel A; Li, James T C. "Diagnosis and Management of Penicillin Allergy." Mayo Clinic Proceedings 3(2005):405. eLibrary. Web. 02 Nov. 2011. This article gave a modern view on penicillin and the reactions it has on people. It also showed that although penicillin helps many people, it has adverse effects on some people. "Penicillin." New York Times 3 Sept. 1943. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 8 Jan. 1943. This article is about how penicillin was discovered but then took a lot of time to purify and takes a long process to make penicillin. It was used in the timeline to show that penicillin was under very high demand but since it was so difficult to make it was impossible to meet the demand. It's a primary source because it was written while penicillin was still in very high demand. "Penicillin." New York Times 30 May 1943. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 8 Jan. 1943. This article is about penicillin being accepted as a very powerful and important drug, it was used on the timeline to show when penicillin was accepted as being important in the field of medicine. It is a primary source because it was written when penicillin was still a new drug. Penicillin Factory. Getty Images. 20 Oct. 2009. eLibrary. Web. 04 Jan. 2012. This photograph

was taken at the time of some of the first attempts to produce penicillin in the masses. It is a picture of women sorting penicillin into containers, most likely to be sent off to help in the war, at the Speke Factory in Liverpool. "Penicillin For All." New York Times 7 Apr. 1944. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 8 Jan. 2012. This article is about penicillin being produced in abundance, enough for everyone who needed it. We used it on the timeline to show that as methods of production improved and more factories made penicillin, there was more available. This is a primary source because it was written when penicillin available for all. "Penicillin for Civilian Use." Editorial. The Journal [Vancouver] Aug. 1944, 51st ed.: 172. National Center for Biotechnological Information. U.S. National Library of Medicine. Web. 12 Oct. 2011. This is a primary source because it was published during the time period of its subject. It was very helpful in our research because it is one of very few articles that mentions penicillin first being available to civilians. "Penicillin Doctor Wins Nobel Prize." Milwaukee Sentinel 24 Oct. 1945. Google News Archive. Web. 7 Jan. 2012. This article is a brief overview saying that Sir Alexander Fleming, Howard Florey and Ernst Chain won the Nobel prize in field of medicine. We used it in the timeline to show that penicillin was so important, the discoverers won the Nobel prize. It's a primary source because it was written soon after they received the prize. "Penicillin Helping Stricken Macon Girl." New York Times 6 Sept. 1943. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 12 Jan. 2012. This article is about the recovery of Shirley Carter and

was used on the same page as the first article about her. It is a primary source because it was written during her recovery. "Penicillin Helps Child." New York Times 10 Sept. 1943. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 11 Jan. 2012. This article is about Shirley Carter being saved by penicillin and was used with the other two articles about her to show that she was given penicillin, recovering, and eventually out of danger, all thanks to penicillin. It's a primary source because it was written when Shirley Carter recovered. "Penicillin Helps Patient." New York Times 27 Sept. 1943. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 8 Jan. 2012. This article is about a 40 year old patient that was treated with penicillin and showed improvement. We used this article on the timeline to show that penicillin helped people of all ages, not just children, as most of the other articles are about. It's a primary source because it was written as the patient was improving. "Penicillin in Britain." New York Times 24 Jan. 1944. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 8 Jan. 2012. This article is about penicillin being produced in Britain. We used it on the timeline to show that penicillin was not only used worldwide but was also being produced outside of the United States. This article is a primary source because it was written when penicillin was first being produced in Britain. Penicillin in Mass Production. British Pathe Film Library. British Pathe. Web. 14 Jan. 2012. This video is about the mass production of penicillin and it briefly goes through the process of refining the Penicillium mold into penicillin. It is a primary source because it was

