DUSL ROHADEL ALI AND THE DEVELOP? 'ANT OF PA21-AF11IC.

'iNISM

1866 - 1945

VOLUME I

Ian Duffield

Ph. D. Thesis

Edinburgh

University

October

1971

BEST COPY

AVAILABLE
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CONTENTS

VOLUME I

Acknowledgements Summary Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter I II III IV Urigin Actor, and Family Journalist for and traveller Luse Mohamed all Times Origins ; : Policies, Influence and Orient 1882-1909 1909-1912 review 1912-1920

pp. pp" pp.

i-iii iv-vi 1-22

pp. 23-55
pp. pp. pp. pp. pp. 86-168 170-415 171-226

A New .ige The African fart Part Part I. II III

t. nd Organisation Campaigns and Impact and Causes

227-369
370-415

Illustrations:
vuae Mohamed All iuse Cover Mohamed Ali design of as a young in 1911. Tires and Orient Resources and Orient cartoon Review Development Review from the p. 268 man, aged about 34. p. p. p. 56 169 178

African

"The Tight Committee

Squeeze" Anti-Empire from Africa cartoon

p.

264

"The Ootopus" Anti-Lord Leverhulme Africa Review and Orient

i.

ACX11OWLEDCLNENT

This

thesis

owes its of the

origin

to of

a suggestion history,

to

the

writer

by Professor that

G. A. Sheppereon despite his

Department

Edinburgh would that

University, provide time, help, this of could

seeming subject has given despite

obscurity, for the

Duse Mohamed All, Since

a fascinating Professor encouragement generously Pan-Africaniam, never

and fruitful Sheppereon and advice, provided black

a dissertation. writer constant on his

and invaluable time. profound Without

the many calls Professor

access

to

Shepperson'a

knowledge this work

American

history,

and African

Nationalism,

have made serious African provided information History the vital

progress.

Likewise

1'. r.

Christopher

Fyfe,

Reader in

in the University help of incisive

of Fdinburgh, criticism, especially believes

has always most generougly and a great wealth of of

on the West African, The writer

Sierra-Leonean

connections

Duce Mohamed Ali. fortunate in having will

himself

to have been exceptionally

two such supervisors. always be grateful University to Mr. Bernard Mafeni, of the Dorothy, in Nigeria, they not have Obafemi

The writer Department for for

of Phonetics,

of Ibadan,

and to his wife

the extraordinary their unstinting him, without The writer Chief

care they took to help him to find hospitality, and for

hie feet

the many introductions in West Africa informants could

afforded proceeded. Awolowo;

which his research remembers his

Nigerian

Chief -

Anthony Enahoro; Alhajji

Barrister

S. Y. Eke;

Mr. H. Odumewu; Chief T. A. and

Mr. A. K. Dieu; Doherty; patience

L. B. Agueto;

Oba Samuel Akisanya; - for

Mr. Oged Macaulay; with

and Dr. 0. Oruwariyo

the kindness

which they answered his questions

and gave information.

ii.
Professor University as did J. F. A. Ajayi, of Ibadan, and his provided colleagues essential in help the Department at of History, many points, of Mr. Ibadan the Khalil library, in

and advice

Professor of

Adu Boahen and Professor Ghana during of the the benefit the Africana of for have They are out his writer's

K. A. B. Jones-tuartey brief stay at Legon. of

University

Mahmud, librarian gave the writer

Collection, insights

University into

Duse Mohamed Ali,

whom he has been interested Many correspondents given the immense help. writer would between single

many years. taken too the trouble for to answer all to for letters, and have but on kothatein

numerous

be mentioned, information Mr.

Mrs.

Amy Jaques and her between leads

Garvey late

relations for

I)use }Iohamed Ali relations Hughes for between

husband;

Andrew Theodore career L. dray,

information Mr. in

on the Arnold Lagos

Duse and his

father,

Rothstein; a journalist the

on Duse Mohamed Ali'e and ! r. for Bruce Wendell his

as of on

1931 and 1945; Public in

Schomburg

Collection, to

New York

Library, the J. L.

information

material

relevant

Dose Mohamed Ali

Papers.

In Edinburgh, contemporaries Drs.

the writer

was fortunate

in having

several

very able His debt to of this the

doing post-graduate

work in related will be obvious

fields.

E. J. Ling and J. Ayo Langley Dr. King took the trouble while following his

to any reader for

thesis. writer this

Dr. tion

to collect

much material States,

own research thesis

in the United could hardly

and without

help chapter
Langley by his of

seven of this

have been written.

and points, corrective approach. inspira-

has provided prodigous a political

information

on many occasions and the than usefully

energy

and output, rather

example

scientist's

a historian's

iii.

Another

contemporary,

Mr.

C4. Neil

Parson,

has provided

valuable

informa-

tion

on Duse Mohamed Ali's

Southern

African

connections,

especially

on

F. L. S. Feregrino. From the many research libraries that the writer has had occasion to

use, he would like

Colindale, the strict

to single

out the British

been helpful

huseum Newspaper Library,

and friendly far beyond

whose staff calls

have always

of duty.

Finally,
London, for

the writer
their generous

must thank
provision

the Department
of travel funds

of Education
over

and Science,
a

and above

substantial

maintenance

allowance

for

himself

and his family.

iv.

sUFJ ARY

This aims to

thesis, expose the

through milieu also

a narrative from

of

Duse Mohamed Ali's a particular of

life

and times,

and in which

Pan Africanist Pan-Africaniam to

emerged, 1945 than

and thereby set-piece three the of

to show other

dimensions

conferences chapters time the

and congresses. explore Duse Mohamed Ali's active Review life and developing with Chapter until one

The first opinions the deals up to

when he became a fully Times and Orient his

Pan-Africanist in 1912.

foundation with what

African is

little of his in the

known about in 1882;

Lgy ptian

family

background ris life

the destruction actor early Indies seminal the

family late

chapter

two with

as an

and journalist travels in

Victorian States, three

and Edwardian Central traces and South his

Britain, America,

and his the with West the with

United

and Europe; British left

and chapter wing

connections

magazine in

The NewAae in 1911, Ismail

between

1909 and 1911, his

Universal of

Races Congress Egypt from the fall

London

and discusses to the in debt Rothstein as well relating

political of

history Butrus in 1911.

of Khedive

assassination London it

Pasha, This

In-The work

Lend Of The Pharaohs, is the analysed Russian to

published great

and New York other English show

show the

owed to and the as to of

writers, conservative its

especially

Marxist Wilfred

Theodore

anti-imperialist, own original in Egypt States to

Scawen Blunt, namely in its the violent his

author's

contribution, in general for

British and attack oppression Nationalise

behaviour on the of

racism

British

Empire,

United

of America, by Theodore writing of the

and arbitrary Egyptian

Negroes

- strictures the

Roosevelt book.

against

having

provoked

V.

Chapters editor, political

four

to six

consider

his

life

in

London as a Pdn-Africanist man, between they attempt 3treet, . 1912 to not Review

campaigner Britain of his

and organiser, for the U. S. A.

and business Overall,

and 1921 when he left reveal only the as the importance place

London of but

headquarters, the African

158 Fleet Times

of publication Review, of

and Orient of

and Africa

and Orient group

as the

organising

centre

a complex and interests the "darker his

and interlocking business of either enterprises sections

political,

cultural, designed buss is

religious, to further

social the called

and associations, or the whole of his of what

Mohamed Ali illustrated,

races". writings as is his

The development in his two reviews

own ideas

through

and other

contemporary between League,

sympathetic such diverse various

journals, movements Pan-African

organisational Nationalism, in London, the is

role the

as a bridge

as Indian organisations Egyptian United aspects decided This

All-India

Muslim

early

West African Movement, although

Nationalism, and black not neglectful for freedom, for

Pan-Islamism, nationalism of political in the

Nationalism, States. of to the pin It

Khilafat

shown that of the

struggle his is faith also

"darker

races"

by 1921 he had emancipation. general and the

on an economic shown to rest within

programme the mainly

race

decision in

context from

of a fairly West Africa

inclination black

that in

direction the United

by elements States. his to attempts, put these

community Chapter

seven discusses

in

conjunction plans in

with into the the

black practice, United similar States. plans

Americans during It the

and West Africans, period from

economic

1921 to 1931 when he was living Pan-Africanism, relates

shows their

conscious

them to

Vl.

of

other

persons, reason for

especially the

Marcus

Garvey

and w. Tete-Ansa, of all are such discussed schemes.

and suggests Duse as is

overall

invariable with of and his

failure Garvey Asian on the

Mohamed Ali's his in role the

relations

Marcus Islamic, views

in detail, cultural in

as an organiser United States,

and African race problem

movements society.

American

Chapter
for tion economic

eight

considers

the final
on his going

failure
to

of Duse Mohamed A1i's

Nigeria in his 1931; role the

plane

Pfn-Africanism of his

organisaof

and influence

Lagos

magazine who were post-war the

The Coxgt; to era; include

as mentor the leading with

a generation nationalist Nigerian

of young politicians

Nigerians of the of

many of

and his 1931-45. about his

relationship

political

movements conclusion

period

The brief place within

makes general of Pan-Africanism

remarks during

Duse Mohamed Ali's lifetime.

the

world

CHAFT.RI

Uri9ine

and ianils

1.

Few Pan-Africanists ground than

can have

had a more colourful regarded

or romantic his

backas

Duse Mohamed Ali.

lie undoubtedly

background

being of some interest,

brief spread there Office summaries over is in to a full

for

he published
length 1902 to

accounts

of it,
on several to to

varying

from

autobiography, 19371. in a letter to

occasions these the accounts,

a period

from

In addition he sent

biographical 1919 in

information support

Foreign

of a claim from

be recognised M. I. 5,

as an Egyptian Yard Special

National2;

information

War Office

and Scotland

1.

The earliest biographical of these is a brief sketch in a provincial English The Hull Lady, for which Duse Mohamed All was then magazine, June contributor; a regular see The Hull Lady, Kingston-upon-Hull, 1902, p. 43. Next comes a letter in the influential of his published independent The New Age, 14th July 1910, p. 10, socialist magazine, in which, inter he outlined his family's alia, connections with Arabi Pasha. Shortly that, he published information after about his early in the opening chapter years in Egypt and Britain of his book In The Land of the Pharaohs, lst ed., His article London 1911. Pasha" in his London published "Arabi Times and magazine African Orient Review, April 1920, pp. 5-8, confirms in these the information items. His article "Hospital Impressions" in the Nigerian earlier Daily Times, 10th March 1933, p. 7, mentions his education in England. his autobiography, Above all, "Leaves From an Active Life", published weekly in his Lagos magazine The, Comet between 12th June 1937 and 5th ?! arch 1938 is the major single source for the early of period his life, too. and indeed for all other periods Duse Mohamed All to lit. Hon. A. J. Balfour, ". 9th Aug. 1919,1". 0.371/3726/114805/19. Affairs, of 5. for Foreign

2.

2.

Branch Dr.

files

of

the

Great

N'ar era3; in in

a biographical his west African

sketch Pilot Diaries5; again

written in

by

hnamdi

Azikiwe tribute4; to

and published information the Colonial

1943 as and information

a birthday about First lack

'w.S. Blunt's Offices, M. k'. but 6

him given '*orld of

and Foreign Herbert, years,

during is

the no this

r+ar, by Colonel about

Aubrey his early

Thus there other

information

on the

hand

3.

in 1. Nathan, Vide confidential report on Duse Mohamed, enclosed P. 0.371/2355/15047/15; I. 5(g), F..., 7/2/1914, 'ri. ., to G. Clarke, .. F. O., 13th Aug. Col. J. r'. Carter, Scotland House to l:. Loder, and 1919, enclosing copy of report on Dune Mohamed by Supt. P. .juinn, Brunch, New Scotland Yard, 27/3/1916, in 1.0.371/3728/114805/19. Special first The first Duse Mohamed Ali's of these documents summarises "He was born in rgypt twenty years thus; in 18,66 and when ten years He of age came to London with a Frenchman named Duse now deceased. London, in 1883 and tilen his education completed at Kings College, He then went to to Egypt where he remained 1886. till returned States " But though this the United is said to be his own ... it cannot be accepted for a number of reasons. account, as accurate it cannot be squared with his own account Firstly, of his career discussed in the following which had stage, chapter, on the British in a 'walk-on' him appearing at the Royal part in the play Claudian Theatre, Princess's London. This play was staged between 6th Dec. (See Chapter thesis, II of this 1883 and 10th Dec. 1884. notes 2 It is most unlikely this that he merely invented story, and 3). Secondly, this the unimportance of his own part. as he emphasised ':. I. 5(g) document contains evident errors about far more recent to the Christmas 1914 issue of his African e. g. it refers events, in Times and Orient Review, which in fact had ceased publication August 1914. Lagos, Nigeria, 20th November 1943, pp. 1 & 4. Pilot, West African is revealed in an appreciative Azikiwe's acknowledgement authorship This by Duse Mohamed Ali in The Comet, 24th November 1943, p"5. in the virtually article unchanged as an obituary was repeated Pilot, 27th June 1945. dilfred Scawen Blunt, My Diaries, one vol. ed., London, (1932), p. 759.

4.

5. 6.

Vide Aubrey Herbert Bull, C. C., 16th May 1918, in to Sir William C"U. 554/40/21897; between Herbert and conversation and W. Stewart Aubrey Herbert's at the r'. 0., 27/9/1; 19, in F. O. 372/1274/135061/1;. their relationship with Duse Mohamed Ali came about through mutual in Chapter V of sympathy for the Ottoman Empire, and is discussed this thesis.

S.
is first fron in the the form It is the this story that the

preponderantly decade other of

of

self-portraits. that

not

until of

twentieth

century

much verification till the second

sources

becomes possible, becomes substantial.

and not

decade of

such verification major from Yet 1945, source an Active in view we are of

The regretable early life, his

vagueness

on Dune Mohamed Ali's Life, the creates obscurity rather early value. was born in further that than

autobiography of his of

Leaves

problems, has enveloped otherwise Critical in

especially him since the amount

chronology. death in

fortunate his

information information

available can yield

about

background.

use of

this

much of

:)use Mohamed Ali

Alexandria

in

1866.

This

is

attested

not only
identity The latter sources for June

by his
document source are

own accounts,
which gives

but also
in of

by security
Britain during

files
the

and his
First

official
war. other Lady 7

he carried his date

norld but

birth

as merely of his

1866-1867, life in

more precise. the

The brief exact of date the

account of 26th

The Hull

1902 mentions month above only of

November the

1866 or 21st. Era. 6 Dr. Yard

day of Azikiwe's

the

Shaaban

year

1284 of sketch

1uslim with in

mentioned slightly

biographical from The Hull Birthday.

agrees

Scotland giving

and differs 21st

Lady version

November to be found

1866 as Duse Mohamed Ali's

The discrepancies

7.

but its been lost The identity book has presumably or destroyed, in CO 554/40/21b97. This, details essential are recorded and the documents listed in notes 2 and 3 above, all agrf=e he was born in Alexandria in 1.. 66.

b.

-ee note 1 above.

4.

in fact

these that

varying exact

accounts birth dates the

of

his are

birth not

are

probably

explicable of or

by the great the sigSudanese

considered (his in the

as matters people)

nificance (his tion to the ficate

among either people). and with date, it

Egyptians

father's era

mother's of the births, exact dar,

Tieing born no social likely procure If but its this very that

before

universal

registrabeing attached during certiclosed It was

or religious he did not

significance know it. copy it of

is

He did, his would birth be in at.

Great

apparently

a photographic document authenticity Nationalist was to

from

Alexandria. files; vuoc

survives,

Home Office obtained Ahmad laki for

may be wondered friend release subject

through 9

an Egyptian As its purpose

and comrade, Duse from the -

Abushady. of

embarrassment it could well

being

clausified Abushady his life

an Ottoman obliged after

- an enemy alien a birth certificate. not to

be that most of

by forging 1876 in

Also, one's found is very of

living date it of

countries

where

know he

birth

would to

be considered an "official" to this.

strange,

one may surmise as it the were. of the

that

convenient a wider

adopt

birthday, i.ven over

There his customs in his

surely birth, African date

significance

chatter

Duse Mohamed Alt i; uslim of birth

can be aeon as suspended Christian even his societies.

between

and Anglo-Saxon dubious, the Great the Great book) but

Not only in

exact of

name has appeared invariably

a number the the official form

forms.

Up to

nar he seems to have title page of his 'Ali' book

used

'ruse

Mohamed'

as in the

In The Land of being called of given

Pharaohs. status

During

war he added and thereafter the British

(lhie

by his

identity

invariably

himself Printed

'Ouse Mohamed AU. '.

Yet both

Museum Catalogue

9.

See note

2 above.

"

Book This Arabic against

and the is learned

Library

of

Congress

Catalog

give

his

name as Dust into is

Muhammad. 'authentic'

10

nonsense,

a pseudo-scholarly The evidence of his

'correction' signature his

transliteration. this his yet pedantry. 11

conclusive it,

I"ore

importantly, Muslim, entire

name, as he used and Artbic the British 12

expresses in origin,

predicament; he spent it to

black, almost in hie the

Egyptian life under as in in ruling claim a noble

speaking flag,

and as much or more of His being fellah Daily not father from is the said

United

States

Egypt.

have

been an officer

the

Egyptian but the

army, from a

dominant

Turco-Circassian the obituary from

class in

family. Comet that

This

contradicts

Nigerian family. " 15

he was "..

descended *

Egyptian

10.

Library Cards, of Congress Catalog of Printed 1958, p. 562; British Museum General Catalogue Photolithic ed., vol. 58, London 1960, col-41.

vol. 42, New York City, Books, of Printed

11.

dated 22nd :fiept. 1914 to lit. Hon. Lewis Vernon e. g. the letter 'Dose Mohamed' - CO 554/23/36403; Harcourt, signed or his letter Macaulay of Lagos, 12th Jan. 1928, signed 'Duce Mohamed to Herbert Pacaulay 7,1928. Papers, General Correspondence, III, Ali' These are the only two variants of his name that he used himself letters. Blunt, "He tells in signing me o.. eit., p. 759, says; that his name is properly Mohammed All Ibn Abd El Salaam, but ... taken to England by a Frenchman named Ducey (sic) when he was was This is the only example the writer ten ... " has discovered of It Arabic form of his name. him using the 'correct' expanded to do other than use the forms that he himself would be pedantic adopted.

12.

For information in the U. S. A., see Chapters II about his life VII of this thesis, Chapters Iin Britain, and for his life
Daily Comet, Lagos, 27th June 1945, p. 1.

and VI.

13.

6.

It

is

clearly

sensible of the

to prefer obituary

his

own more modest

claims of

to this,

the for

pious it

exaggerations

writer.

Duse was proud

enabled him to link

movement and Arabi

hie personal
Pashas

origins

with

the Egyptian

National

Said Pasha, the Viceroy, was responsible not only for Arabi ... The but also for his subsequent Pasha's advancement, ambitions. to advance Egyptian Viceroy desire proswas imbued with a sincere fellah to the Arab-speaking perity and at the same time to raise that condition that had been denied him by his of class equality for Turco-Circassian Said, among his other efforts masters ... the amelioration brought into being a scheme whereby of the fellah, Sheykhs were trained the sons of village of the Egypas officers 14 father tian army - my was one of these. Duse was well Egyptian army aware officers, that the tension his between father this new class and of of native Arabi of in the addition

to which

belonged was the It

which

became the nationalist

leader, explosion

and the in

Turco -Circaasians, in 1881-1882.15

touchstone that

Egypt

appears

14.

Orient 1920, p. 6. However, it Review (AOR), April Africa and Arabi, insofar should be noted that this passage is, as it concerns History in W.S. Blunt's of the of information a paraphrase . secret Thus, it 1 nalish Oocupation London 1907, pp. 13-31. of Egypt, backcould be that Duse Mohamed Ali created sounding an authentic by means of information about t, rabi career, ground for his father's by Blunt. provided and his milieu ibid, this with the concluding point at length, pp. 6-7, develops "... that the much oppressed Fellaheen were quick observation ... their to observe that sons and brothers, who could compel the disforce by the Powers, were a political approved of a Minister missal behind the fellah to be reckoned with, and might, with population them bring into existence that much desired consumation, an 'Egypt ' " for the Lgyptians!

15.

7.
to belonging society, receive of his

to

this

critical

element father

in

mid-nineteenth one of those

century selected

igyptian to writes It is that five he

Duse Mohamed Ali's an education father having in

was also At the all French England

Europe. at

events, Military rather

Duse Mohamed Ali Academy. than to 16 France

studied that it

therefore turned years for old,

surprising his son's

was to

education. Scots lady

When lluse was engaged this

Mohamed Ali to teach

was only him the

a "severe" l?

English belief }ngland, This acquired that his French

alphabet. that Egypt clearly the "...

Duse Mohamed Ali ... having sold

ascribed his

action in the

to nis

father's to

Ismail

shares of

Suez Canal Britain. " 18

would

one day be under have

the

control true,

Great

cannot shares

been actually

as Disraeli However, it

had not is

yet

Canal

when Duse was five. knew something education. at of the

understandable should Duse of Academy, education, name that that achieve wish the

a man who himself

outside

world

son to have a foreign Army, with

A friend, the French his It

Captain Military

whom he had studied guardian, in

was made and Duse were

Duse Mohamed Ali's brought him to

arranged 1U76.19 name, world

subsequent man's the

England

was this "owing if to

Mohamed Ali

adopted

as a first in the

fact to

there

so many Mohamed Ali's in the interest of

and,

I hoped

anything "20

my country,

my name should

be distinctive.

16. 17. 13. 11).

"Leaves ibid. ibid.

From an Active

Life",

in

The Coret,

12th

June

1937,

p. 7.

ibid; Duse (see note 3 supra) the M. I. 5 report on alao, says "'when ten years of age he came to London with a Frenchman named Luse now deceased. " "Leaves From an Active Life". in The Comet. 12th June 1937, p. 7.

20.

S.

Duse ? ohamed Ali's though piety his one must or father be wary

father of the

may have been a man of possible exaggerations Lady career, in

eome consequence, of either of his of filial life, a

self-importance. is described, but this at

In the the

1902 Jull of his

account

close

as Colonel

Nubian

regiment;

was not

repeated with

any subsequent

account was

and should, generally porter father being of his

therefore, particularly

be regarded careful of Arabi

caution. a picture He wrote of Arabi house; mutiny of of at

Duse A'ohamed Ali his father times 21

to give Pasha. supporter his father's in the

as a supof his Arabi

and confidant being "...

various ", ...

an ardent visitor at

Pasha

and of

a frequent father

and one source February lot

speaks 1881.22 Yard make no or false, as would

as being be surprised files, father's

concerned that which the were

*e need not Special mention these

1914 M. I. 5 and 1916 Scotland clearly based on interrogation, career. to 23 True

Branch of his

military which of

and political a man fighting sinister

were haraly

matters

escape

internment

an enemy alien,

and suspected

anti-British

activities24

Gl. 22.

In

The Land Of The Pharaohs,

p. 2.

those Pasha was a frequent house during to my father's "Arabi visitor (i. e., the final Pasha's regime); times" months of Arabi stirring Duse Mohamed Ali to the editor of The New je, 14th July 1910, p. 263. in For information 1881 mutiny, on Duse's father see T. P. 's -ue Magazine, vol. 1, no. 2, Nov. 1910, p. 189.

23.
24.

See note 3 above.

His actual and suspected activities as an agitator 1912 and 1921 are discussed in Chapter V of this in London thesis. between

9.
to advertise. or six, shortly Duse says tells the he first us that on Arabi again Alexandria since the his in 1876, at to

care five house But

set

eyes

at at

age of father's 1882. which a have that own)

and further prior to

he met Arabi of

British

bombardment education in

since

he had been undergoing all but bereft ...

England

had "...

" him of Arabic, his father,

he was "... via 25 French, It

placed was said

disadvantage informed

". ...

However, the

him about

nationalist in

rovement. playing

must be said (and his so,

DusO Mohamed Ali connections his credentials with

had a motive the Arabi

up his

father's By doing

Pasha Revolution. on Egyptian of Egypt Pasha, father's only but must

he established in the

as a commentator chapter of his history of that

affairs. from In the

Thus, fall of

introductory Ismail (London, to the

Khedive

assassination he asserted ample

Boutros his not Reform, This

The Land Of The Pharaohs with Arabi Pasha with

1911),

connection of coming of into

gave him "... many of knowledge A youth of of the of

opportunities of views Egyptian ... "26

contact a first-hand at

leaders their

obtaining

be an exaggeration 'first-hand' barrier

best. knowledge

fifteen

or sixteen especially defence century writer of in

would view

have of

had little linguistic it to

such matters, But twentieth black in

the

previously that of

noted. early

Dust

Mohamed All, was unlikely unless

should take

be urged the strictures

England seriously,

an obscure

he could

devise

some special

25. 26.

AOR, April

1920,

p. 2. p. 2.

In The Land Of The Pharaohs,

10. 27 English education was at as arranged first by his Guardian the and care

claim

to public

attention.

Duse Mohamed Ali 's his father's friend,

Captain of

Duse, England

conducted 26 of the he only in April

under

and tuition there is very

of a Church little in Britain.

Canon in about the

London. nature

Unfortunately, education told the that facts the age

information In his with the to

he received given of above,

autobiography, information that

together

1882 at claims that

fifteen

he was recalled education

Alexandria. with This a view

One source to his

his

English

was undertaken 29

eventually

becoming ambition

an Egyptian

Army Surgeon.

seems to

be a plausible

enough

27.

to take a Even supposedly t.nglishmen were very likely sympathetic towards his writings. and even scornful attitude condescending to Ahmadiyya, An example would be the attack made by the convert by Duse Mohamed Ali on the rarmaduke Pickthall, an article on Pickthall in The New Age. Question Egyptian used such contemptuous though "... imaginative, highly to say the least, phrases as; "... in good faith"-,, comic original and finely written evidently friends is that Duse Mohamed and his "The mischief "; regard ... when European education as a charm, and get angry with the English it does not work. " vide The New Age, 30th June 1910, p. 196. a motive Though such attacks might be said to constitute as this to Arabi his father's for Duse Mohamed Kli to exaggerate closeness in that direction Pasha, it should be remembered that he made claims he demanded attention on Egyptian as a serious writer well before vide The Hull Lady, June 1902, p. 43affairs. Life", in The Comet, 12 June 1937, p"7. "Leaves From an Active this man's name. Duse Mohamed Ali Unfortunately, omits to mention The Hull Lady, June 1901, p. 43.

26.

29.

11.

for

such a father

to

have had for on this behalf

his

son, At

but the

there

is

insufficient life in Lagos,

corroborating it was often in

evidence said

point. that

end of his

on his

he had received the Dr. disaster

a University which, as will be

': ducation seen, at to

England, his

before in 30

and after 1882.

overtook

family London.

Azikiwe

wrote

of

him as studying reference begun has made at King's age It this in rarer page of world it his and his

king's "...

College student

He himself

made a brief of "...

ambiguous barely author

days

" and the ... recall home in that

interruption 1882.31

studies this the

" by his ... basis 32 of

A recent

accepting fifteen

Duse i'ohamed Ali have

was educated early

College. to have is

However,

would education,

been a remarkably eighteen-eighties. of

begun a University that

by the

strange

Duse Mohamed Ali Nor does distinction

should

make no mention in those days

autobiography. more prestigious

'B. A. London' than

a far

now - appear in the

on the eyes of

title the

In The Land Of The Pharaohs, have added London there to the consequence between

although of its

would College presence Branch as

author.

A search no record

of of

King's his

Calendars as a student; without

1880 and 1904 reveals on the other at

though comment his to

hand !. I. 5 and the King's. It would

Special

recorded an old to

education the harmless

seem that his

man he succumbed

temptation 'honoris

of allowing causae',

admirers say,

assume that

he had a degree

- awarded

one might

30.

West African

Pilot,

20tH

Nov.

1943,

p. l.

31.
32.

Nigerian

Daily

Times,

10th March 1933, p"7.

2nd ei. of In The Land Of The

See introduction Mahmud to by Khalil Pharaohs, London, 1968, p. xi.

12.
by the mural certain tution, Lagos. some time It may be that while he attended in

people lectures is or that

of at

occasional London.

or

extra-

he was living education, to which be capable was well of

What is in some instia work the 33 as such

he acquired his

sufficient

either

through

own efforts,

of writing

as In The Land Of The Pharaohs, coloured world and also

received the British of via

by both Press. his the

by a large gives

section

Duse Mohamed All a man who had risen military member of is officially education the officer recorded

us a fairly social

clear

picture

father

from abroad

a humble to

background

army and a conscious less. states It

become a progressive, But of his mother

nationally he says and Dust far himself

class. that

she was a Sudanese

that: I am, myself, a cross between Arab and Ethiopian, my mother being Negress - the two human elements most a Nubian or full-blooded 34 despised by European ethnologists. and underrated
Presumably features. Egyptian army then It it would officer was from her that Dust took to at his find that dark a union time, skin and 'Negro' an of the

be hardly and

surprising woman

between in view

a Sudanese

33.

The New in The L.coteman, 16th February 1911, p. 2; e. g., the review literary Age, one of the most influential of magazines and political its day, was so impressed that it gave the book two long reviews for 16th February 1911, pp-366-7 and New Age Literary see the issues Su, nletrent 16th March 1911, pp. 2-3. being of course used in The word 'Ethiopian' here is interesting, important the sense of a black African, connexions semantic and having 'Ethiopianism'. The quotation is from In The Land Of The with Pharaohs, The source of official information about p, 274, n. 2.

34.

Duse Mohamed Ali's mother is his identity 21897. His mother's name is given there

in C. . /554/40/ records as Ayesha.

13.

fact

that

duty

in

the

Sudan would an officer of his

have been a normal of fellah origin,

part

of

Egyptian the court be

army service. and ministry more than It is

Indeed, connections

lacking

Circassian in what

comrades-in-arms,

would

likely

to spend reasonable gives He teils

time to

was certainly the that limited

a hardship information

station. that

perhaps

presume, his

from

Duse Mohamed All than in a slave. his that implies

about

mother,

she was a free overcame safety. 35 It

woman rather his is family less the her.

us that to

when difficulties the Sudan for

1882,

mother

was sent would

likely action

such care that

have been taken had a family

of a slave; in the

indeed,

his

mother that faced

udin to family, in his

receive or rather life,

The difficulties overwhelmed it in

Dune Mohamed Ali's turning point

1882,

were a decisive

as he

35.

Life", "Leaves From An Active in The Comet, 12th June 1937, p. 7, says; I "My mother and sisters to the Sudan for safety. were sent away their to discover despite whereabouts my efforts never saw them again, yus fifteen What efforts for a period extending over years. " me he does not disMohamed Ali made to discover his mother and sisters Clearly, the progress of the Mahdiyya would have created close. It may be for such a quest. insuperable difficulties virtually for fifteen that these efforts years, significant were continued the overthrow i. e. till period a suitable of the Khalifs - obviously In The Land Of for a final A review of Dusel Mohamed Ali's enquiry. 16th Parch Supplement, in The New Age Literary The Pharaohs appearing Officers. 1911, p. 2, states that his brother was shot by British This is not mentioned in the book itself nor in any other as yet Since he was at that time a fairly of his life. revealed account is most likely to The New Are, this a piece of contributor regular But this is, apparently, information by himself. given to the reviewer death in the bomby what he said about his brother's contradicted the It would seem that bardment of Alexandria see note 37 supra. Officers by British of the earlier story. was an exaggeration shooting But this is supposing that, on the one hand, there is some general in 1882, and on the truth in his account of the events of his life But as a non-Arabic that he had only one brother. speaker, other from the Sudan, he must have been greatly hindered living far distant in mounting time. either enquiries at that or any other any effective

14.
it Having been recalled at the British 36 from naval His in of England the city by the Sudan in

presents April

to

us.

his

studies

1882,

he was present the riots that Then his to

bombardment

and during the for in

followed. mother the

own brother were his father sent

was killed off to

bombardment. safety; Arabi and, Pasha's began.

and aietera disaster, 37

conclude

was killed

fighting troubles

axriy at In his

Tel -el-Kebir.

Now Dust

Mohamed Ali's

really

own words:

having all disappeared, because they were All my known relatives I found Khedive Tewfik's rebels all accounted and feared revenge, in my own land and was myself at the age of sixteen a stranger to return I had many aquainto England where, at least, compelled 38 tances and some few friends. Thus the uprooted again. ever have young Duse Mohamed AL, events from his already to some extent anglicised, to live was there he would speaking pith his intervals of

by these It is

homeland. that, in but the in

He was never for world February this of

almost

inconceivable figure to of the

calamity, English 1883.

become a significant tie returned parts

Pan-Afri of travel

caniem. in various

i ngland world,

England

remained

country

36.

In The Land Of The Pharaohs, of account pp. 100-101, gives a graphic (though the bombardment the horrors in rather of conventional language) breakdown of order, melodramatic and of the subsequent It is notable looting that Duse Mohamed Ali writes= and rioting. )p "He-11 with its furies let loose upon us" (authors emphasis seemed in Life", In "Leaves From An Active his presence. which implies The Comet, 12th June 1937, p. 43, he clearly that he was states present at the bombardment of Alexandria. In The Land Of The This information in the following occurs sources; Pharaohs, Life", in The Cornet, 12th June "Leaves From An Active p. 2; 1937, p. 7; L(ty, Pilot, The Hull June 1902, p. 43; West African 20th November 1943, p. 1. "Leaves Fron An Active Life", in The Corset, 12th June 1937, p. 7.

37.

38.

15.
1921. doubt M. I. 5 and the on the Both Special of branch the

residence version, his life

until casting in

record

a different story of

authenticity baldly state:

harrowing

1882-1t83.

He completed his education College, Strand w. C. and in at King's 1883 he returned to Egypt, where he remained until He then 1886. States of America where he was em loyed as a went to the United ] 1898, when he returned to this clerk until country. But one must again at the bear time in visit in this mind the likelihood of an understandable extracted His giving seek from him,

reluctance, to connect speak from

information Arabi but

was being Pasha. though

himself of the

any way with to America, in

autobiography no dates, has him on the account man his

does return stage of

Egypt it

to Britain gives career, of

1883,

and then amusing

employment

indeed, early

a detailed, bearing his youth, all

and circumstantial hallmarks no sense failure must not of an old inflating

his

stage

the but in

enjoying reputation, Perhaps of

recollections and openly the moral that here

admitting is that

humble the

roles,

and poverty. commit the or given the error that

historian

supposing

a confidential compress

official

paper mutilate take with

is

infallible,

policemen they are

never

or unwittingly Indeed,

accounts into

by those great

interrogating. of Luse

one must early life,

account

complexity

Mohamed Ali's

no regular

employment

39.

To +(ilfred Blunt, wee note 3 su', ra. in 1911, he said that he left Egypt in 183; In In The Land Of The Pharaohs, see op. cit. p. 759. (I) practically in England. " 2, he wrote; "Since 1864 ... resided p. Of these, Blunt's is the only one which chronologically version accords with what Duse wrote about his earliest stage appearance, the run of which began on 6th which was in a London production December 1883. For details of his stage and other aspects of this thesis. career, see Chapter II of this

16.
Beyond that, it is under likely

and many changes he himself police at

of

residence. frightened and might to is correct quite accounts they must

only

too

that to

was worried, 40

and confused have

what garbled of

amounted the

harassment, not

well the

unwittingly for fear

story

points,

liking As there

record

giving

a shifty

impression. supporting actor's instance. How far years " which most force for in of his life, his

substantial that

circumstantial Egypt as the for

evidence London, and an in this

published in 1883,

he left

be regarded

more accurate

may Duse Mohamed Ali's life of position the whole be trusted?

story are story

of

the

first

sixteen

or

so on the some

There

indeed

some general

grounds To take

suspicion nostile that

Duse Mohamed A1i's in tale relation of his

may be based. it is

to his early

story,

may be alleged

with

years

a fiction. consequence an imposture

The motive to a man who would be of politics and

such a fiction fact to was of

would

presumably

be to give such

humble

or obscure to to it

origin.

value

one who wished a Claim against the to

be accepted the is sympathy clear above,

as an authority of that Africans,

on Egyptian Afro-Americans

and to establish Asians. substantially claiming Africanist. to be addressed Yet

this

Duse Mohamed Ali years before

was giving he was Panwritings but early as we life

account

related

several

be an authority His to In

on Egypt

or had any role the appear

as an active first till of his

The Land Of The Pharaohs, wider public, the to did not

the

1911, of his

have

seen The Hull as June

Lady published 1902. However,

essential pursue the

details major

as early

objection

to his

4; '.

Duse Mohamed Ali's discussed are fully

during relations with the police in Chapter V of this thesis.

the

Great

war

17.
identity and a further
Duse his in

story,
false the and

an alternative
one can be

reason
Ali's

for

constructing
connections friendships the at

a
with in it, for

suggested. world,

Mohamed

strong of could it,

fro-American . periods of that

intimate the United an

knowledge States

residence

be made There

basis least

an argument

he was himself

Afro-kmerican.

are

two major claiming to

instances some specific to Islay that of of then. (the in

in

the

New World which the Black of

of

groups rest

of of

people society of

of African is not

descent ready

iuentity These are so-called the cases

the

concede of clear

Rastafarians Muslims) groups, the of the case in

Jamaica, United

and the `tates. of 1

Nation It is

the

these (in

the of

creation

an identity or as their they

as descendants descendants respective have scale himself stigma found but

the

Ethiopians (in the

the of

Rastafarians) Islam), helps in

Asians

case

Nation

adherents to for

towards

self-respect society.

and human dignity Could it be that, simply

what

be a hostile similar

on an individual invented for the be necessary

reasons,

Dusel Mohamed Ali identity, in

an hryptian-Sudanese of being a mere 'nigger' chapter, the the

as a means of a white the man's

escape

from

world? of

As will a tarbush

shown in to protect

a subsequent himself

he found usual

wearing inflicted

from for

indignities Negro

on Afro-Americana, Association

while

he was working

Universal

Improvement

41.

The Nation both journalistic and scholarly of Islam has attracted The two most scholarly in the past few years. studies attention Chicago 1962, and Charles Black Nationalism, E. U. Essien-Udom, are; States Eric Lincoln, The Black Muslims in the United of America, Boston 1961.

18. 42 three

during spent

the

early his

nineteen-twenties. time in the United often 'real'

FurthermorE., following

Duse N, ohamed :, li 1862 working of as 43

much of in

decades

an actor For their in It theatre

Britain, purposes

the

states

and on the

Continent identities identity the

Europe.

actors

asoume certain than their original

which

may to

public the

become more assumed identity that

indeed, one.

time should

may virtually

eliminate treat

original

be noted etage, the

Luse Mohamed Ali's Ira

predecessor claimed education. education

on the

British royal

Negro American

Aldridge, University supposed

an unverifiable 44 This King's is

ancestry similar London are

and a dubious

Glasgow

curiously College

to Duse Mohamed Ali's and romantic, fragments of soldier-patriot, non-speculative fact

at

Egyptian evidence

father. to back up suspicions One is }1. P., written in the in 1918.45

There that letter support

Luse Mohamed Ali by his of his

may in

have been an Afro-American. the Hon. Aubrey Herbert British

aquaintance, attempt to

Colonel obtain

a permit

to visit

Nest Africa

42.

It has been widely that the wearing or Oriental of African noticed dress gives a measure of protection from racial to dark affront to the United States. description A recent visitors skinned may John Pepper be found in the work of the Nigerian poet ana playwright, Clark, who tells us that while he was a visiting student at Princeton, dress. he was advised the South unless not to visit wearing African horrion 1964, pp"198-199. Their Amerie... America, vide .; . P. Clark,

43.
44.

vide

Chapter

III

of this

thesis.
Stock, Ira Aldridge, The Ne.rroTragedian,

Herbert London

Marshall and Mildred 1959, p. 49. Herbert, M. P.,

45.

