Advance Construction Technique & Safety Measures

1. INTRODUC TION
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Construction industry in India is changing focus more towards the architectural view and non regular shapes of structure, leaving behind the regular orthodox shapes of the past .This change has shown its effects clearly in the upcoming commercial buildings which are used for a variety of purposes and are home to many big and mall brands where they house their corporate offices, retail outlets and consultancies .The prime objective of these brands is to attract the customers by their beautiful exteriors and state of art architecturally designed showrooms and world class facility .The booming retail industry has added fuel to this fire ,where many a leading bands come together under one roof and the customer has freedom of getting the best of all choices at the same place , thus making it all the more sort after place for visiting .Besides this the other element of the services sector which has seen a sea of change and acts as the mirror of luxury and comfort is the hotel industry which by means of it state of art services has attracted the due attention of real estate developers and investors. Indias real estate sector is undoubtedly on a high growth path and recognized as global investors choice. India is holding third position among retail markets in the world with organized retailing and growing at the rate of 30% per annum. India has played up to its image of being one of the most attractive FDI, FII destinations. The positive outlook of the Indian government is the key factor behind the sudden rise of the Indian real estate Sector.

The opening of the Indian market led by globalization, the pooling of FDI and the overall change in the outlook of the Indian people has fuelled the growth and the development of commercial buildings. Many brands like WALLMART, ADIDAS, BIG-BAZAR, PANTALOONS are expecting to construct more than 250 malls in next five years. The Entry of many global and national players like SHAPOORJI, L&T to the Indian construction industry has added the much needed aspect of the organizational and profession approach needed for the construction of commercial buildings. This has brought a rapid growth of commercial buildings is opportunity for the builders and civil Engineers to diversify their expertise and explore the new ventures for this sector.

SCOPE OF WORK ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The commercial complexes include malls, hotels, and multiplexes. The project work shall be an exhaustive study of different components of construction which are adopted during the execution of commercial complex and services installed in them. The various basic components that shall be incorporated will be the foundations, construction techniques brief account of all the structural details and their execution processes. The growing aspects and various methods adopted during the construction of commercial complexes have prompted us to choose this as a topic for project. The study of new techniques, its related challenges and its changes that will be seen it construction industry in India. The project also includes innovative technique such as Universal Fiber Optics Solar

Lightening which helps to reduce electricity consumption and brings Environment friendly complexes. For the purpose of our project we shall be visiting Orchid ozone Mall site near Dahiasar in Mumbai. The general approach adopted by us at the site will be in the following manner Briefly study the main purpose for which commercial structure will be used. Visit the site and collect non technical details like area of land, type of contracts, And name of contractor, consultant, designer and architect. Approx. Project cost, Time frame of completion, work distribution. At the site observe how the work of excavation, foundation, concreting, slab Casting. Beams and column construction, equipment management and labor are Carried out. Study the structural designs of the structure (RCC). Make notes and try to Summarize the elemental design procedures adopted and draw inferences. Services installed at the site.

Project Site: ORCHID OZONE MALL

SALIENT FEATURES OF THE PROJECT SITE -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------We have selected the site of Orchid Ozone Mall located at Dahisar, Mumbai for the study of advanced construction techniques in commercial complexes. Various advanced construction techniques used on site for Post Tensioning, Retaining wall, Foundations, Grouting.

Details are as follows: NAME MALL CLIENT REALTORS PVT. : THE ORCHID OZONE

NEEL KAMAL LTD.

ARCHITECT CONTRACTOR STRUCTURAL CONSULTANT CONTRACTOR LTD CONTRACT VALUE CONTRACT PERIOD :

: :

M/S HAFEEZ M/S Y.S. SANE PUNE

M/S B.E.BILLIMORIA & CO : : 145.95 Crores 24 Month (Date of Commencement 01/05/2007)

SCOPE OF THE WORK CO LTD 145.95 Crores Commencement -01/05/2007)

M/S B.E.BILLIMORIA & 24 Month (Date of Civil Work: Basement

+ Lower Ground Floor + Upper Ground Floor +2 storeyed structure for Mall.

APPROXIMATE BUILT UP AREA :

30 Lacs Sq. ft.

EQUIPMENT DETAILS:
Batching plants 2 No Mobile crane 1 Nos. Transit mixer (6 cum. capacity) Transit mixer (2 cum. capacity) Tractor with carrier 1 No.

 Tough rider 4 Nos.

SURFACE LEVELS:
PCC top level U.B.F.S. top level L.G.F.S top level =13.52m. =18.20m. = 21.80m.

MATERIAL STATISTICS:
Total concrete quantity = 1 Lac Cum. Total Reinforcement steel Qty. = 10500 Mt. Total Shuttering area = 30.38 Lac Sq. ft. Total Brick masonry = 6 Lakhs Sq. ft. Total Plastering = 60 Lakhs Sq. ft Grade of concrete used o Slabs , Beams, and Footings o Columns and Retaining wall o PCC M-35 M-40 M-10

ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS:
o 1.6 Million sq. ft. retail development o 3000 car parking space o 6 screen multiplex o Theme restaurants with large food-court o Water Theme Atrium o 2 lac sq. ft. one level Hyper City Store o 150 rooms budget rooms o 150 rooms budgets rooms o Various entry exit for vehicular and pedestrians

o Separate ( Loading - Unloading )service entries for trucks and service vehicles o Travolators strategically located to cover large spans o Lifts and escalators located for easy and speedy movement.

SALIENT FEATURES OF ADVANCED CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES OBSERVED AT THE SITE

1) RETAINING WALL Retaining wall has been constructed all throughout the boundary of the area constructed to prevent the side rock from falling and prevent any seepage occurring .Back hoe has been used to carry out the excavation of rock at the site The reinforcement is Provided as per the design. The retaining wall construction is carried out in a panel of 1.5m each and proper joint is made between two panel. For the construction of retaining wall M40 grade of concrete has been used and Fe 415 grade of steel has been used. MIX DESIGN FOR M40 GRADE OF CONCRETE

CEMENT NATURAL SILT GRIT AGG (20mm) (10mm) WATER ADMIXTURE

225 Kg 193Kg 220Kg 257 Kg 248 Kg 79 Litres 2.8 Kg

2) RAFT FOUNDATION On site raft foundation is provided all over the area of construction .The depth of raft foundation provided is 300mm.

Footing of three different sizes is provided. The thickness of material used is as follows Rubble soling PCC - 950mm - 100mm

3) POST-TENSIONING

SPECIFICATION OF TENDONS USED ON SITE IS: A) Min 300mm length of Tendon must be out for Post tensioning. B) Min 850mm length of Tendon is without pocket at the fixed C) Diameter of Tendon = 12.7mm

CONCRETING Reinforcement and profile of the tendons are checked. At the end where Testing is present, Thermocol is provided to prevent entry of concrete in holes of Testing. After checking the availability of Concrete source, Concreting is started.

EQUIPMENTS Hydraulic jack is used to do post tensioning. Thermocol is removed after 28 days which was used to restrict entry of concrete in holes. Tendon is inserted in Hydraulic Jack; it is locked and pulled at a given pressure. After achieving required tensile force, jack is removed. Testing is locked. After doing same procedure for both adjacent slabs, Concreting in Pour strip is done. Red strips are marked on lower side of the slab parallel to the profile of tendons to prevent accidents due to cutting in tendons while drilling. 4) GROUTING

The main objective of grouting the Aluminum pockets in posttensioned concrete slabs is, I) To prevent corrosion of the tendons,

II) To ensure efficient transfer of stress between the tendons and the Concrete member, III) To improve the serviceability and strength characteristics of the concrete Member.

RAFT FOUNDATION
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------A raft foundation is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a structure and supports all the walls and columns. When the allowable soil pressure is low, or the building loads are heavy the use of spread footings would cover more than one half of the area and it may prove economical to use mat or raft foundation. They are also used where the soil mass contains compressible lenses or the soil is sufficiently erratic so that the differential settlement would be difficult to control. The method consists of providing an R.C.C slab of suitable thickness and with necessary reinforcement. The raft is designed in such a way that the allowable bearing power of soil is not exceeded. If required beam and slab construction in RCC can also be carried out. The raft is designed as an inverted RCC roof with uniformly distributed load of the soil pressure and supported by beams walls and columns. The design of raft foundations requires careful attention. Usually the raft is so shaped and proportioned wherever possible that the centre of gravity of the imposed load is vertically under the centre of the bearing ground. Also in cases where there is fear of

ground water pressure to damage the raft foundations suitable holes are provided in the raft to release the water pressure. Types of Raft Foundation 1 2 3 Flat plate ---- The Raft is of uniform thickness Flat plate thickened under columns Slab with basement walls

Raft foundations are selected when: 1 The area covered by the individual footings exceeds 50% of the structural plan area. This is usually the case for buildings higher than 10stories, and/or on relatively weak soils where q < 3 ksf = 150 kPa;

2 The building requires a deep basement, below the phreatic surface. For example, to build several levels of parking, for mechanical systems, access to subway stations, etc; 3. The Engineer wishes to minimize the differential settlement in variable (that is, heterogeneous) soils, or if pockets of extremely weak soils are known to be present; 4. The Engineer wishes to take full advantage of the soils increasing bearing capacity with depth by excavating basements, and thereby seek a fully or a partially compensated foundation.