taken during the time period of the subject of the video, we used it on the reaction page of the website to show that the reaction was to produce lots of penicillin. "Penicillin Is Flown To Girl By Army." New York Times 5 Sept. 1943. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 11 Jan. 2012. This article is about how the army flew a girl named Shirley Carter penicillin because it was the fastest way to get her the medicine. It's a primary source because it was published the same time that the army flew her penicillin. Penicillin Packaging-1950. Photograph. Ingenious. NMSI. Web. 4 Jan. 2012. This picture is of Penicillin original packaging from about 1950. We used this to show what penicillin looked like, and how the advertisement looked. "Penicillin Patient, 10, Dies." New York Times 11 Oct. 1943. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Dec. 2012. This article is about Shelia Rockwell, a 10 year old girl who was treated with penicillin but didn't pull through. We used this article in the timeline to show that although penicillin was extremely successful, it could not save everyone. This article is a primary source because it was written soon after the patient died. "Penicillin Patient Dies." New York Times 4 Dec. 1943. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 8 Jan. 2012. This article is about Morris Glassman, the 40 year old patient from two previous articles who died from a heart condition not related the reason he was using penicillin. We used this article on the timeline to show the end to the story of Morris Glassman, whose life was prolonged by penicillin but not saved. This article is a primary source because it was written soon after he died.

"Penicillin Patient Improves." New York Times 1 Oct. 1943. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Jan. 2012. This article is about the same 40 year old patient as the article "Penicillin Helps Patient", it is about how the doctor believes the patient will pull through and live. We used this article on the timeline to show that the patient was likely to survive. This article is a primary source because it was written while the patient was in the hospital. Penicillin Production. Advertisement. Life 14 Aug. 1944. Web. 4 Jan. 2012. This is an advertisement for penicillin production at the time of World War II. It states that with the help of penicillin, many lives could be saved. "Penicillin Saved Lord Norman." New York Times 2 July 1945. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Jan. 2012. This article is about how penicillin saved Lord Norman from a deadly form of meningitis, we used it in the timeline to show it could cure even the most deadly of diseases. This article is a primary source because it was written soon after Lord Norman's life was saved. "Penicillin Saves Child." New York Times 26 Sept. 1943. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 12 Jan. 2012. This article is about how the U.S. Army gave a girl in Jerusalem penicillin and saved her life. We used it on the personal account page to show that penicillin made a world-wide impact. It's a primary source because it was written when the army gave her the penicillin. "Penicillin Shown to Cure Syphilis." The New York Times, December 16, 1949. This is a primary source newspaper article that gave us a good perspective on how people reacted to

penicillin and its abilities. This article also gave us a lot of information which we used for the revolution portion of the website. "Penicillin Supply Down." New York Times 27 Oct. 1945. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Jan. 2012. This article is about the supply of penicillin being slightly down, but not enough for any major problems. We included this article in the timeline to show that there were always ups and downs when it came to the supply of penicillin. This article is a primary source because it was written when supply was down. "Penicillin Supply For Civilians Near." New York Times 5 Dec. 1943. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Jan. 2012. This article is about how there was enough of penicillin being produced for it to be available to the general public. We used this article on the timeline to show when civilians could start getting penicillin. This article is a primary source because it was written when penicillin was first available to the public. "Penicillin Supply Is Far Short of Demand; Army Gets Less Than Half, Says Gen. Kirk." New York Times 28 Aug. 1943. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 8 Jan. 2012. This article is about how needed penicillin was in the army but they only got half of the supply because the rest went to other branches of the military and a limited supply went to civilians. It was used in the timeline to show the great demand for penicillin during the war, it's a primary source because it was written during the war, the topic of the article. "Penicillin Used Successfully in Treating Common Colds." Milwaukee Journal 1 Oct. 1948.Google News Archive. Web. 7 Jan. 2012. This article was about penicillin being inhaled to treat the common cold, we included this in our timeline to show another disease that

