Basic Relationship between Pixels

Objectives
Different Neighbours Connectivity Region Connectivity pathways Distance Measures Arithmetic/Logical Operations Logical Operations
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Basic Relationship between Pixels

Terminology:

f(x,y)
S p,q,etc

= image
= subset of pixels f(x,y) = particular
p

f(x,y)

pixels in image
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4-Neighbours
A pixel p at coordinates (x,y) has 4 horizontal and vertical neighbours, each being a unit distance from (x,y)
y
(x-1,y)
(x,y)

(x, y-1) (x, y+1) (x+1, y)

x
Note: one or more of these points might lie outside image

Example
0 0 1 2 P1 P4 P7 1 P2 P5 P8 2 P3 P6 P9

N4(P5) = p4,p6 ---- Horizontal Neighbors p2,p8 ---- Vertical Neighbors

N4 (1,1) = (1,0) (1,2) (0,1) (2,1)

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Diagonal Neighbours ND(p)

A pixel p at coordinates (x,y) has 4 diagonal neighbours, each being a unit distance from (x,y)
Y
(x-1, y-1) (x-1, y+1)
p(x,y)

(x+1, y-1)

(x+1, y-1)

0 0 1 2 P1 P4 P7

1 P2 P5 P8

2 P3 P6 P9

ND(P5) = p1,p3,p9,p7

ND (1,1) = (0,0) (0,2) (2,2) (2,0)

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8 Neighbours N8(p)
8-neighbours of p= 4 diagonal neighbours of p and 4neighbours of p

N8(p) = ND(p) + N4(p)

p(x,y)

Problems
0 0 P1 P4 P7 1 P2 P5 P8 2 P3 P6 P9

X Y co-ordinate of pixel P2 = (0,1)

1
2

P5 =

P9 =

Problems
N4 (P5)=(L,T,R,B)
P1 P4 P7 P2 P5 P8 P3 P6 P9

= (P4,P2,P6,P8)

ND(P5)=(LT,RT,RB,LB) = (P1,P3,P9,P7) N8(P5) = (L,-----LB) = (P4,P1,P2,P3, P6,P9,P8,P7) = (0,0,P2,P4)

N4 (P1)= (L,T,R,B)

ND(P1)=(LT,RT,RB,LB) = (0,0,P5,0)

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Connectivity
Connectivity is an important concept for establishing:- boundaries of objects - components of regions in an image Region = set of pixels in which there is a path between any pair of its pixels, all of whose pixels also belong to the set. i.e. adjacent pixels

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Connectivity
Two pixels are connected if:- they are adjacent (neighbours) - and colour or grey levels are similar
Region 1 Region 2 Region 3 Region 4 Region 5
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Connectivity - types
V = set of grey-levels used to define intensity = in a grey-scale image, the sub-set of grey values whose intensity value is 31, 32. V(31,32)

3 types of connectivity:- 4-connectivity/ 4-adjacency

8-connectivity

m-connectivity
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4-Connectivity
Two pixels p and q with values from V are 4connected if q is in the set N4(p)

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V = (1) p A) q

Problem
p

1 0 0

1 1 0

0 1 1

B)
q

1 0 0

1 1 0

0 1 1

p D) 1 0 0 1 1 0 q 0 1 1 C) 1 0 0

p 1 1 0 0

1 1

Two pixels p and q with values from V are 4connected if q is in the set N4(p)
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Problems
1 0 1 2 1 3 3 3 4 4 0 4 V1 = (1,2)

(1,2)
1 0 1 2 1 3 3 3 4 4 0 4 (3)

(4)

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8-Connectivity
Two pixels p and q with values from V are 8connected if q is in the set N8(p)

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Problems

1
0

2
1

3
3

4
0

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m-Connectivity
Two pixels p and q with values from V are m-

connected if:1) q is in the set N4(p), or 2) q is in the set ND(P)

and the set N4(p) N4(q) is empty

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V = (1) p A) 1 q

Problem
p

1 1 0

0 1 1

B)
q

1 0 0

1 1 0

0 1 1

0 0

p D) 1 0 0 1 1 0 q 0 1 1

p C) 1 0 0 0 1 0 0

1 1

q is in the set N4(p), or q is in the set ND(P) and the set N4(p) N4(q) is empty
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Basic Relationships Between Pixels

Path A (digital) path (or curve) from pixel p with coordinates (x0, y0) to pixel q with coordinates (xn, yn) is a sequence of distinct pixels with coordinates

(x0, y0), (x1, y1), , (xn, yn)

Where (xi, yi) and (xi-1, yi-1) are adjacent for 1 i n. Here n is the length of the path. If (x0, y0) = (xn, yn), the path is closed path. We can define 4-, 8-, and m-paths based on the type of

adjacency used.
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Connectivity - pathways
A pixel p is adjacent to a pixel q if they are connected.