Problem Soils that may necessitate the Use of Raft Foundations. 1. Compressible soils occur in highly organic soils including some glacial deposits and certain flood plain areas. Highly

plastic clays in some glacial deposits and in coastal plains and offshore areas there can be significant amounts of compressible soils. Problems involved are excessive settlements, low bearing capacity, and low shear strength. 2. Collapsing soils, settlement in loose sands and silts primarily. Densification occurs by the movement of grains to reduce the volume. Typically includes shallow subsidence. May occur in sandy coastal plain area, sandy glacial deposits, and alluvial deposits of intermountain regions. Expansive soils, containing swelling clays, mainly Montmorillite, which increase in volume when absorbing water and shrink when loosing it. Semi-arid and semihumid areas with swelling clays are the most severe because the soil moisture active zone has the greatest thickness under such conditions. Foundation supports should be placed below the active soil zone.

3.

Construction practices applicable to the design of Rafts.

Thickness T is determined from diagonal tension (punching shear);

Typical Raft thickness T: Stories B=45' B=90' B=120'

Rafts should not have L > 90 to 120 without construction joints;

The Raft area should be regular, avoiding acute corners and narrow corridors. Keep the column spacing regular and loads within 50% of each other;

When the bldg. has very dissimilar loadings, use separate Rafts with joints;

Attempt a single pour for the entire Raft to avoid joints, which have a low or zero shear;

The thicker T, the greater number of hydration cracks (must control the heat).

DEWATERING
Dewatering is needed in the construction of Raft foundations to lower the groundwater below the excavation. Dewatering is a frequent cause of dispute between the contractor and adjacent property owners. Dewatering by unsuitable methods can cause damage to adjacent properties, and result in third party litigation. Engineers responsible for all the phases of the project, from initial planning to budgeting through final construction need to be aware of the potential impact of ground water so that their decisions will be effective. The primary preventive measure is a thorough geotechnical investigation. When a problem is identified and evaluated it is less likely to result in a dispute.

REINFORCEMENT
Raft foundations require massive amounts of steel. Two-way reinforcement is positioned in the Raft before the concrete is added. The greatest amount of steel will be positioned at the shear wall, which is usually the elevator shaft. Dowels need to be positioned so that they will coincide with the respective column.

CONCRETE
The pouring of concrete once begun needs to be continued until the foundation is complete. The pouring will begin at one corner and continue from there.

LOCATION
Cities that are located in areas with soils of low bearing capacity will utilize Raft Foundations. Because most cities are located near rivers Rafts are common foundations.

Drainage, Waterproofing, and Damp-proofing of Rafts

Distress to buildings can often be traced to foundation movements caused by inadequate removal of surface water. Hence, the grading of the site around a building should be carefully designed. If the ground surface next to the building is to be unpaved, its slope should not be less than 1 inch per foot. The nature of the subsoil and groundwater conditions at a site should always be considered in the choice of elevations for basements and floor levels. If the basement must be established below normal groundwater levels special precautions must be taken to prevent seepage into the structure. For this two general methods are in common use: drainage, whereby water is prevented from reaching the exterior of the structure, and waterproofing, whereby the entrance of water to the adjacent structure is prevented by some sort of impervious barrier. These two methods are Often combined for best results. Footing drains consist of a filtered pipe backfilled with free draining Raft materials. They are used where seepage is small and can be diverted into sewers or ditches. The upper part of the backfill is of a less impervious nature than that of the backfill near the pipe. This is done to prevent in flow from surface waters. Intercepting drains are also used in areas of low seepage. The difference from the footing drain is that the filtered pipe is located farther away from the Raft. This is used where the Presence of water in the drains might reduce the strength of the soil beneath the Raft.

Advantages of Raft Foundation

1234-

Cost (affordable) Construction Procedure (simple) Materials (mostly concrete) Labor (does not need expertise)

Disadvantages of Raft foundation

1234Settlement Limit Capacity * Soil * Structure Irregular ground surface (slope, retaining wall) Foundation subjected to pullout, torsion, moment.

RETAINING WALL
A retaining wall is a structure that holds back soil or rock from a building, structure or area. Retaining walls prevent down slope movement or erosion and provide support for vertical or near-vertical grade changes. Cofferdams and bulkheads, structures that hold back water, are sometimes also considered retaining walls. Retaining walls are generally made of masonry, stone, brick, concrete, vinyl, steel or timber. Once popular as an inexpensive retaining material, railroad ties have fallen out of favor due to environmental concerns. Segmental retaining walls have gained favor over poured-in-place concrete walls or treated-timber walls. They are more economical, easier to install and more environmentally sound. The most important consideration in proper design and installation of retaining walls is that the retained material is attempting to move forward and down slope due to gravity. This creates lateral earth pressure behind the wall which depends on the angle of internal friction (phi) and the cohesive strength (c) of the retained material, as well as the direction and magnitude of movement the retaining structure undergoes. Lateral earth pressures are typically smallest at the top of the wall and increase toward the bottom. Earth pressures will push the wall forward or overturn it if not properly addressed. Also, any groundwater behind the wall that is not dissipated by a drainage system causes an additional horizontal hydrostatic pressure on the wall.

As an example, the International Building Code requires retaining walls to be designed to ensure stability against overturning, sliding, excessive foundation pressure and water uplift; and that they be designed for a safety factor of 1.5 against lateral sliding and overturning

Forces acting on retaining wall 1) Lateral earth pressure

Lateral earth pressure is the pressure that soil exerts in the horizontal plane. The common applications of lateral earth pressure theory are for the design of ground engineering structures such as retaining walls, basements, tunnels, and to determine the friction on the sides of deep foundations. To describe the pressure a soil will exert, a lateral earth pressure coefficient, K, is used. K is the ratio of lateral (horizontal) pressure to vertical pressure (K = h'/v'). Thus horizontal earth pressure is assumed to be directly proportional to the vertical pressure at any given point in the soil profile. K can depend on the soil properties and the stress history of the soil. Lateral earth pressure coefficients are broken up into three categories: at-rest, active, and passive.

The pressure coefficient used in geotechnical engineering analyses depends on the characteristics of its application. There are many

theories for predicting lateral earth pressure; some are empirically based, and some are analytically derived. Active and passive pressure The active state occurs when a soil mass is allowed to relax or move outward to the point of reaching the limiting strength of the soil; that is, the soil is at the failure condition in extension. Thus it is the minimum lateral soil pressure that may be exerted. Conversely, the passive state occurs when a soil mass is externally forced to the limiting strength (that is, failure) of the soil in compression. It is the maximum lateral soil pressure that may be exerted. Thus active and passive pressures define the minimum and maximum possible pressures respectively that may be exerted in a horizontal plane.

PRESTRESSING BY POST TENSIONING -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------OVERVIEW Prestressed concrete is a method for overcoming the concrete's natural weakness in tension. It can be used to produce beams, floors or bridges with a longer span than is practical with ordinary reinforced concrete. Prestressing tendons (generally of high tensile steel cable or rods) are used to provide a clamping load which produces a compressive stress that offsets the tensile stress that the concrete compression member would otherwise experience due to a bending load. Traditional reinforced concrete is based on the use of steel reinforcement bars, rebars, inside poured concrete. The advantages of prestressed concrete include lower construction costs; thinner slabs -especially important in high rise buildings in which floor thickness savings can translate into additional floors for the same (or lower) cost and fewer joints, since the distance that can be spanned by post-tensioned slabs exceeds that of reinforced constructions with the same thickness. Increasing span lengths increases the usable unencumbered floors space in buildings; diminishing the number of joints leads to lower maintenance costs over the design life of a building, since joints are the major locus of weakness in concrete Buildings.

Post-tensioning is a method of reinforcing (strengthening) concrete or other materials with high-strength steel strands or bars, typically referred to as tendons. Post-tensioning Applications include office and apartment buildings, parking structures, slabs-on-ground, bridges, sports stadiums, rock and soil anchors, and water-tanks. In many cases, post tensioning allows construction that would otherwise be impossible due to either site constraints or architectural requirements. Although post-tensioning systems require specialized knowledge and expertise to fabricate assemble and install, the concept is easy to explain. Imagine a series of wooden blocks with holes drilled through them, into which a rubber band is threaded. If one holds the ends of the rubber band, the blocks will sag. Post-tensioning can be demonstrated by placing wing nuts on either end of the rubber band and winding the rubber band so that the blocks are pushed tightly together. If one holds the wing nuts after winding, the blocks will remain straight. The tightened rubber band is comparable to a posttensioning tendon that has been stretched by hydraulic jacks and is held in place by wedge-type anchoring devices. Prestressed concrete is the predominating material for floors in highrise buildings and concrete chambers in nuclear reactors, as well as in columns and shear walls in the buildings intended for a high degree of earthquake and blast protection. Unbonded post-tensioning tendons are commonly used in parking garages as barrier cable Also, due to its ability to be stressed and then de-stressed, it can be used to temporarily repair a damaged building by holding up a damaged wall or floor until permanent repairs can be made.