penicillin could treat. This is a primary source because it was written when this discovery was made. "Penicillin Use Fails." New York Times 30 Aug. 1943. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Jan. 1943. This article is about a girl who died despite being treated with penicillin, we included this article in the timeline to show that penicillin wasn't always successful. It's a primary source because it was written soon after the girl died. Penicillium Mold. Photograph. NOVA. Public Broadcasting Service, 7 Feb. 2001. Web. 3 Dec. 2011. We used this picture of the mold in which penicillin comes from to show that not all penicillin producing molds look the same. It is a primary source because it is of mold that was still growing and alive when the picture was taken. Penicillium Mold in a Petri Dish. Photograph. Vanderbilt University Medical Center. Vanderbilt Medical Center, Jan. 2009. Web. 3 Dec. 2011. This is a picture of the mold in which penicillin comes from and we used it to show that penicillin comes from a mold. It is a primary source because it is a direct picture the mold living. "Police Get Penicillin to Boy." New York Times 28 Feb. 1944. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Jan. 1944. This article is about the police rushing penicillin to Patrick Tripp, a boy that was very sick with pnuemococcus-meningitis. We used this article in the timeline to show that penicillin could help patients who were very seriously sick, it's a primary source because it was written while the boy was in the hospital. "Potent Penicillin Drug May Save Life of Girl, 2, a Victim of Septicemia Here" New York Times

13 Aug. 1943: 19. Proquest Historical Newspapers. Web. 28 Sept. 2011. This article is also about Patricia Malone and we used it on the same page to show that penicillin was so important that one case would be in multiple papers. It's a primary source because it was written while she was in the hospital. Radcliffe Infirmary. Photograph. Oxford Medical Men. Web. 2012. This a photo of the Radcliffe Infirmary, we used it under the revolution section to show where Constable Albert Alexander was treated for blood poisoning. It's a primary source because it's a direct picture of the infirmary. Research Team. Photograph. Penicillin: The Oxford Story. Oxford, 16 July 2010. Web. 16 Jan. 2012. This is a photo of the research team that worked at Oxford with Florey and Chain to purify penicillin, we used on the page about the Oxford team to show everyone that was involved. It is a primary source because it was taken during their time at Oxford together. Reuter. "Biggest Penicillin Factory in Production in Britain." New York Times 22 Nov. 1944.ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 8 Jan. 2012. This article is about the world's biggest plant producing penicillin was found in Britain. We included it in the timeline to show that not only did other countries produce penicillin but they also had the world's biggest penicillin plant. This article is a primary source because it was written when this plant was the biggest in the world. Sarma, Gopal. "Penicillin: Nature Got it First." From Mind to Matter. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Dec. 2011. This website was very helpful to our research because it explained how penicillin

is used today. For example one of the facts that we got from it was that penicillin is still one of the most widely used antibiotics all around the world. "Says Penicillin Beat Meningitis." New York Times 3 Mar. 1944. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 3 Mar. 1944. This article is about penicillin saving patients who were sick with meningitis, we used it on the timeline to show that penicillin could treat meningitis. This article is a primary source because it was written at the time of the patients being treated with penicillin. "Science: Penicillin Production." Time Magazine 19 June 1944. Time Magazine U.S. Time Inc. Web. 15 Oct. 2011. This article is a primary source because it was written in the 1940s and is about events from the same time period. It was helpful in our research of how much penicillin was available during and after WWII. "Set Plans to Rule Penicillin Supply." New York Times 26 Sept. 1943. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 8 Jan. 2012. This article is about how doctors with patients in need of penicillin must submit them to a bacteriologist to review the case and decide whether to allow the use of penicillin or not. We used this article on the timeline to show that penicillin was needed so much that it was very strictly used on civilians, only after every other method had failed. Sir Alexander Fleming. Photograph. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 8 Jan. 2012. This is a picture of Sir Alexander Fleming that we used on the discovery page of the website to show who the discoverer of penicillin was. It is a primary source because it is a direct photo of Fleming.