Hon. Sir Aubrey C. 0. /554/40/21897.

to

Sir

William

Bull,

16th

Lay 191b,

19.
In this, Aubrey Herbert says:
i Duse

There is a negro Mohamed. He is by way of beine' called an I believe Ottoman though he is American born and subject, actually Turkish but he is, does not talk himself either or Arabic, or calls (sic). rrohameddan

In

1919,

in

a conversation

at

the claim

Foreign to

Office

with

W. Stewart

in

support expanded

of Duce Kohamed Ali's these remarks:

Egyptian

Nationality,

Herbert

be said that he believed that he was of negro descent, via America, but he was born in r,gypt and he claimed to be an Egyptian subject. knowing much of the man he could say that what he did without ... know of him was in his favour. 46 The tone much less borne in of these than excerpts is of enough to --how that Aubrey It time status for entailed about to divert i: erbert should was be

an intimate Turkish as it

i Duse Mohamed Ali's. was at the that

again

mind that Mohamed Ali, If

nationality gave him pretended

an embarrassnent of an enemy

to Dufe alien. reason, than

unenviable origin, it

he had merely surely Possibly (about the

Egyptian this

whatever more trouble Duse's possible

he would

have dropped Herbert

once

advantage. origin from

made his

remark

American attention

which

he gives matter

no details) of

official If that Afrohe

troublesome

enemy nationality. it is yet him strange that his

Duee Mohamed Ali should American

was by origin

an Afro-America, and stranger believed

Lave had Turkish friends should

nationality, have universally

to be an

46.

P. 0.372/1274/135061,

of 27th September 1919.

20. 47

Egyptian. till

Added to this circle in

is

the

fact

that

from

1912 - if

not

earlier

1920 his

London

included

many Egyptians, an Egyptian. and deception in this. 48 In over

and he was readily fact, if i Duse of without is no and

accepted

among them as being was guilty of

himself

Mohamed Ali his origins,

fabrication

the matter not there his

he was remarkably the British openly

successful Colonial

Although Offices, about

enemies, evidence parenta, his

Of

including that e.

and Foreign

he was ever Wilfred house in

was

or privately

challenged

birth at

Scawen Blunt, Sussex

dubious

who entertained after

Duse's

Duse Mohamed Ali of

his

country
The

shortly
about

the

publication
In

In The Land
diary he wrotet no of

Pharaohs,

origins. mulatto, unable

He is wore

an odd creature-, an ! gyptian but A Mohammedan, of Arabic;

but knowing he Says, to recite the formula

faith; historian an t, gyptian with almost no knowleage of a, -gypt. It reminds one of the 'L'ichbourne claimant, that who, asserting ..... he had been r>rought up a Catholic, Vary'. the 'Flail was unable to repeat the Blunt, tions perhaps emerged betrays a member of an old in both not from British the and 'county' : grptian family, society had the -ost excellent life, but connecwas

and political

man to appreciate His

one such as Duse r, ohamed Ali are not unreasonable, but may well

who had their have tone been claimed. and

obscurity. social

doubts 49

a certain but it

disdain. of that

Duse Mohamed Ali origin at least

an upstart, Indeed,

nevertheless mutt be said

ll-gyptian-Sudanese his story is

as he always a plausible

47.

There

is no evidence that Nose Mohamed All was ever considered as Thus the Negro newsStates. in the United than an kgyptian other him in an 19th October 1923, described paper the St. Louis Clarion, Historian the bgyptian article on his American business plans as "... Likewise the Birmingham Reporter ". of Birmingham and Publicist ... . the Egyptian to him as "... 27th August 1927, referred Ala., editor, See H. R. Moton Papers, General Correshistorian "; and traveller ... Archives. 1923 and 1927, Tuskegee Institute pondence, vide Chapter V of this thesis, op. cit., r,p. 475-88" p. 759.

48. 49.

Wilfred

Scawen Blunt,

21.

largely required nineteenth that or

coherent (iilunt

one which, notwithstanding) --gyptian , mericun

if

totally

or

largely

false,

would

have of

an exceptionally society of and politics. that era would but

good knowledge It

century

seems unlikely

an obscure that is

Negro of the

have hau such knowledge, born in Alexandria. life that can

he was descended nothing about

i. merican story In of all

Negroes his the family

here

and early accounts

be shown to be imLoasible.
or. his is that family, the hull there Lady ; Ili"; Jalec. then his is only

several
inexr.

and sources
This name as his of other his father's own

one of

almost June

licable his

discrepancy. father's book gives

version but Ali". his If is

1902 I

gives identity ili

"Abbas name as father's he

Fohamed "Abdul name,

norid Duse to

'war

P'. ohamed be cautious these

was unsure about two the

one

bound

information different

supplies are in

about fact jr

family. of

Possibly his form hand, 50 father's due "Abd Perhaps

apparently name -A rabic length given of as

names

components a shortened other blunt. cut off

full to the

names of his their

are

frequently full father's bereft became to the which of version.

given

unwieldy is

Cn the by 'n..,. and about become any solid

cl

: salaam" the speaking

name family

with

passage

decades, he the society in to

from

an Arabic name,

environment, to those in

confused he had of

an Arabic acculturated. evidence

so different Despite this

discrepancy, it would seem

and best

absence

to

the

contrary,

give that

i Duse Mohamed Ali his origins and well origin were

the

benefit what

of

the

doubt,

and cautiously them to be. Hekekyan I-. gypt, for

to There

accept is the

broadly

he claimed of

analogous of Turkish

authenticated who arrived in

case Britain

Joseph from

Bey, the

an Armenian purpose of

50

See note 11 supra. "Abd El the same name, transliterated

Salaam"

and "Abdul Salem" are differently into Roman script.

of

course

22.

acquiring on arrival,
tongue, engineer.

an Agliah by his
and 51 needed But if

education, return
an

in Egypt

1817. in
to

Though

monoglot

in

Turkish rother

to

1831 he had forgotten

fulfil his evidence duties should

his

interpreter at some future

as a Government emerge esta-

date

blishing All it from would

a different the roll of

origin,

this

would

by no means remove of serious of the

lluse

? ohamed Indeed,

P,in-Africanists to our

worthy

study. fascinating

rather of

add further the background

understanding

complexity

to Pan-Africanism.

51.

in Political Iustafa, by Ahmed dbdel-Rahim 6ee "The Fiekekyan Papers" . London, 1968, Change in Modern Egypt, ed. P. M. Holt, Locial and

68-9. pp.

CHAPTER II

Actor.

Journalist

and Traveller

1882 - 1909

23.
Duos Mohamed Ali's up of his maintained family condition on his return to England after one. Previously the breakhe had been

must have been an unenviable environment the necessity

in the sheltered

of some educational of supporting himself,

establishment, once his

but now he was faced with limited up his financial studies, resources

were exhausted.

Hence, he decided

and to seek some "...

means of subsistence

to give l The ". ... nineteenth a young man and the

word "subsistence" century situated hopeless however, that later skin fact, Britain.

has an ominous meaning in relation It would have been perfectly to sink into

to late for

possible

in such circumstances anonymous obscurity

destitution, Overt racial factor it

squalor

of the slums.

prejudice, at

does not seem to have been a serious in his life,

to contend with frequently

period years.

thouhh he came up against is not to say that

enough in

But this

the colour

of Duse Mohamed Ali's In

was irrelevant

to the way in which c. was to seek his living. e took up two professions, supporting himself first

Dune Mohamed Ali journalism, arose. him for

the stage and then as opportunity or

freelance occasion prepared cinating his pen.

by either

In their the future

different role

ways, both of these professions They provide a fasboth

he was to have. Pan-Afrioanist

case-history

of how an early

cams to acquire skills

understanding

of the race problem and the useful

of speech and

Dune Mohamed Ali

turned

to the stage at the suggestion his performance as 'Morocco'

of a friend in a school

who had seen and appreciated

1.

Life" "Leaves From An Active in The Comet, 12th June 1937. p. 7, says: "My financial although sources, ample for the time, were limited and inadequate to satisfy hence, my needs beyond a year at most, quite I was compelled to give up my academic studies and seek some means " of subsistence.

24. of The Merchant of Venice. stage life was linked Thus from the beginning Taking up his Due*

performance Mohamed Ali'a suggestion,

to race.

friend's

Dose Mohamed Ali a leading

sought and obtained

work in the company of His first part

Wilson Barrett, was a 'walk-on' Theatre. London.

actor-manager

of the time.

in C1 ua dien, 2

a Roman drama, at the Royal Princess's

The play was staged between 6th December 1883 and since he only it returned that to Britain nine months prior

10th December 1884.3 to the opening thoughts

of the play, education

is clear fairly

of further slave, It

quickly.

he must have abandoned all 4 His part must have been for the opening scene

as a black of the play. the exact symbolic

of which a number were required is worth quoting

the stage directions, stage debut,

which make clear

nature

of Duce Mohamed Alte

which ha great

significance;

the left aide of the entrance to the bath about twelve or ... (about two both sexes, but principally fifteen young slaven of others or three being black) - are arranged, some are standing, in front of them. Sesiphon the slave dealer is busy sitting are them to the beat advantage, whilst passers by atop, look arranging 5 at, and sometimes examine thes. There is no evidence this kind of part that Dune Mohamed Ali consciously resented playing only too

indeed, -

in the circumstances

he was probably

2.

For the text of C1audian, which was by Henry Herman and W.G. ibid. Willa, play mss., license no. 227 of 22nd vide Lord Chamberlain's November 1683, in H. M. mss collection. the vide stage' Chapter Cyc lonnedia , compiled I of this thesis, by Reginald Clarence, his London 1909, p"81.

j. 4. 5.

pp. 10-12'-for

education.

Claudian,

Prologue,

p. 4.

25.
delighted to do so. Nevertheless, this set the pattern for his stage

career,

in which he was almost of black men.

with Wilson

invariably

limited

to playing

unfavourable

stereotypes
His sequence Barrett him,

engagement of took taking

Barrett's first of his

company had the three journeys

important to America went

conwith as

him on the

Claudian playing

on an American the for same small Barrett's

tour, part.

and Duse Mohamed Ali 6 This tour

presumably in

can be dated the Star

beginning

Autumn

1886,

company opened at

Theatre,

Now York,

on 11th October for

1886.7

In America, of Barrett's

he found his tour,

Egyptian to

back-

ground an asset,
secure of a lucrative

on completion
engagement touring the

he was able

as "The Young Egyptian famous (as lecture agent of

Wonder Reciter that time, to who the

Shakespeare"

for

Major

Pond,

presented

many foreign

'celebrities'

well

as humbler

figures)

6. 7.

"Leaves

From An Active

Life",

in

The Comet,

12th

June

1937,

p"7.

New York George C. Odell, Annals of the New York Starre, vol. XII, City, 1942 pp. 228-9. This tallies in FO 371/ with the information ) (confidential Dues Mohamed by N. I. 5(g) 2355/15047/15 on report in 1886. States However, of his affairs that he went to the United in the United States baldly "he worked as a clerk this report says; 1898 when he returned to England. " Either this represents a until of his statements, on which this was supposed to be misunderstanding based, or he deliberately the complex story simplified of his life But it seems inconceivable between 1886 and 1898. that he can the various foreign between 1886 have merely invented travels _S_11 For this to be plausible, and 1898. motivation would have to be but his description is of hard times, of these-years supplied; degree can be ciroumpoverty and struggles, and to a considerable The present has therefore stantially verified. writer chosen to that his autobiography contains a hard proceed on the assumption the M. I. 5(g) report is mistaken core of truth, over the and that years 1886-1898.

26.
American in pocket; 8 At the this tour Duse Mohamed All "dark had $2,000 in as 9 the a

public.

end of to

he returned Coast

then

Britain,

and played Brighton,

parts"

various

South

towns,

including

Ramsgate called

and Margate, Sarah Thorne. to in

a member of If New world white political to the it

the

company of stage

an actress-mnageresa first his the introduced colour press it

was the (and

that

Duse Mohamed Ali itself a 'role' publicly to write - which his

showed him that it was through

was in that

society),

he first habit

displayed letters were

consciousness. press giving his

Apparently views on the

was his

Egyptian However,

Question at length

returned came. incident,

by the Gladstone

score,

unpublished.

opportunity

made a statement Duse Mohamed Ali six of gall. letters

in the claimed to To his the

Commons about to have press

some Egyptian

of which

been an eye-witness. dipped his pen, l0

He thereupon so he says, Unfortunately,

despatched in a lake he does

having all which were

surprise, in

published. these

not

say either

when or

papers

8.

"Leaves From An Active Life", in The Comet, 12th June 1937, p"7. For a brief "James Burton resume of Pond's life, see the entry Biography, Pond" in Dictionary XV, London and of American vol.

In the last year of his life Pond pubNew York, 1935, pp. 60-61. lished a work called Eccentricities Genius (London, 1901) about of of the many celebrities a selection who had passed through his It is to be regretted hands as a lecture agent. that Duse Mohamed Ali was much too humble a figure in Pond's success story to have been noticed in this work. 9. 10. "Leaves From An Active ibid., Life",, in The Comet, 12th June 1937, p-7-

19th June 1937, p"7.

27.
letters 11 break-through London 12 into journalists, It follows poor, other for print, Duse began and secured from this this to strike for his up himself financial drudthe

appeared. Following

this

aquaintances as a humble position gery of

among the 'penny-a-liner'.

work that

must have been extremely the lowest advice kind. On the

was journalistic from

hand,

he benefited of his called fellow Joshua

professional One of duced these, him

and comradely old

friendship journalist of

journalists. Pearson, intro-

an experienced

to many prominent Sala, 13 Henry

journalists

the

time, Scott,

including and "...

George taught me

Augustus

Labouchere

and Clement

11.

The nearest to dating these letters approach would be to place to the United States them at some date subsequent to his visit his autobiography which began in Autumn 1886, but beyond this Index To There is no record of them in Palmer's gives no help. This is of course not a The Times for the years 1887-1892. final of one of of The Times as a possible elimination publisher Index is an eccentric these letters, since Palmer's production, heavily on crimes, and in concentrating murders and executions less thorough. other matters Life", in The Comet, 26th June 1937, p. 7. "Leaves From An Active 'penny-a-liner' The phrase comes from the piece rate pay for those for publicaby freelance journalists that were accepted articles It may well be imagined from this tion. a young what poverty work. could suffer even when finding unknown journalist Himself, Sala 'Written by The Life and Adventures of George Augustus London 1895, givewa fascinating 3rd ed., 2 vols. of the life picture to Duns Victorian There is no reference journalist. of a successful to be wondered at as by the Mohamed All in this work, which is hardly 1880's when Duse would have first met him, he was one of the leading Bein Street. in Fleet side of Italian origin on his father's men (vide Amerindian op. cit. vol. 1, pp. 1-3) and of Brazilian and partly (vide descent side on his mother's op. cit. vol. 1, p. 4) it is perhaps To be kindly to the young Egyptian. that he should understandable Duse he may have represented of perseverance an example of the fruits had in one eye and in childhood over adversity, as Sala was blind (vide Sala's blind. travels been totally op. cit. v ol. 1, p. 13-17)

12.

13.

in many lands (vide op. cit. vol. 2, passim may have impressed Duse life. Mohamed Ali with the travelling of a journalist's potential (vide op. cit. Islamic tolerance His appreciation of other religions, of in his generation, may also have vol. 2, pp. 358-9) rare in Britain been a factor endearing him to the young Dune.

28.

all

I knew about

journalism " It

and was my friend is in interesting a workhouse, connections. in

and guide that

in

the

early Pearson

stages died

of my career. a destitute despite enough having could the

to note "... 14

Joshua

alcoholic having price

a despairing This

outcast

of

society", grimly Pearson, success life

eminent of failure

illustrates England. If Joshua

late-Victorian and at

good family descend so far, the

connections it young is easy

one time

professional how precarious that time. Even

to understand at

must have been for

Duse Mohamed Ali human-being dependent in life

to have survived ment for advance perhaps selves" motto least youth found style fellow their

as a self-respecting family world.

was a kind on his

of achieveown wits to was themthis at his he old

a man lacking himself over-fond as advice in the of

and totally If the later words 15

Duse Mohamed Ali those that help

offering

"God helps it should

to young sense in old

Nigerians, one which

be remembered to live by. life

that But, in that the to part

was in

a real

he had needed not seem to

as recalled uncongenial. among his 'Bohemian' members of last shilling to

age,

he does the

have found

He enjoyed fellow Fleet the to a past journalists, Street Fourth

conviviality and recalled

and comradeship with affection a loyalty and would

men who "... Estate, in however distress.

possessed humble, "

their with virtues school seem

a comrade era, in

But he saw these which 16 snobbish These "old

as belonging tie" journalists

replaced

by one in

indulged

"sham bohemianism".

remarks

14.

"Leaves

From An Active

Life",

in

The Comet,

26th

June

1937,

p. 7,

states that Joshua Pearson's uncle was a famous non-conformist preacher of the era, Dr. Pearson. 15. 16. Nigerian Daily Times, 11th November 1932. p. 3. Life", in The Comet, 19th June 1937, p. 7.

"Leaves From An Active

29.
to his indicate early that years England than in was more welcoming middle only in age. itself one aspect of Victorian to observe from low other life, such Daily to one such as himself in

Journalism but also

was not

gave Duse Mohamed Ali One that

a good opportunity

scenes. to the

he has recorded

was an assignment 17 in its

a London then

investigate public

Salvation eye through and the

Army dosshouses. the publication with

These were General of work to

much in

1890 of revelations

Booth's the condition

Darkest of the

England poor title

Way Out, forth of

and setting was, of

Salvationist

social intended

programme. British that benighted places of as as

Booth's Christian poverty Africa. a sort land

course, out of

deliberately the

jolt

humanitarians

comfortable to

assumption such

and human degradation le of So there African is a fine to His

were confined irony investigate view of the for in

far-away

Duse Mohamed Ali the little

setting

Stanley life.

known London inmates

hinter-

of dosshouse from

both

dosshouse

and staff his sympathy important the path of

was far for "...

favourable.

As for class who,

inmates, the most

he reserved part,

an unfortunate but

had held slip from the

positions of rectitude

who were disgraced which compelled "19

by some unfortunate

them through The remainder

shame to avoid he characterised

haunts

their

former

companions.

as "wastrels"20

17.
18.

ibid.,
It

3rd July

1937, p. 7.

he was that is a characteristic of Duse Mohamed Ali's own writings humanitarians of those British scathingly critical who presumed to 'native' but to distant on social give advice people's questions, seemed scarcely misery and exploitation at home; e. g. aware of social Civilization in his article Through Eastern Spectacles" "Western

The New Age, 4th February 19.

1909, p. 301. in Nigerian Daily Times

"Down and Out in London", Duse Mohamed Ali, 31st March 1933, p.?. ibid.

20.

30.
and "...
handed to

tramps who would't

them on a silver

be guilty
platter

of doing a days work if

would have 'pinched'

it

was
the platter,

- they

however, selves
Ali

as a matter

of course. "21 staved

of the

Like many of those who have themof destitution,

unless

successfully

off

the threat

Duse Mohamed
to have

was contemptuous

'down and out',

he happened

a 'human interest'
To collect docker, 22 his

story,

of former

riches

and social

position.

information, an "... out

Duse Mohamed Ali of elbow, absent

posed as an unemployed seated, outfit " ...

purchasing

from a Jewish old clothes

visit, of he forgot to wear 23

merchant;
old Four in shoes,

however,
and thereby later, Orwell's

on his first
aroused the

dosshouse
suspicion conditions Paris and

a genuine

inmate. those reaching 25

decades George

he compared

the

he saw with London, for less the 24

described the

Down and Out in that things

surprising as his Orwell;

conclusion own hardships the conditions

had changed he was seem un-

worse.

Perhaps than

were

involuntary,

easily

shocked

he described

21. 22. 23.

"Leaves From An Active ibid.

Life",

in The Comet, 3rd July

1937, p. 7.

"Down and Out in London", Dube Mohamed Ali, 31st March 1933, p"7.

in Nigerian

Daily

Times

24.

It Down and Out in Paris and London, London 1933. George Orwell, is not clear if Dus Mohamed Ali had read Orwell in the original. I encountered the book are; "... to Orwell's His words referring Down literary following coincidence culled from George Orwell's London passage in Pickwick which and a parallel and-Out in Paris and in Everyman. " vide Nigerian Daily are quoted by a correspondent Times, 31st March 1933, p. 7. ibid.

25.

31.
pleasant enough.
also

26

As well

as staying

at Salvationist
still

shelters,
in the

Duse
guise of

Mohamed Ali an unemployed Industrial the form

spent the

a fortnight Salvation the

investigating, Army institution

man,

known as Battersea given so-called payed work with in tokens

Home. of sorting could

There, waste exchange

unemployed and old 27

were rags,

paper for

and were

which

they

food.

Although
by its of the social Salvation "... rascals

giving
work,

it
yet

some credit

for

relieving
formed akin

much genuine distress

a very to unfavourable picture

Duse Mohamed Ali He noted

Army. as

a process

rice-bowl

Christianity, many the

whereby obvious

inasmuch 'got

'Salvation' in order

was a sure to secure

way to

preferment, in

saved'

easy employment

Army. "2II
Salvation

Thus it

may be that
in

his
his

experience
auspicious

as an investigator
hostility towards

of the
British

Army was a factor

religious
in hie

philanthropy
Pan-African

-a

hostility
29

that

was in its
these

turn

a component
may

outlook.

Furthermore,

investigations

26.

by snores until, pandemonium reigned, punduated and frequently 'lights Officer-in-charge out', when the night after would be forced instant " to threaten ejection vide "Leaves of the peace disturbers. From An Active Life", 3rd July 1937, p. 7. "The Salvation Army boxes, resting bottomless shelters were furnished with coffin-like floor, in which was placed a straw mattress on a clean disinfected duck, with a covered with black American waterproof carefully 'blanket' These bunks were set out in of the same material. " long rows about one foot apart vide "Down and Out in London", ... Nigerian Daily Times, 31st March 1933, p"7.

"...

27. 28.
29.

ibid. "Leaves From An Active Life". in The Comet, 3rd July 1937, p. 7.

For e. g., vide Duse Mohamed Ali, "Quo Vadis", in The New Ape, 23rd Christianity "(in Africa) February 1911, p. 388= with its narrow in its trail dogma has brought " drunkenness and aggression ...

32.
have the influenced Captain articles in to his charge "... his later towards Jews, he observed the best ... ". 30

well that

attitude

since

of the

Industrial the

Home despatched Jews, or his friends

donated

relatives

Journalism
Ali. but rather of

did
the

not supplant

the stage as a career

on simultaneously. work took place at the

for

Duse tiohamed
Indeed, his

two were carried Army social in the

investigation appearing Haymarket, 15th April the

Salvation slave This

while Theatre

he was Royal, 1893 to

as a Nubian London. 1893,32 character Jew. 31

play which

Hypatia ran from

play,

2nd January on him, treacherous effect on the in

undoubtedly of

had a great a rich, with in

influence crafty, great vogue

especially and production, by the great

through revengeful in the

Issachar,

Issachar melodramatic

was played manner then

that

ranting

stage,

actor

Herbert

Beerbohm Tree. play called

33

Eleven years RevenRe, from it

later 34

Duse Mohamed Ali a

wrote a one act plagiarised

The Jew's culling

which was in fact those parts

version

of Hypatia,

which dealt

30. 31. 32.

"Leaves From An Active ibid.,

Life",

in The Comet. 3rd July

1937, p. 7.

26th June 1937, p. 7. Nineteenth Century Drama, vol. II, Cambridge

Allardyce Nicoll, 1946, p. 622. The Stage,

33.
34.

5th January

1893, p. 15.

There is no Regrettably no known copy of this work has survived. However, a comparison of copy in the Lord Chamberlain's play mss. (adapted Ogilvie from the novel by the text Rvratia by C. Stuart of Charles Kingsley, of the action pub. London 1894) with the outline 28th July 1904, p. 12, makes of The Jew's Revenge given in The Stave, it clear Mohamed Ali's that bus play was a plagiarisation.

33.
with the the Issachar. title part of In The Jew's Josephus stereotype to play. hold power the Revenge, Jew, in Duse Mohamed Ali possible source, his inasmuch himself play played

and if its

heightened

anti-semitic desire his A. D. society, land. English interesting

found

as supposed the central

Jewish

by treachery of both

and cunning plays is picture in Egypt of

becomes in the the evil

theme of century Jews in native on the it is

The scene

fourth role own one but of be of

Thus we have both and a particular The Issachar/Josephus Stage, to reaching find in this his the role

a general setting figure to

Duse Mohamed Ali's is of course

an ancient Jew of the Malta,

back hoary

Shylock

and the

figure

influencing Clearly,

thinking this must

an early born in

Pan-Africanist mind to wider

formative considerable of

years.

when weighing attach context to the of

importance both the

Duse Mohamed Ali occupation of Egypt35

was later and the

Jews in

late

nineteenth

and early

twentieth

century

capitalism
similarities

and imperialiam.
between the

36

Beyond this

are the wider

as oppressed

issues

of the
on the

Jews and Negroes

peoples

one hand;

and American

Negro dislike

of Jews on the other.

37

35. 36.

vide

In The Land Of The Pharaohs,

pp. 62-3. (ATOR) London, July 1912, p. 2 by

1968, the

See African Times-and-Orient Review, and November-December 1913, p. 2. This has found a forceful expression

37.

in Malcolm X (assisted

The Autobiography Alex Haley) of Malcolm X, Penguin ed. London Negro anti-semitism in Chicago in pp-384,390-91 and 490-91. is discussed in Horace R. Cayton nineteen-thirties and forties Drake, Black Metropolis, London 1946, pp. 197,213, and t. Clair 249,435-56 and 635.

34.
If that stage from time to time acting provided it Duse Mohamed All is clear that with experiences whole time the when

were

intellectually life. in

stimulating, This must

on the so at the

was a hard

have been notably the

he was both In general, of actor,

appearing then 'resting' this

Ilvpatia an actor's

and touring life

Salvation insecure,

Army dosshouses. with long as a effecOf 'dark' black

as now,

was very For fact of play

periods black tively course, parts actors, in

between was made far

engagements. worse limited talent by the

Duse Mohamed All, that his colour parts. - even towards

restricted white

him to a very actors who had the But the overtly narrow

number might of effect

'dark'

any part society their

black-face. though not

attitude in

British denied

hostile,

common humanity, of Thus in the it is

by confining black not

them to

stereotypes. or of

These were usually a faithful servant. was spent 38

man as a slave surprising theatres, Carte, Sir recalled Drury that

or a buffoon a great to deal interest Harris in

Dues's such

time

hanging as Duse at in the the

around D'Oyly

trying

impreesarios Herbert for Sir

and managers Tres. Harris o'clock 39

Augustus working Lane,

and Sir pantomine till

Beerbohm Augustus or four

Mohamed Ali Theatre

Royal,

rehearsing

three

38.

A recent stage bears study of black American actors on the Scottish Negro and vide Edward Dixon "The American out these contentions VII in The American Negro in NineTheatre", the Scottish chapter Century University teenth bcotland, M. Litt. dissertation, of Edinburgh, May 1969. 1920, p. 11, records Review, London, January Africa such a and Orient "Leaves From An Active Life" Carte; in The Comet, on D'Oyly call 3rd July 1937, p. 7, records interview with Sir Augustus an abortive Harris at Drury Lane.

39.

35.
morning,
the stage

repeating
offered from with

a scene over and over again.

comradeship. to the At the end of

But like
rehearsals, present, 40

journalism,
Harris would

transform his cast

an "ogre" substantial

"most

jolly"

person drinks.

and provide

eats

and unlimited

The Theatre
to time, the adding

also
of

provided
rubbing to

the young Duse Mohamed Ali

shoulders with hard famous

with,

from time
no doubt

chance

persons,

thereby celebrities, Wilde,

glamour once in

a basically

existence.

Among theatre with in of Oscar the Wilde's of

1893 he met and came into of his career. Haymarket,

conversation

then

at

the the

height Theatre

They met by chance during led rehearsals from Dusels that if

Green Room of

Royal,

A Woman Of No Importance. origin in to the at Egyptian that

The conversation political situation least the

country not 41

- showing politically

active Oscar that been

politics merely

time

Duse was at ignorance of

aware. imagine

Wilde

displayed would it. at

topic

- one cannot that

such a topic informed

have either

interested

him or

he would

have

about

A more exciting the Savoy Theatre

- and highly with Edward,

significant Prince of Carte

- occasion Wales, (later

was an encounter Edward VII). 42

Duse Mohamed Ali

was calling

on D'Oyly

one day

(presumably

in the hope of work)

when the Prince

happened to make a call.

40. 41.

"Leaves From An Active

Life",

in The Comet, 10th July

1937, p. 7.

ibid., 26th June 1937, pp-7 & 13; "Oscar Wilde" in Africa and Orient Dust Mohamed Ali, 1920, pp. 10-11. "King Edward",

article also Duse Mohamed Ali's Review, December 1920, pp. 26-7. in Africa and Orient Review, January

42.

36.
The Prince, his homeland condescended to make some remarks Duse replied for incident (whether Arabi in to Dude, asking him about speaking battleway

and parentage. father's support This origins

a patriotic

vein, on the enough imagined)

proudly field in at which

of his

Pasha and death well

Tel-el-Kebir. his Egyptian of pride graciously

illustrates real in or partly himself.

the

gave him

a strong were

sense

and confidence by the had died in Prince, fighting

His that

declarations to

received

who said for his

he was charmed So this

meet a man whose father incident to the must be borne British the Royal episode not fix in

country.

mind when considering an important in eyes factor

Dues Mohamed Ali's in a trivial his political occurrence,

attitude outlook. it 43

family

Although

was no doubt in the

one sense of

was certainly helped to

trivial his

Duse Mohamed Ali, British Monarchy

and surely as benevolent

mind an image its

of the

and unprejudiced

towards

coloured

subjects.

43.

Duse Mohamed All, saw the British

for its coloured in the days of 4, of justice ueen Victoria subjects but he also noted with regret see The Comet, 6th August 1938, p"5; Crown since her day; in the power of the British the decline "African and Asian British subjects who ... are now suffering because of the denial, in practice, of the economic freedom and liberty to them in the Royal Proclamations of political guaranteed that the Government Queen Victoria should understand .. o ... ... the Lords ..., of the Electorate conjointly with the Representatives The Government has been usurped and is in the House of Commons. in the Shoaunate of the Premier and his Cabinet vested comprised now instruments by the Junta of the selected supported and pliant the successful sellers of soap, cocoa, servants of the plutocrats beer, tobaccor fur, sausages, wool, cotton, calico, spirits, pork, " See African bombs and coffins Review, Times and Orient ...

Crown as having

been a fountain

of the United

Kingdom is

no longer

vested

in the Ring-Emperor,

26th May 1914, pp. 218-9.

37.
As well in Ali of search also as frequenting and Fleet the London Theatres of (both journalists, of his time in the tell as a performer and

of work)

Street a certain was out

haunts

Ruse Mohamed at the House

seems to have spent Whether of this

amount

Commons.

of mere interest duties

political us. In

scene this part about Whilst glimpse

or as part

his

journalistic different in

he does not to

way he met two men who in in his life.

ways were

play

a significant - probably

At some time he went for Irish Dilke to in the the

the

eighteen-eighties interview Sir

1884-544 waiting of the

Commons to lobby,

Charles with 45 till

Dilke.

he was impressed

a brief An more in a

Nationalist

M. P. Frank oratory to

Hugh O'Donnell. but it

attendant than

praised

O'Donnell's later that

Duse, to

was not

two decades

the

two men were

become associates

44.

than 1885, as Frank Hugh This event cannot have taken place later O'Donnell, ceased occasion, who Duse Mohamed All also saw on this On the other hand Duse Mohamed All only to be an M. P. in 1885. in 1883, and it seems hardly that such to Britain likely returned few months after would have taken place in the first an interview Also in the Africa Review, March 1920, his return. and Orient "shortly I saw Mr. O'Donnell in the House p. 6, Duse states after from Parliament. " of Commons, he retired Review, "Frank Hugh O'Donnell", Duse Mohamed Ali, in Africa and Orient O'Donnell March 1920, pp-5-7. was M. P. for Galway in 1874, and for For a time he was a leading Dunvargan from 1877-85. member of the Party, Irish Parliamentary and an was a noted orator, a Parnellite in for India and Indian representation of self-government advocate Parliament. He died in London in 1916 - see John S. the British Bioaraphv, 1937, p. 183 Dublin Crone, Concise Dictionary of Irish Unfortunately London 1929, p. 790. Who Was who, 1916-1928, and He wrote a number of books, there is no biography of O'Donnell. Parliamentary is A History of the Irish of which the most important This work is more an attempted Party, London 1910. of vindication history. than an objective O'Donnell's later role as an anti-Parnellite

45.

3a.
variety it is of surely causes concerned with the rights of subject peoples. 46 to But an more who to

significant

to find The second

Duse at of these

an early encounters

age being was with Dadabhai the first

drawn

Irish

Nationalist. figure, M. F. British the for

an even Naoroji, Indian

significant was Liberal sit in the

the

veter:

_n

Indian from

Nationalist 1892-1895

Clerkenwell Parliament. 47

Duse Mohamed Ali another M. P.

met Naoroji Interestingly Irish

by chance the Nationalist work as

when visiting introduction M. p. 48

Commons to

interview

was made by Justin Perhaps such aquaintances

McCarthy, arose

another from

prominent

Duse Mohamed Ali's

a journalist. Duse Mohamed Ali

an to be elected that his as early political

was immensely proud to meet "...

British colour House of Commons ... ".

the first
49 This

coloured
shows in in

to the

as the outlook, this

1890's for

consciousness the in

was highly Parsi years

developed had little

superficially Naoroji

elderly his later

common with

young

African.

was regarded

46. 47.

See Chapter The beat Naoroji.

IV of this

thesis. Malani, Dadabhai

biography is Sir R. F. of Dadabhai Naoroji the Grand Old Man of India, London 1939.

48.

"Leaves From An Active Life", in The Comet, 3rd July Justin McCarthy (1830-1912) was a historian, novelist
as well as being an Irish London See DNB 1912-1921, ibid; Duse Mohamed Ali contested a Parliamentary the gibe from the late Constituency would elect Commons. " Masani, op. which were 'I doubt if Nationalist M. P., 1927, pp. 351-2.

1937, p"7" and journalist

anti-Parnellite.

and leading

49.

had first wrote that when Dadabhai Naoroji "... in 1886, this provoked seat at Holborn British Lord Salisbury that no self-respecting it in the House of a back man to represent cit., p. 263, quotes Salisbury's exact words we have yet got to that of view where point

a British

constituency

would elect

a black

man. "

39.
as the equivalent though an interview India of an "Uncle Tom" by more fiery the about respect of Indians of another 50 At all They

generation, events, discussed impetuousity" Unfortunately is another linking

he retained ensued

M. K. Gandhi. the first

a week after

meeting. with "youthful

and Egypt Duse talked

for on,

an hour with

or so - or rather making of early

Naoroji

"non-committal" this occasion,

responses. but it

51

Duse preserved small fragment the of of

no fuller evidence of

account of his

political subject

consciousness. races 52 interview was to Only be

This highly

together

problems his later with

the various political followed

characteristic personal

mature Naoroji

thinking. this

one further

encounter

a brief
called M. P. 53

meeting at the first

The Round Tower, This It part, play

night

of a drama of the Indian

Huntley Palace that McCarthy, Theatre, Duse himself a wicked apparent rebel! politeness son of

Mutiny,
Justin McCarthy

by Justin at the

opened

London,

10th

December a

1892.54 leading

was only that of felt

by ill-luck Sir that Rajah

was not

playing

Khan,

On this to

occasion, was

Duse Mohamed Ali

Naoroji'a

himself

50.

foreword See M. K. Gandhi, to Masani, op. cit., pp-7-8; between Naoroji division of and the violent activists see Masani, op. cit., p. 509. generation, "Leaves From An Active Life", in The Comet, 3rd July

for the the younger

51. 52.

1937, pp. 7 & 17.

demonstrated by the very titles This is most easily of his London Times and Orient The African Review and The Africa and. magazines Orient Review. Life", in The Comet, 3rd July 1937, p"17. "Leaves From An Active McCarthy had a genuine in Middle Eastern Justin Huntley interest literature, from Persian literature, a number of translations producing Perhaps his Middle from the poets Hafiz and Omar Khaiyam. notably interests to the young Egyptian. Eastern made him sympathetic

53.

54.

A. Nicoll,

op. cit.,

p. 467.

40.
largely McCarthy, sequently by his that of dependent father felt on the of the that friendly author. was "... " and "... way in It is he was received surprising inflated possess of direct that by Huntley Duse sub-

which hardly

Naoroji success,

somewhat did the in

and over-weighted that magnetism

Parliamentary men. "55 peoples

not idea

attracts the subject

Nevertheless, of the this review that people the Empire too

representation Parliament was in

the

Westminster

one which

excited

hopes

was to be taken years later.

up and developed It

Duse Mohamed Ali's that the he failed people of to India

London recognise but

twenty in

was unfortunate not election that time

Parliament of Clerkenwell, of

Naoroji

represented his

the that

and that

signified

no more than by party with

electors

Clerkenwell

were at

more swayed

than the

by race. eminent from in the the in the lobbies of the House of Commons of missing taking This in the was no

Hobnobbing was very life for likely

a relief

everyday 1890's. that the is his off

hardships It

and insecurity after to

Dusk Mohamed Ali part in slave

was shortly he was reduced Theatre.

a substantial part

The Round Tower, in part, Hypatia at

of a Nubian

Haymarket

more than exiled his in

a 'walk-on' such

and there earning was taken Oscar

an unpleasant living

irony

a man from although in the

circumstances This play

by playing April

a slave 1893,56

own country.

on 15th

a success, which, of

to make way for course, that there black

Wilde's

A Woman Of No Imrortance, for a black in actor, given

could actors

be no part never

convention

appeared

'whiteface'.

55.
56.

"Leaves From An Active

The Times, 15th April

Life",
1893,

in The Comet, 3rd July

p. 8.

1937, p. 17.

41.
The cumulative lance journalist beat in a decade of life and freewhich

effect was the

of

or so of

as an actor health,

undermining

Duse Mohamed Ali's

even at to live

was "..

a warmer important for

". He was given medical none too robust advice * ... 57 the impetus for a new climate, and this provided set of adventures, time to the which United took him to the Caribbean, to of final

and highly South India these return It is

America,

a second

States no exact possible of

and perhaps chronology to date in the his

and Hong Kong. travels in his

Unfortunately, autobiography, in the less

he gives but second worked it is half his

to Britain evident that

as being

1896 or

1897.58 world, yet It most

he more or

way round other with

accepting

hardship

when necessary for gratifying

and on the encounters took

hand finding prominent pleasure in men. the

more opportunities must casual of be said that

Duse Mohamed Ali of Yet such this

enormous and in

and transitory

meetings, too is

the

subsequent to the

pleasures

name-dropping.

perhaps

a clue

understanding

57. 58.

"Leaves

From An Active

Life",

10th

July

1937,

p. 7.

In Africa Review, June 1920, p. 6, buse Mohamed Ali speaks and Orient November 1892. be This must surely of being in Barbados in early for, an error, as has been shown, he was in London for the first it is also of The Round Tower on 10th December 1892, while night this further that by extensive stay in Barbados was followed clear Chapter. On the in the New world - see PP. 50-51 of this travels New York that just to leaving states other hand, he clearly prior tour, he was unable to persuaae Major Pond to book him a lecture as the Major was pre-occupied with the Norwegian Arctic explorer, Life", F. Nansen; in The Comet, 14th see "Leaves From An Active Nansen returned in August 1896 from his epic August 1937, p. 17. expedition and his tour with Major Pond in America polar of 1893-96, by that date. Another source, must, have been after an article Daily Times, 25th August 1933, p. 7, speaks of Duse in the Nigerian Perhaps all i. e. in 1898! his being in Barbados 35 years before, is that he had a very bad memory for dates. one can prove from this

42.
this his man, for society in it. began with of this an invitation to edit is from an Indian it must be realised relate to the the of his

of of

contradictory attacks to on white

that

strength early

strength

desire

be accepted new travels

His Prince, newspaper

supposedly Maharajah At are, least,

said in

to be the Bombay. There with, orbit

Cooch-Behar, is how the

a new Daily told in in his this and

story

autobiography. tale. belonged Sir To begin to the

however, is

some discordant a vast distance

elements from

Cooch-Behar of the Bengal

Bombay, Maharaja, of

Government. in London for London

The then the

Nripenda

Narayan,

was definitely well

Jubilees 59

1887

and 1897 and was furthermore have come across curiosity of

known in

society. visit

He may his realm have Bombay. 60

Duse Mohamed All by seeing other of

on some London Duse on the stage.