BONDED POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE

Bonded post-tensioned concrete is the descriptive term for a method of applying compression after pouring concrete and the curing process (in situ). The concrete is cast around plastic, steel or aluminums curved duct, to follow the area where otherwise tension would occur in the concrete element. A set of tendons are fished through the duct and the concrete is poured. Once the concrete has hardened, the tendons are tensioned by hydraulic jacks that react against the concrete member itself. When the tendons have stretched sufficiently, according to the design specifications (see Hooke's law), they are wedged in position and maintain tension after the jacks are removed, transferring pressure to the concrete. The duct is then grouted to protect the tendons from corrosion. This method is

commonly used to create monolithic slabs for house construction in locations where expansive soils (such as adobe clay) create problems for the typical perimeter foundation. All stresses from seasonal expansion and contraction of the underlying soil are taken into the entire tensioned slab, which supports the building without significant flexure. Post-stressing is also used in the construction of various bridges, both after concrete is cured after support by false work and by the assembly of prefabricated sections, as in the segmental bridge. The

Advantages of this system over unbonded post-tensioning are: 1. Large reduction in traditional reinforcement requirements as tendons cannot Distress in accidents. 2. Tendons can be easily 'weaved' allowing a more efficient design approach. 3. Higher ultimate strength due to bond generated between the strand and concrete. 4. No long term issues with maintaining the integrity of the anchor/dead end.

UNBONDED POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE

Unbonded post-tensioned concrete differs from bonded posttensioning by providing each individual cable permanent freedom of movement relative to the concrete. To achieve this, each individual tendon is coated with grease (generally lithium based) and covered by a plastic sheathing formed in an extrusion process. The transfer of tension to the concrete is achieved by the steel cable acting against steel anchors embedded in the perimeter of the slab. The main disadvantage over bonded post-tensioning is the fact that a cable can distress itself and burst out of the slab if damaged (such as during repair on the slab). The advantages of this system over bonded posttensioning are:

1.

The ability to individually adjust cables based on poor field conditions(For example: shifting a group of 4 cables around an opening by placing 2 to either side). The procedure of post-stress grouting is eliminated.

2.

3. The ability to de-stress the tendons before attempting repair work

BENEFITS OF POST-TENSIONING
The tensile strength of concrete is only about 10% of its compressive strength. As a result, plain concrete members are likely to crack when loaded. In order to resist tensile stresses which plain concrete cannot resist, it can be reinforced with steel reinforcing Bars. Reinforcing is selected assuming that the tensile zone of the concrete carries no load and that tensile stresses are resisted only by tensile forces in the reinforcing bars. The resulting reinforced concrete member may crack, but it can effectively carry the design loads (Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1

- Reinforced concrete beam under load

Although cracks occur in reinforced concrete, the cracks are normally very small and uniformly distributed. However, cracks in reinforced concrete can reduce long-term durability. Introducing a means of precompressing the tensile zones of concrete members to offset anticipated tensile stresses reduces or eliminates cracking to produce more durable concrete bridges. To fully appreciate the benefits of post-tensioning, it is helpful to know a little bit about concrete. Concrete is very strong in compression but weak in tension, i.e. it will crack when forces act to pull it apart. In conventional concrete construction, if a load such as the cars in a parking garage is applied to a slab or beam, the beam will tend to deflect or sag. This deflection will cause the bottom of the

beam to elongate slightly. Even a slight elongation is usually enough to cause cracking. Steel reinforcing bars (rebar) are typically embedded in the concrete as tensile reinforcement to limit the crack widths. Rebar is what is called passive reinforcement however; it does not carry any force until the concrete has already deflected enough to crack. Post-tensioning tendons, on the other hand, are considered active reinforcing. Because it is prestressed, the steel is effective as reinforcement even though the concrete may not be cracked. Posttensioned structures can be designed to have minimal deflection and cracking, even under full load.

There are post-tensioning applications in almost all facets of construction. In building construction, post-tensioning allows longer clear spans, thinner slabs, fewer beams and more slender, dramatic elements. Thinner slabs mean less concrete is required. In addition, it means a lower overall building height for the same floor-to-floor height. Post tensioning can thus allow a significant reduction in building weight versus a conventional concrete building with the same number of floors. This reduces the foundation load and can be a major advantage in seismic areas. A lower building height can also translate to considerable savings in mechanical systems and faade costs. Another advantage of post-tensioning is that beams and slabs can be continuous, i.e. a single beam can run continuously from one end of the building to the other. Structurally, this is much more efficient than having a beam that just goes from one column to the next. Post-tensioning is the system of choice for parking structures since it allows a high degree of flexibility in the column layout, span lengths and ramp configurations. Post-tensioned. Parking garages can be either stand-alone structures or one or more floors in an office or residential building. In areas where there are expansive clays or soils with low bearing capacity, post-tensioned slabs-on-ground and mat foundations reduce problems with cracking and differential settlement. Post-tensioning allows bridges to be built to very demanding geometry equipments, including complex curves, variable superelevation and significant grade changes. Post-tensioning also allows extremely long span bridges to be constructed without the use of temporary intermediate supports. This minimizes the impact on the environment.

ENSURING QUALITY CONSTRUCTION The amount of post-tensioning strand sold has almost doubled in the last ten years and the post- tensioning industry is continuing to grow rapidly. To ensure quality construction, the Post- Tensioning Institute (PTI) has implemented both a Plant Certification Program and a Field Personnel Certification Training Course. By specifying that the plant and the Installers be PTI certified, engineers can ensure the level of quality that the owner will expect. PTI also publishes technical documents and reference manuals covering various aspects of post-tensioned design and construction.

POST TENSIONING OPERATION Compressive forces are induced in a concrete structure by tensioning steel tendons of strands or bars placed in ducts embedded in the concrete. The tendons are installed after the concrete has been placed and sufficiently cured to a prescribed initial compressive strength. A hydraulic jack is attached to one or both ends of the tendon and pressurized to a predetermined value while bearing against the end of the concrete beam. This induces a predetermined force in the tendon and the tendon elongates elastically under this force. After jacking to the full, required force, the force in the tendon is transferred from the jack to the end anchorage. Tendons made up of strands are secured by steel wedges that grip each strand and seat firmly in a wedge plate. The wedge plate itself carries all the strands and bears on a steel anchorage. The anchorage may be a simple steel bearing plate or may be a special casting with two or three concentric bearing surfaces that transfer the tendon force to the concrete. Bar tendons are usually threaded and anchor by means of spherical nuts that bear against a square or rectangular bearing plate cast into the concrete. For an explanation of posttensioning terminology and acronyms, see Appendix A. After stressing, protruding strands or bars of permanent tendons are cut off using an abrasive disc saw. Flame cutting should not be used as it negatively affects the characteristics of the prestressing steel. Approximately 20mm ( in) of strand is left to protrude from wedges or a certain minimum bar length is left beyond the nut of a bar anchor. Tendons are then grouted using a cementations based grout. This grout is pumped through a grout inlet into the duct by means of a grout pump. Grouting is done carefully under controlled conditions

using grout outlets to ensure that the duct anchorage and grout caps are completely filled. For final protection, after grouting, an anchorage may be covered by a cap of high quality grout contained in a permanent non-metallic and/or concrete pour-back with a durable seal-coat.

CRITICAL ELEMENTS
There are several critical elements in a post-tensioning system. In unbonded construction, the lactic sheathing acts as a bond breaker between the concrete and the pre-stressing strands. It also provides protection against damage by mechanical handling and serves as a barrier that prevents moisture and chemicals from reaching the strand. The strand coating material reduces friction between the strand and the sheathing and provides additional corrosion protection. Anchorages are another critical element, particularly in unbounded systems. After the concrete has cured and obtained the necessary strength, the wedges are inserted inside the anchor casting and the strand is stressed. When the jack releases the strand, the strand retracts slightly and pulls the wedges into the anchor. This creates a tight lock on the strand. The wedges thus maintain the applied force in the tendon and transfer it to the surrounding concrete. In corrosive environments, the anchorages and exposed strand tails are usually covered with a housing and cap for added protection.

POST-TENSIONING SYSTEMS
Many proprietary post-tensioning systems are available. Several suppliers produce systems for tendons made of wires, strands or bars. The most common systems found in bridge construction are multiple strand systems for permanent post-tensioning tendons and bar systems for both temporary and permanent situations. Refer to manufacturers' and suppliers' literature for details of available systems.