"Sir Alexander Fleming, Discoverer of Penicillin, Dies of Heart Ailment." St. Petersburg Times 12 Mar. 1955. Google News Archive. Web. 7 Jan. 2012. This article is about the death of Sir Alexander Fleming, the discoverer of penicillin. We included this article as the last article in our timeline to wrap up the penicillin era, because by this time more and more other antibiotics were being discovered and penicillin wasn't as important as it originally was. "Sir Howard Florey". Nobelprize.org. 3 Jan 2012. This picture of Florey was used in the revolution section of the website to illustrate who Florey was and what he looked like. This picture was very useful and is a primary source because it is a picture of the person, taken during their time period. "Synthetic Penicillin." New York Times 8 Nov. 1946. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Jan. 2012. This article is about the first bit of synthetic penicillin that acts just like penicillin but is manmade. We used this article in the timeline to show another advancement in the field of penicillin, the article is a primary source because it was written right after the synthetic penicillin was isolated. "The Mold in Dr. Florey's Coat." Booknotes. C-SPAN. Washington D.C., 2 May 2004. C-SPAN Video Library. C-SPAN. Web. 4 Dec. 2011. This was a video I found online of an interview with the author of The Mold in Dr. Florey's Coat, Eric Lax. We used a quote from this video and the audio from that quote. on the revolution page of the website. We classified it as a primary source because it is the source of the quote, it wasn't found on a secondary website after it was said, it was taken directly from the video.

The Threat of Antibiotic Resistance. Euronews. Web. 16 Jan. 2012. This video is about the threat of antibiotic resistance and how some countries are doing better than others to prevent this problem. We used a clip from this video on the problems with penicillin page, we classified it as a primary source because it is a video of doctors who actually deal with antibiotic resistance. "To Build Big Penicillin Plant." New York Times 1 Oct. 1943. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Dec. 2012. This article is about how 1 million dollars was being used to build a penicillin factory in New Jersey. We used this article on the timeline to show how important penicillin was that 1 million dollars was spent just to build one factory. This article is a primary source because it was written during the time period that the article is about. Van Voorhis, Wes. "RE: Information Regarding Penicillin." Message to the author. 14 Nov. 2011. Web. This interview from the head of the Infectious Disease Department at the University of Washington was very helpful because it talked about how the penicillin family is still used today. We considered it to be a primary source because as a professor of medicine, he is most likely talking from experience when he told us about how penicillin is still used. Secondary Sources Antibiotic Resistance: The 'end of Modern Medicine?" Perf. Brian Williams and Nancy Snyderman, M.D. MSNBC, 2012. Television. 19 Mar. 2012. Web. 5 Apr. 2012. This video helped our research because it showed solutions to antibiotic resistance. It's a

secondary source because it is a news clip reporting about ways to avoid the growth of antibiotic resistant bacteria. "Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria." Better Health Channel. N.p., 2010. Web. 4 Jan. 2012. This website was helpful to our research because it included information on bacteria that is resistant to penicillin. It was very helpful to our website because it went on our Problems with Penicillin page. Carbolic Spray. Photograph. Glasgow Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons, Glasgow.BBC News. BBC. Web. 21 Dec. 2011. This is a photo of a device used to spray carbolic acid, a common antiseptic onto wounds to prevent infection. It was used on the Historical Context page to show what this kind of device would look like when it was used before the discovery of penicillin. We considered this to be a secondary source because it is a picture taken recently of something very old. Conley, Mikaela. "Overuse of Antibiotics May Cause Long-Term Harm." Abc News. American Broadcasting Company, 5 Aug. 2011. Web. 16 Oct. 2011. This article is a secondary source because it was written in 2011 about previous events. It was helpful in our research because it is about how bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics which is a growing concern. Cover of The Mold in Dr. Florey's Coat. Digital image. Eric Lax.net. Eric Lax. Web. 11 Feb. 2012. This is a picture of the cover of The Mold in Dr. Florey's Coat, we used it on the revolution page to show what Eric Lax's book looks like. It's a secondary source because the book was written recently about events that happened a long time ago.