- possibly This not is the

was aroused

conjecture.

On the proprietor work

hand,

the

Idaharajahdoes conscious subject of with

seem to in

been a likely His only

a politically 'safe'

newspaper big

published a man of

was on the

game hunting, dawning

To import and political

Duse Mohamed Ali's to edit

background, a newspaper, why should rather

his

race

consciousness, radical place to act. set

would the than

have been a chose where he

conspicuously Bombay as the

Moreover, up his paper,

Maharajah Calcutta,

59.

For biographical information Sir Nripenda Narayan, on Maharajah see London 1893, pp. The Golden Book of India, Sir Robert Lethbridge, I, 4th ed. London 1953, p"154; 269-70; Who 'des Who, vol, k. B", 11th ed. vol. For the Maharajah's XIV, p. 382 and vol. XV, p. 937. Life", in to Duse, see "Leaves From An Active supposed invitation Comet, The 10th July 1937, p. 7. Sir Nripenda Cooch-Behar. Thirty-Seven Narayan, the Duars. and Assam, Years of Big Game Shooting London and Bombay, 1908. in

60.

43.
had a residence discourtesy in the and presumably influence? the Why should ladies Nripenda Sir of the Duse write Maharajah's does not be of the palace appear

of Anglo-Indian of

women to

context

Bombay shops, there?

when Sir

Narayan Nripenda

to have had a residence

Why should

Narayan

referred
so, these or at though

to as Aide-de-Camp
later held this

to Queen Victoria,
honour under this Edward to

when in fact
VII? India 61

he was not
to

The answer never took

questions least not

may well in the

be that form in

visit the

place, In

and under "To-Day"

auspices in the

described. African

November Orient

1917,

writing

his

column

Times

and

Review,

Duse Mohamed Ali

had written;

hie remember a conversation we had some years ago with the late Maharajah Cooch-Behar, in answer to our query as to why he preferred in England. to live He said that the rudeness of the Anglo-Indian in India impossible to a officials made life quite In England, to the of independent ruler views. as aide-de-camp Monarch, many of the highest Anglo-Indian officials were forced to salute but these very officials tried62 the Palace, when visiting to ignore through his presence the streets of Bombay. when driving Without England, all here actually not of India; any visit of running saying so, this it implies is striking It is just that that the conversation is that that was in at

indeed, to India.

there

no mention the

possible implied not really

Maharajah

had talked Ali would

a newspaper, the job. in

and lightly But his it is

Duse Mohamed to

be the Duse of

man for

possible his relations

exonerate with the

fabrication

autobiography

over

Maharajah.

61.

listed None of the sources in n. 59 above name Bombay as being among I. 4th ed., his places Who Was Who, vol, of residence. p. 154, lists him as A. D. C. to King Edward VII. For Duse Mohamed Ali's allegations Life", in The Comet, 10th July 1937, p-7vide "Leaves From An Active ATOR, November 1917, pp. 91-2.

62.

44. For what it

Active only Life, did this

is worth,
Indian the Indiana,

as the tale
involvement

is related
was not

in Leaven From An
one for out Dune* British Indian ... " Not to

a happy

he dislike ranking "..

indignities but also either India#

that his

were meted

by the with

even high life At all where were

own relationships or

* quite

unsuited left Arabic a brief

to my upbringing made a brief

temperament return to

events, his

he soon of for

and final

Egypt

ignorance East 63 again

made him a self-styled visit to Hong Kong,

stranger before

- and then returning to

wandered England.

These "travels" surprisingly off failed

in the East - or in his to improve tour

mind, more likely health.

- not So he set

Duse Mohamed Ali's Central

on a prolonged

of the West Indies, States. 64 Evidence his

and South America about the date would'have apart, this

and the Eastern of his departure, been towards journey taining of great

United but it

is lacking return

is assumed that

to Britain Chronology described

not earlier

than the end of 1896.65

through periods

the Americas

is one of the most fully early his life later

and enter-

of Dune Mohamed Ali's for understanding

and is rich actions

in incidents

significance

and opinions. marked situa-

On at least him apart tions.

two occasions

he found that

the wearing

of a tarbush interesting

from the mass of black The first

men, and led him into

of these was in Barbados,

where the captain

of a small

63. 64.

"Leaves From An Active

Life",

in TheCom tt, 10th July

1937, pp. 7&

13.

ibid. in outline his Nest Indian, Central American and p. 13, lists ibid, 7th August 1937, pp-7 & 19, and 14th South American tour; in the Eastern United States. August 1937, p. 7 tell of his travels vide n. 58 supra.

65.

45.
inter-island conversation Subsequently, the notice boat him if he spoke trip his return of English, to the and from island of his the

asked

ensuing 66

came an entertaining not long before Catholic

Grenada. tarbush

to Britain, the time,

secured of

of a famous

cleric thrown

Cardinal

Gibbons

Baltimore. journey another respected the merits from

The two men were Washington black to

together

by chance

on a train of being just of Cardinal Cardinal encounter impora

New York.

Once again, accepted

instead

faceless

man, Duse became the religion and society, beliefs. forms in itself, of

representative with the the

and ancient of their Islam trivial being the

discussing Indeed,

respective to rival perhaps to

he reports 67

as preferring on a train, tance If twin of

Christianity. helps

A chance

one to understand

the

a Muslim

Duse Mohamed Ali. it implied proved one source were another. freemasonry of support, Duse's

tarbush of their

and all the stage

professions for In

and journalism

Few professions than does the

can create theatre. Assistant to the

members a more widespread British Gaiety Guiana, Theatre introduced

Georgetown, the

Duse was hailed Glasgow, him to who took the

by a former him up-country company of

Y Manager of goldfield area

and there

bibulous 68

local

worthies

- minor officials

and the local

curate.

In assessing

66.

in The Life", in "Leaves From An Active This meeting is described The ensuing adventure in Grenada is Comet, 17th July 1937, p. 7. 24th July 1937, p"7, in ibid, told at length pp. 7 & 17, and ibid, is related in which Duse Mohamed Ali found in which a comic episode disgust. to his intense to have eaten monkey and lizard, himself food prohibiPerhaps here we have an example of Muslim religious by British being reinforced tions ones. social ibid, 7th August 1937, p"7.

67.

68.

ibid,

31st July

1937, pp-7 & 17.

46.
Duse's ing that later on the sleazy British Empire, as well helped from port it is

pronunciations

worth

rememberthe after more arriv-

he had seen such Imperial centres.

outposts Journalism

as some of him shortly 69 In

impressive ing town ville, Through first in

Florida,

whence he had travelled mid-way between Tampa (his

Havana. of

the

small

of Ocala, he called the

arrival)

and JacksonLondon. himself

on a Scotsman of this for

whom he had formerly friend, a local the dollars his first

known in

introduction articles

Duse Mohamed Ali evening editor paper, himself

found

contributing the editorial This finances. skills time

then

temporarily of town on

assuming business. to his

chair

while

was out a useful exercising editor.

earned It

him fifty was also

no doubt attempt newspaper abusive this at

addition the To produce

omnicompetent the paper to

demanded of he had to We are harry told

a small

a drunken, what at race Duse's

and incompetent was, for being view this put of but if

foreman

printer.

not

printer

he was a white the his time in the

man one would South

marvel black editor

temerity,

was in the it is

when the

man was violently was a Jew, Negroes in and in

'place'. prejudice that

The newspaper's against recalcitrant that of

growing possible it should

employing printer Ocala a false

skilled

positions On the role between time than other in

the

was white. an important

hand, Southern and Ocala As the South,

be remembered being the

played

populism, white small

scene

dawn of accord at that

black went, moat. of

farmers; more likely

as Southern to 1890, tolerate the

communities

Was perhaps recently

Duse Mohamed Ali populist

as December

two great

movements

69.

Life", See "Leaves From An Active for his adventures in Florida.

in

The Comet,

7th

August

1937,

p. 19,

47.
the the Southern Coloured over Alliance Farmers 1,000,000 For the a time, time a living friend, Further, (white), National which Alliance claimed over 3,000,000 members, which and agreed the this through Police South, united the Chief the of wearing at and

and Co-operative Ocala in

Union,

claimed to unite. and at populism help in of his

members, this that

had met at force

convention power Ocala, in

united

was a real was in that of

probable

Duse Mohamed Ali force. 70 the However sympathy

was still his Scots

may be, the local this local

he gained

dispute.

he was introduced

to the that

big-wigs degree

Mayor and leading recognition Egyptian,

businessmen.

One may surmise because town in

was accorded a fabulous figure

to him partly in a small

he was a tarbush the rural

deep South

the end of the last

century.
itinery in the Caribbean began at Panama, where

Duse Mohamed Ali's

he viewed the abandoned chaos of the projected hopefully in being. . claimed imagine, even if possibly invested 71 "... with the vain the "... hope that

canal - in which he had another francs Suez Canal was " that ... he

How he raised

few thousand

to have lost

in the de Lesseps failure irregularity

at Panama is hard to of his earnings. But this was

in view of the inevitable his lost investment forerunner

was in fact

a good deal more modest, 'get rich quick'

the first

of the various

schemes

70.

For the Ocala Convention of the relations and other aspects in the South, black and white populism see Jack Abramowitz, Movement", Journal Negro in the Populist of Negro History, 3,1953, pp. 257-89. 10th July 1937, p. 13. ibid, investing through that he lost distant later: "Even at this that picture of wanton waste " incompetence. and colossal His in

between "The XXXVIII,

71.

feelings strong about the money forty the canal remained odd years I am sickened when I recall period from wholesale resulting peculation

48.
he was to in the the of important entrepeneur differences and aimed of big at

that that 'race ness

pursue era

in

middle

age - with the role

later

he attempted Perhaps his

improvement'. began with his

suspicion losses. the mainland ports

and even hatred

busi-

Panama Canal via

From Panama, Port-of-Spain, the port of

he sailed

ports of call

of

South

America

to

Trinidad. Caracas, where

Among his he was the

en route of a triple

was La Guaira, murder but more middle in

eye-witness less

a public fruitful class. Williams 1900, 72

square. experiences, There the

Port-of-Spain for there

provided

sensational the

he met members of among whom could first Pan-African

coloured

were

lawyers, of the

well

have been Sylvester. in London in

organiser planters as suffering

conference

doctors,

and merchants. from the

The latter of

were seen by Duse white merchants, Surely this a was of

Mohamed Ali process one of black

competition in

he was to see repeated the wealth seeds grew. he travelled excursion from which his

later later

West Africa. on white

attacks

engrossment

From Trinidad the afore-mentioned

to

Bridgetown,

Barbados

where

(apart

from

to Grenada)

he had the

interesting

experience

72.

17th July ibid, adventures.

1937, p. 7, tells

of his Venezuelan and Trinidadian

49.
Sir William Conrad to Reeves. senior covering roles. Reeves could 73 Reeves in the handful century century

of of

meeting

was one of the

non-Europeans Empire, Imperial of

who rose fig-leaves racial

positions the naked

nineteenth of nineteenth

tropical British Justice

truth

An Attorney-General be regarded with

and then pride

Chief

Barbados,

by men of African

descent Ali
the to

as an exemplar

of the capabilities and subsequent

local from

of their interview

race. with

Duse Mohamed him, through

secured an introduction
good offices learn that

of a prominent Reeves had risen

merchant. the position

He must have been excited of a humble obscure local

journalist, He found worlds, envied, anecdote the cut even

yet

in

other Justice his

ways this

interview

was a saddening between aloofness whites. Justice the black

experience. and white office, an and

Chief off

to be suspended own people insulted offered by the by the to the

from

of his

occasionally an insult at

Duse was told by a white Nothing which

about

Chief

man, a mere subaltern, have better illustrated

a Government limited

House reception. of acceptance

could the

the

degree

even

73.

This All,

to the young Duse Mohamed occasion an important was naturally by the fact that he referred to it or wrote which is reflected in a number of his writings, viz "Quo Vadis", about it at length Conrad in The New AAe, 23rd February 1911, p. 390; "Sir William in Africa Review, June 1920, pp. 6 & 7; Reeves", and and Orient "Leaves From An Active Life", in The Comet, 24th July 1937, PPThe last 7& 14. of these accounts repeats almost word for word Review. in Africa The Africa the account and Orient and Orient dates the meeting as taking Review account firmly place in November 1892, but since we know that he was present of night at the first The Round Tower in London on 10th December 1892, this cannot have Life" been the case - indeed it is clear from'Leaves From An Active took place after that the Barbados visit the visit to The

Tower.

50. 74
palled on

most successful
In time the

black

man could receive

of life in

in white

society.

monotony

a small for

island British to take

community Guiana, the

Duse Mohamed All, after from visited bound off tures St. his adventures

and he left up-country,

Barbados

and returned Mail steamer

intending

Royal this the in

Barbados St. sailing, Pierre. which

to England. Lucia and 75

Delayed to too

by a storm, pass through the

he missed until

boat, England

and Martinique missed that

time

next

being

becalmed a whole

a schooner of adven-

From these to take him to

delays the

followed United

new series hanging

were around

States.

While with

dis-

consolately schooner

Castries, who offered

he struck

up aquaintance to

an American However, at

captain,

him a passage

New York.

the last
to

minute

the owners diverted

76 His encounters

the boat first

on the once journey

to Havana and thence

from Tampa to struck. to arrange New

Tampa, Florida. have already his

York

been described, which through even paid were

but

there,

misfortune he attempted success. back

To augment another after,

funds, tour having

reduced Pond,

to $250, but

lecture before

Major for

without

Shortly to England,

a steamship

passage

74.

Africa

and Orient

He seemed to be absolutely that his was indeed a tragic condition. The whites isolated. of the colony envied him, but they did The coloured for the most part, not possess his peer. people, proud of him, because his eminence reflected creditably although him and were loud in their critiupon them, quite misunderstood cism. "

Review, June 1920, p. 7, says:

"It

struck

me

75. 76.

"Leaves From An Active ibid.

Life",

in Theme,

7th August 1937, p"7.

51.
all but fifteen
the his only

dollars

of his money was stolen

tour of the New World,

from his hotel

he found boat, 77

room.

So at working

end of his passage five

great back

himself pay,

to Britain remaining

on a cattle in his

without

and with

dollars

pocket.

Thus he landed in Liverpool

him from Victorian help. actor daunted with of the the sinking England. Not the was that by his great least among the Again

destitute,

with

only his wits

of

to save
late for

miserable

anonymous to turn

human refuse to an old life the of the

he was able of the

friend

advantage have

roving all over

Victorian Not

he would misfortunes, Liverpool Dempster

contacts

country.

Duse Mohamed Ali shipping magnate To Jones Britain. Sir

secured Alfred

an interview Lewis Jones, for expression were 79 it this of to elapse is signidirection. his West head

Elder

line. fruit

78 in

he put This

forward was his

ideas first

marketing of interest

West Indian in colonial

produce, involved

and though in

fifteen

years

before ficant So this Indian economy to

he became seriously that even as a young interest

produce

marketing, were turned fruits the in

man his

thoughts

commercial adventures* in

can be counted the ruined 80

among the state It of of

He had noted of the

plantation

many parts

West Indies. plan at this

would

be interesting the If black so, his

know if of

he had some vague the West Indies

time the

enriching trade.

people

by stimulating

fruit

77. 7U.

ibid, ibid.

14th

August

1937,

p. 14.

79.
O.

See Chapter
"Leaves

VI of this

thesis.
Life", in The Comet, 17th July 1937, p. 7.

From An Active

52.
later of old concern dreams Jones think fruit view with rather West African than produce trading becomes a fulfillment No golden prospects resulted But Duse in

a new departure. though Jones

from liked

the to

interview, that his

showed some interest. for this later small filching

idea

was responsible 81 Very likely

developments episode the

West Indian buted of to his

marketing. of white

contrifruits

big-business

as always

black

men's

efforts

and ideas. Jones interview work in was only his a brief interlude, after on the

The Sir which English then

Alfred

Duse sought drama,

further not the 82 Sala,

two professions. secured Post,

An article with

though of

published, Liverpool Apparently one of the

him an interview Russell (later

famous of

editor Liverpool). Augustus

Edward

Baron of Duse

Russell from Street ranged the

Russell most

had already of 83 the

heard old Their 'Othello'

George

eminent

Fleet discussion to

bohemians from the

who Duse recalled correct interpretation of Egypt, of

so nostalgically. of

Shakespeare's no offer

British

occupation a high English

and

though

of work

ensued, the traditional

Duse retained traditional

opinion virtues,

Edward

Russell

as personifying of

even

though

he had much also

8]. 82.

ibid,

14th August 1937, p. 7. "Lord Russell of Liverpool", in Africa and Orient this article pp. 6-8; with minor alterations, in The Comet, in "Leaves From An Active Life", pp. 16-17.

Duse Mohamed Ali, Review, May 1920, was incorporated 14th August 1937,

83.

See n. 13 above.

53.
English insularity.
failed

84
to get work from the Liverpool Poat, and having to no

Having

money whatsoever, in a miserable actors

Duse Mohamed All back-alley

was compelled 85

to descend

performing

alum theatre, and the pelted so-called a week, the patrons Cabin, Dion. the

The players not only with this

were all 'gave rotten the bird'

destitute

and actresses, but also

patrons performers

to unpopular or fish

turns,

vegetables undertaking, represented For three

and chips. thirty the

As the shillings of

'star' all in

in

wretched which alike.

he was payed well enough

pennies,

poverty in Uncle

and management (which of the

weeks he played versions or tba he does Relief played in the of the

Tom's

several plays

dramatised Jessie brown;

not

say)

and in

Bouoicault's 86

Lucknow, part of

and The Octoroon. 'Uncle

As the the

'star'

he no 'dark' has

doubt part

Tom' - arguably British of theatre, Negro

most

popular

nineteenth radicals

century

and a name which

become to black Brown, the

a symbol part

subservience. than

In Jessie portrayed Muslim;

leading

'dark'

was none other merciless

Nana Sahib,

by Boucicault

as a cruel,

lecherous,

and treacherous

84.

"He was undoubtedly a kind and generous man in whom there was a Although spring of human kindess. of a high goodly possessed by the insularity intellect his vision was limited of his island This is a trait home. in the majority of which I have observed to a Englishmen even among the most travelled and accounts for their very great extent reserve, coupled with an and this, irritating is not infrequently superiority, of supercilious assumption Review, May 1920, p. 7. " - see Africa to the foreigner. and Orient

85. 86.

"Leaves From An Active Jessie Browns

Life",,

in The Comet, 21st August 1937, p. 7. of Lucknow, and The Oot ^oo , by Dion. (? )
Boucicault, of the

or the Relief

London 1883 both pub. by John Dickson, Boucicault, playwrights was one of the most successful an Irishman, Victorian era.

54.
for Indians

and the of in All, it Islam. this

whole 87 play,

play

is

charged it

with

contempt

and gross to

abuse

For a Muslim and it his that a crisis would is faith there of

must have been highly surprising he never that for

shaming a time

appear

hardly

Duse Mohamed 88 But

was to must

lose

- though is

became a Christian. evidence it is that this

be added caused that it

no positive

particular to living

incident suppose in this to

belief.

However, for

reasonable his

have been impossible a practising only time its the that

Duse to earn As will in

such a way and

remain

Muslim.

be seen presently, a play insulting of was first propaganda. Duse )

was by no means the Islam. As for

he appeared

The Octoroon, men in

theme was the American South.

sexual

abuse

coloured produced There is

women by white before

(The play

emancipation, that this

and is

an example that

of anti-slavery disturbed

no doubt

was an issue

deeply

Mohamed Ali,

and he was frequently

to discuss

it

in his

later

writings.

89

87.

to a mosque where she e. g. Act II so. i, p. 10, Jessie Brown refers is held prisoner as "... a church where they worship the devil. "
My Diaries, W.S. Blunt, goes sometimes to church, p. 759, says "He ... This was " he tells but has always refused, me, to be baptized. in 1911. Duse Mohamed Ali's At about the same religious position "Let me state forthwith that I am not time Duse Mohamed All wrote: but no religious I do believe in God: Christian. system holds a Procession", in The New Are, " vide "The Good Friday to captive. How far back in time this loss of faith 1911, p. 606. 27th April for lack of in Islam can be extended cannot be exactly stated evidence. positive Men", in The New Age, "White Women and Coloured his article e. g. 1909, pp. 262-3, the charge of sexual aggression 21st January reverses British by coloured of out the fate women, pointing men against Also brothels Asian women in the white-owned of Eastern seaports. vide In The Land Of The Pharaohs, p. 264.

88.

89.

55.
After at Liverpool's appearing in The Octoroon, Theatres this he was engaged but the in a walk-on part

Shakespeare a night, weeks in

pay was a mere one shilling provincial his fortunes theatre. in Hull,

and sixpence After where too eight

although Liverpool

was a leading to try

Duse decided occasions

he had performed

on previous

and had friends. At first, the the initial only cost

Here work of

he experienced to find

poverty

and ill-health.

he was able his the lodgings docks,

was as a docker, pawn his in the best

and to meet suit. rain,

he had to including

Three

or four

weeks in his health.

90

working to havo

pouring opportunity

undermined to ruin dock work. his

Yet he was 'lucky' labour, difficult for for with

health it

by hard was dock work

the

casual

system

of hiring to obtain

workers, In fact,

any but for

a 'regular'

was arranged of his being

him as a 'favour' enough the for less the

by an aquaintance, purpose. job of After

who was dubious his illness, checker, for Duse and Messrs. of this the work

strong was given months & Co.,

Mohamed Ali after three

arduous

a cargo

rose ship

to being owners. docks

assistant Winter, largely further

shipping with its

clerk closing brought

Thomas Wilson Baltic trade

on which but

Hull

depended,

to an end, in till the North

Duse managed to find Railway long run

employment yard.

as a foreman This work the lasted docks

Eastern In the

Company's this spell

timber of

1900.

outdoor

work

in

g0.

"Leaves From An Active

Life",

in The Comet, 21st August 1937,

It is a sign of his real destitution that on arriving pp-7 & 16. for the first time in his life in Hull, to a pawn he had recourse for fifteen his best suit to provide shop - plecing shillings money for lodgings. ibid, p. 7.

UZT

MOILAT'I'D

ALI

A:3

A YUUNG MAN, AGED A"6UT 34 From The Hull Lady, June 1902

57.
brought health. 91 returned to his journalistic for based the on Hull least benefit in improve-

and railways Gent to his

at

one great

a permanent

Soon Duse Mohamed Ali theatrical local history, received a historian work, It is press. for for pursuits. 92

normal

and Hull local

He began

to contribute romantic

articles stories

Among these

were

which four

he was payed days toil his in

a guinea the docks.

a time

more than first major in this for

he had efforts historical light. Bull, since as

Thus his and his

emerged

from

newspaper

work,

In The Land Of The Pharaohs, clear that Duse developed away in

should

be judged

a considerable summer 1900 to

affection fulfil

although

he was lured

a theatre

engagement

in London, he returned
all spent "...

to Hull
or

again
four

not later
years

than May 1902,93 and in

" there. ... The quarrels

some three

happy

and jealousies

inseparable

from an actor's

life,

of which he had

91.

ibid, These details p. 16. are confirmed life Yard's in Scotland on him of report FO 371/3728/1316.

by the account of his 27th March 1916 - see

92.

ibid. Unfortunately, there are no files preserved of the pa era (the Hull Daily he first for Mail and Hull Weekly Times) in wrote the British Museum Newspaper Library, Colindale, either nor in Hull Public Library.

93.

before His Hull a little that to take part in rehearsals. to Hull would not have been later than May 1902, as he return "Twixt Bing and Honour", contributed story, short a historical (pp. 38-9). The Hull Ladv in that month. to the first number of left

ibid; this tells us that he left Hull to take the role of Osman Digna in the play On Active Service; the provincial tour of this play, in which Duse Mohamed All took part, began on 20th August 1900 - vide 1,23rd Presumably he August 1900, p. 12. The

58.
experienced a full share, made him value quiet provincial obscurity. 94

Perhaps for community.

romances,

this

brief

time he felt to Hull

a fully

accepted

member of a British historical

95 The Hull

On his return
this time

he contributed
called contributor

more local
Ladv.

to a local of its

journal exotic his

The Hull to

Lady was proud biography it told its of

enough

publish origins.

a potted In addition

him emphasising readers:

romantic

Egyptian

He is also a playwright having succeeded so of no mean order, Eunice blank verse play, entitled early as 1889 with a classic Greek, States, the in the United and ran for which was produced More recently he has written upwards of 12 months. another 6 dealing Matho the Libvar. with classical entitled play, subjects,

94.

Service, the second tour with On Active e. g., he wrote that during he incurred by his "most glowing the jealousy of his fellow players He continued "As Assistant " Stage Manager it was press notices. led to a consthis my duty to call rehearsals whenever necessary, the leading headed by Henty George, piracy man, and subsequently, for incapacity, by his successor on his discharge who, with his indishimself considered wife also in the cast, and his lady quite This man carried forward the conspiracy, pensable. making matters in In due course I was compelled for me. rather uncomfortable to communicate co-proprietor who paid self-defence with the author " The upshot was that Duse was vindicated and a surprise visit ... for which being his enemies humiliated, threatened with dismissal they never forgave him. Life", 28th vide "Leaves From An Active August 1937, p. 7. His total to The Hull Lady contributions "Tales lived were as follows: magazine, I no. 5, in vol. Twixt King and Honour", Ode", in Coronation Coronation June no., (no I, no. 7,1902 in vol. the King", of Brief 1902, biographical p. 43. sketch of which was a very short , of Hull in Olden Times "Hull's May 1902, pp. 38-9; 1902, pp-3-5; "The Foiling month given), pp. 24-28. The Hull Lady, June

95.

96.

Dune Mohamed in

59.
No other these about hardly graphy; graphy with that his It of

source

including efforts. triumph

autobiography is perhaps the

- makes any mention as well in to be sceptical as this his his

of

two youthful the supposed

Eunice

Creek

America, over in of

is

a matter compare about his the

Duse Mohamed Ali the, pains very there

would

have

passed the

autobioautobioRevenge, note

he took

to inform of his

readers play

modest about

successes these

short

The Jew's

silence these It is

earlier

plays.

Yet we should

one of

two works therefore exist early

had an African

as much as a classical that no copy of this valuable

subject. work clues about his Hull is

much to be regretted for it oi. w. Td surely in

known to his

to-day, concepts kind

have

provided

about a very in

of Africa

history. which VII's

More can be said he wrote coronation, written during The in sub-

different Hull. published blank it At

of historical time of King

work, Edward

days Lady,

the

a 286 ling verse. does 97

coronation Its slender

ode by Duse, literary

Shakespearean detain to scan us, but

merits of more in

need not than iambic loyal for his ability pentasentiments, the British is Hull's Britain's

provide

valuable of

evidence local

local

history nature

and the deeds a coronation with

worthies effusive feeling But

meters. yet royal this

Of its must also that this the

ode exudes the genuine on.

be connected has already

family in son,

been commented

loyalism in praising

tempered famous past;

ode by an interesting emancipator Wilberforce,

passage

which,

implicitly

criticises

97.

ibid,

pp. 3-5.

60.

This champion of the Negro Slave Deserves more praise than Britain can bestow; fetters For when he struck off the cruel Afric's From the wrists of enslaved sons, With one fell swoop he also wiped away the proud escutcheon, The stain that smirched 98 boasted liberty. Of England's vainly A few lines pass away, at later he even looks to glories the time of of when England's Empire shall

as had the a time

ancient

Rome, Greece such of

and his

own Egypt. had

Written hardly

when the the

criticisms

as J. A. Hobson99 Empire, these

penetrated

popular the white

consciousness community. Duse Mohamed Ali

sentiments

mark Duse apart In other

from ways,

however,

began to dig

himself

into

the cosy cultural

Society costumed tutor of under the

life

of a provincial
of the great recitals* have

town, founding
Sir 100 Henry

a Hull

Shakespeare
and presenting

patronage

Irving,

Shakespearean elocution, century 101 but

dramatic must social

He set

up as a private of early were

which English

given

him much knowledge Most of connections his

twentieth ladies, does

aspirations. any romantic his services of

pupils

whether Also the

he formed he offered small

among them he of life. concerts

not

record. homes",

as an organiser social

and "at

typical

change

Edwardian

98. 99.

ibid,

p. 4. published issues Empire,

A Study, J. A. Hobson's was first work Irnrerialisr, seminal in 1902, though he had been writing on social and political Critics for a decade previously. vide Bernard Porter, of London 1968, pp. 156-238 passim.

100. "Leaves From An Active

Life",

in The Co eft, 28th August 1937, p. 16.

for Duse Mohamed as a teacher of elocu101. ibid. Also see advertisement 'concerts', tion and organiser of 'at homes', 'drawing rooms', with 28 John St., Kingston Sq., Hull and 4 Duchy Ave., Cold Bath Rd.
Harrogate, being given as his addresses, in The Hull Lady, June 1902, p. 48.

61.

Lest all
around of hie proper. part the turn

this
of in

gives
the Hull that fellow called

too cosy an image of Duse Mohamed Ali's

it must be recorded that in life to the

life
interval stage

century,

two stays The lure heroic

he was leading took him from

a more exciting Hull was the

on the play

chance in

the by had

of his

countryman On Active

Osman Digna, 102

a melodrama play, which 1899,103

Herbert

Leonard, the that

Service.

This October

opened at example his of

Surrey

Theatre,

London, popular

on 23rd culture I"

was an

Imperialist of

attacked

by J. A. Hobson in

book The Psychology

Jinniam.

102.

Leonard, Herbert On Active Service, in Lord unpub. typescript Chamberlain's B. M. mss. collection) licence play mss. no. 123, Leonard's 30th November 1899. play is merely one of many in the examples of the impact of events an in the late nineteenth The spectrum on British of century popular culture. of this writing popular period about the Sudan ranges from the Dundee weaver, "poet and tragedian" the McGonagall William "greatest Bad Verse writer so-called of his age" - who recited his works to the working men of Dundee, but whose works were also known to fellow Scots as far away as Zululand; to A. E. w. Mason, (London 1902) has been The Four Feathers whose novel read by "middlebrow" of British readers, generations and which was serialised For NcGonagall's on B. B. C. Radio 4 as recently as June 1971. in the Sudan, see his poems "The Battle interest and of El-Teb" "The Battle in Poetic Gems Selected from the Works of Abu Klea", For M_cGonaa Dundee and London, 1966, pp. 50-55. all, of William from Zululand" to I cGonagall from :, of lot a "Tribute -'red. Rollo Gems, p. 21. Royal Scots, see Poetic The Stage, 26th October 1899, p. 15.

103.

104. J. A. Hobson, The Psychology

of Jingoism,

London 1901, pp. 2-3,

of the influence on the masses; speaks scathingly, of the music hall times politics e. g., p. 3, "In ordinary plays no part in these but the glorification force feasts of brute of sensationalism, factors for foreigners contempt are ever-present and an ignorant crises which at great make the music-hall political a very serThese words viceable engine for generating military passion. " Service, apply aptly which in enough to plays such as On Active their tours to the same public of bu$bonery, appealed with a mixture 'black sex, and derring-do. xenophobia, peril'

62.
This step

opportunity for

was,

in

terms

of

professional

success,

a great in list it on the

forward

i Duse Mohamed Ali. production, George his

Even no,

he played in

no part the cast took

original until tour. the

London

name not

appearing

company of tour

Conquest the Terriss

and Herbert Theatre,

Leonard Rotherhithe,

This

began at

on the

23rd August 1900105 and lasted tour followed, starting

on 9th these

until

5th November 1900; Lowestoft

King's

106

a second

at the Marina,
May 1901 at the

on 19th November 1900,107

Hanley. large 108 In

and concluded the in course England, of

Theatre, towns both usual

two tours

Duse visited playing (in

and small, of the old

Scotland for must

and Wales, a week in

the 109

manner

touring much of trains, tour' about

companies) his but life within have life.

each place. in it

When not lodgings that

on stage, and railway 'on

have been spent limitations

theatrical is clear to tours

these

as an actor

he would British

had a unique His

opportunity Service

see and form net with

judgements

On Active

considerable

105. 106. 107. 108. 109.

The Stage, ibid, ibid, ibid, 8th

23rd

August

1900,

p. 12.

November

1900, 1900, p. 7.

p. 17. p. 7.

22nd November 9tri May 1901,

These two tours took him to the following towns and theatres: The Standard, The Terries, London; The Eden, Brighton; Rotherhithe; The Rotunda, Liverpool; The Royal, Hull; The Royal, Sheffield; The Royal Osbourne, Leicester; Manchester; The Royal, The Metropole, The Queens, Birmingham; The Royal, Bristol; Manchester; The New Lowestoft; The Marina, The Prince's, Portsmouth; Grand, Woolwich; The Prince The Metropole, Gateshead; The of Wales, Southampton; Stockton; Her Majesty's, Her Majesty's, Royal, Dundee; Aberdeen; The Metropole, Glasgow; The Grand, Newcastle; The Prince's, Pontypridd; The Royal, Bath; Blackburn; The Clarence, The King's, Hanley. See "On Tour" column in The Stage. 23rd August 1900 8th November 1900; 22nd November 1900 - 29th November 1900; 3rd January 1901; 1901 .- 9th May 1902. and 28th February

63.
success, In full course personal reviewed Digna"; is the playing words of in many places "... present of the Boer War. to enthusiastic naval and packed plays present houses. enjoy being 110 a of

one reviewer, at Britain

and military that

degree the

of popularity xenophobic

Duse Mohamed Ali's in of the Aberdeen role of he was Osman

performance as giving 112 in "...

had a favourable a vivid it

reception;

interpretation that "The

Dundee,

was noted

redoubtable

Osman Digna 113

played

by Duse Mohamed with reviewer interesting son of serve not

appropriate only found the "...

truculence part "ably

and effectivenes8; portrayed" is, but we

while also are origin

a Bristol made the told, the

comment that chief. of "114

Duse Mohamed ... So we see that publicity. at that time, derring-do treacherous

an Arab purpose popular

an Egyptian

could

the of

theatrical culture

As an example Service is

British

On Active by natives

fascinating, a villainous

among its

ingredients bloodthirsty,

boing

bluejackets,

Frenchman,

110.

Theatre, Portsmouth, e. g. at the Prince's where it was appearing from 26th November 1900 for one week - The Stage, 29th November Theatre, 1900, p. 8= or at the end of its second tour at the King's Hanley - vide n. 108 supra. Liverpool The Stage, correspondent 14th March of 1901, The Stage, p. 5. 20th September 1900, p. 2.

111. 112.

113. ibid, 114. ibid,

21st March 1901, p. 6. lot November 1900, p. 11.

64. 115 racial Leonard, $ritish is Almost 118

and in itself, attitudes

the this

final play

scene could

an exotic

Imperial

setting

in

the in

Sudan.

In

have served arrogance.

as an education As conceived

British

and Imperial is

by Herbert 'clean

Osman Digna hero also with to

a mere monster, death signal by torture, for

who threatens 116 then attack sexual prospect

the death

living'

first be the

by hanging comrades. on the she will

a surprise reveals on the

on his designs that

- which 117 heroine "...

needless and the her days

to say, French 'midst

Osman Digna gloats of

villain horrors this

end " 119

degradation,

disease world

and Arab "British the

licentiousness. pluck" denouement

But of always a relief It

course overcame force might the

was a make-believe such

where

"fiends" triumphantly be thought possibilities possible of that It ancestry, foe,

as Osman Digna, and crushes of

and in the

engages that of the

dervishes. in On Active Service

part

Osman Digna but respect. Hall that

exhausted next played Arab role the slave

ignor., tnt

prejudice, in that Exeter here

Duse Mohamed Ali's This time he an

was if part dealer. of his

even grosser stock should villain

of

philanthropy,

be recalled

Duce Mohamed Ali was well known as a features Crescent

was proud brave at all.

and whereas in this part

Osman Digna there ---: were

and resourceful The play

no redeeming

concerned

was Secrets

or The Cross

and the

11'.

On Active Service, Act IV ac. i blends together for its finale.

ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid, Act IV so. i, p. 7.

all

these ingredients

116. 117. 118. 119.

pp. 11-12. pp. 9-10. p. 12.

65.
120 Secrets the

by M. Goldberg. with the title

This of

play the

had originally

appeared in in

in

December

1896,

Harem and a setting being portrayed

contemporary the most Ottoman 121 piece. changes derogatory Embassy, lieseem to to Ali, the entire

Constantinople, manner. and the licenced have

Sultan

himself there withdrew in

Not surprisngly, Lord in Chamberlain its

was a protest his licence 1901,122 the action ruled

from from the from

the the only

new version the city

August of

been to

change Eastern

location called

Constantinople

an imaginary Caliph matter was in of of

'Balsora' Duse himself

by 'Noureddin that

Balsora'. the diplomatic

However, protest stunt

considered

and consequent engineered

withdrawal manager for of

of licence of the com-

reality

a publicity the play,

by the responsible

pany performing the Ottoman

who was himself the idea

informing Secrets --'spicy'

embassy. to give

Furthermore, the public the

amended title that the play

was designed

was too

120.

(of the Orient), Max Goldberg, Secrets in Lord unpub. typescrii-t (St. James Palace) Chamberlain's licence play mss., no. 241 of The play actually let August 1901. the public appeared before Secrets or The Cross and the Crescent= under the title ---; 15th August 1901, p. 13. vide The Stage, The Stage, 15th August 1901, p. 15, says: "Our readers need no Secrets the Lord Chamberlain that recently suppressed reminder its run at the Shakespeare, S. a., on the of the Harem during Embassy. to the Turkish that the play had given offence grounds This, took the theatrical seeing world by surprise, of course, Eve, 1896, that the piece was performed as far back as Christmas and had held its own ever since. " See n. 120 supra.

121.

122.

66.
to be openly 123 the Arab but slave also, dealer, Duse Mohamed not or only

referred al

to. Murad,

As Ibrahim had to devise these deeds,

murder to utter in

and rape, garbled this play,

when committing of pious Muslim

planning 124

versions Islam

formulae.

Thus as presented cloak for the of action white

was reduced deeds, with

to a hypocritical and the 125 person and

most cruel the Khalif of

and treacherous were the girl treated abducting into the -a

institution of the

contempt. al

The core a

consists

by Ibrahim Caliph British following swabs. of

Murad of

beautiful from almost my lads,

Circassian rescued say. the

Balsora's Naval

seraglio,

whence

she is to

by the Lines

hero

Lieutenant, "Forward,

needless

such as the black

abound;

and clear the

docks

of these fixed

(The Boatswain's Ibrahim, run Kara """U126

crew come on at and slaves off)

double

with

bayonets, skunks.

and chase

Ha! Ha! Ha! The black

See how they

123.

(the manager "... by Preston censorship engineered ... was cleverly it toured the play till company) who had already of the Secrets So when he was about to conclude became threadbare. a tour in himself, London, he caused a letter, which he had probably written Ambassador in which it was claimed that to be sent to the Turkish Abdul (amid was being presented both the Sultan in a condition " But if the instigation degrading complaint of this and insulting. Ambassador's the Turkish displeasure was genuine was disingenuous, Life", 28th in Comet, The vide "Leaves From An Active enough.

August 1937, p. 7.
124. Act I sc. i, p. 2, where Ibrahim, to seize e. g. Secrets plotting Circassian Ismalia, in the the Christian her into sell slavery "Ah, my good Caliph's harem, and to murder her parents, sayss is indeed Kismet. there Destiny. is Allah, Kara, this Allah is no God but God and Mahomet is his Prophet. "

125. Secrets, 126. ibid,

passim. sc. i, p. 18.

Act I,

67.

The finale before submits inevitable from one of the to

of

the

play

finds eyes, to

the

Caliph

ordering by her at

the

hero's

execution till she by the

heroine's his party his

be followed is

starvation last killed

embraces. of

But all

saved

the is 127

minute

bluejackets,

and the for the

Caliph hero.

by a blow

own men intended

Thus in this
and its for white institution

play one finds

the Khalifate, in of the

a combination
emphasis the right

of contempt
lust of the of

for

Islam

on the

'blacks' Navy to us to put

women, and belief in the affairs

and duty

Royal

intervene

oriental that

states.