Typical Post-Tensioning Anchorage Hardware for Strand Tendons

Typical Post-Tensioning Bar System Hardware.

Typical Post-Tensioning Bar System Hardware.

STRANDS AND BARS

Strand
Strand for post-tensioning is made of high tensile strength steel wire. A strand is comprised of 7 individual wires, with six wires helically wound to a long pitch around a center wire. All strand should be Grade 1860 MPa (270 ksi) low relaxation, seven-wire strand conforming to the requirements of ASTM A 416 "Standard Specification for Steel Strand, Uncoated Seven Wire Strand for Prestressed Concrete". ASTM A 416 provides minimum requirements for mechanical properties (yield, breaking strength, elongation) and maximum allowable dimensional tolerances. Strand from different sources may meet ASTM A 416 but is not necessarily identical in all respects. Strand is mostly available in two nominal sizes, 13mm (0.5in) and 15mm (0.6in) diameter, with nominal cross sectional areas of 99mm 2 and 140mm 2 (0.153 and 0.217 square inches), respectively. The majority of post-tensioning hardware and stressing equipment is based on these sizes. Strand size tolerances may result in strands being manufactured consistently smaller than or larger than nominal values. Recognizing this, industry ("Acceptance Standards for Post-Tensioning Systems", Post-Tensioning Institute, 1998 refers to the "Minimum Ultimate Tensile Strength" (MUTS) which is the minimum specified breaking force for a strand. Strand size tolerance may also affect strand-wedge action leading to possible wedge slip if the wedges and strands are at opposite ends of the size tolerance range. Strand conforming to ASTM A 416 is relatively resistant to stress corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement, due to the cold drawing process. However, since susceptibility to corrosion increases with

increasing tensile strength, caution is necessary if strand is exposed to corrosive conditions such as marine environments and solutions containing Chloride or sulfate, phosphate, nitrate ions or similar. Consequently, ASTM A 416 requires proper protection of strand throughout manufacture, shipping and handling. Protection during the project, before and after installation, should be specified in project specifications, details, drawings and documents. In recent years, various innovations have been developed in order to provide additional corrosion protection. Some of these measures include: Plastic coated strand for unbonded tendons has been widely used in Buildings, but not generally in bridges in the United States. However, greased And sheathed mono-strands are now available for cable-stays or external Tendon applications for new structures and the repair of old ones. Epoxy coated strand meeting the same requirements as ASTM A 416 is Available and should also conform to ASTM A 882 "Standard Specification For Epoxy-Coated Seven Wire Strand". Epoxy coated strand is available as An outer coating only, or as a coating that also fully fills the interstices Between wires. The latter is preferred for post-tensioning or cable stay Applications. Special wedges are required that bite through the thickness of The coating and engage the strand; power seating of the wedges is usually Required. Strand made from fiber material (such as carbon or aramid fibers) has limited application as post-tensioning to date. These composite materials offer Advantages for enhanced corrosion resistance, but lack the benefit of a high modulus of elasticity that is routinely provided by steel and which is crucial to good load-deflection behavior of

a prestressed structure without excessive cracking under service loads. Few manufacturers supply galvanized strand. Heating during galvanizing reduces the tensile strength to about 1660MPa (240 ksi). This strand is not used in bridges. Tendons in prestressed concrete structures do not experience stress cycling significant enough to induce fatigue problems. Fatigue is a concern only in certain applications such as cable-stays in cablestayed bridges where traffic loads significantly affect stresses.

Bars
Bars should be Grade 1035 MPa (150 ksi), high strength, thread bar meeting the requirements of ASTM A 722, "Standard Specification for Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bar for Prestressing Concrete", Type II bar. Coarse thread bars are used for most permanent and temporary applications. Fine thread bars are available if necessary for special applications. It is good practice to limit the stress level and number of re-uses for temporary applications, according to recommendations of the Manufacturer. In the absence of such information, it is suggested that for new bars, the stress should not exceed 50% MUTS and the number of re-uses be less than ten for applications such as temporary stressing or lifting. Post-tensioning bars are available in various sizes from 16mm (5/8in) to over 50mm (2in) diameter. However, for convenience in handling, installation, and removal and re-use in normal applications for posttensioned bridges, 32mm (1-1/4in) or 35mm (1-3/8in) diameter bars are typically used. Bars are not as easily damaged by corrosion as strands because of their lower strength, large diameter and smaller ratio of exposed surface to cross section area. Hot rolled bars also acquire a natural surface oxidation from the rolling process that enhances their protection. Nevertheless, bars need to be protected during extended periods of exposure especially in aggressive environments. Hot-dip galvanizing and epoxy coating are available for corrosion protection if necessary. OTHER POST-TENSIONING SYSTEM HARDWARES Anchorages 1) Basic Bearing Plates

A basic bearing plate is a flat plate bearing directly against concrete. Covered by this definition are square, rectangular, or round plates, sheared or torch cut from readily available steel plate, normally ASTM A 36. Basic bearing plates are used in conjunction with galvanized sheet metal or plastic trumpets to transition from the strand spacing in the wedge plate to the duct (Figure a).

Figure a - Basic Anchor Plate

For acceptance, a basic bearing plate should comply with the requirements of AASHTO LRFD Construction Specifications.

2) Special Bearing Plates or Anchorage Devices

A special bearing plate or anchorage device is any anchorage hardware that transfers tendon force into the concrete but does not meet normal analytical design requirements for basic bearing plates. Covered by this definition are devices having single or multiple plane bearing surfaces, and devices combining bearing and wedge plate in once piece. These anchorages typically require confinement reinforcement and should be accepted on the basis of physical tests (Figure b).

Figure b - Multi-plane Anchor Use of a special bearing plate or anchorage device is acceptable if it complies with the testing requirements of AASHTO LRFD Construction Specification.

3) Wedge Plates
Wedge plates are part of the anchorage system and should comply with AASHTO LRFD, Section II - for special anchorage devices. In the absence of any other specific contract requirements, in general, three successful qualification tests on wedge plates should meet the requirements of Section 4.1 "Wedge Plate Test Requirements" of "Acceptance Standards for Post-Tensioning Systems", PTI, 1998. These tests require that after loading to 95% MUTS and release, the deformation of the plates should not exceed 1/600 of the clear span and that the wedge plate sustain at least 120% MUTS without failure.

4) Wedges and Strand-Wedge Connection

Wedge performance is critical to the proper anchoring of strands. Different wedges have been developed for particular systems and applications such that there is no single standard wedge. However, all are similar. The length is at least 2.5 times the strand Diameter, with a 5 to 7 degree wedge angle and serrated teeth for gripping the strand. They are of case-hardened low carbon or alloy steel. A wedge assembly typically has 2 or 3 part wedges with a spring wire retainer

clip in a groove around the thick end. Wedges are case hardened with a ductile core, in order to bite into the strand and conform to the irregularity between the strand and wedge hole. In so doing, the surface may crack. This is normally acceptable and does not affect performance so long as wedges do not break completely into separate pieces. Often, it is only the portion outside the retainer ring that cracks. Performance requirements should be in accordance with Section, of "Acceptance Standards for Post-Tensioning Systems", PTI, 1998 which imposes quality control sampling and testing on manufactured lots of 3,000 wedges in order to certify Compliance. For acceptance of a post-tensioning system, the strand-wedge connection is part of the anchorage system and should comply with AASHTO LRFD, Bridge Construction Specifications article. In the absence of any other specific contract requirements, for Guidance, strand-wedge connections should conform to Sections of Acceptance Standards for Post-Tensioning Systems", PTI, 1998. These tests require that for each strand, wedge and wedge hole, thirty consecutive static tests and four consecutive dynamic tests, for which half are on lubricated holes and half on nonlubricated holes be conducted. Static tests are required to sustain 95% of AUTS at a strand elongation of 2%. Dynamic tests comprise 500,000 cycles from 60% to 66% of AUTS followed by 50 cycles between 40% and 80% AUTS without failure.

5) PT Bars, Anchor Nuts and Couplers

For acceptance of a post-tensioning bar system, the bar nut and plate is part of the anchorage system and should comply with AASHTO LRFD, Bridge Construction Specifications. In the absence of any other specific contract requirements, for guidance, for permanent applications, three successful tests on each size, type and grade of bar nut connection and bar coupler connection are required for acceptance in accordance with Sections 4.2,and 6.1.7 of "Acceptance Standards for Post-Tensioning Systems", PTI, 1998". This test requires that nuts carry the greater of 100% of bar MUTS or 95% AUTS, couplers carry the same with a central 1 inch of the coupler not engaged, and nuts permit 5 misalignment between the bar and bearing plate. Unbonded bar tendons should

Withstand 500,000 cycles from 60% to 66% MUTS and thereafter 50 cycles from 40% to 80% MUTS.