De La Bedoyere, Guy. The Discovery of Penicillin. Milwaukee: World Almanac Library, 2006. Print. This book really helped our research and gave us a lot of good facts about penicillin and its history, giving us a good perspective on how it influenced history in a positive manner. Derby, Angus Campbell. "War: A Crucible for Advances in Surgery." Canadian Medical Association. Journal 175. 11 (2006): 1411-1413. This is an article explaining the effect of war on medicine. It also shows how penicillin helped save soldiers from infection in World War II. Discovery of Penicillin. Central Office of Information, 1964. Wellcome Library. Web. 15 Jan. 2012. This video is all about the story of penicillin and we used one clip for the discovery page, a clip for the Oxford team page and a clip for the testing phase page. We were given permission to use this film for our project from Angela Saward, Curator of Moving Image and Sound at the Wellcome Library, London. This video is a secondary source because it was made in the 1960's about penicillin in the 1920's and 1940's. "Five Million Children Get Wrong Dose of Penicillin." Independent - London. 16 Dec. 2011: 34. eLibrary. Web. 06 Jan. 2012. This article is an account of penicillin. It explains the flaws of penicillin and how the doses of medicine change with the average weight of a certain age. "Fleming Discovers Penicillin." PBS.org. Public Broadcasting Service, 1998. Web. 12 Oct. 2011. This article is a secondary source because it was written in 1998 about events that

happened in 1945 and earlier. It was very helpful in our research because mentioned the mass production of penicillin in Peoria, Illinois during WWII. Fogel, Robert. "Penicillin: The First Miracle Drug." Utah State University. Utah State University Intermountain Herbarium, 6 Dec. 2008. Web. 14 Oct. 2011. This article was extremely helpful to our research because it goes over almost everything there is to know about penicillin. It is a secondary source because it was not written during the time that it is about. Gantz, Nelson M. "Penicillin." World Book Student. World Book, 2011. Web. 7 Dec. 2011. This article gave a great summary of everything about penicillin. It was very helpful because it explains how penicillin fights bacteria on the cellular level. "Get Smart: Know When Antibiotics Work." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC. Web. 16 Jan. 2012. This article provided us with a quote that we used on the main reform page about the pressing health problem of bacteria resistance. This is a secondary source because it is information compiled by the CDC. Henry, Celia. "Penicillin." Chemical and Engineering News. American Chemical Society, 2005. Web. 16 Oct. 2011. This article was written recently but it is about the discovery of penicillin which is why it is a secondary source. It was useful in our research because it explains the chemical properties of penicillin that allow it have its distinct bacteria killing power. Hobby, Gladys L. Penicillin: Meeting the Challenge. Binghamton, N.Y.: Yale University, 1985. 233-37. Print. This book was loaded with facts and information which helped our

research greatly and the development of the project. This book is helped us with the revolution part of the website, giving good aspect to revolution and penicillins uses. "Howard Walter Florey." Encyclopedia of World Biography. 2nd ed. Vol. 5. Detroit: Gale, 2004. 491-492. World History Reference Collection. Web. 30 Sep. 2011.This article is about Howard Walter Florey who although didnt discover penicillin, he refined it to make it useable for human use. This assisted our research because it told us how penicillin went from the first discovered mold to the useable drug we know today. Interlandi, Jeneen. "Are We Running Out of Antibiotics?" Newsweek. 13 Dec 2010: n.p. SIRS Issues Researcher. Web. 15 Nov 2011. This article gives a modern view of the world of antibiotics. It explains that even though scientists have discovered a myriad of antibiotics, there are still a ton that are yet to be found. Inventions of War - Penicillin. (2011). The History Channel website. Retrieved 2:05, October 16, 2011. This video is a secondary source because it was made recently to talk about the discovery of penicillin, which happened a long time ago. It assisted our research by teaching us about how penicillin was used during WWII. Kardar, Sean S. "Antibiotic Resistance: New Approaches to a Historical Problem." March 2005. Action Bioscience. 29 November 2011 This article was about the history of penicillin, the scientists who observed it and how it was involved in history. It also touches on the current position of penicillin and other antibiotics. Lax, Eric. "Data posted to form 1 of http://www.dovetailstudio.com/laxmessage.htm." Message to the author. 18 Nov. 2011. Web. This interview from the author of The Mold in Dr. Florey's Coat was very helpful because it gave us tons of information about the