Perhaps

this

helps

to understand into the such rights

some of

vigour the or

i Duse Mohamed All of black the

was later Empire sexual

causes of men. the 129

as defending Khalif, 128

integrity

Ottoman

and assault

protecting that of

women from regard in

by white as lacking He noted Liberal lain's

No wonder,

too,

he came to other

the their

British Empire. 130

sympathetic at press the time of

understanding the the Ottoman Ottoman the

peoples protest

diplomatic Sultan

that the

whereas Lord press

the

vilified in

and attacked the

Chamberdefended

action

withdrawing

licence,

Conservative

127. ibid,
128. 129. vide vide

Act IV,
Chapters n.

sc. i,

,. 12.
this thesis.

IV and VI of

80, supra.

130. Duse Mohamed All never tired of quoting Matthew Arnold's for bringing "There is nothing like love and admiration

words people

to a likeness but the Englishman with what they love and admire; these influences never seems to dream of employing upon a race he He employe simply interests wants to fuse himself with. material for his work of fusion, but scorn and and beyond these nothing there Accordingly is no vital rebuke. union between him and the 1911, races he has annexed. " e. g. see The New Age, 23rd February pp. 387-8.

68.
131 of of the the

that

action this

and regretted contributed Party

offensive to

attacks

on a foreign rooted Tory

ruler. dislike gentlemen

No doubt British old

Dune Mohamed Ali's for British

Liberal 132

and enthusiasm

school.

i Duse Mohamed All on 12th During because On Active obnoxious phrases and "... different August that the 1901, the

probably

began to in

play the

the part

part till

of

Ibrahim

al

Murad, 1902.133

and he continued company mainly

8th 134

February probably As in

time play

toured

smalcr the main

towns,

had already performing not

been seen in a role that

centres.

Service,

must have been to some extent gaining favourable notice, such 136 advantage",

to him did as "... capital

prevent acting ...

him from ", 135

"Duce used

Mohamed is by reviewers

seen to in

conspicuous places.

merit

...

"137

being

various

131. 132. 133.

"Leaves For

From An Active discussion

Life", of this

in

The Comet, vide

28th

August IV of

1937, this

p. 16. thesis.

a full

point,

Chapter

The earliest of the play in The Stage, mention of his name in reviews The fact is to be found in the issue for 15th August 1901, p. 13" length that this is a full set apart from the classified review, the indicates prodictions, reviews of provincial almost certainly The place of performance tour. start was the of a new provincial Opera House, Northampton, on the and the play would have started issue of The Stage - i. e. it Monday previous to the date of that on 12th August 1901. would have started In the course of this tour, Luse :ohamed All visited the following Liverpool; Hammersmith; Swinton; Brighton; Northampton; places: Bradford; Crewe; Scarborough; Warrington; Leeds; Hepburn; King's E.; Deptford; Lynn; Stratford Atlercliffe; Great Yarmouth; North Shields; Barrow; Spennymoor; Workington; ihitehaven; Dumfries; See The Stage, 15th August 1901 - 20th Motherwell. February 1902.

134.

135. vide The Stage, Royal, Stratford

136. 137. ibid, ibid, Whitehaven Brighton

5th December 1901, p. 17, for East.

correspondent, correspondent, 6th 5th February

performance
1902, 1901, p. 9. p. 5.

at Theatre

September

69.

In his tions 'freak It of of

next

stage 'dark' in of

role, parts a lurid

Duse Mohamed Ali instead, melodrama which to settle

broke

out himself I

of

the playing

limitaa 138

playing nature' offer

he found called

Because

-Love

You!

was the where

this

part

took

Dupe Mohamed Ali 139 the

away from As an extra manager of the

Hull,

he had intended to return to the

permanently. Frank $cudamore,

temptation Because plays. without alone served. because

stage, offered

I Love You company, These are success. 140 said

to stage

two of

buse's

own short but let

to have been put Unfortunately, or other details in the part one, the the

on in titles

Newcastle-on-Tyne, of these plays,

any manuscrirts 141 His

about of for cast

them, 'Nemo, despite

have not the

been prein

experience

an Vulture' received

I Love You was an urhappy he was displaced a little (sic) with cash from

a well

performance, actor with

when "... saw the

a rather play, offer part

mediocre

came on the

scene;

became for over the a

inamoured entire

my part ...

and made Scudamore "142

a cash the

rights

and bookings

He had played

138.

Because I Love You, urpub. F. A. z, cudamore, Chamberlain's St. James Palace) play mss., 11th August 1902. "Leaves ibid. From An Active Life", in The t,

typescript licence

in Lord no. 285 of

139. 140. 141.

28th

August

1937,

p. 16.

ibid; him at Newcastle-on-Tyne "Scudamore induced me to join where As an inducehe intended to do a summer Stock Season of drama ... We did a ment he induced me to put on two of my short plays ... Yet a search " Stock Season at Newcastle rather unprofitable ... in the 1903 files of the Newcastle of The Stare provides reviews company being of these plays or even of Scudamore's us with no trace This would seen to be one of the many examples of confused there. Life". in "Leaves From An Active chronology "Leaves From An Active Life", in The Comet, 28th August 1937, p. 17.

142.

70.
from 15th June 1903 1903 (at (at the the Standard Theatre, Shore144

period ditch)143

stretching to 26th

September

Metropole,

Birkenhead).

Dune Mohamed Ali's

in playing a freak:

colour

was held by one reviewer

to be an advantage

being, by a This strange is embodied with decided effect ... Duse Mohamed, whose dusky countenance heightens coloured performer, the effect impersonation. The tingling of a weird and 'creepy' induced by drink, in the murderous talons, is excellently shown, the attacks upon the policaman, and the more or less successful 145 Professor, the heroine and are acted with vigour .

It

is interesting from that of drink,

to note that

the stage

picture

of a monster was not so especially white it under the women. By

different influence this

that

of a coloured ugly,

man - violent, for 'dark'

make the

and lusting of
to

innocent parts,
transfer

time a practised
i Duae Mohamed Ali

performer
was able

is hardly
to

surprising
this

portraying

freak
written

so successfully.
of his successor

When he was forced

that "Following Mr.

to leave

the part,
former

it

was

Mohamed, the

exponent Melville, Ali'a (that

of the part, a well

he has a difficult

role

to fulfil

known actor-manager, of the part that

was so impressed him that

"146 Walter ... i by Duce Mohamed

portrayal

he told

were he an Englishman flight of West

iss were he not a Negro) he would be in the first

The 143. Stage

18th June 1903. p"13.

lot October 1903, p. 17, mentions that Duse Mohamed Ali had 144. ibid, The previous week, when the play was been replaced in the role. been have most likely would therefore appearing at the Metropole, Duse Mohamed Ali's last appearance - see ibid, 24th September 1903, p. 8. 145. ibid, 146. ibid, 18th June 1903, p"13. 1st October 1903, p. 17.

71.
End actors compliment,
Dismissal with nothing after

and amply demonstrated by failing

from but this from his the

the double-edged to write

nature

of his him-147

to keep a promise
cast of fare Because to

a play

featuring

I Love You left

Duse Mohamed Ali to return matters, aquainwas said a

railway

Londons 148

he was ashamed

to Hull

"inglorious"tour. destitution arrival

As he has recorded encounter This with

he was saved tance to on the

by a lucky in London. myself

an old

day of his for "...

aquaintance in piloting

be looking

someone like

to assist

ballet

group to Leige be true,

(sic)

that

summer for Exhibition Duse's last

the International did

Exposition. till

"149

This cannot

as the Liege

not take place

1905,150 while,

as we have seen,

appearance could

in Because I be considered

Love You was in September 1903. as merely

This discrepancy lapses years

one of the many understandable the events that of over thirty point

in an old man's memory previously. But perhaps he launches

when recording it is significant

at this

in his

autobiography,

147. "Leaves From An Active 148. ibid, 149. ibid. p. 17.

Life",

in The Comet. 28th August 1937, p. 16.

1905; vide 150. The Exhibition opened on 27th April 28th April 1905, p"3. special correspondent,

report

by The Times

72. into a description of loneliness in Londons

forth

and destitution

On my arrival in the lonely city - there is perhaps no city in the world where a man without family connections can be more I speak from experience. lonely than in the City of London. I somehow On one occasion I had had a three day compulsory fast. I rested in Hyde existed on a water diet during that period. Park, one Saturday night, sat out two services in St. Margaret's house Church Sunday and then in desperation walked to a friend's at Herne Hill hoping for a meal for which I did not have the I did secure that unsolicited courage to ask. meal and a bed London ... 151 Hence, I did not relish to for the night. returning It seems only too likely that something occasion till like this actually happened to

him on this

occasion.

The next

on which he can be demonstrated week of July "for 1904, when time in

to have had work does not occur his 'tragedietta' The Jew's

the third

Revenge was performed week for

the first

London"152 as part of the Surrey from Hynatia, I)use's

of a benefit

the retiring 153 Despite

manager and lessee being plagiarised acted, 154

Theatre, it

George Conquest. as well tole

was described

received being

and powerfully "powerful

own performance also

in the title added, "It

and impressive". the author,

The same reviewer

is interesting

to note that

151. "Leaven From An Active

Life",

in The Comet, 4th September 1937, P-7-

It in possible that the work 152. The Stage, 28th July 1904, p. 12. date in the provinces, had been performed at an earlier possibly in the elusive run in Newcastle-on-Tyne with Scudamore's company. Jew's It may be noted that the Surrey Theatre performance of The Revenge is one of the many mattere over which Dues Mohamed Ali's is in chronological places error, since it definitely autobiography his completion this performance as coming immediately after of i. e. 10th November 1900. his first tour with On Active .;ervice, 153. "Leaves From An Active 154, The Stake, 28th July Life", in The Cocaet. 28th August 1937, p--7--

1904, p. 12.

73.
Duse Mohamed, was educated is at the King's only Egyptian actor now playing in England. He

College

London. "

The Liege

International
and his 156

Exhibition
fellow

opened on 27th April

arrived in there

1905,155
three to have

and Duse Mohamed Ali Weeks before that

players

about stated

date.

As rehearsals

London are

lasted

six

job by his

weeks, and begun two days after being first offered the 157 it would seem that the whole episode aotually aquaintanoe, of February 1905. Despite the apparent
almost

began in the middle

of a six months'

security
the very

contract,

Dune/ Mohamed All

had from

beginning

doubts

about

the viability Musical

of the show, which seems to have Comedy airs, dancing chorus girls,

been a compound of stale ludicrous and a Sultan. The journey to Liege plot. 158

His own part

was that

of an amorous Oriental

provided

him with

a typical

example of British

155. See n. 150 supra.

156. 151. "Leaves ibid, From An Active 28th August 1937, Life", p. 17. in The Comet. 4th. September 1937, p. 7.

158. ibid,

4th September 1937, p"7.

74.
insularity foreigners:

and prejudice

against

in (Brussels) While the train station a couple was standing ... strolled complete with of Belgian along the platform artisans breeches very tight full blue cotton at the ankles and the black by the denizens of the Latin quarter. cap so much affected Directly these two men made their one of the two appearance 'I say girls, come and look at women shouted to her companions: ' In a moment all the carriage the foreigners! windows were Belgians were bombarded with hilarious and the astonished alive, 159 ridicule.

Arriving unfinished

at Liege, chaos, afford.

However, of a guide sort

the company found the Exhibition

site

in a state

of

they could
opening. capacity This

no rooms arranged, and none available at a price that 160 The show only lasted about a month after its
Duse was kept on in "The Extreme visitors found Orient" in turn as it He also being the up. gave gained by

to any distinguished of. work with that he always

who might congenial,

was the

him a fleeting great local to visit pleasure people the for

contact at Liege the

royalty

and aristocracy. on one occasion who was believed elevation

by himself, Persia,

mistaken

Shah of

to be intending was in part

Exhibition.

This

short-lived

159.

Although this ibid, 14th August 1937, p. 17. appears in a different being simply chapter of his autobiography, given as an example of . by Duse British insularity and assumptions of superiority witnessed there can be no doubt in view of the circumMohamed Ali himself, the occasion to Liege for the 1905 that was the journey stances He states that those involved in the incident Exhibition. were

"A theatrical of Englishmen and Englishwomen, with whom I company in a managerial capacity, " which accords well enough was associated company. with his role in the Liege Exhibition Duse Mohamed Ali's 4th September 1937, p. 7. 160. ibid, remarks about the chaos at the site immediately opening prior to the Exhibition by The Time_ special correspondent who remarked; are corroborated buildings "As in most undertakings nor exhibits of this kind, neither will be complete on the opening day. " see The Times. 22nd April 1905, p. 10.

75.
to Duse's escapade, being black tarbush, it in to a hoax again as a Muslim the by a friend. that he could rather 161

attributable Though

part

planned respect

a comic

illustrates

command through than a 'mere'

recognisable man. claimed that

and an oriental

Duse Mohamed Ali

he eventually

left

Liege

in

the

company

of a Russian Grand Duke, who had been an admirer "The Extreme Orient". Petersburg strains
tion, the

of the chorus girls to St. This

in

162

They are supposed to have travelled at the Grand Duke's expense. were in the grip
remarks about

and Moscow together, for

credulity,
yet

in 1905 those cities

merely nobility

of revoluwitnessing of the but 163 that and in this

Duse Mohamed Ali life of the

makes general and the of

extravagant

furtive the

discontent langvage,

proletariat. in that year

Of course, there

he knew nothing furtive

Russian

was nothing the circumstantial of life in

about details

proletarian and lively the

discontent. anecdotes United one is States bound

He gives enliven at the

none of his Liege

accounts Exhibition.

the

West Indies, further

Without

evidence,

161. "Leaves From An Active 162. ibid,

163.

Life",

in The Comet, 4th September 1937, p. 16.

11th September 1937, p. 7.

it is possible Of course, that this is another case of his chronology Life" If his supposed journey being weak. in "Leaves From An Active to Russia was as late as 1906, then it would be more understandable to witnessing that he made no reference revolutionary manifestations. Russia, On the other hand, even if it is granted that he visited

back ih Britain by May 1906, when he was appearing he was certainly in The Jew's Revenge in Manchester; see The Stage, 24th May 1906 p. 3.

76.
to judgement. certainly Suffice via to say that his to England

case frort

suspend

return

Liege

was not London,

Russia. to the for old life of After for Walter hanging around he

Back in theatre obtained impressario on behalf melodrama

he returned

managers work

and impressarios publicity

parts. agent

many visits, Melville, to the

as an advance

of London's of a Walter called for

Standard Melville

Theatre. touring

He was sent company, 164 which

provinces a the Is

was performing he did

Her Second Time on Earth. Beauty and the Boast which

Subsequently toured

same service

was being

by Melville

brother.

165

This publicity

wort; demanded considerable

ingenuity.

On one occasion

he staged a fake suicide houses; another time,

in the Avon at Bath in order in Northampton, to advertise with he had to

to boost dwindling mollify irate

publicans

who were refusing

the Melville theatre probably

company in their manager. benefited 166

houses because of a dispute career as a business gained

the local

gis later

company promoter, publicity

from the experience

as a theatre

agent.

Meanwhile, of his

Duos Mohamed Ali company.

began to plan setting end, he revived it on the same bill

music

up as actor-manager his playlet The

own touring

To this for

Jew's Revenge, securing

the Beast at the

a place

as Beauty and
hall. 167 He

Broadhead

Theatre,

a t. anchester

164. "Leaves From An Active 165. ibid, 166. ibid, 167. ibid,

Life",

in The Comet, 11th September 1937, p. 7. p. 7.

18th September 1937,

11th September 1937, pp-7 & 16. 18th September 1937, p. 7.

77.
took the title role the himself, rest of hie in the true from style of the the old actor-managers, and the - an

and recruited Beast company.

cast

members of at

Beauty

However,

he was aiming week tour represented

a much greater on the the great

success

engagement circuit. the form music

to play

a twenty-six Theatres era

Empire

Theatre of

The Empire hall in the

ultimate

development leading

when they

were at In

their

peak as the cinema round

of mass popular an exciting

entertainment. novelty,

1906 the tour

was still the but of

no

more than Empires performer. popular

so a successful prospect these for

Moss-Stoll little known

was the

most delectable name of era of

an ambitious is a symbol

The very culture in the

theatres

British

Imperialism

triumphant.

Thus when Dues Mohamed Ali

at the Manchester opportunity. 21st May 1906, obliged to Ardwick His

secured a trial
Empires, at in it

contract

for

a week each
seemed a

and Glasgow company he tells

must have in

golden mencing

played us,

Manchester Glasgow to play the

the week comweek, 168

and, recruit

following

He had felt

a new company

these

engagements,

as he did not feel

justified

in taking

people

from the cast

of Beauty Nevertheless, reviewer, who

and the Beast without the play was reviewed

a definite favourably

twenty-six

week contract. Manchester

by The Stage's

168.

For the Manchester performance of The Jew's Revenge, see The Stage, However, despite 24th May 1906, p. 5. Duce Mohamed Ali's statement Life", in "Leaves From An Active in The Comet. 18th September 1937 Ardwick p. 7, that he had a two week contract and at the Manchester Glasgow Empires, implies that the Glasgow engagement which clearly followed Glasgow to this on from the Manchester one, no reference the relevant engagement is to be found in either numbers of The Stage It would seem that here is yet another or of The Glasgow Herald. in Duae's autobiography. example of confused chronology

78.
found great that: dramatic is "In the power well tragedietta ... and is "169 last The Jew's admirably However, night railing, of Revenge supported Duse Mohamed shows by a strong company. of

The piece many false and spiked while

staged.

Duse Mohamed Ali's his week in Glasgow

was a life he slipped his

dawns - on the his

hand on an iron behind enforced arguing group in of to

and so had to dismiss Despite with this,

company

he stayed his

convalesce. in Glasgow

he seems to have - especially drinking whisky, in Scotland

remembered Saturday with till

stay

affection course

nights

and discussing, Glaswegian making

and of 170

a regular some time

cronies.

Duse remained existence was given out

1907,

a hand The Jew's

to mouth Revenge

of various

odd theatrical

engagements.

an engagement

in Edinburgh
said to have

- possibly
produced

a one night
another of his

stand.

Some time in 1907 Duse' is

entitled A Cleopatra Night,

own works,

in Dundee.

171

Then he fell
a variety

in with
to

another
tour the

actor
small

down on his
towns around

luck,

with

whom he formed

company

Glasgow.

Unlike'J. ported

B. Priestley's this company.

'Good Companions', After three

no unexpected 'stands',

benefactor

sup-

unprofitable

Duse's partner

169. The Stage,

24th May 1906, p. 5. Life", in The Comet, 18th September 1906,

170. "Leaves From An Active pp. 7& 16. 171. Dr. N. Azikiwe, birthday

tribute

to Duce Mohamed Ali,

in the west

20th November 1943, p. 1. is the only source of inforPilot, African Dundee appearance but since there is no record mation about this in the Theatre Notices of the Dundee Courier of any such performance 1907, the date of this throughout as not performance must be regarded The Edinburgh known. engagement of The Jew's Revenge is mentioned 18th September 1937, Life", in Comet, The in "Leaves From An Active

p. 16, but no exact date is given and it does not appear in the theatre 1906 or 1907. notices of the Edinburgh local press for either

79.
dropped try, in The company made a last where stayed back to bed-bugs long London, and financially to disastrous

out.

than

Inverness, He only his fare

were found in

be more plentiful after this

patrons. to earn

enough

Scotland Saturday

experience and evening

by giving

afternoon

recitations Back-in
engagements London of

in Glasgow.

172 continued
of music 1908, theatre's British 174 a trade

London, a hand to mouth existence

for The Jew's Star, during sought then in Revenge at a couple In spring

with
halls

brief
the the South

and the

Bermondsey. the

173

facing slack

prospect

unemployment

(the summer at of

London the

season),

Dusee Mohamed Ali Shepherd's only about; Great able Bush, to but find just

employment the course

Franco

Exhibition, At first, he was

preparation.

employment before the

as an electrician, exhibition to play in opened, a side

he knew nothing as "The Egyptian

he was engaged show. 175

Egyptian

Actor Author"

Wearing

172. "Leaves Fron An Active

173. ibid. trace

Life",

in Comet, The
however, it London Music

18th September 1937, p. 16.

to has not been possible in The Seta e. Hall reports

25th September 1937, p. 7; in the these performances

174.

Life", in The Comet, 25th September 1937, p. 7, "Leaves From An Active having by this "Spring time arrived tells us: with the Summer in I knew that theatrical doubtful, the offing, employment was rather Bush Exhibition, then in course of construction so I went to Shepherd's " The Exhibition was officially opened on 14th May 1908 - see ... The Times, 15th ray 1908, p. 13.

175. "Leaves-From

An Active

Life",

in The Comet. 25th September 1937, p"7.

80.

dress,

he lectured which

on the opened

finding 11th

of

Moses in

a piece

entitled

Pharaoh's

Daughter, the

on the on 24th

August

1908 and closed having

(a week before by 349,268

Exhibition 176

itself) However, 177

October

1908,

been visited man, six

people. the

Duse was replaced During this able

by another

weeks before as at Liege of dis-

show closed.

engagement to attract national the

he was again, fleeting

and on previous tinguished distinguished who is said

occasions,

attention

visitors, people",

by wearing though

dress.

Apparently Princess perfect rarities

he met "many Victoria, English. in 178

the where

only

one named is to

to have enquired with with it

he learnt English

speak not

Though Africans Africans speaking

some command of the fluency only but

were

1908,

to appear his also,

on the dress

stage that

must

have been

few indeed. attention English and role, the more, to

Thus

was not

Egyptian

attracted his very personality he became,

Duse Mohamed All, so this in small British

contradictorally, epitomises his

speech;

incident society.

divided 'British'

as developed to the British,

The more stranger. was beginning his engagement

he seemed a bizarre Duae Mohamed Ali conclusion business heart this of of

Perhaps wandering life,

by this for

time on the

to at

tire the

of

Shepherd's an office

Bush Exhibition, off Shaftesbury to settle

he set Avenue down. .

up in in 179 the In

as a literary London's

agent,

took

theatreland, he gave advice

and "deterto would-be

mined

capacity,

176. 177. 178.

The Times, "Leaves ibid.

31st

October

1908, Life",

p. 13. in The Comet, 25th September 1937, p. 7.

From An Active

179. ibid.

81.

authors, appealed others in

revised

manuscripts being

and for

'ghosted'

plays. subject lost his

No doubt to the job at

independance caprice Shepherd's of another of of his a Bermudan into his in of

to him after the theatre

so many years for example

he had, of

Bush owing actor work to

to a combination his place agent called 181 at

jealousy

and the 180 re-write the

willingness In the

take

a lesser

salary. to

course

as a literary

he undertook of

the work of

libretto

musical-comedy called first his

The Lily It

Bermuda,

a coloured

Trimingham. business

was this

man who led (and

Duse Mohamed Ali

venture

- an important induced of

disastrous) the

new departure burden of finding

life.

Trimingham for

him to undertake the work, of

financiers booking in

a production He then

engaging

a company,

and of

a theatre. matters,

demonstrated purely

his verbal

over-sanguine assurances

temperament of 5,000

business

by accepting

backing, for

of this he booked the Theatre Royal, and on the strength 182 Troubles began almost immediately. the opening trial run. had to be asked to guarantee
and one week before on advance payment opening of 100,

Manchester, The

manager of the Theatre

costumes musical and scenery, score insisted

the expenses of
the composer of the of

as the

condition

180. 181.

ibid. For the revised ibid. version of this work as later performed, Trimingham, Duse Mohamed and Ernest The Lily of Bermuda, unpub. in Lord Chamb,rlain's typescript play mss. (St. James Palace), licence no. 184 of 8th November 1909. vide

182, "Leaves From An Active

pp. 7& 16.

Life",

The in Comet,

25th September 1937,

82 . handing deapaire
I was almost frantic and devoutly wished that I had never seen I secured the needful Trimingham or his play. payment for the heaven knows how, I don't the orchestra and we duly started 184 production. In these circumstances, it is hardly surprising that the critics

the score

over 0183

By this

time,

Ihuse Mohamed Ali

was in

were not impressed

was important poor music; scathing, to

by the play.

The Eanchester
the

Guardian,
plot

whose approval
and sub-plots;

eucoese, attacked tiresomely singing admitting

over-complicated unoriginal 185

characterization; and poor though

repetitive,

and unequal was less gone well.

by some soloists, that the opening

The Stage had not

night

However, as a paper read by the profession influence with over Mancheatur theatregoers

rather

than the public,

its

the Guardian.
for next lady the play

with a cast
to at the long

would have been minute compared 186 it was not to support, of sixty-eight
a poor reception. November Before 1909187 moving the

possible to its

survive

engagement deserted Thge

Middlesborough cast. 188

on 15th

leading even

In }iiddleaborough "Mr.

matters

became company

worse,

dauntingly

commentings

Duae Mohamed'a

163. ibid, 184. ibid.

p. 16.

185. Manchester 186. The Stage. 187. ibid,

Guardian,

7th November 1909, p. 7.

11th November 190; x, p. 19.

18th November 1909, p. 7. Life", in The Comet. 25th September 1909, p. 16.

188. "Leaves FromAn Active

83.
are last here with The Lily the play of Bermuda. Since the production their Ill parts with in Manchester repre-

week some of of the

principals suffers all

have resigned accordingly. "189

and the worry,

sentation Mohamed All to pay his

i Duse

cancelled actors fares

further back to

engagements, London,

pawned scenery to his failure historian the

and costumes office. as a in other figures millionaire; young appear not extent l90

and returned

Although musical-comedy, ways. of

The Lily it

of

Bermuda was such a complete interest are comic in all white for the

has considerable characters -a

The principal

and are a crass a titled

stock

Edwardian

musical-comedy daughter

Duchess; love with

American but poor

and his English as comic above

beautiful officer; servants

who is

a suffragette; in this work the

a foppish written expense displays of British

Lord.

Black

men only is

by two black of black man.

men, which 191 of (or To this at

'jocular' of

humour at

The Lily

Bermuda apparently to) the norms

acceptance society. Firstly,

least scrutiny Ice King',

accommodation discovers the

But a closer 'Ginter, the picture polemical the

two very

different

points. conforms

American

millionaire, in

exactly later

to

of American writings on

millionaires

Duse Mohamed Ali's

serious

189.

The Stage,

18th

November

1909,

p. 7.

190. "Leaves From An Active

191. Bermuda, to himself refers Holmes. " of Llv

Life",

in The Comet, 25th September 1937, p. 16.

p. 3, the black hotel black letter edition Joe Tucker servant of Sherlock

Act I, so-i, the as "...

84.
Imperialism of American Secondly, which, flower, the and Capitalism, 'Pork there the is Kings' 192 in which he attacked their scene the malign British of influence society. Bermuda in

who had bought final the

way into to The Lily scent

a fascinating of

under the

influence all

hallucinatory roles,

of a mysterious 'darky' becoming a black but is

characters of various only orders

change

a humble 193

comic

object not

favours and is

and attentions; served

Joe Tucker, by his master,

waiter,

champagne

made love Niger'.

to by the

Duchess, of of

who embraces this the fantasy flower

him and addresses is clear enough it is

him as 'Lord - especially made clear she is if Capitalist the

The significance the effects is still

as even after that object in his real the of

have faded, Joe, 194

Duchess the

intending attentions.

to marry

although playscript,

millionaire's

So in to give man. a time

his

not

life,

Duse Mohamed Ali and exalt

was able black

an American

come-uppance The Lill of

a poor

Bermuda fiasco new interests question, Islam

came at

when Dust

Fohamed Ali

was

already in the

gathering Egyptian

and showing and the world

a greatly racial

heightened situation.

interest 195

192.

III for further details thesis of Duse and IV of this see Chapters In The Lily Capitalism. Mohamed Ali's on Imperialism attacks and Ginter not only hopes that his wealth of Bermuda, the millionaire the hand of the Duchess, who is poor, but also wants to force win will Scots Earl; to marry an elderly his daughter pp. 10-11. see Act II, Lily of Bermuda, Act II, finale, passim.

193.

194. ibid,
195.

pp-35 & 41.

III of this thesis.

see Chapter

L5.
Although interests a convenient life written in Britain will he was not were quite finished away from this it with from survey the years the theatre, time the his predominant making of his this

swinging

this of

onwards, part

point

to conclude

earlier

and travelling suffice to

through his

world.

But what

has been actorbe neglected

show that

as a hack traveller

journalist,

cum-manager-cum-playwright, if his later work

and observant is

must not

as a Pan-Africanist

to

be rightly

understood.

CHAPTERIII

A NEW AGE FOR DUSE MOUAAMED ALI 1909 1912

86.
The year career, Yet in with the 1909 was the the re-writing as this Duse Mohamed Ali's The Lily of

calamitous of

climax

of

stage Bermuda. he

and attempt

to stage to but articles before his work far for

same year in

disastrous spectacular,

effort

be an impressario, more significant the magazine written Lady, ;

became involved activity New Age. articles his tative weighty, for - writing It is the

a much less serious

controversial he had ever, yet if

_}tg

not

known if

this fore

time, Hull

'serious' exposures

press, of the

or

sensational of his far

Salvation then this

Army may be taken was a step into

as represena far more

earlier

journalism,

more intellectual

field.

Altogether review article) far

Duse Mohamed Ali for short

wrote

eleven

articles

(including

a 1911.1

The New Age between January of the "weekly article"

1909 and April in his

This falls graphy, 2

mentioned

autobiolife

but is nevertheless (or at least on political their Men.

most important the earliest and racial

to the student yet discovered)

of his

as the earliest serious articles writing display

corpus of his titles of these "White was followed

themes. The earliest

The very

significance.

was called It

Womenand Coloured

The Other Side of the Picture".

1.

"White Womenand Coloured Men, The Other Side These articles were; 21st January 1909, pp. 262-63; "Western Civilizaof the Picture", tion Through Eastern Spectacles", 4th February 1909, p. 301,18th February 1909, pp. 341-42 and 4th March 1909, p. 381 and 25th March 1909, p. 519; "The Situation 1909, p. 443 and 22nd April in Egypt", "France and the Egyptian Nationalists", 16th June 1910, pp. 148-50; Ruin" (review article), "Egypt's 29th September 1910, pp. 509-10; "Quo Vadis", 23rd February 1911, pp. 387-90; 22nd December 1910, p. 174; 1911, "The Good Friday Procession. An Impression", 27th April 606-607. pp. "Leaves From An Active Life", in The Comet, 25th September 1937, p. 16.

2.

87.
by a series all under five general between Civilization February and March Eastern 1909,

of the 3

articles heading

published "Western

Through

Spectacles",
an Egyptian

and taking

the form of a fictional

in

correspondence
Under this

between
guise, of con-

living

in EngL-nd and a kinsman launched life widespread attacks At for

Egypt. on various point

Duse Mohamed Ali temporary in Lily the of British

aspects occurs

and society. accounted

this

there

a break

series,

no doubt In

by the

engrossing

demands of Mg on Egypt, one

Bermuda. "France in

1910 he contributed Egyptian 4 These

two articles

entitled

and the Egypt".

Nationalists", were written

andasecond while

entitled on off certain and

"The Situation his major book

he was working clearly tossed he took

In The Land Of The Pharaohs of that work. his original review Ruin, book, Though,

and were

as a by-product 'short-cuts' left little in time

as will it

be seen, kept

writing for

no doubt

him busy Also

enough in

journalistic attacking

writing. British exile

1910 he in Egypt, 5

contributed entitled After 1911, the

a long E&vnt'e

of a work Russian

Imperialism Theodore in the

by the of In

Marxist

Rothstein. New Year of The first

publication

The Land Of The Pharaohs for

Dune contributed

two more articles

The New Age.

of these,

appearing

in February

1911, and entitled racial

"Quo Vadis", situation.

was a

wide ranging in April

and biting

essay on the world a very different

Finally, ones;

1911 he contributed

piece

to the previous

3. 4. 5. 6.

vide ibid. ibid. ibid.

n. 1 supra.

88.

this

was a description

of

an Anglican

religious

procession

in

London

simply

entitled it

"The Good Friday throws on its

articles,

Procession",

and of interest position

contains writings

mainly at that

for time .7
amount

the light
In of of addition

author's

own religious

to

these

The New Age also by Duee Mohamed Ali's 8

a certain and two

correspondence

provoked

reviews

In The Land Of The Pharaohs.

Before attempting
nary to describe to

any detailed
some extent intellectual the

analysis
remarkable

of this
place

corpus,
of

it

is neces-

The New ARe in remarkable copied by In many man

contemporary who edited it,

British

life,

and the have in to

equally

A. R. Orage,

who may well himself possible emulate.

been a model

Duse Mohamed All

when he found is to

an editorial imagine His Dust

chair.

ways Orage was a man who it identifying and provincial. twelve years of with and trying

Mohamed Ali was obscure Leeds for about

background teacher in in

He was an elementary his life, and largely

school self-taught

philosophy

(especially

7. .

ibid. in Egypt. A reply to Duse Mohamed", by Marmaduke "The Situation from Duse Pickthall, in The New Age, 30th June 1910, p. 196; letter 14th July 1910, p. 263; review by to Fickthall, Mohamed replying J. M. Kennedy of In The Land Of The Pharaohs, 16th February 1911, letter from S. Coetz3e, criticising 366-67; of Duse aspects pp. 23rd Feb"Quo Nadia" (vide n. l supra), Mohamed's earlier article 1911, p. 427; another review, anonymous, of In The Land Of ruary Supplement, 16th March 1911, The Pharaohs, in The New Age Literary pp"2-3.

89.
that
with

of Nietzsche),

politics

and literature,
of Negro

One may compare this

which must perforce

Duse Mohamed Ali's

knowledge

history,

have been self-taught,

since British age of Negro history

whatever
was certainly institution. in British

the actual
not

extent

of his

formal

education,

on the

curriculum that age of regular possible this

of any contemporary was the great

educational the auto-didact

One recalls life, the

H. G. Wells contributors for

(who, to

incidentally, The New Ace), Ali

was one among the an age in which of own. emulating As yet, it

many eminent was surely others it

Duse Mohamed to be no

to have hopes than his

whose handicaps conclusively

appeared

greater

had not

been impressed

on him that lities

If

racism

in British

society

imposed iron

limits

on the possibi-

open to him in Britain.

Orage's background May well have constituted an encouragement,

the same may be said chair

for

the events

that

placed

Orage in the editorial journal,

of The New Age, which had been founded in 1894 as a Liberal

94,

and perhaps not least to its relationship with early colonial national Bernard Porter's British movements. recent Critics of Empire. Radical attitudes to colonialism--n-Africa 1895-1914, MacMillan,
St. nor Martins Press, The New Ago. New York, 1968, makes mention of neither Orage

Unfortunately there is no definitive biography Probably of Orage. the best of existing biographical studies of this remarkable man is Philip Mairet, A. k. Orage. A Memoir, London, JIM. Dent & Sons Ltd., 1936; There is also Paul Selver, Orage and the New Age Circle, London, George Allen former and Unwin, 1959, and Orage's mistress, Beatrice Hastings', The Old 'New Axe'. malicious and unbalanced Orage Blue Moon Press, Others. London, 1936. A recent academic Orage and The New Age is study of considerable use in assessing Wallace Martin, The New Age under Orage. Chavters in English Cultural History, Manchester University Press, 1967; but this work deals predominantly with literary and cultural aspects of The New Age. A study in depth of its impact under Orage has yet to be political though it would certainly be a major contribution attempted, to the left in the early understanding of the British twentieth century,

9o.
and which needed Jackson their held by 1907 was in it. at 10 so parlous a financial friend the condition journalist from from which those that its owners

to sell were views

Orage and his time looking which circles own, George for

Holbrook to express

that

a platform widely they enabled

on Socialism, London Fabian of their of

diverged in they

generally 11

in

the

which were

had been moving*

Lacking through Lewis from

any funds the

to buy The New Age banker, generosity keeping The New Ase

generosity 12 British Just

Bernard

Shaw and a merchant on disinterested in

Wallace. eminent

as Orage depended

progressives

and intellectuals

going, business Review.

so Dues' Mohamed Ali and professional

was later

to look

to successful

African

men to maintain

his African itself

Times and Orient. going, although

The success of The New Aue what were certainly,

could first have encouraged in the

in keeping

propagating
opinions, in his

at the time,
Duse in African his

unpopular
belief

and minority
explicitly that the new

- expressed Review

editorial

Times and Orient people, not

British

were a fair

and open-minded

prejudiced

against

ideas, surely public, political

if

they were presented

with

facts

and reason. for

13

It

would be If the British

mistaken

to condemn him as naive the more intellectual journals,

such beliefs. section of it that

or at least and literary

read serious served on

was willing

to tolerate received

the fare opinions

in the pages of The New Age. (which up

challenged

10. 11.

Martin, ibid,

op. cit., pp. 22-3.

pp. 23-4.

12. 13.

ibid,

p. 24. 1912, pp. iii.

A-TOR, July

91.
most of the subjects) 'darker why should races'? It it not support a journal devoted to that for the interests

the

may be more than

a coincidence appealed

among support patron

eminent

British the 14

men to whom Duse Fohamed All African Times and Orient Review

on launching of

was G. B. Shaw,

The New Age.

As a contributor in conjunction 15 with Yet it

to that

The New Are,

Duse Mohamed Ali's already famous

work

was appearing later most with Orage of on to

of men who were that brilliant

or were the than the

become so. limited himself. those record join in

may be doubted with there this is

he had more than circle, of his 16 other

personal At all

contact events,

no mention

name in

works it is to

who have written that the on at least

about

Orage and The New Atte. Orage invited that

However,

one occasion

a new contributor with 17 and if time his Possibly taken normally

weekly

Monday afternoon of the

meetings in

he held Lane. too; that

entourage auch up,

the

basement

ABC tearooms

Chancery

an invitation would included Sharp have

was extended introduced him

to Duse Mohamed Ali to a group Cecil it that around

Holbrook among others*

Jackson, 18

Chesterton, was here

H. G. Wells as well

and Clifford Fleet Street

Whether

as in

14.
15.

Martin,
At that Belloc, vide

op. cit.,

p-24-

Hilaire included time eminent contributors G. K. Chesterton, George Bernard Shaw, H. G. Wells, Ezra Pound and many others. supra.

16.

n. 9,

17.
18.

Selver,
Mairet,

op. oit.
op. cit.,

p. 16.
p. 461 Martin, op. cit., p. 43, gives an expanded list.

92.
that Duse Mohamed All speculations met Cecil are Chesterton 19

must to of

remain the its

a fact

speculation. that Duse's

Yet such work

immaterial which, the of most which

compared because talented acquired the

was accepted to pick

by a journal and choose editor This paid,

intellectual a host skill

cachet,

was able contributors unwanted contributors

from great

of would-be at turning normally 'for writing At most love$. for he 21 away

and the efforts. 20

was all being

more remarkable to do their made his

since work

were not would

required not have of for

Duse Mohamed Ali The New Ate, might have

certainly the

fortune

which

squired

nickname or guinea

The No Wagei22 each article,

been given

a pound

as was sometimes

discreetly

the case with for

needy contributors.

23 greatest
of

Duse was writing

success pernicious and the reached and brilliance, cranks 'mystic' a peak of

The New Age at what was the time of its

long before Orage succumbed the founder the to of the influence

such as Major Gourdjieff. about 22,000,

Douglas, Around

Social

Credit,

1909,

circulation was certainly

perhaps read by

and the

magazine

19. 20.

see "Via-a-Via. Salver, skillful op. cit., gambits

VIII,

Cecil

Chesterton",

in

AOR, August

1920,

pp. 6-7.

few editors p. 22, says "... can have matched the " of Orage in rejecting manuscripts verbally. saying love. We

21.

ibid, from Orage to the author quotes a letter pp. 12-13, "You must have gathered that the New Age is written for to pay for contributions. " cannot afford

22. 23.

ibid, Martin,

p. 16. op. cit., pp. 56-57.

93.
many more. 24 All this was achieved and with 25 without only All any solid finance by means

of enlightened helpers secret in at

patronage,

two more or less this

permanent

addition the time,

to Orage. so it is

seems to have been an open it probably a political the organisaon Dun Here

reasonable own brave

to assume that effort in later.

encouraged and literary tion (or

Duae Mohamed Ali's magazine lack of the it) only of

running 26 If

a very

few years

The New Ase had a presumptive be charged difficulties in in the field of

influence its ideas.