PT-Bar Anchor Plate

6) Grout Inlets, Outlets, Valves and Plugs

Grout inlets, outlets, valves and plugs should be made of polypropylene or polyethylene meeting the requirements for plastic, corrugated ducts. Permanent threaded plugs should be made of stainless steel or any non-metallic material containing antioxidant stabilizers and having an Environmental stress cracking of 192 hours as determined by ASTM D 1693, Condition C. Temporary items not included in the permanent features of the finished structure may be of any other suitable material. Attachments for grout inlets and outlets (also referred to as "vents"), including seals between grout caps and anchors, should be capable of withstanding at least 1MPa (145 psi) internal pressure. Tubes for inlets and outlets for strand tendons should have a minimum inside diameter of 20mm (3/4 in). For bar tendons and for tendons comprising up to 4 strands, tubes should be at least 10mm (3/8 in) internal diameter. Inlets and outlets should be closed with suitable valves or plugs. For grouting of long vertical tendons, dual mechanical shut-off valves are usually necessary to facilitate intermediate stages of grouting and venting. Inlets and outlets should be arranged and attached to ducts, anchorages and grout caps in a manner that allows all air and water to escape in order to ensure that the system is completely filled with grout.

7) Permanent Grout Caps

Permanent grout caps are recommended to provide an additional level of corrosion protection at an anchorage. Project specific documents should specify when caps are required.

Permanent (Plastic) Grout Cap to Anchor Permanent grout caps should be made from a fiber reinforced plastic containing an anti-oxidant additive to ensure an enduring, maintenance-free, life of 75 years with an environmental stress cracking endurance of 192 hours per ASTM D 1693. Caps should be sealed against the anchor bearing plate and have a grout vent on the top of the cap. Caps should be secured to the anchor plate using 316 stainless steel bolts. Caps should be rated for a minimum pressure of 1MPa (145 psi).

GROUTING ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

PURPOSE Cement grout is chemically basic and provides a passive environment around the posttensioning bars or strands. In addition, grout serves to bond internal tendons to the structure. In the free lengths of external tendons the principal role of the grout is to provide an alkaline environment inside the polyethylene duct. Nevertheless, complete filling of the duct with grout is essential for proper protection. CEMENT AND OTHER POZONAS FOR GROUTING The primary constituent of grout is ordinary Portland cement (Type I or II). Other cementitious material may be added to enhance certain qualities of the final product. For example, fly ash improves corrosion resistance in aggressive environments. The addition of dry silica fume (micro-silica) also improves resistance to chloride penetration because the particles help fill the interstices between hydrated cementitious grains thus reducing the permeability. The water-cementitious material ratio should be limited to a maximum of 0.45 to avoid excessive water retention and bleed and to optimize the hydration process. Any temptation to add water to improve fluidity on-site must be resisted at all times. Fluidity may be enhanced by adding a high range water-reducer, and HRWR. PRE- BAGGED GROUTS Grouts made of cementitious materials, water and admixtures batched on site do not always have uniform properties. This arises from variations in materials, day to day mixing differences, crew changes, weather conditions and so forth. Grouts made of only Cement and water often exhibit segregation and voids due to excessive bleed water. In an endeavor to eliminate problems related to grout variations and voids, several State DOTS have obtained greater quality control by requiring "pre-bagged" grouts. In a pre-bagged grout, all the constituent (cementitious) materials have been thoroughly mixed and blended at the factory in the dry condition. This ensures proper blending and requires only that a measured amount of water be added for mixing on site. A manufacturer of a pre-bagged grout may already have had the material pre-qualified by a State DOT or other agency. In this case, it is appropriate to accept it on the basis of a written certification; providing that the manufacturer has on-going quality control tests that can be confirmed by submitting test reports to the Engineer. The

certification should show the mixed grout will meet the pre-qualified standard. On site, daily grout production must be monitored by various field tests in order to maintain quality control and performance.

Thixotropic vs. Non-Thixotropic Grout

A Thixotropic grout is one that begins to gel and stiffen in a relatively short time while at rest after mixing, yet when mechanically agitated, returns to a fluid state with much lower viscosity. Most grouts made with cementitious materials, admixtures and water are nonThixotropic. Thixotropic may be exhibited by some, but not necessarily all, pre-bagged grouts. A critical feature of a grout is that it should remain pump-able for the anticipated time to fully inject the tendon. This may be significant for long tendons or where a group of several tendons is to be injected in one continuous operation. Some thixotropic grouts can have very low viscosity after agitation, becoming easy to pump.

ADMIXTURES
Like concrete, admixtures may be used to improve workability and reduce the water required, reduce bleed, improve pumping properties or entrain air. Care must be exercised to use the correct quantities in the proper way according to manufacturer's instructions and to remain within the mix properties established by qualifying laboratory tests. Calcium nitrite may help improve corrosion resistance in some situations by bonding to the steel to form a passive layer and prevent attack by chloride ions. High range water reducer (HRWR) improves short term fluidity. However, a grout with HRWR may lose fluidity later when being injected through hoses and ducts. Unlike a concrete mix, it is not possible to re-dose a grout especially when it is in the, pump, hoses and ducts. Also, HRWR tends to cause bleed in grouts. On-site grout mixing with HRWR is not recommended.

Other admixtures include:

Shrinkage compensating agents Anti-bleed admixtures Pumping aids Air-entraining agents The addition of these should be strictly in accordance with manufacturer's recommendations.

Furthermore, the mix should be qualified by appropriate laboratory testing. On site, daily grout production must be monitored by various field tests in order to maintain quality control and performance.

LABORATORY TESTS
Acceptance of a grout is usually based upon the results of laboratory tests. Laboratory tests on trial batches of the proposed grout using the same materials and equipment to be used on site are used to qualify a grout. Trial grout should be prepared by personnel experienced in preparing and testing grout mixes. This should be done at an approved material testing laboratory. All tests should be performed at temperature and humidity conditions expected on site. Trials should precede construction by at least eight weeks in order to allow time for testing and resolution of any concerns.

Setting Time
Grout set time is tested in accordance with ASTM C 953 "Standard Test Method for Setting Time of Grouts." The setting time should be more than 3 but less than 12 hours. The tested setting time does not relate to the placement or working life of the mix.

Grout Strength
Grout cube specimens, 50mm (2 in), are prepared and tested according to ASTM C 942 "Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Grouts". The strength should be 21MPa (3000 psi) at seven days and 35MPa (5,000 psi) at 28 days.

Permeability
Grout permeability should be tested in accordance with ASTM C1202 "Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concrete's Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration". A value less than 2500 Coulombs after 6 hours is generally acceptable when subjected to a potential of 30 volts.

Volume Change
Volume change should be tested in accordance with ASTM C1090 "Standard Test Method for Measuring Changes in Height of Cylindrical Specimen from Hydraulic Cement Grout". A value of 0.0% to less than 0.1% at 24 hours and no more than +0.2% at

28 days is acceptable.

Pumpability and Fluidity (Flow Cone)

For non-Thixotropic grouts, when tested according to ASTM C939 "Standard Test Method for Flow of Grout" the efflux time should be between 11 and 30 seconds immediately after mixing (Figure 2.1). After allowing the grout to stand for 30 minutes without further agitation, the efflux time should be less than 30 seconds. The initial lower limit of 11 seconds is intended to indicate that the mix contains the necessary amount of cementitious material. The upper limits are intended to indicate satisfactory fluidity for pumping. For Thixotropic grouts, the flow cone is filled to the top, i.e. above the standard level, and the time to fill a one-liter container is measured. The efflux time should be between 5 and 30 seconds immediately after mixing. After allowing the grout to stand for 30 minutes without agitation and then remixing for 30 seconds, the efflux time should be less than 30 seconds. It is recommended that some of the laboratory qualification tests be run at the ends of this spectrum. There are some commercial pre-bagged, Thixotropic grouts that meet all other requirements yet show very low viscosity (high fluidity) after agitation, resulting in the 5 second lower limit (ref. recent 2003, revision to PTI "Specification for Grouting of Post-Tensioned Structures").

Simulated Field High Temperature Fluidity Test

This is not a standard test. However, it was developed by the Florida Department of Transportation to ensure that a mix remains sufficiently workable for pumping under simulated site conditions after recirculating for a one hour period. The following procedure, taken from FDOT Standard Specification, Section 938, may be used for guidance: a. Perform the test in a temperature conditioned laboratory. Condition the room, grout, water, duct, pump, mixer and all other equipment to be used to a temperature of 32.5 C (90F) for a minimum of 12 hours prior to the test. b. Use 122M (400 ft, 3M (10 ft) of duct (tube) for the test. Use a duct with an inside diameter of 25mm (1 inch).

c. Mix the grout to the specified water content. Pump the grout through the duct until the grout discharges from the outlet end of the duct and is returned to the pump. d. Start the one hour test period after the duct is completely filled with grout. Record the time to circulate the grout through the duct. Constantly pump and re-circulate the grout into the commercial grout mixer storage tank. e. Pump and re-circulate the grout for a minimum of one hour.

f. Record at 15 minute intervals throughout the test period, the pumping Pressure at the inlet, grout temperature, and fluidity at the discharge outlet. The result is satisfactory if the flow-cone efflux time (standard or modified ASTM C 939) after one hour of recirculation is not greater than 30 seconds.