discovery, the impact now and the possibilities for new miracle drugs in the future. It's a secondary source because most of the interview was about things that happened a long time ago. Maczulak, Anne. "Penicillin." Science Online. Facts On File, Inc. Web. 8 Nov. 2011. This article gave explanation of the discovery of penicillin and also gave an overview of how this discovery is responsible for creating the field of antibiotics. Another aspect this article covered was how penicillin killed bacteria and described the mold from which penicillin is extracted. Mailer, John S., and Barbara Mason. "Penicillin: Medicine's Wartime Wonder Drug and Its Production at Peoria, Illinois." Historical Research and Narrative (2001): 39-44. Illinois Periodicals Online. Northern Illinois University Libraries. Web. 15 Oct. 2011. This is a secondary source because it is compiled information about the past and not some kind of documentation from the time period in question. It was extremely helpful to our research because it covers a long period of time. Mayer, Gene. "Bacteriology." Microbiology and Immunology. University of South Carolina School of Medicine. Web. 16 Jan. 2012. This website was very helpful to our research because it focused on different kinds of antibiotics besides penicillin; we used this information under our reform section. This is a secondary source because it is information compiled by a doctor, not information directly from the source. "Military Personnel and Casualties, by War and Branch of Service: 17751991." Historical Statistics of the United States. Ed. Scott Sigmund Gartner. Cambridge University Press. Web. 14 Oct. 2011. This is a secondary source because it starts in 1775 but isnt

compiled until much longer after. It was helpful for our project because it gave us statistics about soldier casualties from causes other than battle, many of these were from infection. "Professor John C. Sheehan Dies at 76." MIT Tech Talk 36.25 (1992). MIT News. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Web. 13 Oct. 2011. This is a secondary source because it is part of John Sheenans obituary talking about his accomplishments earlier in his life. It was helpful to us because it talks about the discovery of synthetic penicillin. "Penicillin." American Decades Primary Sources. Ed. Cynthia Rose. Vol. 5: 1940-1949. Detroit: Gale, 2004. 421-425. Primary Sources Reference Collection. Web. 2 Oct. 2011.This article is about what penicillin is, how it was discovered and what the importance of it is. It greatly helps our research because it goes into a lot of detail. "Penicillin ." Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica Online Library Edition. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2011. Web. 7 2011. This article goes into detail about what kind of bacteria penicillin kills and more importantly, what kind of common diseases it treats. Penicillin." The World Book Encyclopedia. Chicago: World Book, 2011. 240-41. Print. This encyclopedia article is all about what penicillin is, when it was discovered and what it does. It helps our research because it is a well-rounded article that gives a basic summary of everything you need to know about penicillin. "Penicillin Discovered." The History Channel: This Day in History. The History Channel. Web. 14 Jan. 2012. This website was very helpful because it gave the exact date of which Alexander Fleming first spotted mold growing in the petri dish. It is a secondary source