Mohamed Ali, there are

same could greater

perhaps

weighing

up the

probabilities,

as it

was the editorial

contradictory

policy

of Orage to encourage
27 Nevertheless,

the most diverse

though sticking to

and indeed

elements.

no orthodoxy, Socialism variant middle

The New Age was avowedly by Orage was Guild looking

6ocialist, Socialism

and the brand of that curious nostalgia English to the

preferred

of syndicalism,

backward with

romantic

ages on the one hand, and anticipating state on the other. 28

some aspects certainly

of the Fascist never

corporate

Duse Mohamed Ali

24.

But his figure is contradicted by Martin, Mairet, op. cit., p. 53. for The New Age op. cit., an average circulation p. 10, who suggests Selver, of only 3,000 between 1907 and 1922. op. cit., p. 21, says but the magazine was the circulation was small and kept secret, widely read.

25.
26.

Salver,

op. cit.,

p. 21.
running the A TOR and AOi are fully

Dune Mohamed Ali's methods in in the next chapter. discussed

27. 28.

Mairet,

op. cit.,

p. 43. of Orage, The New Age and Guild pp. 193-211. Socialism, vide

For a discussion Martin, op. cit.,

94.
himself to the of the a supposed Guild Guild Socialists, Britain. a strong to the though he did other big of could have

attached

ranks for the

some romantic hand, he did

nostalgia share with

bygone

On the dislike institution matters of

Socialists opposition his views

business, private best, argued impetus with if is to

without property loosely, that

any fundamental as such. be called contact of with his Perhaps populist.

on these that

The most

can be safely point and further

The New Age may have given criticisms role is not of of British society, industry

certain to the

particularly and finance. 29

regard Be that

oppressive nay, it

capitalist to

as it

difficult

see why The New Age would

have been attractive cumstances of his first

to Duse Mohamed All, contribution

with the

although

the particular

cir-

to it
magazine times

remain unclear.
in 1907, it in

As soon
became a hostile terms Thus that (to give

as Orage became associated critic of British Imperialism likely

- and at

a critic

were particularly an example)

to appeal in the

to Duse Mohamed Ali. feature "Notes of

we can find

regular

the

Week" the

29.

ideas, Duse Kohamed Ali's political are discussed in Chapter IV of this

as developed thesis.

in the ATOR and AOR,

95.
following
If

attack

on racism

in the Empire;

is to be any preference there for one race over another in any is up with Imperialism. We would not give part of the Empire all for an Empire run by Natal. a years purchase In Australia, Natalism unfortunately, appears to be spreading ... Why on earth should the Australians exclude with British protection Japanese or any other race of men merely on grounds of race differHuman values ence? we can understand; and we would gladly exclude from England - yes and ship many already in England - men who have their to degrade a community by sweating proved themselves willing fellows for the sake of profits. England had better hertell ... first that race and colour self and the Empire afterwards are of no than sex or creed; concern more Imperial and that in the long run (if there is to be a long run) these race prejudices must die out or be killed beginning to be. 30 out as prejudices of sex and creed are Similar of his sentiments own writing would Egypt, surely which were to be fervently theme of to in race him, expressed and Empire; the review in the by Dune himself 31 of and if the Earl these of (1908) in his in much sentiCromerb under ears:

on the

ments Modern the

be agreeable appeared of

The New Are would

same year

pseudonym

"Cheater

Stanhope",

have been music

to insane Imperialism, Lord Cromer was converted of and his hatred democracy grew as the years rolled Still, on. a as he represented he had to pretend that he liked democracy, dec*ocracy and National Lord Cromer pretended Parties. he may well so well that really But the National believe that he is a democrat. Party knew that bitterest he was their the executions enemy, and that at Denshawai Neither Mustaphe Kemal Pasha, who was revenge. were his parting followed to his grave by a concourse of 50,000 mourners, nor the is mentioned by Lord Cromer. Denshawai incident The Lambert-Dunlop the quail the murder of Ismail shooting case at Ghizeh, scandal, Sadyk Pasha, the Moutaza and fox shooting incidents are passed over The Moukalabe law is dealt lightly reference. or without with very Lord Cromer states inadequately. that he does not know Arabic, ... though he was snob enough to correct the defects of his education

30. 31.

The New Age, 11th January

1908, p. 203. book In The Land Of The Pharaohe, the same time, which are discussed

This emerges from, for example, his and other pieces written at roughly in this chapter. subsequently

96.
by learning Greek verse... Lord After twenty-five years government, Cromer had not condescended to learn the language of the people he it dared No wonder he hated Egyptian democracy; was governing. Sir Thomas Munro knew speak in a tongue which he could not learn. his business 'Nothing is more essential when he said a century ago: intimate than a thorough knowledge of the common people, and that is We by an early only to be acquired and free intercourse with them. ' to govern men against can never be qualified whom we are prejudiced. Lord Cromer never heeded this Egypt unregretted counSI1, and he left and unmourned by the fellaheen ... So it would his be reasonable own efforts - of the sort to to of surmise that Dust Mohamed All publication Added to was encouraged - indeed such general

to offer propagation

The New Age by its items quoted above.

encouragement captivate found Russell, than the

was Orage's would-be

personality, 33

which

was calculated contrast starchy

to charm and could be Edward

contributor.

No greater but

between of Orage,

Orage and the the Liverpool

impressive Post,

and narrow the

editor

who Duse had met in gave Duse help or

nineties.

Yet although far yet beyond

as will

be seen, of

and encouragement in The New Ape, From An Aotiv

the mere publication pen-portrait

a dozen of

so pieces

no enthusiastic

appears

him in

Leaves

Lam,

although

that

work is

rich

in personal for

observations

of people. his vanity to which

Edward Russell, a little,

the answer

who did

was written
may perhaps

Duce except perhaps flatter 34 Here is a puzzle, of at some length. nothing

be found As will in the manner in which it

Duse Mohamed Ali is unlikely that

and A. R. Orage parted. they parted on good terms.

be seen presently,

32. 33. 34.

The New Age, 4th April Selver, op. cit., p. 15.

1908, pp. 453-454.

"Vis-a-Vis.

V. Lord Russell

of Liverpool",

in AOR, May 1920, pp. 6-7.

97.
Be that Mohamed Ali twenty-first as it saw his of it have been with to lengthy35 Side of the that Duse

may, first

must

great

pleasure print

contribution 1909 - the

The New Age in article Picture".

on the topic "White

January

on the 36

Women and Coloured this article

Men. The Other attack magazine social it

Specifically, the author

was a sarcastic article in the

on C. Hamilton London OAinjon,

McGuiness, 37

of a recent against Oriental of "... to did British

who had fulminated women and or undergraduate wrath, for nature, 38 Not a white own country, if The of only

marriage men.

and even In particular,

contact was the

between Asian

English graduate

Universities all this our

who aroused veneer simple assert lies

C. Hamilton a crafty

McGuiness's and half-civilised

underneath which too

many of

women fall that with police with it

easy victims... would be better husband have powers man in the in to

" for

C. Hamilton be dead

1(cGuiness than

woman to but also

to dwell that in the

an Asiatic should

his

he demanded woman appeared context and Asian of

intervene 39 flow in

a white general African cases

public

a coloured

Britain.

his

outburst

was undoubtedly Britain time. for That with at is

considerable (or that

subjects purposes at

entering that

educational not (say) or to the say

some

business) involved

the

numbers

were large the cachet of

by comparison an education

nineteen-sixties. at the

Nevertheless,

Oxford

Cambridge,

35. 36. 37. 38. 39.

The article

was about seventeen

hundred words.

The New Age, 21st January Quoted in ibid. ibid, ibid. p. 263-

1909, pp. 262-63.

98.
Inns of Court, or to a lesser extent at other British Universities numbers of and young onwards.

professional Indians Indeed, part of

institutions, to

was attracting Britain of to is from the

noticeable late in

and Africans the the

nineteenth London

century

concentration background It

auch people

was to be an important there from were number of rise

Duse Mohamed Ali's that in

own activities

1912 to all

1921.40

clear

an age when undergraduates presence to British society white of a growing racists with women.

deemed to be 'young students that of they

gentlemen', irritant

the

coloured to fears

was a great would intrude with

- giving the

on polite respectable

consequent

'danger'

miscegenation

It
aspect scornful it too.

is
of

interesting
Edwardian

to see in what terms Dose Mohamed Ali

racism. In general his article of solid adopted points

attacked
a tone were of

this

ridicule,

but

nevertheless the behaviour that ... for

a number of Asians the in real

lade the was

in boot

He defended other foot

as husbands moral evil of thait in the in

and put the East

on the the "...

by claiming of affairs by 'white with folk'

condition

the gain,

brothels rather

Eastern the

seaport

towns of

conducted

households in

'coloured

persons'

white

wives.

"41

The British

communities

40.

James There were of course earlier examples, such as the West African (vide Horton's Beale Horton Countries West African Africanus and introduction Peoples, 2nd ed., with by George Shepperson, Edinburgh 1969, p. ix), Press, but it is evident University that by the turn of there was a considerable flow, the century rather and increasing individual. by attempts Witness is born to this than the occasional in London for African to set up suitable accommodation and Indian in the years prior is further to the Great War. This topic students in Chapter V of this discussed thesis.

41.

The New Are,

21st January

1909, p. 263.

99.
India were lambasted the of the most jibe for their ostracism point of of all the white wives of Indiana 42

But perhaps rejection

significant that

was Duse's

resentful heathens;

Orientals

were half-civilised

Now as to the words 'heathen' with which this and'half-civilised', has liberally bestrewed his article, gentleman what can he possibly Evidently is somehis knowledge of history mean by these terms? in religion, All that is known in the West, whether what faulty. had its birth in the East. The first civilised or art, politics, influences their knowledge and civilising of the West obtained nations by their The monuments and temples from Egypt. of the East attest that obtained persons' a civilisation among 'coloured antiquity folk' when the 'white of the West were untaught and unclothed 43 savages. It is quite clear from this passage world that history purposes) that already in as early that white of as January not only 1909

Duse t iohamed Ali but even (at least 44 of

was seeing for Here it

terms

rejected of

polemical

reversed his citing

claims his that

superiority. as the drive mentor

may be noted was an early in editorials

own homeland he wat. to years. be

Europe

example

of a point in life,

home again place that It is it

and again Egypt

and articles had in of found first race favour of his pride. with

future it

Whatever denied

may or may not

have

cannot

gave him strong that this later

feelings article by the

evident

A. R. Orage, series of

for of the

it five

was followed articles whole in fabric

a fortnight which of

a connected criticisms

Duse Mohamed Ali contemporary British

made devastating political,

religious

and social

life.

42. 43. 44.

ibid. ibid. Duse Mohamed Ali's views on race an expressed in the ATOR and A0t are discussed and analysed in Chapter IV of this thesis.

100.

In presenting Egyptian dating phical the

these in

articles Britain

in

the guise of

of a correspondence course, using a literary

between device 'Philosoinstance

an

resident back to

he was, Lettres

Montesquieu's in the

Persanes century;

and Goldsmith's though the in this

Chinaman'

eighteenth that his

with but

added

complication Egyptian,

letters

were

work of

an actual

Anglicised

masquerading

as an Egyptian

who waa very

much not

Anglicised.
which, readers taste. although in

To give
it is

this

impression,

Duse Mohamed Ali

enough with

adopted a style
the bulk of

may have been effective unfortunately was an 'Ali tedious

1909,

or even ludicrous Forty Thieves'

to modern pantomine

This

style

Baba and the

version
forgotten will

of Arabic,
that to

bearing

the sort
has to

of relation
genuine Chinese

to the language
art. A brief

Duse had
sample

Chinoiserie illustrate;

serve

I feel that my work is done So shall may gaze upon me protect, whom Allah and lips with the honey of approval, exceed the Attar whose essence shall 45 odour. passing

and that the great Prophet, from afar with eyes sweetened in garlanded smiles, wreathed surand the Spices in their

Yet it
intrusion serious extent of

would be mistaken
the music hall

to dismiss
and the with,

these articles
stage valuable into

as a ludicrous
the sphere of of the

popular they are

politics. to which this

To begin Anglicised of British

evidence to

man was already society, over those to rip

beginning aside despised bogus

question pre-

fundamental tensions

aspects to moral

British

superiority British

they

as "half-civilised" manipulated good old laws

and "heathers'. by the rich in

democracy own selfish

was dismissed interests,

as a sham, aside

their

setting

45.

The New Age, 4th February

1909, p. 301.

101.

for of

bad new ones - an echo here British all justice in its for the moral and fair play.

of 46

Duse's

belief

in

a past British

'golden

age'

Contemporary guise, social evil

Christianity, in two of

above the

missionary-humanitarian indifference and religious first traders from for being their to

was attacked at of home, while other

articles47

presuming Indeed, preand the

to attempt

regeneration member of

lands. trinity,

the missionary paring the

was seen as the rum selling far

an unholy

way for

and murderous morally uplifted,

soldiery;

missionaries' drunken Blydenite activity, the read Negro

converts,

became dishonest, This is a distinctly

hypocrites, picture which Race. 48 of

pimping the

own daughters. of Christian

moral parallels is of

consequences with that equally less

missionary Islam Duse had and

suggests There It is,

Blyden's at about possible

Christianity. this that time

evidence course, more or

Blyden. these

Duae Mohamed Ali He certainly misery from in had Britain, the

came to a closer while

conclusions than

independently. have had of social

knowledge

Blyden for

could

Blyden's

sympathy Christian and third

Islam

provides

a common ground

which

two men viewed The second Eastern society, in time

missions. of the the articles question an attack villains "Western of the Civilisation role Earl of of Through British who was

Spectacles" adding to for

consider

women in Cromer,

good measure stock

on the in

become one of the

Duse's

journalistic

46.
47.

ibid.
ibid, 4th February 1909, p. 301, and 25th March 1909, p. 443"

48.

vide Duse Mohamed, "The Coloured Magazine, June 1911, pp. 404-5.

Man in Art

and Letters",

in T. P. 's

102, 49 women this the of As not a sup-

repertoire, In the

in

his time of

capacity there is

as an enemy of talk in

the

suffragette Liberation'

movement. circles anticipated not the race. stay task "51 of

present Negroes tide the "... of

'Women's 50

as the sentiment rising pressing Cromer succeed picture with

sex discrimination; our sometime in great our

Duse Mohamed Ali who could set himself

Pro-Consul bath the

patriotism

land, of

political in

aspirations Egypt, the

women of his predicted) Further,

had failed in of

(Duse correctly so women of Britain.

he would he painted

suppressing luxury, labour dress of vice

and irreligion of of the

among wealthy poorer classes.

women, contrasted He found the the

sweated

among those and ornaments their moral 'heathen'

fashionable derided of boasts

Western sisters of

women more indecent and pointed out the

than

nudity about

emptiness commonly

the

superiority

monogamy where

the

rich

kept mistresses. sentiments.

Mohamed Ali. must that have they taught placed

52

There is perhaps nothing

novel about any of these coming from the pen of Duse

as well to believe as everyday on the other experience

but they have an added poignancy

After all, his the theatre British career liked

him that their

one hand in the 53

women on pedestals, coloured peoples

and on the behaved with

that

treatment

of women the

surpassing

vileness.

49, 50.

The New Age, 18th February

1909, p. 342 and 4th March 1909, p. 381. Movement in The Observer, 29th

See report on the Women's Liberation March 1970, p. 5, cols. 2&3. The New Are, ibid, 18th February

51. 52. 53.

1909, p"342. and 3rd March 1909, p. 381.

18th February

1909, pp. 341-2,

See Chapter II of this thesis for further discussion of this topic; "White Womenand Coloured Men, The also, Dus6 Mohamed Ali's article Other Side of the Picture" 21st January 1909, pp. 262-63. in The Now Age,

103.
In the final
cow of to British the before by hiring would in certainly to

article

of this
British the Thus lawyers, rich

aeries,

Duae attacked
54 the His

another
line of

sacred
attack was of for his

self-regard bias the towards law. clever

Justice* underlying rich but

expose

nominal evade

principle punishment to feed

equality misdeeds family liable

the

man could a poor

man who stole

be convicted punishment of

and punished. as imposters, but laws. poor

Poor debtors rich men could Rich

were avail

practice of the

themselves stole would

protection

the

bankruptcy but "vilest

women who out of

be excused

as kleptomaniacs, with the

women stealing this of

necessity being

would

be imprisoned for prostitutes.

criminals" this kind series of

presumably articles of and

a euphemism

In general well aware of the

shows us a man who was already Britain racially people at which was most calculated views time. If of her

criticism

to undermine imperial of 'mission' her of claims

the

self-justifying held

arrogant that

by many British home of and true

divested

to be the morality

democracy

and justice,

and the

bringer

superior

54.

1909, p. 519. It is perhaps particularly ibid, 22nd April significant to see what a man who had known, and was to know again, hard times, legal had to say about the British "The rich man system and debt; land may take the goods of the trader of this on credit, and patrician but when with these of his class; so that he may vie in opulence the day of reckoning is put off with false comes, the trader promises, behold, the of the Judges, and should he lay his case at the feet the bankruptcy class straightway court, enters man of the patrician loses all. But should the man of lowly birth obtain and the trader to the that for which he cannot pay, he is liable to be consigned For unlimited is the right debtor's credit of the impoverished prison. " Ironically, but the lowly is but 'an imposter'. creditor patrician; in a bankruptcy Duse Mohamed Ali was to find himself court within a this. No. 00403 of see P. R. O., J. 13/6470, very few years of writing 1914, for the official Astbury, of the Court Order by Mr. Justice record Times and Orient African 1914, that Duse Mohamed Ali's on 20th January Review, Ltd., be wound up, on the petition of Page and Thomas Ltd.,

(the review's Also, vide The Times, 21st January 1914, p. 3. printers). The whole question of the African Times and Orient Review's finances is discussed fully in the following chapter.

104.

religion in power?

to

'lesser

breeds', that

then

wherein

lay not to

Britain's

superiority, at this

save

The question question which

Duse does begin

seem to have asked ask two years peoples or

point,

the

he was to the

so later, to set

was what against

potential the power

power did of their

oppressed oppressors? there largely Lily

coloured 55

have,

white over

From April Ali's by his employed association

1909 for with

a year

was a hiatus explained, of Bermuda. of

in

Duse Mohamed seen,

The New Age, with the interval writing ill-fated

as we have

preoccupation himself in

How Duse The Lily of not clear.

the

between for

the

collapse

Bermuda and his Certainly biography, New Ap. e. 56 he did

renewed not,

The New ARe in to the

June 1910 is in his article

despite resume certain

a statement writing is that at

contrary (sic)

autoThe by

immediately What is Theodore him into to this

a "weekly" an event the of Mansion engage in

for

May 1910 -a London writing. on his it the is

speech enraged

ex-President and galvanised Duse'a leading at reaction

Roosevelt

House in political effect fame,

a new bout speech

Since life, quoting underlined

had an important to a degree of it of

him within from

a few months the report

worth

some length

in The Times,

section

55.

See the discussion later "Quo Vadis",

of in

In The Land Of The Pharaohs this chapter.

and the

article

56.

the earlier life, for parts of Duse Mohamed Ali's reconstructing It might only the most scanty resources. which there are really be that between the flop of Bermuda and the resumption of The Lily Dusle for The New Age. Mohamed All was merely of his writing recovering On the other hand, he sight his wind. have been engaged equally in activities interest to the historian. of the greatest in

in The Comet. 25th September 1937, p. 16. "Leaves From An Active Life", Sere is a good example of the difficulty inherent and limitations

105.
being in The Times

also In

quoted

with

approval

leader;

Egypt you (i. e. the British) of your are not only the guardians of own interests; of the interests you are also the guardian is a grave menace civilization; condition of affairs and the present You have given Egypt the best government it has had to both ... than it has for at least 2,000 years - probably a better government for never in history has the poor man in Egypt ... ever had before; from been treated with as much justice and mercy, under a rule free (Cheers) brutality during the last 28 years. corruption and as Yet recent events, and especially what has happened in connexion Pasha three on the assassination of Boutros with and following vital you have months ago have showed that in certain points, It has been erred; and it is for you to make good your error. from the effort to do too much and not too little proceeding an error themselves; but unfortunately in the interests of the Egyptians for all it is necessary of us who have to do with uncivilized to remember that in with fanatical and especially peoples. peonies. timidity, as yours in 1', such a situation weakness. and sentijpt ham. than violence may cause even more far-reaching and mentality (Cheers) Of all is the broken reeds Injustice. sentimentality (Cheers) broken reed on which riahte, usness can lean. most fairIn Egypt you have been treating religions all with studied all and instead of gratefully ness and impartiality; acknowledging takes advantage this, of the native of population a noisy section has done to bring what your good treatment about an anti-foreign as events have shown, murder on a movement, a movement in which, is expected Boutros to play a leading large or a small scale part. Egyptian Pasha was the best and most competent official, a steadfast rule, of of English and an earnest upholder worker for the welfare his countrymen; because of and he was murdered simply and solely these facts fearlessly, and because he did his duty wisely, and (Cheers). The attitude National Egyptian of the so-called uprightly. Party in connexion with this murder has shown that they were neither the desirous justice of guaranteeing even that primary nor capable (Cheers) farce. failure to supply which makes self-government a noxious Such are the conditions; and where the effort made by your officials towards is taken advantage to help the Egyptians of self-government but to try to bring by them, not to help their country, murderous then it becomes the primary duty of whoever is chaos upon the land, for the government in Egypt to establish order and to responsible (Cheers)0 take whatever to that measures are necessary end.

These remarks, audience,

so evidently

to the taste

of Roosevelt's

Guildhall

were the climax

to a peroration

on the virtues

of the British

57.

The Times, let found in ibid,

June 1910, p. 11.

p. 9.

The leader

referred

to will

be

106.

Empire powers. official

and the

need for

international upheld

co-operation the doctrine entitled who remain peculiarly

among the that to at the

imperial British soldier, respect Specifito a drew "...

In Africa, or settler support

Roosevelt on the from spot

was "... brothers doctrine

the heartiest home. "58 applicable

and fullest cally, British land forth trying to the turn

their this is,

Roosevelt East which from

considered (that

Africa

the white

modern Kenya) man's 59 country.

which "

he saw as "... These remarks for of

can be made a true the audience the "loud natives

cheezs". along

Uganda was applauded own lines, instead

to develop them into could

their

seeking since words,

make-belief not

Englishmen"

country

be made a white of the already

- an acceptable 60 man's country. crystallising

policy In other of

Roosevelt rule': on in in of to the

much approved a policy which

policy

'indirect attacks

Duse Mohamed Ali

was to make some bitter 61 The overthrow example of of the

The African

Times and Orient as "... the

Review. best

the

Khalifa ...

Sudan was lauded the of But

possible

wisdom

disregarding the spread

well-meaning at the

but the

unwise expense

sentimentalists of savagery. part of the

who object (Laughter and

civilization perhaps

Hear Hear)"

most

interesting

ex-President's

58. 59. 60.

61.

ibid, ibid. ibid.

p. 9.

in "Yesterday, To-day and Tomorrow", For e. g., vide the editorial 1914, which makeo a blistering ATOR 14th April on that plank attack Lugardian Indirect Provincial Courts Ordinance Rule, the Nigerian of 1914. of January

107.
was his for

speech

plea

mutual

co-operation

between

the

Imperial

powere;

The civilized for civilization nations who are conquering savage (Cheers) lands should work together in a spirit of mutual good will. Illwill between civilized is bad enough anywhere, but nations .. it is particularly harmful those (nations) and contemptible when ... importance to the are engaged in ... a task of such far reaching future of humanity, subduing wild man and wild nature, and ... ... bringing those lands where there is an abreast of our civilization Mankind as a older civilization which has somehow gone crooked. by the French occupation whole has benefitted of Alders and Tunis, by what England has done in India; as ... and each nation ... (Hear, should be glad to hear of the other nations' achievements. Hear) In the same way it is of interest to all civilized men that a similar the Englishman success shall attend alike and the German as they work in East Africa; exactly as it bas been of to everyone that Americans benefit took possession of the Philippines. (Hear, Hear)62

Theodore Roosevelt
virtue States, of his own active by his His to Britain

felt

qualified
of

to pass these remarks not only by

imperialiF-m through attack a policy British on the of of as President East Egyptian Africa, National in Egypt of the United

espousal recent vituperative to follow tour

but

also

Uganda, Party were In

Sudan and Egypt. and invitation occasioned Egypt

repression 'law

by something

more than

a pure

love

and order'. at Cairo

he had given

a tactless

anti-Nationalist

speech

62.

The Times,

let

June

1910,

p. 9.

108. 63

University. who took extent

This

had provoked to

an angry feel

reaction unwelcome. retaliation

from 64 for

Nationalists, Thus the to some

some pains the Guildhall at

make Roosevelt

speech their speech remarks

was an angry

indignities

he had suffered The Guildhall Ali as Gladstone's

hands. produced on Egypt an impulsive reaction before. from 65 Duse Mohamed This is

had done years

63.

of Roosevelt's vide The Times, 29th March 1910, p. 3, for a report Among 28th March 1910. delivered of Cairo, at the University speech "Substantial Roosevelt educathings, was reported as saying; other by tion, or of a people, of an individual was only obtained whether No man was educated by a curriculum. not by an act. a process, by the gift the poeple ready for self-government of a Were, then, Self-government of a decade was not a matter paper constitution? Nobody could give self-government any or two but of generations. Everyone must than they could give an individual self-help. more 'God is with the patient help himself and remember the Arab proverb, if they know how to wait'. to the educational that it should It was essential process evil, condemning every form of lawless with a spirit combine itself All based on religion hatred hatrea, and race. especially envy, was worth having had been whose respect of every nation good men Boutros inexpressibly murder of the Premier, shocked by the recent to Egypt than it was a Pasha, which was even more of a calamity The type of man who turned to an individual. out the assassin wrong in time bad soldiers to good citizenship, type alien producing was a Such a man stood on a in time of peace. worse citizens of war and for or condoned and infamy, and those who apologised of evil pinnacle by word or deed, directly his act, or indirectly, whether either it, the same bad eminence. " before the deed or after occupied Cairo UniScawen Blunt's Wilfred comments on Roosevelt's outspoken "The Egyptian to it were; reaction and Egyptian speech versity and the have been full of Roosevelt's at Cairo, adventures papers in praise be made to University rule. students of British speech American type, He is a buffoon of the lowest and roused the fury of that if he bad not Egypt to boiling point, and it is probable young " He the country there would have been mischief. out of cleared the world. " that Roosevelt was "a kind of mad dog roving added 1910, p. 712. 25th April My Diaries, Life" in of. "Leaves From An Active 2nd October 1937, p. 7. with ibid, The Covet. 19th June 1937, p. 7,

64.

65.

109.

surely about

strong i, gypt. to

evidence "Boiling allow the him

of

the

strength

and genuineness to Chancery in

of

his

feelings

over", to

he hurried

Lane and beseeched 66 by to do a fortwould Egypt. write if be " 67 Here

A. K. Orage

publish

a refutation which him. - which

The New Age.

Orage showed almost publish night all

sympathy

and helpfulness about

has been remarked Although indeed "... willing he did that it in to

those

who have written such as lluge Roosevelt's write

articles or so after to

suggested speech

he urged -

more effective This was the

a History that

on political induced

conditions

encouragement

Luse Eohamed All

his he that

book In would his

The Land Of The Pharaohs. to find a publisher be of to find stature value. the publisher in

At first, Britain,

Duse was doubtful for

be able

he was determined complexion. his connections

proposed

book should promised

a definitely a publisher. as editor

Nationalist With of

Orage, the

however,

in

literary

world of very for

and his great

The New Aase, his in 68 obtaining

backing an

was clearly interview publisher, of to Orage, offer

He was instrumental Stanley Paul.

Duse with Richards,

Another

London

Grant

who Duse had apparently in the book. of But since a synopsis

contacted Stanley and three

independently Paul was willing

showed interest a contract on the

strength

chapters,

whereas Grant Richards contract

wished to see a complete manuscript first, a 69 The advance royalties on the book was signed with the former.

66. 67.
68. 69.

ibid, ibid.
ibid. ibid.

2nd October

1937,5.7.

110.

were value

thirty of the

pounds70 pound in

-a

modest

sum, even allowing no doubt

for

the

far

greater in

1910 - but

a substantial and a help The contract in three of

windfall in

relation himself manuscript

to Duse Mohamed Ali's while of he was working 100,000 words released the

usual on the

income, book.

maintaining a The L'use'e to

stipulated 71

to be completed at the beginning of the

months. and if

book was eventually memory is Stanley publication three months

1911,72

to be trusted, in the twelfth

proof

last

chapter

was delivered the contract;

Paul

week after later.

he had signed 73 Thus there of the

came only between

two weeks the original

was a gap of about book and that the time

conception signed. with

when the this time

contract

was presumably

We may suppose his synopsis of other

during three publishers the most

Duse Mohamed Ali Certainly

was busy

and initial possible to have

chapters. as well favourable

he approached 74

a number

as those terms

mentioned. obtainable.

No doubt

he was anxious

70. 71. 72.

ibid, ibid,

23rd

October

1937, 1937,

p. 7p. 7.

2nd October

This is inferential from the date of reviews, e. g. that in The New 1911, pp. 366-7. Arne. published In view of Duse on 16th February Mohamed Ali's journal, connections with that and in particular Orage's in arranging for the book, it would seem a publisher part that much time would have elapsed between publication unlikely of the book and this review.

73. 74.

"Leaves From An Active ibid.

Life",

in The Comet, 2nd October

1937,

P-7-

111.

For duction

the of

help

given

to him by both

Orage and Stanley Duce Mohamed Ali

Paul

in

the

pro-

In The Land Of The Pharaohs

remained

grateful

for

the rest

of his

life;

Stanley Paul really the publication of the book. put his back into Every important British with a carried my portrait publication to ... striking advertisement of the history, and I am impelled Grage to both himself A. E. (sic express my eternal gratitude and 5 for their valued assistance consideration. and exceptional Since the book was the as a radical first black But before it is major writer step in establishing Duse's this wider gratitude of which In

reputation is

and political the to

thinker, content

understandable.

evaluating necessary

and impact the way in

The Land Of The Pharaohs, it was written. As early three This thousand as 16th words piece of of it the June

consider

1910,

he contributed Situation journalism, the time of in

a long Egypt" which of the of

article to

of

about 76

entitled of Egypt most

"The

The New Age. the it

was an able history most

historical from

summarised

political rehearsed

1882 to

writing. subsequent that book.

Since

effective

points

In The Land It can - that In to prothis

Of The Pharaohs also of be regarded having mutually

can be regarded as part of a typical

as a synopsis

New Age journalistic in the same issue.

device 77

contradictory In Egypt"

articles

case

"The Situation

can be seen as a counterbalance

75. 76. 77.

ibid. The New Age, Mairet, 16th June 1910, p. 43. pp. 148-50.

op. cit.,

112.

Roosevelt

and anti-Egyptian S. Verdad78

Nationalist who affirmed;

comment by the

foreign

affairs

correspondent

Mr. Roosevelt, tion as it has for some time madcaps is out Duse, of on the other

in his Guildhall Speech, nerely summed up the situabeen known to myself and various 'insiders' other The idea of self-government for the Egyptian past. for the moment. 79 of the question hand, began with "bringing a rebuke the these (clearly the aimed at Roosevelt) into with though,

"rash

meddlers" in

who were

aims of

Nationalists patriots In general studied

disfavour murderous his tone

England,

and branding and anarchical his the book, British the

well-intentioned " 60

proclivities here, as in to

tendencies.

appeared for

to be one of practical

moderation. 81 were the

Credit But

was given these

various

achievements* His in heroes for

despite

admissions

article with Earl

was ambiguous. their of belief

Mustapha Egyptians". "... sadly Lord

Pasha Kamil Rio Cromer in task

and Ahmad Arabi were the

"Egypt Eldon Gorst

villains was arrogant all of those

Cromer

and Sir ildon in

Gorst; is

and unsympathetic, qualities the which are

Sir required

lacking

a statesman lead up to a

who has the 82

straightening

tortuous

ways which

Ohat must Duse Mohamed Ali

have been even more offensive took a very equivocal line

to many British in relation to

readers, Boutros Pasha

78.

. Verdad pp. 19-20.

was a pseudonym

for

J. N. Kennedy

see Selver, -

op. cit.,

79. 80.

The New Ape, ibid, p. 148.

16th

June

1910,

p. 147.

81.
82.

ibid.
ibid, p. 149.

113.
and his portrayed British

assassination.

Thoufh

conceding his ability of his

that to

Boutros support,

was able,

Duse

him as a man who used authority, for faction his in in his of the

unquestioningly, minority. The and Pasha

interests

own Coptic

responsibility untypical Kamil till

assassination National but force

was blamed Party, other held in

on an extremist check

the

by Mustapha

deaths83 use of

on the

hand Duse made some significant freedom;

analogies It

the

to attain

however, be overlooked that the progressive must not, members in their for political freedom from the British of the party, efforts British that yoke, have only followed example in order to achieve desired It was only by force Cromwell that Oliver consummation. from the autocratic the liberties of the English wrested grasp of I. Charles American independence freedom were only and rolitical The wrongs of Ireland had never obtained of a sword. at the point her received even limited recognition at the hands of England until to violence sons resorted was deluged in blood. and the country The Boers would not have been accorded in South Africa equal rights had they not administered to Britain a most severe castigation 84 before defeat... their ultimate The moral readers, of this is clear enough. was his officials that rule of of "The the Equally defence for the of repugnant the Western to some British Egyptians, to "... such be

we may suppose, of British conclusion foreign

educated attitude could not

condemnation people, expected

their educated

contemptuous Egyptians

and his to

suffer

so tamely. Situation pages

"85 In Egypt" of foreshadowed the

The final almost apocalyptic

paragraph tone

last

In The Lands

Of The Pharaohs.

83. 84. 85.

ibid, ibid, ibid.

p. 148. p. 149.

114.
East

A picture noting feared

was painted Japan's by the "... most

of total

the

arising

from

"lethargy",

with

Egyptians been reform noted only to up

defeat

of a power nations. in

which "86

had previously Likewise the

powerful fellow

European Muslims

movements by the struggle her

among their

Turkey

and Persia

had been not lifting

Egyptians, for

who were themselves but also "...

fired to behold nations

by these Egypt of the

examples once again earth. sort "87 of

freedom

ancient Even in

head among the the 'advanced'

foremost pages of

The New Age this called

thinking

could

not

go unchallenged. head, not 68 from Arabist,

The article

a rebuke

down on Dust but to from Islam

Mohamed Ali's Marmaduke

some dyed-in-the-wool translater of his of Fuse's the in

Imperialist, Quran, convert of

Pickthall, later

and a few years movecrents. 89

to be a comrade was proud of

a number

pro-Islamic in having

Pickthall

own unconventionality

86. 87. 88.

ibid, ibid.

pp. 149-50.

"The Situation in Fgypt. Marnaduke Fickthall, Ali", in The New Age. 30th June 1910, p. 196.

A Reply

to

Duse Mohamed

89.

is Anne K. f. Fremantle, The only biography of Marmaduke Fickthall & Co., London, 1938. book is Loyal `,neny, Hutchinson Since this based on personal latter reminiscences of Pickthall's years, mainly thou, h to be regretted, it is hardly that it contains surprising, no it is, however, information backabout Duse Mohamed Ali; a useful twentieth IslamoBritish century ground book to the world of early philes. a world in which Luse Mohamed Ali was to move between -

1911 and 1921.

For Pickthall's translation of the 4uran, see M. Pickthall, Koran. An explanatory The Vpaninc! of the Glorious translation, London, 1930. A. A. Knopf, For an account of the pro-Islamic movements in which Duse Mohamed All and Marmaduke Piekthall involved, were mutually see Chapter V thesis. of this

115.

broken mingled society. the did

the with

mores the Yet

of

British people,

residents learning

in

the

Middle language

East,

and having their against

Arab

their

and liking

like

many British education.

Arabophiles, 90 Mistaking for

he was prejudiced

Arab with not at or this

a western time

Uuse (who he evidently young Egyptian

know personally) Pickthall

a hot-headed observed;

student

suchlike,

condescendingly

The mischief is that Duse Mohamed and his friends European regard education as a charm, and get angry with the English when it does They have yet to learn that it is worthless in itself, not work. 91 if unapplied. Coming nearer Duse that "... would there have in to a debating was an Arabic provided ... hit than history firmer in he can have of ground the for Arabi his realised, he informed that war dance. "92 }'ickthall he accused

Pasha period imaginative contradicted, reason

Many points having Duse, a low quite

"The situation of Arabi of

Egypt"

were flatly

opinion wrongly, 93

Pasha

(who for

some obscure

confusing feel

with that

Muhammad Ali) with such

and of

r.ustapha the

Pasha Kamil. Arabs

One may well British

British

friends,

had no need of Not abashed

enemies. Duse Mohamed Ali later in duly produced a counterApart from

by this

attack,

blast

which

was published

a fortnight

The t; ew Age.

90.

Oriental Encounters, Marmaduke Pickthall, -Palestine Library William Heineamnn Ltd. Travellers edition, Judge", passier, cap. IV, "The Courteous makes this It tells, and approval, of an assault, with relish by Pickthall's and dressed youths, educated western

1894-5-6, and Syria London, 1929, very clear. point committed on some cook.

91. 92. 93.

The New Age, 30th June 1910, p. 196. ibid. ibid.

116.

iron'ca11y stood over of the his

exaggerated ground.

apologies More interesting

for

a minor to-day

and immaterial than at in the 1882, the detailed

error,

he

argument aplogia, of

particular the trump

points card of of

was the his

production, in Egypt

end of Duse's his

presence

observation with Arabi

bombardment at

Alexandria, 94 than

and his Perhaps reason,

father's this but

connection

and death surprise subject defeat

viel-el-Kebir. rather in

was a victory no further Pickthall that

won by dramatic on the

and skill were

exchanges

published

The New Ape.

Bither decided

acknowledged had it be

by silence, its

or Orage as editor for his readers.

the controversy victory, to personal bogus. published 95 let

exhausted noted, tion

interest

But vuse's These claims

was gained about In the Egyptian later

by sharp politics months of

practice. were

informa-

to a large

extent

1910 Duse Mohamed Ali history. In the

two more therefore, The theme

articles at the

on Egyptian same time appearing and the

political

These were

produced,

as he was writing in The New Apse at Nationalists".

The Land Of The iharaohs. end of 96 September, article

first, "France

was on the is interesting

Egyptian

This

94.

Duse Mohamed Ali 1910, p. 263. the concluded with "I respectfully beg to inform Marmaduke retort; crushing apparently instead Pickthall for historical that, of showing an indifference inasmuch as I was in the I am only too sure of my position, facts, its bombardment by the British during in 1882... Alexandria city of in the Egyptian My father was an officer army, falling at Tellouse Arabi Pasha was a frequent visitor at my father's el-Kebir. times, thereby those stirring during me an ample opportunity giving knowledge has acquired first-hand to obtain which Marmaduke Pickthall history ' " from his 'Arabic of the period. second-hand ibid, 14th July The whole question hand' information chapter. The New Age, 29th of the authenticity about Egyptian affairs of Duce Mohamed Ali's later is discussed 'firstin this

95.

96.

September

1910,

pp. 509-10.

117. in a number of ways in its

densation of chapter four

own right,
of In

though it

is substantially
It

a concastigates

The Land Of The Pharaohs.

the French for

nivance Islamism, Moslems" arithmetic about of its Islam at that

their

occupation
97

of Tunis and the British

But additionally to the it reactions 98 all

for

their
with

conPan-

occupation.

conjures of This Duse'a not but

on two occasions to French policy

referring in Morocco

"325,000,000 kind of political writings terms

and Igypt.

became a characteristic and politics. 99 It is

of virtually best

later

understood reality, country

so much in

accuracy for

or otherwise in

as a political a 'white-man's' powerless

as a reassuring to feel

concept that

a man living an isolated,

and needing

he was not

individual.