Bleed
The "Wick Induced Bleed Test" involves completely immersing a 0.5M (20 in) length of strand in a cylinder of carefully prepared grout and following a modified version of ASTM C940 to record the bleed water above the grout. A bleed of 0.0% after 3 hours at normal room temperature (70 F) is acceptable

The "Schupack Pressure Bleed Test" uses a Gelman Filter to retain grout particles and records the bleed water expelled under air pressure applied up to 0.34MPa (50 psi) .

Wick Induced Bleed Test Bleed Under Pressure Test (Gelman Filtration Funnel

CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1) BACKHOE

A backhoe, also called a rear actor or back actor, is a piece of excavating equipment consisting of a digging bucket on the end of a two-part articulated arm. They are typically mounted on the back of a tractor or front loader. The section of the arm closest to the vehicle is known as the boom, and the section which carries the bucket is known as the dipper or dipper stick. The boom is attached to the vehicle through a pivot known as the kingpost, which allows the arm to slew left and right, usually through a total of around 200 degrees. Modern backhoes are powered by hydraulics. A backhoe loader is a tractor-like vehicle with an arm and bucket mounted on the back and a front loader mounted on the front. A dedicated hoe on its own chassis is more properly referred to as an excavator. Backhoes are general purpose tools, and are being displaced to some extent by multiple specialist tools like the excavator and the specialty Front End Loader, especially with the rise of the mini-excavator. On many jobsites which would have previously seen a backhoe used, a skid steer (colloquially often called a Bobcat after the most well known manufacturer and inventor of the category) and a mini excavator will be used in conjunction to fill the backhoes role. Backhoes still are in general use, however

2) POWER SHOVEL

A Power shovel (also called a Stripping or Front Shovel in some markets) is a bucket equipped machine, usually electrically powered, used for digging and loading earth or fragmented rock, and mineral extraction - Design Shovels normally consist of a revolving deck with a power plant, driving and controlling mechanisms, usually a counterweight, and a front attachment, such as a boom or crane which supports a handle with a digger at the end. The machinery is mounted on a base platform with tracks or wheels. The bucket is also known as the dipper. Modern bucket capacities range from 8 m3 to nearly 80 m3 - Use Power shovels are used principally for excavation and removal of overburden in open-cut mining operations, though it may include loading of minerals, such as coal. They are the modern equivalent of steam shovels, and operate in a similar fashion. A shovel's work cycle, or digging cycle, consists of four phases: digging swinging dumping returning

The digging phase consists of crowding the dipper into the bank, hoisting the dipper to fill it, and then retracting the full dipper from the bank. The swinging phase occurs once the dipper is clear of the bank both vertically and horizontally. The operator controls the dipper through a planned swing path and dump height until it is suitably positioned over the haul unit (e.g. truck). Dumping involves opening the dipper door to dump the load, while maintaining the correct dump height. Returning is when the dipper swings back to the bank, and involves lowering the dipper into the tuck position to close the dipper door.

3) HYDRAULIC JACKS
Post-tensioning (P-T) is an increasingly popular construction method, but the concrete contractor will have to invest in equipment to build structures using this technique. The most important new equipment is

a stressing jack. Mono-strand jacks are most commonly used for unbounded systems when beams and slabs are constructed for buildings, parking structures, and slabs on grade. This type of jack has twin rams, a gripper block that grabs the strand, and a nosepiece that fits into the sheathing. The jack, powered by a hydraulic pump, pulls the strand outward from the concrete and puts the concrete into compression. An option that increases stressing accuracy is power seating, which uses a mini-cylinder that seats a wedge in the anchor Before the jack releases, preventing the loss of a fraction of an inch of elongation that otherwise would occur. With this system, a sequencing power-seating valve is required on the pump. Multi-strand jacks are used for bonded systems, which are commonly used for buildings with heavy-load-bearing elevated floors, or for bridges. These jacks are also used in prestressing applications and are equipped with cylinders into which the strand is threaded. This is much more difficult than threading the strand into the gripper block of a mono-strand jack, which has a nosepiece with an open-face design. In multi-strand applications, the strands are too far apart to fit the jack over the strands. Both types of jacks are either single- or double-acting. Double-acting jacks retract toward the structure as well as pull strand away from it. Here are some of the available P-T jacks and related equipment that are used for this construction method. For more information, contact the manufacturer directly or circle the corresponding number on the reader service card. Lightweight double-acting jack This jacks from a single piece of hardened steel and offers durable, lightweight, and compact units. This weighs only 38 pounds, has a 20ton capacity, and stresses 0.5-inch strand. This weighs 52 pounds, has a 30-ton capacity, and stresses 0.6-inch strand. These doubleacting jacks use power wedge setters to seat the wedges into the anchor before retracting. Both 6- and 12-inch nose assemblies are available, as are custom-sized assemblies. Precision Post Tension

4) TOWER CRANE
The tower crane is a modern form of balance crane. Fixed to the ground (or "jacked up" and supported by the structure as the structure is being built), tower cranes often give the best combination of height and lifting capacity and are used in the construction of tall buildings. To save space and to provide stability the vertical part of

the crane is often mounted on large beams braced onto the completed structure, being lifted from one floor to the next as the structure grows. The jib (colloquially, the 'boom') and counter-jib are mounted to the turntable, where the slewing bearing and slewing machinery are located. The counter-jib carries a counterweight of concrete blocks, and the Jib suspends the load from the trolley. The Hoist motor and transmissions are located on the mechanical deck on the counter-jib, while the trolley motor is located on the jib. The crane operator either sits in a cabin at the top of the tower or (rarely seen) controls the crane by radio remote control from the ground. In the first case the operator's cabin is most usually located at the top of the tower attached to the turntable, but can be mounted on the jib, or partway down the tower. The lifting hook is operated by using electric motors to manipulate wire rope cables through a system of sheaves.

Mobile Tower Crane In order to hook and unhook the loads, the operator works in conjunction with a signaler (known as a 'rigger'). They are most often in radio contact, and always use hand signals. The rigger directs the schedule of lifts

for the crane, and is responsible for the safety of the rigging and loads. A tower crane is usually assembled by a telescopic jib (mobile) crane of greater reach, and in the case of tower cranes that have risen while constructing very tall skyscrapers, a smaller crane (or derrick) will be lifted to the roof of the completed tower to dismantle the tower crane afterwards. A self-assembling tower crane lifts itself off the ground using jacks, allowing the next section of the tower to be inserted at ground level.. The exact percentage remains an open.

5) CONCRETE PUMP
A concrete pump is a tool for transferring liquid concrete by pumping. There are two main classifications of concrete pumps. The first type of concrete pump is attached to a truck. It is known as a truck-mounted boom pump because it uses a remote-controlled articulating robotic arm (called a boom) to place concrete with pinpoint accuracy. Boom pumps are used on most of the larger construction projects as they are capable of pumping at very high volumes and because of the labor saving nature of the robotic arm. The second main type of concrete pump is mounted on a trailer, and it is commonly referred to as a trailer pump or line pump. This pump requires steel or rubber concrete placing hoses to be manually attached to the outlet of the machine. Those hoses are linked together and lead to wherever the concrete needs to be placed. Trailer pumps normally pump concrete at lower volumes than boom pumps and are used for smaller volume concrete placing applications such as swimming pools, sidewalks, and single family home concrete slabs. There are also skid-mounted and rail mounted concrete pumps, but these are uncommon and only used on specialized jobsites such as mines and tunnels. The pump consists of a main cone into which concrete is filled through an opening at the top, which is manually closed with a self-sealing lid. Regulated by a control valve, compressed air is fed into the cone through two specially placed nozzles. The nozzles are positioned so as to create a vortex whereby the concrete is screwed into the pipeline in a continuous flowing action. The compressed air does not enter the pipeline but remains in the cone. This ensures a minimum of air consumption. Each time the concrete has been displaced to the bottom of the chamber, the air is exhausted and the lid automatically opens. The pump is then ready

for recharging. When the pipeline has been filled, each new batch fed into the pump will result in the discharge of an equivalent amount from the open end of the pipeline in a smooth, yet rapid flow of concrete (without fear of segregation) when the pump is pressurized. Cleaning the pump and pipeline at the end of the pour is a simple operation. A sponge is placed in the outlet of the pump and blown through the pipeline. This clears the line of all concrete. The pump is then washed out with water and this water is pumped through the pipeline, cleaning it and discharged to waste.