because it was written about something that happened long before the article was written. "Penicillins." Biotechnology: Changing Life Through Science. Vol. 1: Medicine. Detroit: UXL, 2007. 223-226. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29 Nov. 2011. This article goes in depth on the entire penicillin family and gives a great account of a nurse who was treated with penicillin. It was very useful because it mentioned some issues that might occur in the future. Penicillin Specimen with Original Packaging C 1950. Photograph. Science Museum, London. Ingenious. NMSI. Web. 21 Dec. 2011. This is a photo of what penicillin looked like in 1950, it was used on the Historical Context page to show that penicillin cured many common diseases that were once deadly. We classified this picture as a secondary source because it is a picture taken recently of something very old. Robert, Bud. "RE: Information Regarding Penicillin." Message to the author. 16 Nov. 2011. Web. This interview from the author of the book, Penicillin: Triumph and Tragedy and Principal Curator of Medicine at the Science Museum in London provided us with information about how people are now less likely to die from infection. He also provided us with a link to a website with many primary source images. We considered it to be a secondary source because he provided us with information about events that happened many years before. Routledge, Chris. "Penicillin." Bowling, Beatniks, and Bell-Bottoms: Pop Culture of 20th-Century America. Ed. Sara Pendergast and Tom Pendergast. Vol. 2: 1920s-1930s. Detroit: UXL,

2002. 356-357. American History Reference Collection. Web. 2 Oct. 2011.This article gives a broad description of the discovery of penicillin and it really helps our research because it gives us a simplified version that helps our understanding greatly. Shippen, Katherine. Men of Medicine. New York: Viking, 1957. Print. This article is about what penicillin does, what it kills, what it cures and what it doesnt. The book helps our research because it explains what penicillin does which helps us understand its importance. "Sir Alexander Fleming." Encyclopedia of World Biography. 2nd ed. Vol. 5. Detroit: Gale, 2004. 483-485. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29 Sep. 2011.This article is about the original founder of penicillin, Sir Alexander Fleming. It helps our research because it illustrates and highlights important details in the discovery of penicillin. ""Sir Alexander Fleming." Nobel Lectures. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1964. Nobel Prize.org. The Nobel Foundation. Web. 11 Oct. 2011. This article is a secondary source because it is a biography on Sir Alexander Fleming and was written after his death. It was very, helpful to us because of the great details it goes into about his important discovery of penicillin. Tao, Amy. "The Miracle Cure." Ask. 01 Jan. 2004: 17. eLibrary. Web. 26 Oct. 2011. This article was helpful to our research because it explained penicillin being used as vaccines and how that impacted people. It also gave specific examples of people that were affected by penicillin. "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1945". Nobelprize.org. 3 Jan 2012. Web. This website contains three pictures of Fleming, Florey, and Chain but also very good

information on their discoveries. This website also includes a other facts relating to their work and the Nobel prize presentation speech. "The Story of Penicillin." University of Oxford. Oxford Medical Sciences, 1 June 2001. Web. 12 Oct. 2011. This is a secondary source because it was written recently but goes over history starting a long time ago. It was helpful for our research because it is a start to finish story about penicillin. Todar, Kenneth. "Bacterial Resistance to Antibiotics." Online Textbook of Technology. University of Wisconsin, 2008. Web. 12 Oct. 2011. This article is a secondary source because it is part of an online textbook that goes over the history of bacteriology. It was extremely helpful because it talks a lot about bacteria that have become resistant to common antibiotics. Torok, Simon. "Maker of the Miracle Mould." Abc.net. Australian Broadcasting Company, 24 Sept. 1998. Web. 16 Oct. 2011. This article is a secondary source because it is a news article talking about the past. It was helpful in our research because it doesnt go Alexander Flemings discovery of penicillin like most articles but instead focuses on the realistic application of the drug by Sir Howard W. Florey. United States. U.S. Census Bureau. Population:1900-2002. United States Census Bureau, 27 Jan. 2003. Web. 11 Oct. 2011. This article is a secondary source because the data starts in 1900 but the table wasnt compiled until 2003. It was helpful in our research because it showed how many less people were dying from different diseases every year. Urdahl, Kevin. "RE: Information Regarding Penicillin." Message to the author. 14 Nov. 2011. Web. This interview was very helpful because it provided us with a couple quotes that

we used on the revolution and reform pages of our website. We classified this interview as a secondary source because although it mentioned resistant bacteria being a current problem, it was mostly about the penicillin revolution.