A path from pixel to pixel q will be a sequence of distinct pixels with their own coordinates.

0 0 0

1 1 0

1 0 1

0 0 0

1 1 0

1 0 1

0 0 0

1 1 0

1 0 1

4 neighbours

8 neighbours

m neighbours
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Examples: Adjacency and Path

V = {1, 2}

0 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 1
1,1 1,2 2,1 2,2 3,1 3,2

1,3

2,3

3,3

0 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 1
8-adjacent

0 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 1
m-adjacent
The m-path from (1,3) to (3,3):
(1,3), (1,2), (2,2), (3,3)

The 8-path from (1,3) to (3,3):

(i) (1,3), (1,2), (2,2), (3,3) (ii) (1,3), (2,2), (3,3)

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Boundary (or border)

The boundary of the region R is the set of pixels in the region that have one or more neighbors that are not in R.

1 1 1 0

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 0

0 0 0 0

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Boundary (or border)

If R happens to be an entire image, then its boundary is defined as the set of pixels in the first and last rows and columns of the image.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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Problem
In the following arrangement of pixels, are the two regions (of 1s) adjacent? (if 8-adjacency is used) 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1

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 In the following arrangement of pixels, are the two parts (of 1s) adjacent? (if 4-adjacency is used) 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1

Part 2

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 In the following arrangement of pixels, the two regions (of 1s) are disjoint (if 4-adjacency is used) 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1

Region 1

Region 2

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 In the following arrangement of pixels, the two regions (of 1s) are disjoint (if 4-adjacency is used) 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1

foreground

background

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 In the following arrangement of pixels, the circled point is part of the boundary of the 1-valued pixels if 8-adjacency is used, true or false? 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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Distance function D
Given pixels p, q and z with coordinates (x, y), (s, t), (u, v) respectively, the distance function D has following properties: D(p, q) 0 [D(p, q) = 0, iff p = q]

a. b. c.

D(p, q) = D(q, p) D(p, z) D(p, q) + D(q, z)

p (i,j) q (h,k)

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Distance Measures
p (i,j)

q (h,k) Euclidean: City Block: Chessboard: DE(p,q) = [(i-h)2 + (j-k)2]1/2 D4(p,q) = |i-h| + |j-k| D8(p,q) = max{|i-h| , |j-k|}
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Problems
p (i,j)

q (h,k)
Euclidean: DE(p,q) = [(i-h)2 + (j-k)2]1/2

City Block:
Chessboard:

D4(p,q) = |i-h| + |j-k|

D8(p,q) = max{|i-h| , |j-k|}

If p(I,j) = (2,2) and q(h,k) = (4,4) find Euclidean, City Block, Chessboard distances
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The following are the different Distance measures:

a. Euclidean Distance : De(p, q) = [(x-s)2 + (y-t)2]1/2

b. City Block Distance: D4(p, q) = |x-s| + |y-t| c. Chess Board Distance: D8(p, q) = max(|x-s|, |y-t|)

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distance function D
In the following arrangement of pixels, whats the value of the chessboard distance between the circled two points? 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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Arithmetic/Logical Operations
Arithmetic and logical operations between pixels are used in most branches of image processing. Arithmetic pixels.

operations

apply

to

multivalued

Logic operations apply only to binary images

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Arithmetic Operations
For entire images, Arithmetic operations are carried out pixel by pixel.

Addition:
Subtraction: Multiplication:

p + q used for image averaging to reduce noise

p q remove background information p * q used to correct grey level pq shading pxq pq
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Division:

Logical Operations
Basic tools of binary image processing where they are used for such tasks as masking, feature detection, and shape analysis And: p AND q pq

Or:
Complement:

p OR q p+q
NOT q q

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Logical Operations - Examples

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Arithmetic/Logical Operations Footnote

In addition to pixel-by-pixel operations on entire images, arithmetic and logical operations are used in neighbourhood-oriented operations. i.e. mask/filter operations

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Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image

For every pixel p in S, the set of pixels in S that are connected to p is called a connected component of S.

If S has only one connected component, then S is called Connected Set.

We call R a region of the image if R is a connected set

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Two regions, Ri and Rj are said to be adjacent if their union forms a connected set. Regions that are not to be adjacent are said to be disjoint.

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 Foreground and background An image contains K disjoint regions, Rk, k = 1, 2, , K. Let Ru denote the union of all the K regions, and let (Ru)c denote its complement. All the points in Ru is called foreground; All the points in (Ru)c is called background.

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