6) VIBRATOR
Vibrating compactors are used for soil compaction, e.g. in foundations for roads, railways or buildings. Concrete vibrators are used to consolidate fresh concrete so that entrapped air and excess water are released and the concrete settles firmly in place in the formwork. Improper consolidation of concrete can cause product defects, compromise the concrete strength, and produce surface blemishes such as bug holes and honeycombing. An internal concrete vibrator is a steel cylinder about the size of the handle of a baseball bat, with a hose or electrical cord attached to one end. The vibrator head is immersed in the wet Concrete. External concrete vibrators attach, via a bracket or clamp system, to the concrete forms. There are a wide variety of external concrete vibrators available and some vibrator manufacturers have bracket or clamp systems designed to fit the major brands of concrete forms. External concrete vibrators are available in hydraulic, pneumatic or electric power.

Needle Vibrator

- Vibrating tables Vibrating tables or shake tables are sometimes used to test products to determine or demonstrate their ability to withstand vibration. Testing of this type is commonly done in the automotive, aerospace, and defense industries. These machines are capable of producing three different types of vibration profile: sine sweep, random vibration, and synthesized shock. In all three of these applications, the part under test will typically be instrumented with one or more accelerometers to measure how the component responds to the vibration input.

READY - MIX CONCRETE -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Ready-mix concrete is a type of concrete that is manufactured in a factory or batching plant, according to a set recipe, and then delivered to a worksite, by truck mounted transit mixers. This results in a precise mixture, allowing specialty concrete mixtures to be developed and implemented on construction sites. The first ready-mix factory was built in the 1930s, but the industry did not begin to expand significantly until the 1960s, and it has continued to grow since then. Ready-mix concrete is sometimes preferred over on-site concrete mixing because of the precision of the mixture and reduced worksite confusion. However, using a predetermined concrete mixture reduces flexibility, both in the supply chain and in the actual components of the concrete. Ready Mixed Concrete, or RMC as it is popularly called, refers to concrete that is specifically manufactured for delivery to the customer's construction site in a freshly mixed and plastic or unhardened state. Concrete itself is a mixture of Portland cement,

water and aggregates comprising sand and gravel or crushed stone. In traditional work sites, each of these materials is procured separately and mixed in specified proportions at site to make concrete. Ready Mixed Concrete is bought and sold by volume usually expressed in cubic meters. RMC can be custom-made to suit different applications. Ready Mixed Concrete is manufactured under computer-controlled operations and transported and placed at site using sophisticated equipment and methods. RMC assures its customers numerous benefits.

RMC Plant Operations at site

ADVANTAGES OF RMC OVER SITE MIX CONCRETE A centralized concrete batching plant can serve a wide area. The plants are located in areas zoned for industrial use, and yet the delivery trucks can service residential districts or inner cities. Better quality concrete is produced. Elimination of storage space for basic materials at site. Elimination of procurement / hiring of plant and machinery

Wastage of basic materials is avoided. Labor associated with production of concrete is eliminated. Time required is greatly reduced. Noise and dust pollution at site is reduced.

DISADVANTAGES OF RMC The materials are batched at a central plant, and the mixing begins at that plant, so the traveling time from the plant to the site is critical over longer distances. Some sites are just too far away, though this is usually a commercial rather than technical issue.

Access roads and site access have to be able to carry the weight of the truck and load. Concrete is approx. 2.5tonne per cum. Concrete's limited time span between mixing and going-off means that ready-mix should be placed within 2 hours of batching at the plant. Concrete is still useable after this point but may not conform to relevant specifications. Modern additives modify precisely that time span however, the amount of additive added to the mix is very important.

FORMWORK
When concrete is placed, it is in plastic state. It requires to be supported by temporary supports and castings of desired shape till it becomes sufficiently strong to support its own weight. This temporary casing is known as the formwork or forms or shuttering. The term moulds is sometimes used to indicate formwork of relatively small units such as lintels, cornices etc. - DEFINITION Forms or moulds or shutters are the receptacles in which concrete is placed, so that it will have desired shape or outline when hardened.

Once concrete develops the adequate strength to support its own weight they can be taken out. Formwork is the term given to either temporary or permanent moulds into which concrete or similar materials are poured. REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD FORMWORK The essential requirements of formwork or shuttering are: a) It should be strong enough to take the dead and live loads during construction. b) The joints in the formwork should be rigid so that the bulging, twisting, or sagging due to dead and live load is as small as possible. Excessive deformation may disfigure the surface of concrete. c) The construction lines in the formwork should be true and the surface plane so that the cost finishing the surface of concrete on removing the shuttering is the least. A formwork should be easily removable without damage to itself so that it could be used repeatedly

CLASSIFICATION OF FORMWORK
Formwork can be classified according to a variety of categories, relating to the differences in sizes, the location of use, construction materials, nature of operation, or simply by the brand name of the products. However, the huge amount of tropical wood being consumed each year for formwork has resulted in criticism from environmentalists, as well as the continual escalation of timber prices. As a result, there has been a strong tendency to use other formwork materials or systems to replace timber. The different categories in which formwork can be classified are: 2) According to size. 3) According to location of use. 4) According to materials of construction. 5) According to nature of operation.

6) According to brand name of the product.

1) Classification according to size Classification according to the size of formwork can be very straightforward. In practice, there are only two sizes for formwork; small-sized and large-sized. Any size which is designed for operation by workers manually is small-sized. Very often, the erection process is preferably handled by a single worker, with site work best done independently to avoid possible waiting times. Due to reasons of size and weight, the materials and construction of small-sized formwork are thus limited. At present, the most common systems are made of timber and aluminum, and are usually in the form of small panels. There is seldom medium-sized formwork. In cases in which large-sized formwork is used, the size of the form can be designed as large as practicable to reduce the amount of jointing and to minimize the amount of lift. The stiffness required by large-sized formwork can be dealt with by the introduction of more stiffening components such as studs and soldiers. The increase in the weight of the formwork panels is insignificant as a crane will be used in most cases. 2) Classification according to the location of use There are not many effective formwork systems for stairs and staircases. The complicated three-dimensional nature of an element involving suspended panels and riser boards, as well as the need to cope with very different spatial and dimensional variances as required by individual design situations, cannot be achieved by a universally adaptable formwork system. 3) Classification according to materials of construction Materials used for formwork are traditionally quite limited due to finding the difficult balance between cost and performance. Timber in general is still the most popular formwork material for its relative low initial cost and adaptability Steel, in the form of Either hot-rolled or cold-formed sections and in combination with other sheeting materials, is another popular choice for formwork materials. In the past two to three years, full aluminum formwork systems have been used in some cases but the performance is still being questioned by many users, especially in concern to cost and labor control

4) Classification according to nature of operation Formwork can be operated manually or by other power-lifted methods. Some systems are equipped with a certain degree of mobility to ease the erection and striking processes, or to allow horizontal moment using rollers, rails or tracks. Timber and aluminum forms are the only manually-operable types of formwork. They are designed and constructed in ways that they can be completely handled independently without the aid of any lifting appliances. On the other end of the scale, such systems are used in very large-sized and horizontally-spread buildings with complicated layout designs which require the systems' flexibility. Figures below show the formwork system allowing the incorporation of pre-cast elements and self climbing form with hydraulic jack devices respectively.

5) Classification according to brand name of the product Several patented or branded formwork systems have successfully entered the local construction market in the past decade. These include products from brands SGB, RMD, VSL, MIVAN, Thyssen and Cantilever. Each of these firms offers its own specialized products, while some can even provide a very wide range of services including design support or tender estimating advice. As the use of innovative building methods is gaining more attention from various sectors in the community, advanced formwork systems are obviously a promising solution. The input through research and development by the well-established formwork manufacturers is of no doubt contributing to efforts in these areas. LOADS ACTING ON FORMWORK In Construction, the formwork has to bear, besides its own weight, the weight of wet concrete, the live load due to labor, and the impact due to pouring concrete and workmen on it. The vibration caused due to vibrators used to compact the concrete should also be taken care off. Thus, the design of the formwork is an essential part during the construction of the building. For the design of planks and joists in bending & shear, a live load including the impact may be taken as 370kg/m. It is however, usual to work with a small factor of safety in the design of formwork. The surfaces of formwork should be dressed in such a manner that after deflection due to weight of concrete and reinforcement, the surface remains horizontal, or as desired by the designer. The sheathing with

full live load of 370 kg/m should not deflect more than 0.25 cm and the joists with 200kg/m of live load should not deflect more than 0.25cm. In the design of formwork for columns or walls, the hydrostatic pressure of the concrete should be taken into account. This pressure depends upon the quantity of water in the concrete, rate of pouring and the temperature. The hydrostatic pressure of the concrete increases with the following cases: Increase in quantity of water in the mix. The smaller size of the aggregate. The lower temperature. The higher rate of pouring concrete. If the concrete is poured in layers at an interval such that concrete has time to set, there will be very little chance of bulging. Aluminum as usual is not a very strong material. So the basic elements of the formwork system are the panel which is a framework of extruded aluminum sections welded to an aluminum sheet. It consists of high strength special aluminum components. This produces a light weight panel with an excellent stiffness-to-weight ratio, yielding minimal deflections when subjected to the load of weight concrete. The panels are manufactured in standard sizes with non-standard elements produced to the required size and size to suit the project requirements.