Duse's

third

Egyptian

article

of 1910 was published

in T. P. O'Connor's thousand a detailed Pasha's seven

T. P. 's Magazine in November 1910 - an essay of about hundred words, account entitled "Egypt's Case Stated", National

three

and giving Party

of the growth of the Egyptian

from Arabi

97.
98. 99.

ibid,
ibid.

p. 509.

For a full Islam and politics, examination of muse Mohamed Ali, IV of this thesis, for pro-Islamic in the see Chapter writing ATOR and AOR; and Chapter V for pro-Islamic movements in Lordon, 1912-31, in which Duse Mohamed Ali was active.

118. 100

time the

onwarde. magazine

By way of his

introducing with

Duse Mohamed Ali the following words;

to its

readers,

prefaced

article

bat is the trouble in Egypt, these new anxieties and whence spring the morning paper? This is what the average Briton which ruffle Obviously to this wants to know. a useful contribution subject would be a clear statement or imagined of Egypt's real grievances from the Young Egyptian The Well, here it is. of view. point (sic) Duse Mohamed, was born in Alexandria thirty-four writer, about

100.

T. P. 's Magazine, November 1910, pp. 189-194. This magazine, which had only started the previous outlook congenial month, had a declared to a writer like Due's Mohamed Alit see ibid, vol. I no. 1, p. 5, in "Above all the magazine will be a which T. P. O'Connor declared, forum where everybody be of every country, of every school, will to have his say. The Western and the Oriental, the orthoallowed dox and the heterodox, the rebel and the stout of existing advocate things, have in these pages their free platform. " There all will is no reason to believe that O'Connor and Duse Mohamed Ali were but Duse Mohamed Ali may well have known personally acquainted, (and been encouraged by) O'Connor's Not only was O'Connor career. Street, in Fleet having been a leading journalist a well known figure but he published for many decades, autobiographical reminiscences

in the first These illustrate number of T. P. 'e Magazine. well life times in Victorian of a journalists enough the precariousness with some of Duse Mohamed Ali's and form a parallel experiences e. g., of a three year period in his twenties O'Connor wrote "... I was helpless, friendless, unknown= as much lost on the waves of London life as if I were a mere cork on the waters of the ocean. For three years I remained without regular employment, writing, when I got the chance, any kind of hack work I could get; penny dreadful stories, paragraphs in London letters, occasional reporting. I answered every advertisement; I applied for every vacancy ... Usually, I did not know from one week's end to another where I was to sleep or to eat, or indeed, whether I was to have anything to I dwelt in the Abyss. " (ibid, Later, O'Connor eat. p. 7) ... became an Irish Nationalist M. P., and died in 1929 a member of the There is a biography of him Privy Council. - Henry Hamilton Fyfe, T. P. O'Connor, G. Allen and Unwin, London, 1934 - which is useful , to the late Victorian background material press world in which Duse Mohamed Ali first practised as a journalist, as is the same author's Sixty Years a Journalist, W.H. Allen, London, 1949.

119.
His father years ago. was a eon of a village sheikh, and an in the Egyptian officer of Arabi army, and a friend and adherent Pasha; being one of the officers in the mutiny concerned of February, let, 1881. Duse Mohamed, in the days of his youth met Arabi Pasha, and Subsequently many of the leaders of the Egyptian reform party. he met the late Nustapha Pasha Kamil, from whom he obtained an inside knowledge Being in conof the aims of the Nationalists. stant communication members of the Young Egyptian with prominent Party, he is in a position in information to supply accurate He has in desires, regard to their present aims, and intentions. history Egypt. 101 course of preparation of a modern Thus, his sources As in this - at the face of value the impeccably other good were displayed on Egypt from in

advance. above,

case

two articles of

discussed In The Land

was largely but in

a shortened this case

version drawn the from

material

Of The Pharaohs, This found first variation himself three

more than

one chapter. under which he

probably writing chapters literary for of

stemmed from T. P. 's In editor

circumstances

Magazine.

A. R. Orage had shown the to his friend his Holbrook colleague

The Land Of The Pharaohs of T. P. 's to Magazine Dune,

Jackson, in editing for

then

and formerly actually Paul

The New Ai{,e. these chapters. 102 accepting. to legal his publisher,

According But the Though

Jackson with

made an restrained not to

offer

contract

Stanley

Duse from be unfair imposed less

Duse says

his

motive that other

was a wish being ways, under

one should restraints.

remember In rate,

contract be

as well

as moral

he could

punctilious,

as will

be seen.

At any

"Egypt's

Case Stated"

101. T. P. 's Magazine,

November 1910, p. 189. Life", The in Comet, 23rd October 1937, p. 7.

102. "Leaves From An Active

120.

was presented
in the nature

as a "special
of a re-shuffle

article",
of parts

103
of

though it

was in reality

more

In The Land Of The Pharaohs.

We now come to the thorny

writing to his

question
-a

of how Duse Mohamed Ali

matter which redounds of

set about
not entirely

In The Land Of The Pharaohs credit, and which In his the signing prevents

any exaggerated all

claims

his

merits

as a historian. activity from

own account, of the

was concentrated

scholarly

contract; day collecting official entire home to labour one orl04 until each chapter when completed. fish. ' Yet the were sad truth is

the I set to work at once, spending Museum, returning data at the British delivering two o'clock each morning, No man, it that three tent's large other Ruin is well of said, cries 'stinking

parts books:

In The Land Of The Pharaohs Cromer's Modern FQVVt,

plagiarised Aaronovitch of the

from Rothstein's Entlieh

Theodore

and Wilfred

Scawen Blunt's

Secret

History

OocuD8Lion of Eavvt.
103.

105

As we have seen,

this

was not the first

time

"I consented Duse Mohamed Ali wrote to write ibid. article a special (of T'. P. 's Maaaeine)". Here, as in the initial number which appeared Duse Mohamed Ali was clearly in his autobiography, in many places his article appeared in the seccrid on memory, as actually relying issue of the magazine. ibid, 2nd October 1937, p"?.

104. 105.

London 2 vole., MacMillan Earl of Cromer, Modern Egypt, and 4o. Ltd., Occupati2 Secret History Soawen Blunt, 1908; Wilfred of the English Unwin, T. Fisher Beim igyt. narrative Personal of events. of -a Fifield, Rothstein, EQVVt's R!j, Theodore Aaronovitoh London 1907; Cromer and Blunt are sufficiently known figures London, 1910. well Rothstein to need no comment. was a Russian Jew, born Kovno 1871, including died Moscow 1953, laden with honours, membership of the He Soviet Academy and of the Praesidium of the Communist Academy. in England from 1890 - 1920, and in 1920 participated in exile lived He in the foundation of the Communist Party of Great Britain. historical and of a number of works on political, was the author German and Russian. topics, in English, international vide relations I am Encyclopaedia, Historical Soviet vol. 12, Moscow, 1969, p. 226. University to Mr. John Gooding, Department indebted of of History, Hisfrom the Soviet for translation information Edinburgh, of this Encyclopaedia, in later It may be added that torical years Rothstein Stalinist had the reputation am indebted of being an inflexible -I University Victor Department to Professor Kiernan, of of History, Edinburgh, for this information.

121.

that

Duze Mohamed Ali The trespass

had resorted against

to

plagiarism. work was the greatest,

committed

Rothstein's

though that
rather less

against
serious. in must

Blunt's

still

substantial.
against (by which

That against
Rothstein time

Cromer was
the

The transgression that have in December 1910

was all

more barefaced The Pharaohs a lengthy is the at only of

In The Land Of published 'imitation review own his

been virtually review of of Egypt's

completed) Ruin in

Duse Mohamed Ali The New Age. passed in with If this

and glowing. form sincere,

sincerest least

flattery',

the

compliments avoid

were book review

but

how tie hoped to publication the following is

discovery

his

a few weeks from Egypt's Ruin with

a puzzle. words;

He concluded

All those straightway financial It Ali is clear that it

do well to to learn the truth anxious will who are really Mr. Rothstein's obtain valuable contribution on the 106 beneficent of Egypt under England's rule. administration this himself advice in was offered writing clear Rothstein. is in all sincerity for Duee Mohamed However, to what of FQVVt'8

followed not

In The Land Of The Pharaohs. to the readers of Ie book

he did extent Ruin in

see fit

to make it from

he had borrowed

The only totally

acknowledgement

In The Land Of The Pharaohe

inadequate

and misleading;

While this work was passing through the press, a volume by Theodore 'Egypt's Ruin', has made its appearance. The Rothstein, entitled financial situation of Egypt is dealt with in that work in entire and deserves the attention of those a lucid and concise manner i07 in the subject. interested

106. The New Age. 22nd December 1910, p. 174. 107. In The Land Of The Pharaohs, p. 289, n. 4.

122.

The impression coincidental, vast thinly entire from parts of

given arising the

here from

is

that their

any similarity similarity of of

between topic.

the

two works is

is that

The truth

latter re-writes

two-thirds of

In The Land Of The Pharaohs from Egypt's Ruin, and almost is lifted

are the

disguised statistical iiothatein's

passages of In

apparatus book.

The Land Of The Pharaohs

Ne begin to take Dust tiohamed Ali's

claims

that

"in

delivering less
of are

this

message I do so in some measure 'as one having

seriously official from when we find poets Rothstein* in 109 Egypt that his strictures

authority'"108
engrossing Englishmen, attack on British

on the

senior taken

by Europeans, true

especially of his

The same is

educational

policy injustice

in Egypt wader Dunlop, to Egyptians

110

his

'exposure'

of British similar

cruelty incidents, and

and lll

over the Dinshwai

and other

his account execution

of the assassination 112 virtually of Wardani,

of Boutros the mitire

Pasha and the trial contents,

particularly

108. ibid,
109. cf.

p. 2.
ibid. 223-5 with Rothstein, op. cit., PP-324-5-

110. of. In The Land Of The Pharaohs, p. 226 with Rothstein, In The Land Of The Pharaohs, pp. 277-8 with Rothstein, pp. 320-1.
111.

op. cit., op. cit.,

p. 317;

338-9; In The Land Of The Pharaohs, pp. 328-31; with Rothstein, of. On the other hand, the comparison 356-7; between 327-9; op. cit., pp. in Egypt and that British of Governor Eyre in Jamaica in repression 1866, In The Land Of The Pharaohs, contribution p. 332, is an original by Duse Mohamed Ali.

112. of. In The Land Of The Pharaohs, pp"359-62.

pp. 339-40 with

Rothstein,

op. cit.,

123. 113

statistics, all his

of chapter

his

longest

chapter,

attacking of the

Lord

Cromer, the

and virtually 114 -tt's Grey's attack

on the the

condition

peasants of Dune's

under

occupations from E

These Ruin.

are

merely are of

grossest

examples Thus,

plagiarism on Sir

There

many others. Theodore

Duse's Mansion were

remarks

Edward

foreknowledge on recent although to be his Sudan Secret the tion 116

Roosevelt's Decrees

House speech taken from

and his

repressive the rest of

Khedivial his chapter though Evt'e

Rothstein, Democrat"

115 seems in the

"Roosevelt Duse's Ruin, three or for works fact

Imperial chapters that deal that

own. cannot

Again, be from since

on events from these

matter with the

Blunt's events, yet

History,

neither

of

those the the

telling

statistics,

betraying of

conquest,

administraat the from are pla-

and economic public's Here,

development expense, as in are

Sudan had been entirely (unacknowledged, places, the very

Egyptian Rothstein.

taken

as usual) footnotes

many other

giarised; "farcically appendices

117

neither

is Duse'e description his own. 118

of the Sudan condominium,

as

euphemistic", were his own.

And not even Dues Mohamed Ali's word for word, from Egypt's Ruin. 119

They were taken,

113.

of. In The Land Of The Pharaohs, Rothstein, op. cit., pp. 241-72;

pp. 287-300; and 273-88.

and pp-300-9

with

114. cf. In The Land Of The Pharaohs, cap. XXIII, pp. 288-309. op. cit., with Rothstein,

"Take Courage",

pp. 311-20

115. cf. In The Land OfThe Fharaohs, PP.351-2 with Rothstein, pp"362-3.

op. cit.,
and After"; Rothstein,

Land Of The Pharaohs, cap. XIII, 116. In "The Hicks Expedition cap. XIV, "England in the Soudan"; and cap. XIX, "Fashoda". 117. cf. In The Land Of The Pharaohs, p. 356 and p. 356, n. 2. op. cit., 118. cf. In The Land Of The Pharaohs, p. 171 and p. 171, n. 2, with p. 171, with Rothstein,

op. cit.,

p. 171.

119. cf. In The Land Of The Pharaohs. pp. 208-14 and 366-7 with op. cit., pp. xviii-ui and xxi-xxiii.

Rothstein,

124.

The earlier on Blunt's may marvel associates Diaries. 120 Secret at at

chapters History

of

In

The Land Of The Pharaohs later ones are on Egypt's

are

as dependent One

as the

Ruin.

Duse's this

temerity period,

here, as is well

as Blunt attested

and Rothstein by Blunt's

were close published for Egypt's Ruin,

Not only

had Blunt

written

an introduction

but he had even advanced 50 to Rothstein teed to the publisher

Rothstein would

out of his 121

to

own pocket

and guaran-

a first
alone

aale of 800 copies.

have been enough

To plagiarise
make an enemy of

therefore

Blunt.
Yet

but to plagiarise

Blunt

himself
gives

as well
unstinted Lord

was adding
tribute Cromer,

insult
to Blunt's and in

to injury.
efforts many

inasmuch of

as Duse Mohamed Ali Egypt, 122 defends

on behalf

him against

123

Being a Personal Narrative 120. W.S. Blunt, My Diaries. of Events 1888-19114, foreword by Lady Gregory, single volume edition, Martin Secker, with a London, 1932, pp. 609,619,632,655-6,735. 121. ibid, p. 738, entry for 24th October 1910.

to Blunt's 122. In The Land Of The Pharaohs, p. 126, pays tribute part in Tel-el-Kebir; Arabi from a worse fate after saving p. 138, states that Blunt's "it was due to Kr. Wilfred uncompromising propaganda that the in British public were made aware of the true condition of affairs Egypt"; p. 139 says "it was only because of Mr. Blunt's that efforts the Foreign Office Bureaucrats were brought to see the error of their in no small measure to the appointment of ways, thereby contributing Blunt's Lord Dufferin", but on the other hand criticises the efficient blind sympathy and belief "Blunt's 'extremism' in the aims and led him into occasional intentions indiscretions; of the Nationalists but it is quite easy to find excuses in his well-known humanitarian and his poetic temperament. " principles, 123. ibid, p. 95, n. 1; p. 138; and p"315, in which Duse Mohamed Ali indigBlunt, the only Englishsays, of Cromer, "because Mr. Wilfred nantly with the events of 1882, dared to stand up and defend man familiar t of the Egyptian claim to independence, this noble repreesionia ... Egyptian liberty, and would-be suppressor of the liberties of in ... cheap sneers. " Englishwomen, indulges

125.

places
History, less

clearly
124it

acknowledges
would than be fair those his

in footnotes
to say that Rothstein. of of Blunt's the

borrowings
his offences

from the Secret

against Blunt were

serious

against misuse

Nevertheless, and completes as a man with struggle. 1882 give treated 125 the

Secret

History

was serious to give Egyptian of

enough, himself

destruction and

picture

Duse liked of the

a personal As already

'inside' his his not that up to It In

knowledge youth claims be too matter the

National in be In

noted, that would - or for

and linguistic in this

handicaps should when in

an advance caution.

warning It

respect say that

with

much to

The Land Of The Pharaohs Ali writes he is in the of the events

elsewhere126

Duse Mohamed in to

leading Blunt. to

Revolution

and occupation rather misleading

1882, write

paraphrasing introduction

was therefore

The Land Of The Pharaohs;

in the Egyptian that my father the fact army and was an officer ... of Ahmed Arabi gave me ample opportunities supporter an ardent ... contact reform, with many leaders of Egyptian not only of coming into knowledge but of obtaining of their views; a knowledge a first-hand in Egypt, to any European then resident of excepting not imparted Blunt and Sir William Gregory, course Mr. Wilfred and I believe

127 Dr. John Ninet.

Blunt, or his Secret History, 124. ibid; but this is far short of indicatirg on Blunt.
125.

are cited twenty times in the text, the real extent of its reliance
Life", From An Active examples of such

See In The Land Of The Pharaohs, p. 2 and "Leaves in The Comet. 20th November 1937, p. 7, for clear There are many other such examples. claims.

126.

Pasha, in A0, April 1920, pp. 5-7, As in his writings about Arabi Life", "Leaves From An Active in The Comet, 20th November 193?, and pp. 7 and 14.

127. In The Land Of The Pharaohs,

pp. 1-2.

126. i Duse's

The most damning History tical is appeal his

of long

many unacknowledged of the

drawings

on the

Secret and polihave

description

appearance, to

personality

of Arabi, of

a man who he was supposed from his father. 128

have met and to Blunt writes;

had close

knowledge

Of Arabi

force. But with his own peasant class his own as a political He was one of themselves, rusticity they was all in his favour. but with their special qualities intensified perceived, and made by the power they credited him with, and by the semiglorious he had acquired at the Azhar superior to their own. religious culture It must be remembered that in all Egyptian history, for at least three hundred years, no mere fellah had risen to a position of any political eminence in Egypt, or had appeared in the light of a I doubt, however, or whispered a word of possible revolt. reformer, whether his qualities alone which were after all rather negative ones, or his talents, of which he had as yet given no proof, would have sufficed to bring him to the front as a National leader, but for the unwise persecution to which he was subjected by Rias in the the affair months following of Karr el Nil ... "129

In personal Arabi was at that time singularly appearance well endowed for the part he was called history upon to play n Egyptian as reprefella] A typical tall heavy-limbed, sentative of his race. and he seems( to symbolize that massive somewhat slow in his movements, bodily strength which is so characterist: c of the laborious peasant He had nothing in h: m of the alertness of the lower Nile. of the deliberi tion in his gesture soldier, and there was a certain which ii village His gave him the dignity one sees so often sheykhs. features in repose were dull, look and his eyf s had an abstracted like those of a dreamer, that one and it was only when he smiled intelligence Then his face saw the kindly and large vii hin. became illuminated landscape bi the sun. To the Turkish as a dull Pashas this type of can sI emed wholly and Circassian negligible, that of the peasant boor they had for cer turies dominated and held in slavery to labour for them without and forced pay. and it seemed impossible to znem ne snouia De used otherwise than as a tool in hands. Riaz from first their to last despised him, and even astute Reformers the intellectual of the Azhar took little count of him,

128. AOR, April

1920, p. 5.

129. Secret History, pp. 139-40.

127. Here is Duse Mohamed Ali

on the same subject;

Now, Arabi possessed none of that alertness an which is considered leader; or the political essential characteristic of the soldier nor was he endowed with those rare qualities of quick decision, to common sense so indispensable ability, executive and practical lead great movements, thrusting the individual who would successfully from life's forces that are weak, parrying pathway those opposing the blows of the strong, but ever moving onward, upward to the high he was slow in his movements, of glorious pinnacle achievement. deliberate in gesture, dull of countenance, with the heavy abstracted there but behind the heavy countenance of the dreamer; expression His smile caused his face burned a soul pregnant with intelligence. to become illumined; he was symbolic of that grave dignity usually in the person of the village Sheykh; identified and his towering "identified him height, and evident massive proportions strength His was the fellah typical of Lower Egypt. with the industrious Pasha had held in bondage type that Mameluke and Turco-Circassian labour them to a system of enforced for centuries, subjecting It therefore followed that Arabi and his class would pay. without Circassians; by the dominant despised for as Sir John be utterly in Egypt is Bowring said in 1840, 'the situation of the Osmanlis influence, they exercise extraordinary possess most of remarkable, the high offices of the State, and, indeed, of are depositaries They are few, but they tyrannise; the country. power throughout

Riaz always despised Arabi; the Arabs are many, but obey. ' and the intellectual reformers of the E1-Azhar were the last party amongst the native Egyptians to take him into serious account as a political force.
to which he belonged The peasant class were not only the first but remained him as leader, loyal, to recognise and acclaim singing They recognised his exile. long after in him one of his praises by virtue themselves, yet glorified above themselves, of the Azhur (sic) For upwards of culture which he possessed. semi-religious had been known to breathe three hundred years no fellah a word of to a nor had one of their class revolt, previously risen possible The negative eminence. of political possessed qualities position to bring by Arabi would have been insufficient him to the front, but for Riaz Pasha's insane persecution during those months which 130 the Kasr-el-Nil followed mutiny.

It

is

clear

that

all

Duce contributed and the quotation plagiarised

to the above passage was a few from Sir John Bowring. Yet this is only The one

rhetorical rest is

flourishes transparently

from Blunt.

130. In The Land Of The Pharaohs,

pp. 64-6.

128.
damning

particularly

example chapter

out IV,

of many that which in deals

might with

be cited. some of the to the History, Duse's

In The diplomatic occu,, aonly on the 132

Land Of The Pharaohs preamble tion of to the

occupation is heavily

of Egypt, dependent of

particular Secret 131

French with attack

Tunisia,

on the work. in

one totally Rothschilds Virtually is

inadequate for the

citation

that

demanding whole from the of

intervention chapter parts of l34 , writer of his

Egypt

derives

from

Blunt.

Duse's

"Tewfik the

Political Histors.

Shuttlecock" 133 This knowledge has been between

spatchcocked reduces

various credibility

Secret

greatly of put

having

any first-hand the view that

Jamal-ud-Din forward

al-Afghani

and contradicts that

by a recent

he was a "pivotal

figure"

131.

ibid, 28 (from para. 2) -31 is a more summary of the Secret History, pp. frequently the same phraseology; pp-31-6, using the same or virtually is a totally n. l, p. 31 of In The Land Of The Pharaohs, and misleadingly inadequate for this. The apparently acknowledgement perceptive remarks of Duse Mohamed Ali on the 1878 Congress of Berlin and the Partition of Africa, and on the nature and effects of the French occupation of Tunisia, are also plagiarised of. In The Land Of The Pharaohs, pp. 31-2, and 34-5 with Secret History, PP. 36-7 and 122-3. cf. In The Land Of The Pharaohs, pp. 16-7 with Secret History, pp. 64-5.

132. 133.

of. In The Land Of The Pharaohs, 23,24; 25-7 with Secret pp. 18-21; History 133-5. The following is a good sample pp. 124-8; "165; 130-1; followed of the closeness Blunt's with which Duce Mohamed All wording; In The Land Of The Pharaohs, 21 "Had he (i. e. Tewfik) p. true to his plighted Pasha and the reform remained word to Cherif he would unquestionably of Notables, party, summoning a Council have been spared all the intrigues and counter-intrigues of the Histor v, p. 127, "Had he remained next two years": cf. Secret loyal to his promises to the Reformers and to his Ministers, and summoned time a Council he would have had his subjects of Notables, at that enthusiastically with him and would have been spared the intrigues and counter-intrigues which marked the next two years. " In The Land Of The Pharaohs, History, cf. pp. 18-20 with Secret pp. 124-6. For Jamal-ud-Din Afghani's in the development role of Egyptian thinking, nationalist Afghani see Elie Kedourie, and Abduh; Unbelief an Essay in Religious Activism in Modern Islam, and Political London 1966; R. Keddie, An Islamic Response to Imperialism. and Nikki Political writings and Religious "a1-Afghani", of Sa yid Jamal ad-Din Berkeley 1968.

134.

129. 135

al-Afghani

and modern

ideas

of

negritude.

Likewise, it merely

when In draws 136 which

The Lard on the

Of The Pharaohs Secret virtually with History's the

mentions fund whole of

Sheikh

Muhamnad Abduh, first

of genuine Duse'e

hand information. "Ninth Palace of the September", mutiny

Indeed, deals

chapter Abdin "Triumph Riaz with

the apparently from Blunt's the 1879, thus in fact,

successful chapter motives of

and its in office

aftermath, Egypt". unier 137 Tewfik

derives

Reformers

In discussing in September

Pasha in the

accepting "I

Duse opens implying he is

remark

have it

on indisputable source of infor-

authority", mation:

some special again merely

or confidential paraphrasing Blunt.

138

Duse Mohamed Ali's

"The Hick's Expedition XIX,

three

chapters

on the Sudan - chapter

chapter XIV, "England in

XIII,
the Sudan"; from the rather

and After"; though cannot

and chapter either

"Fashoda" or Blunt,

not

substantially as fully

plagiarised part of

Rothstein

be regarded

135. Khalil Mahmud, introduction to 2nd. ed. of In The Land Of The Pharaohs, It would seem that, if 1968, pp. ix-x. Frank Cass and Co. Ltd., figure here! anyone, Blunt was the pivotal
136. History, p. 45 with Secret p. 153. of. In The Lard Of The Pharaohs, For Abduh's life op. cit. = and Jamal and work, see Keaourie, Origins Mohammed Ahmed, The Intellectual Nationalism, of Egyptian 1960. Press, Oxford University pp. 40-47 with Secret History, cf. In The Land Of The Pharaohs, information Duse Mohamed Ali's pp. 147-53. about the Cairo populace is taken from Secret Arabi as "el-Wahid" History, p. 169. acclaiming cf. In The Land Of The Pharaohs, p. 22 with Secret History, p. 128.

137.

138.

130. limited If hie cannon first-hand a country of pure Dusian of writing Egypt in In The Land Of The Pharaohs. limited, that of the

knowledge that

was severely to

Sudan,

he made no claims must perforce Here, but it is

have visited, have been based in the than great the main the

was certainly on some book, source of the on Cromer's

even less. secondary footnotes which Modern chapter of

These source give

chapters

or sources. little help,

as elsewhere clear that

Duse Mohamed Ali }aLvpt, XIII which begins

depended the

was none other same groui-a of the in

Earl

covers his

detail. a typical

de's piece

examination

Sudan with

plagiarism; Soudan, in 1883, over which the Khedive was presumed The Egyptian to rule, of France covered an area of about twice the dimensions It extended from wadi Halfa to the Equator, Germany. and and limits from Massowah, on the Red Sea, to the western of Darfur 1650 miles long by 1200 miles broad. 139 of a territory

Cromer's

second

paragraph

in

his

chapter

"The Hicks

Expedition"

runs

thus;

At the time this narrative of commences, the nominal authority from Wadi Halfa on the Khedive extended over an area stretching to the Equator the north on the south, of about 1300 a distance limit of the and from Nfassowah on the east to the western miles, Darfour on the west, a distance of about 1300 miles province to rule that is to say, he ruled, or attempted over a territory 140 big as France and Germany together. twice as All Dune contributed the first is here three was an alteration of Duse's of chapter of the Earl's Hicks figures. =pedition this includes -

Indeed, and After"

pages

"The

scarcely

more than

a paraphrase

Cromer:

139. In The Land Of The Pharaohs, 140. Modern Egypt, vol. I, p. 349.

p. 140.

131.
what true Duse had to Yahdi.. 141 say about It is the origins surprising, of the M'. ahdi and the of his nature of that

hardly

in view Duse is of very the

source, than

throughout enthusiastic

In The Land Of The Pharaohs about the the Mahdi, defeat are His of

much less Mahdi's

account

victories, taken Duse the whilst staff. 142 dif-

up to and including from Cromer. Here,

Hicks

Pasha,

was not,

however, between

there

significant

divergences

Mohamed All entire Cromer Likewise,

and Cromer,

such as Duse patriotically Hicks as making death of these a heroic to Hicks

representing last stand

Egyptian meanly

army under only accords political

a fighting analysis

and his is radically

Dusels

events

ferent
not

from Croner's,

ascribing
143 deny

Egyptian
This that

failures

to British
reasonable from

policy
view -

Egyptian

incompetence. to-day of the

was a perfectly the in the is, withdrawal the

few historians reconquest In his general

would

and the of Britain. 1883-84, hostile

eventual

Sudan were of the of British could

undertaken in events

interests

description interpretation of force

fighting these

Eastern unlike

Sudan in Cromer's, the

his to

and suspicious "If a British without

intentions. be dispatched British 'policy',

He asked after could the it

awkward

question, their

Arabs not

had done have

worst,

deranging

been dispatched

while

there

was yet time for

that

force

to be of service, army? "144

and before

the Arabs had exterminated

the Egyptian

141. cf. In The Land Of The Pharaohs, pp. 141; 142-3; 147-8; 150; and 153 with Modern EFrpt, vol. 1, pp. 350-51; 351-53; 398; 375-6; and 402-3.
142. 143. cf. In In The Land Of The Pharaohs, p. 145 with Modern Egyrt, vol. I, pp. 368-9.

The Land Of The Pharaohs,

pp. 145-7.

144. ibid,

p. 152.

132,

In in the

Duse Mohamed Ali's Sudan") there is but

following a similar complete

chapter, mixture of

(chapter rlagiarism from half him at of this

XIV, of

"England Cromer in

factual in

information

divergence first

many points chapter at all. is con-

analysis. it

Indeed, would his

as far

as the

cerned, If

be unfair from

to charge Cromer,

Duse with

plagiarism re-worked

he took

facts such that

he certainly

and reinterhis (Saving own as yet Aion of milideath

preted the

them to

an extent here

as to create

something yet full in the

of

possibility source). 145

he was plagiarising avoiding activity any

another, descri:

untraced, terry

Explicitly he summ up British

events,

Sudan after

the

of Gordon in the following

from

terms=

1884, to December 30,1885, force August, was a British ... the Dervishes' up and down the Soudan 'smashing with wandering Not, however, for the recovery of the Soudan slaughter. great to the Khedive, in his and restoring order and good government but as an act of revenge for the deaths of General dominions, Stewart... Gordon and Colonel from the Soudan Now that England had temporarily retired Ismail's huge African Empire to its fate, leaving the hungry European land-grabbers African were let loose to stake out their 146 claims. From this torial Ethiopia in it but the is point he goes on to discuss France, aftermath factual of at some length the collapse the various State terriand power

gains in Sudan. all

made by Britain, the immediate As far from

Italy, the

Congo Free of here

Egyptian is

as his Cromer. giving

information

concerned, Modern Egypt, of

lifted

He does at the

one point that

cite

rather

misleadingly,

impression

a mere couple

145. ibid, 146. ibid.

p. 156. p. 165.

133.
lines pages there had been largely is the taken consists important ihise hostilely were from of that 147 In faot, of the beat But,

work.

part

of

six

more paraphrases

Cromer. qualification

once again, that line, in

and somewhat Mohamed Ali

redeeming

interpretation, commenting

takes

an entirely of Britain,

different France

on the activities contrasted with

and Italy.

These powers from the point

Ethiopia, in

whose help Egyptian facts,

(as he had learned garrisons Duse drew a on

Modern Egypt) Ethiopian with border

was instrumental of the Sudan.

rescuing

From these flavour=

a distinctly

Fan-African

the province of Boos was handed over to king John, who was ... the only Christian of the Ismailan power to earn any portion treating the hgyptians Empire, sympathy mich with a fraternal them was denied them by even the 'ally' who had helped to involve in a sea of troubles. The Abyssinians, however, are African Where on earth did they acquire and but half-civilised. natives, these humanitarian qualities with which the European alone is 148 supposed to be endowed? Seeing the way, as in the above passage, that In The Land Of The Pharaohs own judgement, it can

comes to only

life

where

Duse Mohamed Ali he did not

exercised

his

be regretted

that

do this

more often.

147.

165 (the British In The Land Of The Pharaohs, of pp. occupation cf. Burton's 1 (Sir Richard 165-6, Berbera n. views on the desira; p. Berbera); 166 (the British bility of Zeila occupation of occupying Tajourrah); 167 (the Italian the French occupation of occuand p. 167-8 (Emin Pasha, Equatoria, Massowah); the Lado pp. of pation 168-9 (Ethiopian the Congo Free State); enclave and pp. assisand II, tance to Egypt and territorial gains) vol. with Modern Egypt, 47-9. But, significantly, Luse ositted 50; 53-4; 57; 43-6; pp-51; II's lengthy in Modern Egypt, justification vol. of British policy to the Italian Hais sole occupation relation of Massowah, pp. 54-7. of Modern Egypt was In The Land Of The Pharaohs, acknowledgement p. 166, n. 2.

148. In The Land Of The Pharaohs,

p. 169.

134.
As to this is iuse's third not Sudanese in any noted, chapter (Chapter XIX, "Fashoda"),

certainly

sense "Lord

plagiarised Cromer, His in

from his

Modern Egypt. history, dismisses

Indeed, the

as Duse himself with in for

subject

a footnote. the

"149 Marchand to attack

own speculation was that

on French France was

objectives looking

mounting

expedition the Sudan;

a causus-belli

in the Soudan0 must have Delcasse who knew the conditions ... ... the sinister intention of having the Mission exterentertained excuse for so as to have a 'valid' minated by the Dervishes, I do not claim accuracy the Soudan. sending a French army into 150 It is mere specualation. for this statement. He indignantly were prepared officers were dismissed to collude for the with suggestion Marchand, that some Egyptian that officers "Egyptian English "tens the were",

emphasising just

fighting in ... the

a principle just

as much as the three whose

and had lost of and thousands wastes

Sudan not brothers,

two or cousins, aloud

famous men but blood had soaked "151 for

sons, Kordofan,

of that

and cried partriotism

for

vengeance,

Here we Duse of the

see clearly than

Egyptian His it

had a greater the of political British

apreal

Sudanese. is that

conclusion the

about reality

significance dominance in

Fashoda

exposed

149.

In The Land Of The Pharaohs, p. 243, and Modern Egypt, vol. II, p. 43 omitted of what is n. 1, which says "I have purposely any account from this I should be most known as the 'Fashoda incident' work. to do anything to revive which might contribute public unwilling in an affair for all concerned, interest which is now, happily forgotten. well-nigh The word'Fashoda' has been erased from the rap. The place by its Shillouk is now called name of Kodok. "

150. In The Land Of The Pharaohs,

p. 241.

151. ibid,

p. 242.

135.
Sudan, Kationalism. is thus and thereby 152 that In The Land Of The Pharaohs of its author's leaders. authors is

reconquered Lgyptian It sense ledge the

provoked

an upsurge

of

"aggressive"

established as the

no knownature to be

to be regarded of Egyptian

product

own personal Since was very by its likely motives?

politics

and political books by living were

plagiarism

of recent what, it

discovered, The desire had spent possible paltry answer that 153

may be asked

Duse hobamed Ali's - unierstaniable - cannot seem to

to make a little periods motive. that they of his life

money quickly in financial be taken real want

in a man who as a

be dismissed have been so explanation.

Yet the cannot

rewards

as a sufficient on. Perhaps important to

The felt 'inside'

here

can only

be speculated claims have

Duse Mohamed Ali connections produce and

unless

he made large he would British

about the

information, book attacking (at least

never

chance

a full-length would command

Imperialism the attention

and racism, of a large (to

a book which public. this

momentarily) of the 'inside' work with

To sustain speculation) W.S. Blunt. economic of 'informed' and

the appearance he turned As for statistical material. to

information,

continue

of a man who indubitably his Marxist

had such, for mine

Rothstein,

nose and appetite another rich

information,

he provided

152.

ibid,

p.

251.

153. The publishers advance was 30 - vide "Leaves in The Comet, 23rd October 1937, p. 7.

From An Active

Life"

136.
If real Dues Mohamed Ali's motives were as speculated by the but has above, for then the in a book

sense

he can be regarded a success a second in the

as justified short run,

outcome,

was not staying

only power,

shown remarkable produced. oblivion, Egypt 154 though By of

edition EAVyt's History those

having Ruin

been recently has sunk into

comparison, course obligatory Egyptian to praise did Blunt's

Rothstein's Secret

and Cromer's interested in the british

Modern in late press first

have remained

reading history. In not

to all

nineteenth-century fell over themselves even when in

Reviewer's

The Land Of The Pharaohs entirely agree with its

when it point

appeared,

they

of view.

The review

The cotsman is a fair

Egyptian a hostile

example of the general

tone;

is generally from nationalism expounded in this country Impartial of view. point students of history will be interested to read a book in which it is sympaaccordingly thetically made to animate a history of Egyptian affairs since the downfall the Magnificent, of Ismail, and the rescue of his from the situation in which he left it. Mr. Mohamed, country the author in England. His of this work, has been educated in the Egyptian father was an officer army and an ardent supporter in Alexandria of Arabi, and he was himself when that city was bonHe has accordingly barded. had better than most opportunities European writers of becoming acquainted with the real meaning of the movement, the steps of which he chronicles. His work retraces the history the time of Tewfik of Egypt through and the rising 'government freely by philanthropy', follows critices under Arabi, Nationalist Lord discusses out the process of the recent revival, Cromer, and, while the notion is that its author repudiating 'anti-English', the object makes that statesman of animadversions the work of ull that has been done which stigmatise as ineffective by the inglish from day. Apart occupation since Lord Dufferin's its political tendency, the work has its own interest as an

154. In The Land Of The Pharaohs, 2nd ed. with introduction Nahmud, Frank Cass and Co. Ltd., London 1968.

by Khalil

137.
account of It ment. photographs. In all In at least the people and the leaders of the Nationalist move(it is be added) by many appropriate should raced 15' twenty-three British plus newspapers the in British perhaps reviewed Observer significant,

and nagazines owned E rvtian particularly

The Land Of The Pharaohs, of India. 156

and Times

The latter

as it
Indians ablest (a

would have drawn the attention

to that Duse Mohamed Ali's has yet journal proceeded from work, from

of at least
which it

some Western educated

as "By far the

described pen. "

an Egyptian struck

T. k. ls Weekly note than

separate making British mistakes

's T. PP. as "...

Magazine) the out

a sourer

most, that our

such remarks rule ...

author the

hardly tangle,

seems to

realise be

has straightened the growth of

and whatever

nationalism in his

owes something opening that because

to us. " of Duse's he

Yet even this parentage

reviewer

concedes at the

and experiences

bombardment

of Alexandria,

"what

155.

16th February 1911, p. 2; The Scotsman, cf. the same tone in The 1911, p. 584. This popular illustrated Graphic, 22nd April weekly to Duse's prophecy drew attention particularly at the end of his disaster for the British book of future Empire, as did the reviewer 15th April The 1911, pp-448-9in The Academy and Literature, The Westminster 19th 1911, journal Liberal Review, April moderate vuse'a strictures on the discourtesy of British pp-471-2 accepted (many found the book's to Egyptians illustrations and officials "particularly studio productions) of them artificial good". (The Daily British Telearavh, The Scotsman, magazines and newspapers Britain, London Times, Greater The lforning Leader, The Catholic News, The Academy, The Freeman's Evening Times, London Daily Journal, The world, The London Standard, The Graphic, The Daily Express, T. P. 'sWeekly, Standards The Sunday Times, The New Age, The 'r`, vening The Pall Mall Gazette, Review of Reviews, Chronicle, The Dail The Court Journal, Review and the Westminster plus The Egyptian Observer and The Times of India for are quoted in an advertisement In The Land Of The Pharaohs, ATOR, October 1912, p. iv. There was in The Near Last and may well be others in the British also a review press as yet untraced.

156.22

138.

has to say on Egyptian

by writing "Whatever

affairs

will

be listened
of this book,

to gladly",
let

and concludes
to

one may think

no man pretend

discuss

Egypt without

hearing

and considering journal

might at least

the case for

the prosecuaffairs,
most,

tion. "157

The authoritative
whose reviewer with

on Eastern
have

Mediterranean

The Near East,

been expected, Secret

more than History

to have been conversant Modern Egypt, though "valuable its his the author's attempt present it lauded

Blunt's for points; that that is his

and Cromer's even book as a on account of in at

Duse Mohamed Ali with many of his

fair-mindedness, praised his

disagreed addition",

indeed

as a book and decided

"stands although ready for

alone"

nationality; to prove that fault

"he has failed self-government him as with the

the

Egyptian lies not

moment the of

so much with

average

Egyptian

to-day.

"

158

As for
tional merit

The New Age. it

as to warrant dropped is

regarded
two reviews. its

its

protege's
This high is

book as of such ezeepnot to say that standards The

New Age deliberately everything were case not of that regarded

usually Orage

critical

known about

shows that

even his

own contributors In of this the rule.

as immune from

the most there

searching

criticism.

In The Land Of The Pharaohs

was no relaxation

157.

1911, p. 204. 17th February T. P. 'e weekly, of. The Academy and 1911, pp. 448-9, Literature, 15th April which accused Duso of into from a historian "a mere Nationalist degenerating protagonist", and the Review of-Reviews , March 1911, p. 288, which tempered a "it is hard to find favourable in his with the remark; review benefit to Egypt from the of a single pages an acknowledgement " occupation!