MIVAN FORMWORK ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------MIVAN has been used widely in the construction of residential units and mass housing projects. It is fast, simple, adaptable and cost effective. It produces total quality work which requires minimum maintenance and when durability is the prime consideration. This system is most suitable for Indian condition as a tailor-made

aluminum formwork for cast-in-situ fully concrete structure. It is formwork techniques gaining it important all over the world because of its advantages.

OVERVIEW Mivan is basically an aluminum formwork system developed by one of the construction company from Europe. In 1990, the Mivan Company Ltd from Malaysia started the manufacturing of such formwork systems. Now a days more than 30,000 sq m of formwork used in the world are under their operation. In Mumbai, India there are number of buildings constructed with the help of the above system which has been proved to be very economical and satisfactory for Indian Construction Environment. The technology has been used extensively in other countries such as Europe, Gulf Countries, Asia and all other parts of the world. MIVAN technology is suitable for constructing large number of houses within

short time using room size forms to construct walls and slabs in one continuous pour on concrete. Early removal of forms can be achieved by hot air curing / curing compounds. This facilitates fast construction, say two flats per day. All the activities are planned in assembly line manner and hence result into more accurate, well controlled and high quality production at optimum cost and in shortest possible time. In this system of formwork construction, cast - in - situ concrete wall and floor slabs cast monolithic provides the structural system in one continuous pour. Large room sized forms for walls and floors slabs are erected at site. These forms are made strong and sturdy, fabricated with accuracy and easy to handle. They afford large number of repetitions (around 250). The concrete is produced in RMC batching plants under strict quality control and convey it to site with transit mixers. The frames for windows and door as well as ducts for services are placed in the form before concreting. Staircase flights, faade panels, chajjas and jails etc. and other prefabricated items are also integrated into the structure. This proves to be a major advantage as compared to other modern construction techniques. The method of construction adopted is no difference except for that the sub - structure is constructed using conventional techniques. The super-structure is constructed using MIVAN techniques. The integrated use the technology results in a durable structure.

FORMWORK ASSEMBLY MIVAN aims in using modern construction techniques and equipment in all its projects. On leaving the MIVAN factory all panels are clearly labeled to ensure that they are easily identifiable on site and can be smoothly fitted together using the formwork modulation drawings. All formwork begins at a corner and proceeds from there.

Wall Assembly Details

COMPONENTS

1) THE FORMING PANEL : (T&W - Identification for Top Wall Panel & Wall Panel.) This is the basic element of the Mivan system. This panel is used in constructing all the elements of the building. The size of the panel differs from element to element. It consists of an aluminum face panel, which comes in direct contact with the concrete. This panel is welded to an aluminum frame. This frame is made of extruded aluminum rail section. It has ribs for reinforcing the panel. The panel thus obtained has a very good stiffness to weight ratio. Thus, the panel is both strong enough to resist the loads exerted by the wet concrete and light enough to be dissembled and shifted by manual labor. The deflection of this panel is minimum under the working loads. Due to the smooth surface of aluminum, the finish obtained by using these panels is excellent. The aluminum does not react with the concrete hence there are no discolorations on the surface of the concrete. The surface so obtained can directly be painted, as there is no need for plastering or waterproofing. As the system is pre engineered, the height of the panel especially for residential blocks is such that a single panel spans the entire wall height. Thus, there is no need for vertical panels one above the other. These panels are connected to each other by pin wedge connections and by wall ties. (T) Top Panel.

The Top panel forms the wall face above a standard height wall panel. 600 T 475 is an example of how the component is identified on Mivans modulated shop drawings. The first prefix number indicates the width of the component i.e. 600mm, with the final set of numbers providing the height, in this case, 475mm. (W) Wall Panel. The Wall panel forms the face of the wall above the Rocker (RK) having the first pinhole always commencing 150mm from the bottom. 600 W 2050 are an example of how the component is identified on Mivans modulated shop drawings. The first prefix number indicates

the width of the component in this example, 600mm, with the final set of numbers stating the panel height in this case 2050mm.

2) ROCKER: Rocker is an angle shaped aluminium component. It is attached to the bottom of the all wall panels. The main function of rocker is easy removal of the wall panel during deshuttering. The rocker action results in the panel pivoting freely at the wall to floor joint. This eliminates the possibility of damage to the concrete. This component is used to form the face of the wall at the bottom of a Wall panel and facilitates striking of the wall panel.50 RK 600 is an example of how the component is identified on Mivans modulated shop drawings. The first prefix numbers indicates the vertical contact dimension of the component in this example 50mm, with the final set of numbers stating the horizontal contact dimension, in this case, 600mm long. 3) KICKER: Kicker is a C section made up of aluminium. It has equally spaced holes on either flanges. Holes are also present on the web but are widely spaced compared to the holes on the flanges. Kickers used for slabs do not have holes on one of the flange. The assembling of form work components on the external surface begins with the placing of the kicker. The kicker is held in position by bolts. These bolts are cast in to the wall of the lower floors during concreting. The kicker thus forms the base for raising the entire formwork on it. The kickers are connected to each other by means of cover plate having a pin wedge connection. The connection between forming panels and a cover plates is a simple pin wedge connection. Kickers are placed at the bottom as well as at the top. The top kicker has bolt positioned which, on concreting of the slab get embedded in to the concrete.

4) PROPS
The prop is erected in such a way that it is directly in touch with the concrete and it is not below the shuttering as in conventional formwork. The props stay in continues contact with the concrete even while the wall and floor slab panels are being removed. These props are not adjustable i.e. they have a fix height: this is possible since the entire system has been pre designed. The top portion of the prop has a trapezoidal elevation. The entire prop is made up of aluminum

COMPONENTS USED FOR CONNECTIONS

1) PIN AND WEDGES Pin wedge connection is the simplest of all connections. The pin has a circular head and a tapering body. The body of the pin has a slot for driving the wedge through it. The wedge has a trapezoidal elevation. The longer edge has a length more then the length of the slot. The pin

wedge connection is used for connecting almost all the components. Both the pin and wedge are made-up of aluminium. Some of the members that are connected using pin wedge are Kicker and forming panels Two forming panels Corner pieces and forming panels Wall ties and forming panels End beams and forming panels 2) WALL TIES The wall panels are kept at a fix distance apart by wall ties, specially fabricated from height specification steel for various wall thickness. The wall ties are rectangular shaped thin plates. They have four holes on their surface meant for pin wedge connection. These holes are two on either sides of the wall tie and a solid central portion. Wall ties are fixed with the forming panels during their erection. They are placed in position with a plastic covering on the central portion. The plastic covering is placed so that the wall ties are not embedded in to the concrete and can be easily removed after concreting. The opening created by removing the wall ties is then grouted.

ASSEMBLING THE FORMWORK In Mivan formwork system the columns, beam and slab is casted together monolithically. The following is the procedure for assembling the formwork:1) After construction of the foundation the building is brought up to the plinth level. The level of the plinth is checked for level 0-0. 2) Now the reinforcement for the ground floor is tied up. During the construction of the plinth the, bolts are embedded into the concrete. These bolts now act as supporting members for kickers.

3) The kickers are connected to one another by means of cover plates with pin wedge connection. At corners special kickers i.e. horizontal corner pieces are used.

4) Forming panels are erected on the kickers. They are connected to the kicker and one another by pin wedge connection. 5) The forming panels are first connected row wise i.e. horizontally and then column wise i.e. vertically. 6) At corners external corners pieces are used.

7) While placing the forming panels wherever there is a door or window opening bulkheads are placed. 8) Forming panels on the external and internal surfaces are connected to each other by wall ties. Wall ties help in maintaining the wall spacing and give rigidity to the formwork. Wall ties are connected to panels by pin and wedge system. 9) Similarly the kickers are placed for staircase and the risers are then connected to the forming panels of the soffit. Again inclined kickers similar to ones at base4 of waist slab are placed on top of the risers. The formwork of the railing on the kicker up to the slab. 10) Thus the entire wall and staircase formwork is ready.

11) Props and End beams are then placed on the top of the kickers and connected to the props. 12) The forming panels for the slab are then positioned with the help of the top kickers and end beams. 13) Reinforcement for the slab is then tied. The formwork is now ready for construction. ADVANTAGES OF MIVAN FORMWORK

The Formwork is specifically designed to allow rapid construction on all types of architectural layouts. Total system forms the complete concrete structure Custom designed to suit project requirements Unsurpassed construction speed High quality finish Cost effective Panels can be re used up to 250 times Erected using unskilled labor