158. The Near East,

April

26th,

1911, p. 238.

139.
Indeed, also the first for review was by the the conservative pseudonym J. M. Kennedy, S. Verdad) Guildhall than those little (who

wrote

The New Age under his to sympathy for

a man who had Speech. 159

already He found

expressed the book

Roosevelt's of notice could so heavily Duse's foreign only regret cry

be more worthy and specifically

by "cranks" fault from play' policy it it with the irrelehad the

such as W. S. Blunt, first Secret vant, always half of the 160

"find

book"

- the

part found British

plagiarised of 'unfair

Histors: since

Kennedy that

he accepted

and imperial was that "... of view.

been Machiavellian, so. 161

and his

had often is It thoroughly will review, Pasha's the most

been ineptly well teach which lack worth us at was

But he concluded as showing the best

by advising point

reading least

Egyptian

to

be on our was mainly

oehaviour.

"162

The second of Arabi opened with

anonymous,

devoted leader.

to a critique Yet writing; it

of ability

as a revolutionary praise of

extravagant

Duse Mohamed Ali's

this book Our contributor, Mr. J. M. Kennedy, has already reviewed but we return in our columns, to it after with a second reading far from exhausted. As a contribution to the cause of interest history Egyptian Nationalism this Egypt of the Pbaraohs of the later is worth, tens of the usual inflammatory in our opinion, several literature. Mr. Mohamed is singupropagandist and ill-informed larly impartial, even for an Egyptian who was educated and lived But as an Egyptian in England for many years. who not only felt

159. 160.

The New Age. ibid, 16th

16th

June

1910,

p. 147,

written

under

the

name S. Verdad.

February

1911,

p. 366.

161. ibid, 162. ibid,

pp. 366-7. p. 367.

140.

the effects but saw with his own eyes the terrors of the Alexandrian bombardment, had his father slain with Arabi at Tel-el-Kebir, and his brother the coolness shot by British soldiers, of and breadth his impartiality Fanatics, it is well known, have are amazing. Their friends only one judgement, and it is always an extreme. Mr. Mohamed, however, opponents are devils. are heroes and their is no fanatic; form of his history indicates. as the classical His judgement of events and persons is measured, moderate and We particularly his portraits sound. commend, for example, of It is only in the concluding Arabi and Mustapha Kamel Pasha ... that lights the garrish chapters on Lord Cromer and Mr. Roosevelt justice on; of Lord Cromer, are turned and in respect any rate, lgj been done in the preceeding has already pages. Oddly enough, Duee Mohamed Ali reacted stiffly to this second review

in The New Aire, and sent a touchy

next issue, unaccountably

defence
of

of his book to the magazine's

the abuse showered on him by

complaining

the British It
fear with Place. stay, tained in of

press.

164 this irritability

on 19th at Blunt's

may be that
exposure.

was accounted
April

for

by a growing

Already

1911 he had had an interview seat in Sussex, for Newbuildings an overnight enteraccount, appeared

Wilfred 165

Scawen Blunt According to

country

Duze", he was invited as a fellow guest,

by Blunt and was in emerges for from

had Hilaire in style; while

Belloc a nice he himself

general Duse's Blunt

comedy of manners dressed formally

which

dinner,

in Oriental

clothes.

166

It

is plausible
16th

that

Belloc

would have been

p. 2.

163.

The New Age Literary

Supplement,

March

1911,

164. The New Age, 23rd March 1911, p. 499. 165. luv Diaries,
166.

entry

for

19th April

1911, p. 759.

Life", "Leaves From An Active in The Comet, 16th October 1937, p. 7 "After dressing I descended to dinner and, to my surprise while ... (sic) I was habited in a formal dinner Blount suit, was arrayed, in a wonderful Sheykh like, blue cloth jibbah complete with Kaftan. No doubt my host intended honour. " to do me special There is Pooter-like touchingly something about this.

141.
Newbuildings,

present, being Yet April,

since present

he was at there

that

time February,

a quite 19th

frequent

guest

at

on 26th Diaries

March and let of his

May 1911.167 on 19th

Blunt's

published

make no mention do not make it

presence

when Duse was there, and merely

clear

whether 168

/ Duse stayed This makes

overnight,

say that

Duae came to

see him.

it

unclear

whether

Blunt

simply

invited

Duse Mohamed Ali,

or,

perhaps,

Duse Mohamed Ali

requested

an interview.

What is
Blunt too,

stranger,
almost

in the circumstances,
all the reviewera, though

is

that

at least

initially

like

regarded also quite

In The Land Of The aware There three that had, it was however,

Pharaohs "cribbed, been hints

as "a good book nearly in the all of

on Egypt" it, from

me and Rothstein". on 14th April,

magazine

The_ World

days

before

the Blunt-Duse le(#ng

long lacks are in

interview,

that

the book was plagiarised. well

(the verses . 169

Though acknowfound that "a

song

it
life

to be comparatively
in England

written,
author's) are

World The
...

has dimmed most of the

vision

and his the others

originality; incomplete

Mr.

Blunt's; spent Middle his

and unsatisfactory. circles, speaker It is both in

Having and the hardly

life

moving and being Dune about

the

highest Arabic 170

Britain Blunt

East, to

a fluent

himself, clear that

knew what him a certain

make of amount

Mohamed A1i.

Dusel told

167. My Diaries, 168. ibid, 169. ibid. 170. ibid. p. 759.

pp. 755,757

and 760.

Also see The World,

14th February

1911, pp. 249-5.

142.
the life, in including 171

story

of his travels

something

about

his

career

on the

stage

and his occasion judgement

America.

But Duse Mohamed Ali (sic) did most of the

remembered talking. "

the His but

as one on which of Blunt shrewd= was,

"Blount in the

circumstances,

perhaps

uncharitable,

nonetheless There

(sic) be little doubt about Blount's sincerity with need to the emancipation regards of Egypt but he impressed me as being to be the power behind the throne, anxious as nothing extremely him more than to be surrounds.. by a group of Egyptian delighted to whom he would expound his rather ideas as to utopian students how Egypt should be governed. 172 In old age, when Duse Mohamed Ali "proves him to have the condescendingly been a diligent Egyptian War of adjudicated student 1882", student" 173 of that the the events would

Secret which have of

History led up to,

and included to remind

there

been few able

him what

a "diligent

he had been

Blunt. The storm was not long in breaking. Place, Blunt (sio) "174 years the A few days noted in his after diary of his Duse Mohamed "Rothstein work, son, which Andrew that in "his

Ali's is is

visit furious

to about

Newbuildings

Duse Mohammed's than I thought. twelve

appropriation Theodore old at the

more flagrant although either

Rothstein's time, recalls

Rothstein, publishers

only

had to withdraw

book altogether,

or put

a sheet

171. ibid. 172. "Leaves From An Active 173. ibid, p. 17. entry for 25th April 1911, pp. 759-60. Life", in The Comet, 16th October 1937, p-7-

174. My Diaries,

143.
acknowledging may assume that the plagiarism. humiliating "175 sheet The book was not was inserted. withdrawn, It so we

the

can hardly

have helped
of

sales.

The promise
dreams,

of fame and influence,

have seemed about to

like

so many
It

Duse Mohamed Ali's

must

collapse.

is

surely

not a coincidence

that

the last

of Duse's contributions revealed to Blunt sin likely

to the to

The New AAe176 appeared two days after extent of his transgressions.
in

Rothstein

Plagiarism

was the last

be tolerated

The New Age circle.

Yet,
reputation cannot firmly sisted 'third

on reflection,
in the rarified

the sudden collapse

literary such in this

of Duse MohamedAli's
circles of The New Age

and political a disaster. sphere,

really

be considered himself progressive the African

Had Duse Mohamed Ali in which rather his than audience the con-

established of British of

intellectuals Times and Orient

international

world'

Review, in all

his

continuing have drawing world,

development been stultified. room left,

as an embryo

Pan-Africanist have black

would

probability of the the

He could off from the

become a black and brown strive for

mascot

cut

peoples the next

across thirty

among whom and for

whom he was to

years.

175.

from Mr. Andrew Rothstein to the writer Personal of communication Paul Unfortunately, this thesis. all of Stanley pre-war records in the Blitz, is possible books were destroyed so no information topics, from that source, on this or other either such as the in the first the number of copies edition, printed number of copies I am indebted to by the author; received sold or the royalties Contracts Publishing Mr. Roger Hudson of Hutchinson Group Ltd., department, for this information. and Rights

176. "The Good Friday

Procession",

in The New Age, 27th April

1911, pp. 606-7.

144.
In The Land Of The Pharaohs one, for in it was an equivocal had not book in more senses of these than

Duse Mohamed Ali was addressing. the alien of under culture confidence the yoke

decided

which

two worlds

he fundamentally as tribute duplicity five years to

The plagiarised to which being of that

passages

can be seen a mixture twentyof

he was subjected, the legacy of It

and lack spent that those very

more than is

culture. of

ironically

significant praised thereby

some British sections of

reviewers it which

In The Land Of The Pharaohs heavily of plagiarised culture. of of 177

were most

unconsciously barren

applauding would,

a mere reflection if it were the itself

European content

This In

reflection

entire scarcely

The Land Of The Pharaohs,

make the

book

worthy

serious

consideration.

Fortunately,
permitted the

there
his

are a few passages in the

and his own imaginaand

book where tion to

Duse Mohamed Ali him. 178 of In

own ideas

lead

These are

most vigorous,

entertaining The plagiarised

perceptive chapters of the

parts

The Land Of The Pharaohs. are wearisome of the and and book could This attack

and passages non-plagiarised

by comparison. be summarised is broached on that subjects

The theme as 'racism

parts

and imperialism in the introductory of the

and their chapter,

consequences'. in a spirited its

vigorously commonplace

defence

British

Empire

that

coloured

were incapable

177.

e. g.,

the

conservative

J. M. Kennedy,

ibid,

16th

February

1911,

p. 366.

178. The most substantial of these Pharaohs, pp"2-5,348-51,352-56

sections are: and 357-65.

In The Land Of The

145.
of orderly Colour and civilised government. Here, Duse writes;

is at the root of most of the 'Oriental incapacity' prejudice literature. in English I have patiently which bulks so largely for many years and I have a the death of colour awaited prejudice large to expedite its interrather spade in readiness wherewith but I greatly fear its tale of years is likely to wrest ment; from the hoary brow of b:ethusalah, the laurels for establishing itself a long-distance record which no human agency will ever take away. 179 aware that colour peoples, prejudice acquired of was not "Western Western giving culture"; 180 of in way once this Orientale, was

He was well or any other invariably impatiently ...

coloured sneered brushed at

as "a veneer what is

culture". bogus

He therefore trusteeship; rarch

aside

he saw as the either

claims asset

a university

degree

a valuable

the

'giving the native government'{ when a share in the government (? ) he is qualified'; of the sentimental and the remainder nonsense digested by the superficial British complacently nonsense reader: helps to salve the official British consciences of a reactionary but does not hoodwink the Oriental bureaucracy, of even average I have yet to learn intelligence. that an English university 181 degree can be obtained without mental effort...

If it is valuable of social and political progress, or it is not. the European would be well advised to only to the Anglo-Saxon, immediately, throw close his educational portals and forthwith for selfthe Oriental overboard the nauseating cant about 'fitting

The arrogance
Oriental subjects

and ill-manners
is the subject of

with
the

which the British

introductory

treated
the

their
final

chapter,

chapter,

and a section

of the chapter

entitled

"The Nationalist

Revival".

182

179. ibid, 180. ibid.

181. ibid,

p. 3.

p. 4.

182. ibid.

pp. 218-222.

146.
In this found in latter the

passage, Egyptian his

Duse identified service

the

type

of

Englishman

to

be

as "an arrogant, and the interests

self-seeking of his

individual, class". or, even skill, device wuickly including supported soon power; This

who looks an would worse,

after either

own interest

be an incompetent, parvenu. the 183

down-at-heel

aristocrat literary

a vulgar

Showing of

some authentic

Duse illustrated of an imaginary learning their in attitude

behaviour of the

such parvenus Mr. his

by the

satirical 184 service, luxury

example

species, of

T. 6wellibus. in the of

Egypt

to ape the

airs

seniors

towards native

"niggers", T. to

and living Swellibus, entrench

a life Effendi

by numerous become)

servants, incentive

(as he would in his new found

had every

himself

the compass of erring human nature T. Swellibus, Now, is it within that Effendi, should descend from the honourable and glorious position Egyptian beneath him falls official, of an exalted where everyone is implicitly down and worships and his lightest request obeyed? 'great that this Is it likely leave his acquired voluntarily man' will luxuries, 'somebody', with the added dignity comforts, of being by rubbing shoulders which he has acquired with swell society at Hotel, to return Shepherd's home and be swallowed up among the teeming millions his identity and chimney pots of smokey London: a jerry-built, semi-detached gone, and at the very best, architecin Suburbia tural in which to wind up a career monstrosity of It is unthinkable. brilliance When such things and achievement? the lion lie down with the lamb, for men can be accomplished, will be angels. will is the very thing Yet, this the British Government would have believe to be possible It is the Egyptians of accomplishment. to keep as much knowledge the duty of T. Swellibus, as is possible the natives and should away from the Egyptian; who he controls activity, show any signs of intellectual such signs must be nipped in the bud, or if the natives in understanding too much persist 185 they must be removed to another department. about the department

183. ibid,
184. ibid,

p. 218.
pp. 219-221.

185. ibid,

pp. 220-21.

147.
This but based drawing, and in of appeal time on first-hand

picture

was,

of

course,

not

knowledge

of

Egypt,

on imaginative both on the in

insight, Britain

no doubt his the to travels British Western from

on Duse Mohamed Ali's in the colonies. civil Indians Such servant and west

experiences an attack would

self-interest

overseas educated

have had a particular who were Indian to Civil the at that

Africans, in the

suffering Services, officialdom Little of they of

discriminatory final

policies chapter Duse at

and Colonial on British

In his in

returned the official

attack

Egypt, Balfour, the

poking

fun

class

as "Balfour's of Egypt 186 the necessity that kind

Band"c "..

in a Commons little supported band of by the

speech,

had spoken in

letting *

our countrymen authority attitude at to

fee], This

were absolutely 'support the to

home. " Imperial

man on the Luse.

spot'

administration

was anathema

He saw it

as encouraging

the worst

aspects

of British

rule

in igypt;

trouble in Egypt has been, and is, The greatest the desire to in the hands of narrow-minded keep the administration English bureaucrats, who in order to maintain an illegal and unwarranted Egyptian intelligence in the pages of their underrate usurpation, lying journals. reports, and the columns of their and contradictory by the Government at home, they do Knowing they are supported like. 187 pretty much as they The individual ambition of English bureaucrats was not the only

self-interested he accepted that

force

that

DuseeMohamed Ali the British did

recognised not intend

in Egypt. a permanent

Although occupation,

at first

186. Quoted in ibid, 187. ibid, pp. 359-60.

p. 361.

148.
yet he believed that they found it too profitable to abanion;

'Adviser' began to see the as time went on and the English ... and its great marvellously recuperative powers of the country trade possibilities, it was found that England had unwittingly Golconda, stumbled which it would be upon a regular commercial in order that to the Egyptians the essence of folly to surrender A country that, it... some other power might step in and exploit by virtue of its natural could reduce a debt of some resources, the short to reasonable space ninety within millions proportions to be lightly of a century, of a quarter was not the country to the Lnglish view -a pack of 'semiabandoned to - according barbarous natives'0188 Beyond this, Hobsonian Luse Mohamed Ali complexion, but displayed with a hint of a wider view, of

expressed hiding of

un-Hobsonian bogus moral

extravagance. objects, 189 as being

He saw finance the promoter

capitalism, and beneficiary

behind British is Here, at

Imperialism. its most

In The Land Of The Pharaohs attack reaching particular crux United died for of the on Theodore towards Roosevelt. a fuller of

impressive

in

its

we can observe world view,

Duse Mohamed Ali the The in the and faces"

Pan-African imperialism

transcending in of Egypt.

questions attack

and nationalism exposure American that

on Roosevelt Pointing out

waa the that the

injustice

States. both

Negro "the

had fought of their

independence

and the

Union,

sweat

188. ibid,
189.

p. 217.

In The Land Of The Pharaohs, in the mulPP. 215-6 - "Thus England, tiplication of her conquests, whereby trade is advanced, plutocrats wax rich and opulent, and in the interests of 'civilisation' and 'Chrietianisation' of primitive races, and races that are not 'for their primitive, who are held in tutelage and subjection moral kings, so that there welfare', may be diamond princes, and cotton band of financial and other grades of a most ignoble aristocrats, is only paving the path of materialism with the agonised groans dissolution. her utter of human subjection, at the end of which lies This is perhaps more graphic than lucid, but its general implications enough. are evident

"

149.
had helped were rife

to in

make America America, that

powerful, three

that

divorce

and industrial

strife

Presidents of the

had died Egyptian

of assassination, Nationalists against

he turned the United

Roosevelt's States itself;

denunciation

of murderous condition of an 'anarchical are these evidences .. o that in the United States or are they proofs of America, chaos' the ex-President and those in authority of the American Republic 'neither desirous of guaranteeing even that prinor capable are the failure to supply which makes self-government mary justice, farce? 1190 not merely an empty but a noxious
Thus i Duse managed to link imperialism, with the race through question one in of the its most trenchant States.

contemporary

advocates,

United

It

is

not

surprising in

that the

In United

The Land Of The Pharaohs States, of both In in the

appears

to

have comwas

made some impact munities. brought confidence 191 out in that

black

and white

An American 1911,192 the

edition

The Land Of The Pharaohs an Anerioan publisher's readers.

which

demonstrates

book would

have an appeal

to American

An autographed

copy of the book found its

way into

the hands of the

190. ibid,
191.

p. 354.

here is partial The evidence and presumptive, of and the writer is aware that further thesis this research could be undertaken Negro tress for reviews here - for e. g. a search of the American States, however would require work in the United an opporwhich, he has not as yet bad, tunity

in The Comet. 9th October 1937, "Leaves From An Active Life", as remarking "... your book on p. 7, records John E. Milholland Egypt has been read by almost every thinker in America, particularly Teddy Roosevelt's enemies. " 192. Duse Mohamed, In The Land Of The Pharaohs, D. Appleton and Co., 1911. (American ), ed.

150.
influential Society presented beginning the close veteran friend. for Negro 193

writer

Arthur Research

Schomburg, of

secretary This

of

the

Negro

Historical to Schomburg of his black 194

New York.

copy was presumably indicate which the

by Duse Mohamed Ali, with

and may well circle,

relationship journalist Another

Schomburg's Bruce,

included become Duse's In The

John Edward significant black Yale William

who was to to

black

American

notice

Land Of The Pharaohs and (at a later date) high

was the

graduate, H. Ferris,

writer,

journalist a

Garveyite, regard for

who developed from as early

extraordinarily

Duse Mohamed Ali

as 1913.

193.

(with Schomburg, born in Puerto Rico, founder J. E. Bruce) secretary and for Historical Research in New York in 1911, of the Negro Society interested in the Arabic speaking was particularly and as world, to In The Land Of The such may well have been particularly attracted Pharaohs. There is, in the book to have made of course, nothing Furtherhim aware that Dune Mohamed Ali could not speak Arabic. belief in the stimulation more, Schomburg's of racial patriotism the study of Negro books would have certainly through predisposed by In The Land Of The Pharaohs. him to be impressed vide August Meier, Negro Thought in America, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1964, pp. 262-3, "Notes on American Negro Influences and G. Shepperson on the Emergence Nationalism" in Journal History, of African of African vol. I, no. 2 Schonburg's 1960, p. 309. copy of In The Land Of The Pharaohs, by Duse, is now in the Schamburg Collection, New York autographed Public information Library; from Wendell L. Wray, Acting Curator, Schomburg Collection.

194. Bruce was the President

for

Research and later Historical a Garveyite, op. cit., vide Meier, His friendship pp. 262-3, and Shepperson, op. cit., p. 309. with Duee is attested by the affectionate Mohamed Ali tone of the correspondence between them - e. g., Duse Mohamed to John E. Bruce, 12th September 1919, in J. Bruce Papers, Schomburg Collection, New York Public Library, in which, there had been some dispute although between the two men over a missing manuscript of Bruce's, and some bad evidently acrimony passed between them, Duse compared their dispute to a lover's for Bruce his affection quarrel and expressed for his friendship in extravagant terms. and regard

and founder

of the New York Negro Society

151.

It for At

is the

clear, African

however, Times in

that and the

Ferris' Orient

regard Review,

was as In

based The

as Land

much Of

on admiration The Ali Pharaohs0195 was

a later

date,

nineteen-twenties,

when

i)use

Mohamed

living

in

the

United

States,

the other

American things) his to

Negro his

Press work

often

identified 196 unknown.

him by referring At this remove of it is not

(amongst time clear

as a historian.

and place, that the

plagiarism

was apparently ever

Indeed, in

plagiarism

scandal

became known

America. As for white America, there is at evidence least for that it too was impressed of is every

by In The Land Of The Pharaohs, its said thinker on the sensational attack

a season,

on account

on Theodore that the book

Roosevelt. had been "...

John E. Nilholland read by almost

to have remarked in America, strength of

particularly his subsequent

Teddy Roosevelt's fame

enemies", could

and that make his

Luse Mohamed All

195.

The African Abroad. H. Ferris, New Haven, Conn., 1913, William "While leaders in America have vol. 1, p. ix; some of the colored their been teaching followers to despise books and scholarship, Duse Mohamed in England has been writing tragediettas, plays, sketches, the libretto of a musical comedy, a coronation of ode, a history Egypt, a romance, a series of essays on the drama and editing a In ibid, " vol. II, magazine of world scope and significance. Ferris Duse as one of pp. 927-8, went even further and described immortals", the "forty colored whose achievement measured the of his race. ability Herald, 16th May 1923, announcing e. g., The Baltimore a forthcoming lecture by Uuse Mohamed Ali, describes him as "historian, public history writer and musician", and "the author of a celebrated of (sic) 'The Rule of the Pharaohs' Egypt under the title educated ... in the leading Universities A fuller discussion of England. "

196.

in the United of Duse Mohamed Ali's activities be found in Chapter VII nineteen-twenties will

States during the of this thesis.

152.
fortune period famous the lecturing in America, in 197 to

America.

Years

later,

towards

the with

end of the showing

his

Duse is

said

have had an interview Brisbane, 198

American

journalist, and it from (or

Arthur

who recalled Brisbane 199

book

to Roosevelt, first copy Roosevelt

making

him furious. publishers. campaign American

had even is

bought evidence

the

the at

American least his

There

that

managers) voters

thought to of 1912.200

Duse Mohamed Ali's warrant placating

influence him during

among black the

sufficient campaign

Presidential

Election

197. 198.

"Leaves Arthur

From An Active

Life",

in

The Comet,

9th

October

1937,

p. 36.

(1864-1936) Brisbane to American would need no introduction because of his important at least of the older readers, generation, role in the sensational popular press, particularly as one of the lieutenants leading Randolph Hearst, Carlson, of William see Oliver Brisbanes A Candid Biogrgphy, Stackpole Sons, New York, 1937; also Dictionary Biography, Supplement Two, OUP, of American vol. XXII, London, 1958, pp. 62-5. Life", "Leaves From An Active in The Comet, 12th February 1938, p"7. It is, to point this information of course, necessary out that depends solely on Duse Mohamed Ali's uncorroborated word, and that his own self-esteem It is, however, was involved. a likely enough tale - as a leading in the Hearst press, columnist on any attack Roosevelt liable to prejudice his standing with section of the during the 1912 election voters campai? n would have been of interest to Brisbane, in the world of journalism whose standing at that time was certainly such that he would have had access to a Presidential candidate.

199.

200. In ATOR, August 1912, p. 60, Due" Mohamed Ali

letter to Roosevelt, him to declare towards challenging his policy Ne o, (should the American he be elected President on the Proticket) in the light displayed in his gressive of the attitudes Mansion House speech. This brought two replies from Frank Harper, Roosevelt's Office, secretary, Roosevelt. and one from Philip (vide ibid, August 1912, p. 60; September 1912, p. 791 and October 1912, p. 114) Philip Roosevelt's letter was evidently conciliarity in intention. For fuller discussion of this correspondence, see Chapter IV of this thesis.

addressed

an open

153.
The attack causes of liuse on Roosevelt }iohamed Ali's New World certainly growing in the must be regarded reputation next as one of people it the in was to society of these the together

among black

West Africa on the honorary for

and the of

few years. that

No doubt he was elected Negro

strength

In The Land Of The Pharaohs of the of American New York. of this Negro 201 the

membership

Academy and the The governing

Historical

Research

bodies

societies book, Egypt's but

were no doubt viewing its with a book a narrowly than the

unaware

derivativeness mattered.

of much of By linking

message the of racist far

hardly

trouble

proclivities potential Nationalist he plagiarised. attack area

of imperialists significance work would East for

elsewhere, to American have been; or, was

Duse produced Negroes for that than

greater

Egyptian the books of of the that

matter, within

Africa, taking

too, up

brought

scope

on Roosevelt, as potentially

Roosevelt's country",

description Duse says;

"a true

white

man's

is as strong there as it is against Colour prejudice the Negroes Can it therefore States be a matter in the Southern of America. that Mr. Roosevelt should have appreciated conditions of surprise his own men in America'? 202 that reminded him so'strikingly of In warning The Land Of The Pharaohs British imperialism that concludes the scorn on a note with which 203 of it prophecy, had treated

its

Oriental

subjects

was totally

estranging

them.

Duse emphasised

201. 202. 203.

ibid,

Christaas

1912,

p. 30. p. 355.

In The Land Of The Pharaohs, ibid, p. 364.

154.
Japan,

the the East.

significance Anglo-Japanese

of

the treaty,

rise

of

and foretold struggle for the for

the

non-renewal in of the the

of Far nineteen-

and a future passage,

power events

In a remarkable and forties attack -a

he anticipated struggle which do not the love

thirties

Sino-Japanese during but astray they in

supremacy, would "

followed discover This

by a Japanese that "Indians

on India,

British

may dissemble, seriously he rightly in

England. that

prophecy struggle strong)

was only (in would it which,

supposing Japan of those

a Sino-Japanese find China 204 of too

guessed,

might

culminate could

a coalition that

powers, the spirit

However, the in Asian the

even here Co-Prosperity becond It thoughts in

be said policy,

he anticipated the Japanese

Sphere Jar. that

which

were

to follow

World is

clear

Luse Mohamed Ali's at about this at took time,

mind was much exercised for his of last the 205 that major

by article of

such as these which

The New Are,

appeared

about up the the

the

time

publication This article,

In The Land Of The Pharaohs, entitled tributed included "Quo Vadis", is

same theme. most able

undoubtedly and surely of Fan-African

Luse ever

con-

to The New Age, in anthologies

deserves writing.

to be better It

known and Duse's

illustrates

true

merits

as a writer, a publicist,

which were not those of a historian, a propagandist. It is unfortunate

but

of a

journalist,
content

he was not
and openly

to write

In The Land Of The Pharaohs

unequivocally

204. 205.

ibid. The Flew Age, 23rd February 1911, pp. 387-90.

155.
in that manner! the 206 British world Europe, Fast "Quo Vadis" race the shows a remarkable with States, Africa, mastery India, breadth of the China, of vision, appropriate Japan, Egypt the West

surveying detail. Indies, Leone all

situation United

Africa, his view.

South

Liberia,

and Siera

came under

"Quo Vadis", taken political Asian later. together, thinking African "quo

and the provide

conclusion

of

In

The Land Cf The Pharaohs, on Duse Mohamed Ali's the explicitly eighteen than the Pan-Afromonths

valuable before

information launching in

a little

Times and Orient Vadie" It

Review

1912,

about

was more explicit concluded from its

and emphatic survey of

In The Land that;

Of The Pharaohs.

world

the man of therefore, Whether, we look East, West, North or South, The Anglo-Saxon by the Anglo-Saxon dark skin is being oppressed ... is the only argument he is dark races by force M and force rules of understanding. capable But where made clear, As in the wab the in this force that would included shake the Anglo-Saxons - to threat at least who, Duse core of from? to

context

the Americans the potential but

In The Land Of The Pharaohs, Empire in India is

Japan

lsritish

prophesied,

three

other

206.

There

however, in this article, judgements one or two eccentric are, in Duse Mohamed Ali's the Kest Indies view that were most notably Empire to oppression the British within of black by an exception in He attributed this supposed better state of affairs white. the West Indies to emancipation having of a occurred a quarter there than in the United States; century earlier and, signifibecause "coloured cantly, people are in a majority, and whenever their liberties have been tampered with, they have effectively " ibid. rioted. p. 389.

207. ibid.

156.
areas in in of challenge to Anglo-Saxon vein, not Dust only domination Mohamed All of paganism Like African with greater of are considered. the also spread Firstly, of Islam

a strongly Africa, of at

Blydenite the

noted but

:-zpense

Christianity, Luse showed a He to the 208

bringer somewhat primly natural

"drunkenness

and aggression". to nor-Islamic ... appeals man",

Blyden,

equivocal us that

attitude "Islam primitive

cultures. force "savage "which

tells

instincts

of

and writes force

tribes", will

More positively, vast population views inspired

he saw Islam as one man". of the role

as a unifying 209

move this beyond an oppression;

But Duse Mohamed Ali in Africa struggle

went

Blyden's Islamic

of

Islam armed

when he envisaged against imperialist

Pan-African

These inhabitants for the most part, of Africa races; warrior are, aggression with its land grabbing propensities, and the Christian is deprived whereby the native of his lands and subsequently indubitably of 'compound' semi-slavery, will pressed into a state Negroes ray fall, but others in a war of extermination. result be ready to take their dying gladly under the banner will places, The intelligent black men of the African of the Prophet ... be swept into the vortex towns will of race hatred which the for themselves. The negroes of Haiti Europeans are creating under than Toussaint intellectually were less superior and martially brethren in the interior What a people has once their of Africa. they can achieve And it must not be overlooked again. accomplished includes the tried that the vast Mohammedan black population Soudanese and Somali troops who possess some knowledge of their business. 210

208.

ibid, cf. Blyden "Mohammedanism p. 388. Islam and the Negro Race. Christianity, pp. 1-24 passim. The New Age, 23rd February 1911, p. 388.

in and the Negro !face", 1967, 2nd ed., Edinburgh

209.

210, ibid.

157.
as February Haiti style time, but 1911, 'final Duse Mobaned Ali solution' of the

Thus we find to envisage problem attended appetl other in

that

as early led

was able white even

a Muslim Africa!

At this services, Islam interk"st. qualities 211

he was not one can clearly man's religion. only

a believing see the This a patriotic Ansar (not

Fuslim, political passage pride

church to him of

as a black It

has in the

points

of

shows not of the but of

formidable in

fighting

Sudanese also the

so discernable in

In The Land Of The Pharaohs) presumably in the calling land into exploits him.

an awareness 'Mad Mullah',

of events as the

Somalia, press

3ritish

persisted

Furthermore, and the under for

we see Duse Mohamed All subsequent sweeping of

had already African as the

identified

deprivation

populations forces

wage labour responsible

semi-servile the driving of

conditions, Africans into

immediately

insurgency. If also is Muslim black revolution threatened changes in hfrica, black strain i Duse's Americans. in outlook It

envisaged important American businesses, removed to

revolutionary note life that that

among the of that

he was aware stressed the

contemporary development may seem Africa, but the of

black black far

importance such ideas.

of the This in

and highly the theory capital it apocalyptic is

approved vision

from

of revolution or not) to

(whether

Dusei's of

accepted

as valid peoples racial

he believed

accumulation potential

by oppressed is clear that

have a revolutionary than social revolution

and here -

rather

211. ibid,

27th April

1911, p. 606 and Blunt,

My Diaries,

p. 759.

158.
was in that mind. In bankers The Land Of The Pharaohs were largely American responsible Negroes the had, for following intervention road to Blunt, in asserted Egypt. 212 In

Jewish

"Quo Vadis" similar

i Duse saw the to that

as on the

acquiring

power

he thought

Jews possessed;

Already there are several The coloured people are amassing wealth. The Jews have proved Negro millionaires in the land of dollars. One may acquire213 Money will that money talks. also buy ammunition. in this any commodity world if one possess determination - and money. The segregated would also play institutions their enclave revolution part forced on the black Americana opportunities successful the 215 American It by the for whites secret

by providing are

"those to in

and undisturbed and when the not that be far in

which

essential troops brothers".

revolution"214 army "will therefore, insurhe favour

came, black their civilian

away from

appears, least

1911 Duse Mohamed Ali dimension a fully revolution. for contact day. to his

had a revolutionary, thinking. thinker, But it and never

or at

rectionary, was never of black

must be emphasised unequivocally in

consistent 216 this with

One reason certainly thinkers his of

flowering the

of

race-conscious of a number of is

thinking the not leadinr only

was' black the evident

works of

his

As evidence

this

there

212. 213. 214.

In The Land Of The Pharaohs , pp. 62-3. The New Are, ibid. 23rd February 1911, p. 388.

215. ibid,
216.

p. 389.
his attitude in Chapter to the IV, part British II. Empire and black

The contradictions of freedom are discussed

159.
Blydenite American writers. Dunbar, University Frederick article appeared article capacity States tion, offered if like flavour Negro of history, some of his but also ideas explicit references Professor All to at Coloured and his apparent knowledge of of black

reference to Blyden,

to a number Paul of

"Quo Vadis" Booker

contains

Lawrence Wilberforce of in an which

T. Washington,

W. S. Scarborough these, rather Van in later. with the

and Y. E. B. Du Bois. Douglass, were alluded "The

addition length

greater Art

by Duse entitled in T. P. 'e

and Letters", 217 This of the time latter

Magazine

a few month's conventional

began with of not 'the in

the by then race', Britain:

defence at the that

intellectual in the United tradi-

such as was familiar great writers in

European

literary were

Dumas and Pushkin, of Negro

who had some African genius. 218

ancestry,

as examples

i What Duse had to

say about

217.

"The Coloured Man in Art and Letters", This was the last 1911, pp. 399-407. tributions to T. P. 's Magazine.

in T. P. 'a )agazine, of Buse kohamed Ali's

June con-

218.

This genre was not unknown in Britain among those who considered 'friends themselves of the Negro', example being a contemporary the paper delivered by Sir Harry H. Johnston to the Universal Races Congress. see Guatar Spiller, ed., Papers on Inter-Racial Problems. "The World-Position of the Negro and the pp. 328-336, In the United Negroid". States had long been such thinking War common among Negro intellectuals, pre-dating even the Civil Douglass e. g. in September 1848 Frederick and emancipation; "There are now those among us, whom we are not ashamed to wrote; tobe regard as gentleman and scholars, and who are acknowledged in our land. such, by many of the most learned and respectable Mountains have been removed, of prejudice and truth are and light dispelling the error Quoted in Howard and darkness of ages. " (ed. ), Negro Social Brotz Thought 1850-1920. and Political Representative Texts, Basic Books, Inc., New York and London, 1966, p. 209.

160.

his

contemporaries,

men who were all

a black society,

to a greater
is of far

or lesser
greater

extent
interest.

consciously

members of

At this
World, As for

stage,
place

he favoured
where

Blyden's

idea that
must work it is

Africa,
out his

not the New

destiny. to 219

was the Du Bois

the African T. Washington, rather of

and Booker

interesting rival figures, is

see that that to they be though material in

he regarded both believed

them as complimentary that "the amelioration of

than the

Ethiopian

only

obtained

in an atmosphere as concerned There

Western with

civilisation while a certain Washington

and culture", Washington amount with

he saw Du Bois advancement. 220

social

was evidently about following;

of confusion however,

i Duse Mohamed Ali's It is surprising

information to read the

and liu Bois,

(sic) is two-thirds Dr. Blyden is a black Mr. Washington man. The white American has carefully nursed the idea that white. for the white element in Booker T. Washington and others account high intelligence; by this means a breach is widened bettheir African and the full-blooded which makes for ween the half-caste has It is to be fr-ared that Mr. , their destruction. 'ashington by his white affinity, does not conbeen flattered and therefore his true home, hence his disagreement Africa with the presider Du Bois is, Dr. Burghardt however, nearer mises of Dr. Blyden. Mr. Washington. 221 the African than Here is lectuals of the a mixture in racial for the of United real knowledge about the position something of like mulatto intel-

States, of

together Du Bois here.

with

a reversal a preto change.

backgrounds Du Bois is

and Washington. This preft-rene

Clearly, was soon

ference

implied

219. The New Age. February 220. T. P. 's Magazine,

221. The New Age.

23rd 1911, p. 389.

June 1911, pp. 404-5.

23rd 1911, p. 389.

February

161.
Specific in Art works mentioned include by Duse Mohamed Ali Blyden's in "The Coloured to Palestine. Europe{ of and Man

and Letters" Islam Souls of Negro,

From West Africa Race and West Africa T. Washington's

Christianity. Du Bois' the

and The Negro Black Folk;

Before

Booker

The Future People;

American

Up From Slavery The Life that of

and Tuskegee

and Its 222 all Negro

Frederick it but thing cannot the

Douglass' be proved state of his

Frederick

Douglass. had read American an African in touch

Of course, these books, 223

Duse Mohamed Ali about the

knowledge And if

suggests

somedimension

systematic.

Blyden

added

and Islamic with the

to Duse Mohamed Eli's

reading,

he was also

writings

of some less
Froudacit_, phobe British West Indies abhored too).

famous wiest Indians.

first historian (a published J. A. it in

One of these

was J. J. Thomas'
blast to the in negrothe

224

1889 as a counter History of the

Froude's

En,Qlish

book which, But he also

has already the

been noted, writings with

muse Mohamed Ali

mentioned of

of a much more obscure personally

man, B. J.

Celestine-Edwards

Dominica,

whom he had been

222. 223.

T. P. 's

Magazine,

June

1911,

pp. 404-6.

The Souls of black Folk. Us had not at that time read Du Bois' Life", in The Comet, 9th October 1937, vide "Leaves From An Active This records John r,. Aiilholland Luse Mohamed Ali presenting p. 7. (which met Races Congress the book at the Universal with a copy of the month after in T. P. 's Magazine) his article and states appeared that he nad not previously read it. J. J. Thomas, Froudacity, Fables by James itnthony West Indian Froude Explained, let Unwin, London, 1889; 2nd ed., ed. T. Fisher by C. L. R. James and a biographical with introduction note by Donald Wood, New Beacon Books Ltd., London and Port of Spain, 1969.

224.

162.

acquainted, West Indian For all his

and who he describes Negro to make his

as "the mark in

most

progressive " 225 writers,

full-blooded

England. of

Duse Mohamed Ali's sounding

knowledge

black

and for in

all

revolutionary

pronouncements It should

and prophecies, that for

1911 his

position

was ambiguous. was published

be remembered publisher were read

In The Land Of the British market, men. 226

The Pharaohs and that This reader body first

by a British Magazine explicitly

The New Age and T. F. 's of writing was quite

by very the

few black British strictures

addressed-to to sweeten

and foremost.

Duse was careful

his

225.

From this June 1911, Fpp.405-6. T'. P. 's Magazine, it is clear that in his own right. Edwards was an interesting He is character to have been an Associate King's College, London (the said of that Luse himself college supposed to have attended); was wrongly to have made his mark as a lecturer, debater in Britain and orator Races and the on such topics as Christian and 'Native evidences Liquor Traffic'; Luz to have founded Christian magazines called Methodist of the African and ?raternitie and to have written a life Episcopal Church leader, Bishop Hawkins of Canada, From called (This would appear to be a very rare book Slaver to a Bishopric. to-day). in 1858 or 1859 of 'EthioLdwards was born in Dominica being a. slave born French official his father piad parentage, of his father havin_, died, Edwards At the age of twelve, some kind. to the ran away to sea, and ultimately owed his further education He offered himself patronage chaplain. of a Deep : yea Missions' to the Church Missionary Society but candidat as a missionary , to his chagrin "the Society could on the grounds that was rejected in the African fields, not accept coloured as men for service they were not quite for the work. " He returned what was required to the West Indies in 1894, and died there in bad health the same year. The New Ape was, apparently read by W.L. B. Du Bois, or at least fron time to time, came to his attention since in the issue for 15th June 1911, p. 165, there is an indignant letter from hirt by S. Verdad attacking a previously published racist article (J. M. Kennedy).

226.

163.

with

acknowledgements
that

of good British
in these

characteristics,
compliments. with the

and it

is not
his

evident

he was insincere to In

He concluded words;

introduction It

The Land Of The Pharaohs

is because I believe the people of Great Britain to be, not but possessed to of a genuine desire race, only a freedom loving that I am emboldened to see other nations as free as themselves, these pages. 227 pen

Likewise,

in his

final

chapter

he wrote;

long ere this have Doubtless those reading these pages will I am anti-English. impression that arrived at the wholly erroneous I regret it, inasmuch If I havr conveyed any such impression to appreciate too long among the English not to learn as I have lived But the unfortunate good qualities and their sense of justice. is, fact that the Englishman an individual at home is so different 228 from the i nglis1uan in the various colonies and dependencies ... He sounds were pr-at Above all, Oriental notes of regret for the passing of a former of of plea age in which there 229 and Empire a "V,uo

men, now supplanted it appears that that the

by the various

creatures threats

party black to

politics. revolution

awakening

he made were more a up to ideals of

the

British than article the

to mend its clarion Vadis" call

ways and live to the

'British Thus,

Justice' both the

oppressed final

to arise. passage of

and the

prophetic

In The Land Lf

Fharaoha

227. 228. 229.

In The Land Of The Pharaohs, ibid, p. 362.

;: -5-

Darwinist Karl Pearson Duse Fohamed All quoted the eminent Social that on the nature of the great and regrets men of the past, "There are no great men in these degenerate ibid, days"; p. 363.

164.
i

open

with

one

of

lluse

Mohamed

Ali's

favourite

quotations;

'There is nothing', 'like love and admiration says Matthew Arnold, for bringing people to a likeness with what they love and admire; but the Englishman these influences never seems to dream of employing He employs simply upon a race he wants to fuse with himself. interests for his work of fusion; material and beyond these but acorn and rebuke. Accordingly, there is no vital nothing between him and the races he has annexed. 230 union Though Duse was clearly subject of peoples "vital well aware that no "vital union" of the fritioh .

and their the which goodwill purpose, principle

was taking union" itself. for, 231

place,

he nowhere

had contradicted of the all of future, available

Rather

he warned "need revealing

England

should

prepare

in which

she would

the his

of other

peoples".

Yet more clearly

"Quo Vadis"

concludes;

Anglo-Saxons Why will this insane cultivate and irrational policy ideal? in the interests of unwarranted colour prejudice of a false Repression, kind, in has never yet been successful of whatever The duty of England is to treat her dark establishing prestige. that they are members races in such a manner as to let them feel by respecting, liberties, their of the Empire in fact; protecting them from aggression and abolishing a pernicious system of represThere is time. That time is Now. The writing is on sion. the wall. 232 An attack was, in on race effect, prejudice this for in the Empire to, for the good of the Empire

what

amounted the

and this of

was a message by no The only letter its

means too of protest

unpalatable at

readers

The New Age.

"4uo Vadis"

came from

an Afrikaner,

who found

some of

230. 231. 232.

ibid,

p. 362 and The New Age,

23rd

February

1911,

p. 387.

In The Land Of The Pharaohs, The New Age. 23rd February

p. 364. 1911, p. 390.

165.
233 to find the politics at

remarks

about

Boer women too such views,

much to stomach.

Holding of racial this time.

we need not having a great

be surprised appeal for that

conciliation Thus it in

Duse Mohamed Ali he should which have

was entirely the Universal University

appropriate

become involved to this Ethical of 29th July

Races Congress, of London. 234

met from

26th of Place circle

1911 at Dr.

the

The organiser the South that anti-

event,

Gustav as well

Spiller,

was an active

member of

Society

as a psychologist, that included

and so a member of such figures as the

secularist

progressives J. A. of of Lord

imperialists presidency sive the of list British York,

Hobson and J. M. Robertson. Weardale, the Universal

235

Meeting

under

the

Races Congress such worthies parties, of

had an impresheads of

vice-presidents, Liberal,

including

as the the

Conservative collection Governors, and of the of

and Labour Presidents

Archbishop Rulers, the Permanent With such

and a vast of State,

Parliaments,

Ministers Court of

Ambassadors

and Members of

Arbitration it is not

Second Hague Conference. that the Universal

236

patronage,

to

be wondered

Races Congress

233.

ibid, from S. Coetzee. This letter 2nd March 1911, p. 427, letter indignantly Duse Mohamed Ali's Boer women that rejects suggestion African sometimes behaved towards men on the model of Potiphar's it was Scotch (sic) instead that wife, asserting and Yorkshire women who did sn. Gustav to the London Porter, Spiller, bpiller, ed., Papers on Inter-Racial First Universal Races Congress. held July 26-29.1911, P. S. King and Son, Critics op. cit., of Einire, pp. xvii p. 158, Problers Corrunicated of at the University London, 1911. n. 3.

234.

235. 236.

n. 1 and p. 236,

and xx-xxvi.

166.
Likewise,

was not which strate

a revolutionary than

body.

the

executive

committee, to demon-

had no less widespread 237

52 members, from

was clearly

more designed than to provide into

support The General

men of note,

an efficient

executive. national attracted

Committee, times genuinely

sub-divided greater. significant leaders real

innumerable it including world,

contingents, support from

was several numerous of the delivered

Nevertheless, figures, of the black 238

a considerable and among the

number papers

most

important some of

were

distinction. by papers, Kojola Agb? bi,

How 1)use Mohamed All that of the Nigerian asserted

may have been affected church of leader

such as 239 who and

independent the validity of on the

trenchantly denounced He has left Congress. concert party

traditional Christians, delivered of at press

African

culture

buropeanisation no comnent His to role

African papers

we can only the Universal

speculate. Races a

was as an organiser the delegates,

publicity tasks

and of

entertain

which

he was requested

237. 238.

ibid,

p. xix.

Indian figures Among the eminent African, Afro-American and Afro-West Bishop Races Congress were E. -%. Blyden, the Universal supporting J. Tengo Jabavu James Johnson, W.E. B. Du Bois, J. Mensah Surbah, op. cit., xxxv, pp. xxiii, xxiv, and Dr. Mojola Agbebi; see Spiller, 336-41 and 341-48. the r. ost disAmong Indian supporters, xliv, (with hindsight) in M. K. Gandhi, then still tinguished resident was Johannesburg; those Amone the papers delivered, ibid, p. xxxvii. Problem" by Mojola Agbebi on "The 4eet African and *o.x. b. Du Bois on "The Negro Rzce in the United States of America" are of particular interest ibid, to students of Pan-Africanism; pp. 341-48 and 348-64. Du Bois' contribution the that unlike was adjudged of such distinction in Jpiller's book, it was published in full other papers published than as a more summary. rather see Agbebi, op. cit., passim.

239.

167.
to undertake Spiller by Spiller 240 It perhaps

himself. of

would it

be interesting wau through Disappointed Leonan British In

to

know how

had come to hear or his the

Duse; in of

The Land Of in his S. world, third a original

The Pharaohs design to

articles services

The New Are. the part figure with Sierra in

obtain

composer music of

Coleridge-Taylor, Duse eventually act of Ut ello, to

then

a celebrated the

the

presented with the himself

delegates in the title

a performance 241 from This the

the

role.

was perhaps that

corrective sweetness

prevailing in racial that

spirit

emanating

Congress, the corner.

and light

relations

was just

around

The only met at National Milholland. which by the Club the

personality

Duse Mohamed Ali was the of next white

has recorded American People, land at

as having patron of the

Universal

Races Congreso For the

Association 242

Advancement having sat

Colored to Yilho,

John L. the dinner

Ne recalls the Congress. crowd to

concluded

Milholland of diners, the chagrin to

and himself, a plan for

being

impressed

multi-national

hatched

an International by :ipiller a far-fetched the "ilholland T. extent (Do and

- which 243

was however, Apart from tour

of both, fuse States,

rejected

roearda1e. scheme for to which we are

sug esting of the

Mohamed Ali

a lecture In

United

and extolling there,

The Land Of The Pharaohs i by Lase)

had been read attack

told

made a characteristic

on Booker

6ashington.

240. 241. 242. 243.

"Leaves ib id . Meier,

From An Active

Life",

in

The Cornet,

2nd October

1937,

19. .

op. cit.,

pp. 181-2. an Active Life", in The Comet, 2nd October 1937,

"Waves from pp. 19-20.

168.

At

that

time,

the

two men's

opinions i

on that a copy of

subject Souls

coincided, of Black

and Folk,, which

Milholland he had not

even

presented read.

Ibise with 244

previously

The Universal had importance time being in in the

Races Congress, Duse Mohamed Ali's belief that

despite life.

its It

lack

of

solid

achievement, the man, the

confirmed

him for the black

something the dominant

could whites;

be done for and thus Pan-African

by reason, way for the the

directed launching

towards of his

prepared journalism,

greatest Review.

effort

in

African

Times and Orient

244. ibid.

CHAPTERIV

AND THE AFRICAN TIMES

ORIENT REVIEW

169.

DUS1. MOHAMED ALI

IN

1911

(FRONTISPIt: CE TO IN T Hi. ItAO1s) LAND OF THE 'HA,

170.

Nothing
his fore of aspirations

in bna Mohamed Ali's

than the African the his

life

better

illustrates
Review. in measuring the story

the scope of
It can the of there-

Times and Orient chief failures. yardsticks

be regarded his achievements

as One of and of

extent the

Because among its

African

Times and Orient T

Review, includes

dramatis

personae

such figures

as JE;,

Casely

Hayford,

Aggrey,

Marcus Garvey.

Kobina Sekyi, only a

Booker T. Washington, few) it is undoubtedly

W.E. B. Du Bois,, and John E. Bruce (to cite a major source for in its era. exploring currents of

Pan-African

and Par-Negro before

sentiments

But a word of caution should

is necessary for in its

proceeding.

Complete consistency and the historian picture

not be looked

pages, nor even expeoted, to aisoonstruot confused

must beware of the temptation out of what was in reality partly

an, over-orderly

and sometimes contradictory.

171. Is Origins and Organisation Time and Orient

The origins complex. Mohamed Ali, consciousness, launch this

of the African should

Review are themselves that Dune and race and able to kind can as
Old Planter. in its an

Thus, it

not be regarded journalist with

as mere accident a growing political

an experienced should ambitious

be present effort. (if

in London at that On the contrary,

juncture

a man of his

be regarded
typical

as a product
District British late

unlooked
the did not

for)
Indian

of the British
Army Colonel

Empire,
or the

as the the But

Officer, Empire nineteenth

Of course, bosom. increasing seeking within

intentionally twentietj

nourish centuries subjects

vipers

the

and early

brought of the

flow education

of African, for the

West Indian professions; which

and Indian or following

Empire,

commercial by the being

pursuits Money rather unique. cosimilar passing him for stay in Times In

the

Imperial markets.

economy,

was so dominated only in this in

London

and Produce than But

He was exceptional resident, rather though than even

a long

term

a transitory being resident of the - of London. on a wide

respect him for

he was not the role extent subjects of

a visitor were of

fitted

ordinator aspirations through advice Britain, and Orient fulfilling and private aware of

aspirations the various As we shall range of the

- which groups see,

to a considerable British persons

coloured

many such facing

turned

to their

problems most

them during aspects bureau of

and indeed Review this basis the wider

one of was its (which

the role

practical

the

African

as an advice

to such

people.

role for

he had probably previously)

been doing he also

on an individual became increasingly facing

many years

political,

social

and economic

difficulties

172.

people of African
consciousness

and Asian descent

across
and

the world
the road for

hence a heightened a common approach in

of common difficultids

surmounting
There

them.
can be no doubt that the Universal Races Congress was instru-

mental

in turning

his

thoughts

towards

the idea of a magazine, circulation, the "coloured that

London

based but Empire or even world the interests of and act

wide in its

which would guard races"1 wherever

as spokesman for projects

they might dwell. had considered which could this (but

Among other never acted

the Universal

Races Congress

on) wan the desirability harmony. 2

of a periodical between in the

serve

the cause of racial Times and Orient

The connection

and the African

Review was made explicit

1.

describes the new venture as ATOR. vol. I, no. 1, July 1912, p. iii, "devoted to the interests of the coloured races of the world. " 5 of the Executive Council of the Universal Races Congress, Resolution London, 26th-29th July 1911, quoted in ibid, p. 30, contained the "(2) following paragraphs as among the objects of the Congress; To encourage the publioation, in popular or other form, of sound investigations of the of the various civilisations and scientific through the medium of world, and to s read the same information (3) To secure reliable in from the parties the Press. reports difficulties conflict whenever inter-racial arise, with a view to instructing the public opinion of the world on the merits of a (9) To publish a 'Journal controversy. of Comparative particular for the discussion Civilisation' of burning social and economic of the different national questions of the day from the standpoints ideals, and values. " civilisations,

2.

173.

forward

to

the

review's

first

number=

The recent

Universal

Races Congress,

convened in the Metropolis

that there was ample the seat of the

of the Anglo-Saxon world, clearly Pan-African need for a Pan-Oriental 3 British Empire... Indeed, himself Universal should followed a couple had taken Laces be created, up, of months in later

demonstrated journal at

])us Mohamed Ali at preliminary that

was asserting meetings a "racial

that of the

he

a lead Congress

suggesting in that

delegates

London "...

unity"

paper been of

and complained would

had our long

suggestions the advent

a journal

have appeared

before

'The African a balanced,

Times and Orient fair

Review'. "4

u. felt affairs

that

a journal

taking in view

and calm view of racial and distortion that

was essential,

of the sensationalism matters. It is clear

of the British

Press over euch publicity accorded

the memory of the press

to Theodore Roosevelt cularly in his mind,

at the time for

of the Mansion House speech was partipress distortion with the follow-

he illustrated

ing words; whilst

"Fearlessness

in the cause of righteousness are permitted,

does not pay; of selfOffice. 5

ambulent

ex-Presidents

amid the plaudits of the British

conscious

journalists,

to shape the policy

Foreign

3. 4.

ATOR, July

1912, p. iii.

Whether lluwae Mohamed Ali's ibid. September 1912, p. 60. claims about Races Congress over the question of his initiative at the Universal a "race unity" paper be accepted or not, at least one participant in the Congress Welcomed the ATOR in 1912 as "a concrete result of Universal Races Congress". Cee letter from Professor the first Tokyo, Imperial University Tongo Takebe, Professor of Literature, A'^0 , July 1912, p. 15. ibid, September 1912, p. 80.

5.

174.
the Ac

such were

the

more general

stimuli

to

the

creation

of

T meesgnd Orient discussed

reviews

to which can perhaps be added his chapter, of the successful

experience,

in an earlier opinions

advocacy of unpopular But the specific and

and minority immediate equally

by 0rmge in The New Age. of the review

cause of the launching

was more mundane yet Leone businessman, of an African Creole

significant. Taylor, 6

He was approached who was considering Taylor,

by a Sierra

John Eldred monthly family,

the publication

periodical. both his father

who came from a highly

respectable

in the Sierra west African trading, his

having and grandfather 7 Leone Colony, was the inspiration projects

been Anglican

Clergymen

of a number of ambitious and produce production entrepeneurs to in

business

in the spheres of fishery the possibility contemporary convenient died there. of jute

as well

as investigating a Like other it

home country.

West African

of his generation, time,

he found

to visit 9

London from time

and indeed he ultimately

At the moment when he met

6. 7.

"Leaves",

in The Comet. 23rd October

1937, p.?.

father in Sierra Leone See the obituary of John Eldred Taylor's I am indebted to Mr. Christopher Weekly Newa, 13th February 1892. History in the University Fyfe, Reader in Aftican of Edinburgh, for this information, and for all other items on Taylor from the Sierra Leone Wee y News. These aspects of John Eldred Chapter VI of this thesis. Taylor died in December 1924; December, 1924. Taylor's career are discussed in

8.

9.

see Sierra

Leone Weekly News, 13th

175.
Duse Mohamed All, have been some time in

which

rust

in

1911,

probably

Autumn, against

10

he was in London not only

on business,

but also

to protest Ttmes_"11 T Taylor

some action like

of the Lagos Government against similar British West African West African

the Nigerian contemporaries, and imperial

Thus, again vas politically

other

conscious

in a wider

content.

The meeting with moment, though this it, written

John Eldred is not reflected

Taylor

must have been an exciting account quarrels extensive Taylor Orage. of more

in Dugs Mohamed Ali's and with subsequent "rather

many years after Re was received

the event, by Taylor and it

in mind. suite

in the latter's is likely that

of offices

in the City"12 of patron,

he hoped that

would play At that so that

the role

as George Bernard Shaw had done for position was abysmally with the stage,

juncture, despite all

his own financial previous

low - so much he was about

disillusionment

tour as a "very minor member" of George Dance's to embark on a provincial 13 If Taylor's theatrical apparent wealth company. raise hopes, they ,

10.

11 It is clear from Duns Mohamed Ali's that this meeting autobiography Races Congress, which had been held took place after the Uniyeragl it took place shortly J'urther, before he went on in July 1911. This tour tour with George Dance's company in the show Kismet. opened at the Theatre Royal, Portsmouth, on 30th October 1911= see Thus the meeting was within The Stage, 2nd November 1911, p. 8. the months of August to October 1911. Sierra Leong Weekly ilexes. 22nd April in The Comet, 23rd October 1911. 1937, p. 7.

11. 12. 13.

"Leaves",

What part he played he does not say - presumably it was a 'walk on' The show was set in Baghdad, and bad therefore a need for part. It seems very likely that Duse Mohamed Ali's exotic "extras". theatrical career had returned to the point it had been at in his For of his stage life. appearance in Claudian at the very start his engagement with George Dance, see "Leaves", in The Comet, 23rd October 1937, p. 7.

176.
were soon deflated. journal, What Taylor

envisaged

was a *est that

African

Trade what-

and Dua Mohamed Ali

had to confess

be knew "nothing

ever about Commerce and very

interest conditions theatrical could in be in Africa

little

about West Africa"

"dealing at large*. with 14 to social

and that

his only

a publication and the Orient

and political with an his

Furthermore, leave

obligations

to aeet,

Duce was about

London for

absence of four
Despite benefit from

or five

months.

15
Taylor apparently for wished suggestions to and

these

obstacles,

John Eldred advice.

Dune Mohamed Ali's

He pressed

Duae left his return

with

the impression

that

the matter To hie evident

would be taken further annoyance, on his

on

from the provinces.

return Taylor absence. since 16

to London, which was almost had made an unsuccessful It is not clear, however,

certainly

by April

1912, he found that out the project bad faith in his hero,

attempt that

at carrying there

wan any actual

14. 15.

"Leaves",

in The Comet. 23rd October

1937, p. 7.

by the fact that the last performance in This is tallied ibid. the George Dance Kismet tour of 1911-12 was at the Kennington Theatre, London S. E., on 28th April 1912. However, Duae Mohamed left the company a few weeks before that Ali had almost certainly time; on 4th April 1912 he wrote to Booker T. Washington at TusEldon Street, from 2&3 London C. C., on behalf keges Institute See BTW Papers, Library AM. of the forthcoming of Congress, This Eldon Street address is presumably that of 1912, box 465. John Eldred Taylor. For the dating of this evert see note 15 above. For Taylor's attempt to carry on in Duae's absence, see "Leaves", in The Comet. 23rd October 1937, p. 7.

16.

177.
there was clearly the at no formal original agreement proposal. the between Despite them, finding and Dune Mohamed Ali themselves about Review. separate in to an

had rejected extent the issue though task still of

cross-purposes, the African

two men now set

earnest Its first -

producing

Times and Orient their

can be clearly its contents

seen as an amalgam of predominantly reflected

interests

Duse Mohamed Ali's

interest

in "social yet there

and political was nevertheless was arranged Dus

conditions

in Africa

and the Orient

at large",

17

considerable by Taylor, busied

space given appears

to commercial. matters. was also to bear the Soorning the

The printing costa, while

who it himself

Mohamed All

editorially.

cover design the eminent Britain as well in his

which Taylor graphic artist

had obtained Walter

in his

absence#18 he commissioned of Art Nouveau in suitable

Crane, a leader

(and a eocialiat)19 as more artistic autobiography

to produce a more iconographically replacement. It is interesting 20

to note that but it would probably

Duse claimed

Crane as a friend,,

17. 18. 19.

ibid. ibid. Walter Crane was one of those British the socialists who had rejected 'socialist-imperialist' policy of the Fabian Society, adopted by that War. see Bernard Porter, body at the time of the South African Radical Attitudes Critics in to Colonialism of Ein ire. British 1895-1914, London 1968, p. 109. Although beat known as an Africa books, Crane was prepared to use his art illustrator of children's in the service of causes he approved; e. g. his book of cartoons, Cartoons for, The Cause 1886-1896, London 1896, produced for the InterWorkers and Trade Union Congress 1896. Socialist rational "Leaves", in The Corot, 23rd October 1937, p. 7.

20.

175.

cov:, 't DLSITIT OF

179.
be more accurate did not execute to this to it regard him as an acquaintance. grata, charging sum. ten At all guineas, for hand, events, which an artist the piece for the African of work, Crane Duse

commission regard

Mohamed Ali of Crane's

chose stature

as a nominal enough.

No doubt other

was modest cover of

On the

Times and Orient being a modified 21

Review version

design the

was hardly

an original

emblem Crane

had designed

Universal

Races Congress.

The Universal

Races Congress

not

only

helped

to

inspire

the

African

Tipas and Orient Mohamed Ali's him with with a list

Review,

but also work.

provided Dr. 5piller

a practical

framework

for

Duse

preparatory

was persuaded to provide and this lint was circularised and a were

of the Congress's of the first By this

membership,

the forward form.

number of the forthcoming means "some two hundred" would probably

review

subscription obtained part

subscriptions represent in July

in under two months22 - this list

a major 1912. let

of the subscription

on the eve of publication slender base for

This would have been a very alone one which (as will

#nX new publication, significance.

be seen) aimed to have a world

21.

cf. front cover of the ATOR, July 1912, with the device of the (ed. ) Universal Races Congress on the title G. Spiller page of Pavers on,.,Inter Racial Problems see Recor of the Proceedings of First _, Untyereal Races Congress held at the University the of London July 26-29,1911, pub. for the Executive Council by P. S. King & Son, Westminster, the U. R. C. 1911, p. 4" for Crane's part in designing emblem.

22.

"Leaves",

in Theme,

23rd October 1937, p. 7.

180.

Yet

on the

other in

hand it the

gave hir

an international

readership, leaders

including of it of was

(as was seen African worth

previous

chapter)

some men who were consciousness,

and Asian obtaining

race

or national

men whose ear prospect

and whose support device used for

held

out

a reasonable the attention

success. potential symposium, of this

Another

securing

of prominent for a

sym; athisers to

was canvassing in the first of can,

them with issue serious for of

two questions the review.

be published were a normal

Symposia in The New

kind at

feature

magazine

journalism in

Britain x. since 23

that

time

- examples

instance, with the

be found Universal

Here was a further those approached were

connection largely

Races Congress, in the Con-

men whose names figures

grass's free

membership lists.

24

It

was also, men.

of course,

a way of obtaining clearly reflect, on the role

contributions sense,

from eminent Universal

The questions

in a general

Races Congress type thinking harmony.

of the press in promoting was firmly on conciliation

racial

The emphasis of the questions rather than on

and mutual

understanding

23.

See The New Age, 12th January Symposia on current questions.

1911, p. 254, for

a list

of recent

24.

Crane; S. Coleridge-Taylor; W. T. C urtney; W. E. B. Du Bois; Walter Grierson; Dr. U. C. Haddon; Francis Sir Krishna Guuta.; Jean Finot; Jackson; Sir Oliver Holbrook Str H. H. Johnston; IngoJabavu; ILX Lodge; H. w. !Ma_ the Earl of Lytton; esineihm ; T. P. O'Connor; Dr. G A. R. Orage; Professor Sydney Olivier; W. 3. Scarborough; Professor Tonao Takebe; 5ojller; H. . Wells; the Countess of Warwick; Booker T. Washington.

The following July 1912, pp. 13-1O. is a list See TlOOR, of the with those who had been involved in the Universal contributors, Sir Charles B ce& Races Congress underlined: - Annie Besant;

181,

agitating
1)

for

fundamental

change;

2)

by coloured that a newspaper operated Are you of the opinion their opinions and reflecting people - Orient and African is likely to be appreciated their stating aims and desires, by the British public? to promote peace Do you think that such a paper is calculated Occident; between the governors between Orient and and goodwill a better races, producing of the opposite and the governed 25 than has hitherto obtained? understanding

But also,
on the general

the first
of of

of the symposium question

support the for the review fron

was a plea for

the British hopeful, composer

opinions
people. 26 s. The

likelihood consensus noted for

British but hoped to it

respondents that the

was not coloured

and Dus Coiridgecoloured

Mohamed Ali Taylor's people whites annoyed call

this, the

journal

be "heartily

supported

by the

themselves, as regard at the

so that circulation"

shall would from

be absolutely be heeded. the British 27

independent

of

the

He was particularly clergy. 28 On the other

lack

of

support

25. 26. 27. 28.

See ATOR, July See, for e. g.,

1912, p. 14. the reply of Sir H. H. Johnston, ATOR July 1912, p. 17.

ATOR, July

1912, pp. 16-17.

the Bishop of Winchester and have been, with two single exceptions Many of these delinquents. the Reverend F. 13. F9eyer - the greatest to answer, our letters, did not have the courtesy divines and the the oft but non-committal, dignified which clinches were remainder blow that the Churches are charge with a sledge-hammer repeated and by no means in sympathy with any human or humans reactionary they And when it is remembered with what glib avidity movement. 'brotherly love', 'the equality God', discourse of all men before upon for an avalanche the rest we were quite of eulogisof it, prepared and We were, however, tic not only doomed to disappointment, enconiuma. but fully of the Church and value as to the intrinsic enlightened " Chapel profession.

"those from whom we expected ibido p. 13, Du$e Mohamed Ali writes: the cost sympathy have either wrapped themselves in a mantle of silence feared to commit themselves to a public exposition of their views. or Churches and Chapels In this wine the dignitaries of the Christian

182. hand, A. R. Orage responded generously review would be "of considerable people, by stating

that

he thought that it is

the written their

interest maintains

on condition

exclusively real

by coloured without the genius

towards

a high standard,

reflects

sentiments

shame or fear,

and aims at illustrating There is no reflection

his rethods of writing

as much here
In-The

as expounding
of any animus

of your race. "29

for

Duse Mohamed All

Laird Of

The Pharaohs. These preparation having been made, Duse Mohamed Ali to Taylor, 30 This handed and, over the lot

subscription 1912 the

list Afrioun

and manuscript Times and Orient

contributions Review

on July not,

was born.

does

however,

complete it

the story nearly for

of its died

origins

for,

like birth.

many ill-nourished Taylor failed to

newborn infants, pay the printers'bill refused to print

shortly

after

the first

number, and consequently the debt was discharged. business operations. West African heavily 31

the printers Taylor

the second until extended in other

was then heavily with the affairs

He was busy fishery companies. in shady Bottomley, 32

of a series alleged that

of speculative Taylor

Dune Mohamed Ali share-pushing

wau also

involved Horatio

operations,

and even that

he had to bribe

editor and later notorious 33 Whatever the truth damaging revelations. the then powerful it seems only fair to Taylor to recall that

of John Bull,

to withhold

of these damaging allegations there was from the beginning

29.
30. 31. 32.

ibid,

p. 14.
in The Comet. 1937, 23rd r. 7companies are discussed in Chapter VI October 1937, p. 17.

"Leaves", ibid, 30th

October

John Eldrod Taylor's thesis. of this

various

33"

"Leaves",

in The Comet. 30th October

1937, p. 7.

183. a difference
a time of

in policy
financial

between himself
the

and lause MohamedAli,

Tos and Orient

and that
Reyjgw

at

difficulty

African

would

most likely at present

and it

have seemed a secondary available

bR unwise

commitment.

Furthermore, version
role in

the evidence

only
to

teils

Dune/ fohamed Ali's

Taylor's

of events,
the review on

would

damn John Eldred

this

basis. The African Times And Orient

for intervention

Review survived
of a group

this
of

natal

crisis
profes-

through

the

unlooked

went Afrioan

sional
continual

and businessmen
travelling of

then visiting
coloured

London -a
subjecta

further
to

example of the
London at that time. 34

Imperial

34.

'. 1. l3. Du Bois bad commented on the occasion to London of his visit the Universal Races Congress= in 1911 to attend "This Empire is a Kost of its subjects Empire. vast majority colored of its -a And more and more the streets people. of subjects - are colored fact. I seldom step into London are showing this its streets Last Indians, a Chinaman, a Japanese without meeting a half-dozen There must be thousands or a Malay, and here and there a Negro. in this the city. of people of color one senses continually ... See The Crisis, August 1911, p. 159. " darker world.

For the West Africans who came to the ATOR's rescue at this junctures see "Leaves", in The Covet, 30th October 1937, p. 70 and "'Oks mid-July 1917, p. 3; the names on the former list are the Hon. Casely Hayford, Frans Dove, Dr. 0. Sapara, C. W. Bette and Rotimi Alade= the 1917 list names Casely Hayford, E. J. Y. brown, Dr. Papafio, Dr. Capara, C. 4. Betts, W.F. Dove, Frans Dove, and "the late" C. G. Cole.

184.
kotimi in the Alade, Cold barrister, 35

a disbarred Coast

Lagoaian in

in

origin,

who practised as far

and who had been involved by the that defence

political of 'test

matters African probably

back in first Three

as 1896, review's week of of those

was so impressed first August involved Coast number 1912, in body,

interests in . highly the 36

the

he called

a meeting, prominent were flights now well

of a number of what the began there

West Africans that

members of protection enough

significant These were, historians

Gold

Aborigines -a figure

Society. known to

J. E. Casely of West Africa

iiayford to

need little

introduction

barrister -

35.

Rotimi Alade's Yoruba name supports Duce Mohamed Ali's statement that he was in origin a Lagosian - see "Leaves", in The Comet, He had been disbarred 30th October 1937, p. 7. on 12th November 1909 by the Bench of the Inner Temple, though at the same time with a recommendation that "the summing up of the learned Judge on which Mr. Rotimi Alade was convicted was unsatisfactory and that the order to any application Mr. Rotimi Alade should be without prejudice time to be reinstated. " Nevertheless, might make at any future for a free pardon in respect of his when in 1913 Alade petitioned in 1907, so that he might be reinstated in his profesconviction General, blocked his sion, W.R. Townsend, the Gold Coast Attorney appeal on the grounds that "in my opinion the fact that ! r. Alade has complied with the sentence of the Court is not sufficient ground in which trustworthiness him in a position is such for re-instating :gee Petition of Rotimi Alade for the Kjng'e necessity. " a vital to S. of S. Harcourt, Pardon, Governor Clifford 19th December 1913, ADM 1/536, despatch G. C. 927. Ghana National Archive, For hotimi Hi story Alade's early career in politics, see ll. Kimble, A Political Oxford 1963, p. 299, n. 1, which discloses Alade as joint ofd, (tee n. 39 below) by C.: japara Williams drafter with of a petition Asantahene Prempeh for the release of himself and his companions. "Leaves", in The Gosst, 30th October 1937, p. 7.

36.

185.

E. J. P. Brown and Dr. Gold further Coast Coast na tionality.

I3. k. 37

liuartey-Papafio, These men were against the

the in

first London

African in the

doctor course

of of

A. R. P. S. representations Forests Bi11,38 barrister which

the

highly

unpopular root of

1911 Gold

A. R. P. U. had opposed Dove., Dr. 0.3apara

and branch. C. W. Bett?,

The others

were

Frana

Lagos,

37.

West African yford must be one of the beat known of all figures despite the and intellectual of his generation, political lack of any monograph scholarly he is, however, well work on him; through the distinction of his writings, advertised which have into oblivion, never fallen and have in many cases been republished His most influential Gold times. in recent major works include Institutions, London 1903; Coast dative The ''1' th about the west , Land ueetion, London 1913. and his philosophical African work in the authentic the form of a novel, maintaining and distinctive in a crudely of his race to civilisation contribution spiritual Ethiopia Unbound : Studies in white dominated milieu, materialistic London 1911. Kimble, Race Emancipation, deals extensively op. cit., land career political with Casely Bayford's as a pillar of African light in the Gold Coast, the leading for many years of the rights (centred ;tights Protection Society Gold Coast Aborigines on his home town of Cape Coast Castle), and a leader of the National West Africa. For Hayford's Congress of British part in the NCBWA, West African MoveAspects also see J. A. Langley, of the Yap-African University Ph. D. thesis, Chapters of Edinburgh paentes 1900-1945, III, IV and VI. For L. J. P. Brown (who became a member of the Gold Coast Legislative Council) and Dr. tluartey-Papafio, graduate an Edinburgh Leone Weekly News, let January 1887 - see the numerous see Sierra in Kimble, op. cit. references

Casely

38.

Limble,

op. cit.,

pp. 368-70.

186.
and r. . hove, Freetown these Creole and C. G. Cole. African 39 political and

merchants

Clearly, economic Their

men represented in the three in itself, major

important British the

interests

West itfrioan of the

territories. new review. of the

concern of of Aorld

proclaims, this group

potential

The spirit creation First

can surely Congress of

be regarded :3ritich

as one forerunner following first moves

the Aar,

National

'Niest Africa the

the

and as such

predates

by two years

39.

For information on Frans and F. W. Dove, see K. A. B. Jones-4uartey, Role in the Development Leone studies, "5ierra Leone's of Ghana", sierra in 3, no. 10, pp. 77-81. Y. oi. (Fred. ) Dove was active n. s., vol. Freetown businessman. he had shown his and we a successful politics in pan-Africaniam interest as early as 1900, when he represented Conf-rence 'west Africa see at the 1900 London Pan-African Leone Weekly New. 25th August 1900. I am indebted to ! r. Christopher for History in the University Fyfe, Reader in African of i: ainburgh, His brother Frans Dove, is described by Jones-(uartey, this reference. op. cit., p. 78, as "one of Rest .. fr. ica's most brilliant and best known (who) became a fabulously lawyers for over half a century rich ... (and) in his next three brothers single-handed educatod man ... ... then his son and first two nephews for the bar. " the law and medicine, figure; he could , G. C. Cole is a more obscure ave been the G. Gladstone Leone Weekly News of 3rd December 1913 to the Sierra Cole who according 'Left by the late William Cole in Freetown; was claiming properties Cole, merchant, of 210 Lumley Street, or perhaps the George Georgius for 100 10/- shares in John Eldred Freetown, who had subscribed Leone seep :yea Fishing Company Ltd. in 1909 - gee ierra Taylor's . the latter BT 31/18354/99352/101 seems the more likely, perhaps, in Freetown venture as a can who had G50 to pledge in a speculative time was comparatively a man a man of wealth, at that and certainly businessC. W. Betts to take financial risks. willing was a kreetown Leone Cole, invested George Georgius had, like in the Sierra man who Company Ltd. in 1909, though to the much more cautious Deep Sea Fishing Dr. 0guntola tune of 10 10/- shares - see ibid. Sapara was a noted Creole descent; Lagos physician the Ron. his brother, of Freetown Sapara *illiams Christopher Alexander was one of Lugos' most eminent in the early years of this century see "The honourable citizens Sapara Williams, by Lloyd C. 4. G., 1855-1915", Christopher Alexander

C. Gwam, in NJ, erian Da : 1y Timen, 25th October 1964. This article -, contains information about the family background of the two brothers, that Dr. Oguntola ')apara was a graduate of both Edinburgh and discloses Glasgow Universities. and

187.
towards the body. 40

creation the African in the

of

that Tires

Ironically,

however, rescue group

of

the

four involved

members of in

and Orient-Review Congress of British

later only

some sense Hayford

National

''bleut '-fricag

Casely

and F. w. ;rove were became bitter

supporters, of

while their

F. J. P. brown friends

and Dr. and

auartey-Papafio

opponents

erstwhile

colleagues. In this
animus course, if

41 take-over of the ATOR, patriotism

of commercial gain. in

way mixed with

That this then is not to

personal
say, of

and perhaps that patriotic

hopoe

feeling were forces

was insincere the with o ly

case. it

Nevertheless, would have made on

West African

patriotism joined

cotive,

more sense

to have

John Eldred

aylor.

tiowever,

the contrary, on the group's John Udred

first

Rotimi

Alade sounded out Luse Mohamed All meeting

privately

behalf,

and at the ensuing

at Frans Dove's lodgings, with whom "... where

Taylor

was vilified with considerable

as a person

association

would be fraught Taylor's reputation

harm to the Review in Best Africa It part

was rather

unsavoury. "42

would perhaps be wisest from rivalry, though

to view such allegations

as stemmzag in large

40.

375, states "A conference Umble, op. cit., of the leading men from . West African the four British first colonies was probably suggested 1914. Casely ifayford talked the plan over with Dr. K. A. Savage during The Gold CoastLeader, of iligeria, who was then editing and they friend in Freetown, the to discuss asked F. d. Love, a barrister It will be noted that among people there. with influential tatter links these three men, all the several connecting were in some way Tines and Orient huview. Savage, who like connected with the African F. 4. Dove had been at the 1900 Ean-Africt. in London, is n Conference discussed in relation III to his connection of with the ATOR in part this chapter.

41. 42.

Kimble, "Leaves",

op. cit.,

pp-360 & 391. 1937, p. 7.

in The ComRt, 30th October

l8.
Taylor's business 43 Review if together

career fortunato Taylor,

certainly for the

had its African

ups and downs. Tires that

The outcome, not with for John Eldred and his

and Orient

was an agreement should form

Luse Viohamed ali liability Acting

Alade

associates with

a limited haute.

company a44 through U. C. been new

Matters Hoseop, engaged company, forty-eight

proceeded an inglish in business,

an almost with

indecent

solicitor Articles

whom Frans

Dove had previously were prepared

of Association review speed Ltd.,

and the in

African hours.

Times and Orient 45 No doubt of

was registered if Taylor

only

was essential the

was to be of registraissued Street, by which

outmanouevred. tion, 26th. which 46

On 23rd was completed

August

Mossop began of

proceoc

and a certificate an office next nine

incorporation at 158 Fleet

Meanwhile

L'uae had secured for the hand) the patent

wa. = to be his the office Crane

headquarters design (second at

years, With the

and cannily Dr. Kapara

registered he arranged bill, 47

cover

office. off

furniture

and paid

outstanding

printer's

43.

bee Chapter VI of this business career.

"Leaves", in The Comet,

thesis
30th

for

further

discussion

of J. E. Taylor's

44. 45.

October

1937,

p. 7.

declaraibid. The solicitor's in ATOIi Ltd. 's initial name is revealed See, tion of compliance with the requirementcs of the Companies Act. Mossop continued for Duae BT 31/20688/123943/1. to act as solicitor the collapse Mohamed Ali even after of A; OR Ltd.

46. 47.

See BT 31/20888/123943/1 "Leaves",

6. 1937, p. 7.

in The Comet, 30th October

189.
by mid-August.

with

the

result

that

the

second

issue

of

the

review

was out

Taylor

was enraged at these part

transactions,

48 life.

and at this

point

passed

out of any active one exception,

columns bered by, of his quite the in

in Dune Mohamed Ali's subsequently,

and Orient "I

His name was, with in the

rememin' was

to be discussed
African Time

never mentioned

Review.

Duce Mohamed Ali and been John Eldred extracted

the

harshest the

terms;

have encountered, fraternity, but have

'taken Taylor

a few of

unprincipled of manner that

so insinuatingly

oily

he could

a life

pension

from a prosecuting their

attorney.

"49

Yet even after A couple

they parted, of years later, own paper

in some respects Taylor set up his

careers

ran parallel.

own publishing ele.

company in London and put out his It may be significant Tieres and Orient that this

magazine, only

the African

appeared at 50 and it

times when the African eventually

Review was in

abeyance, losing action patrick,

ceased to exist libel

in December 1919 through The cause of this accusing responsible Captain for Fitz-

(as defendant)

a spectacular by Taylor

action.

was the publication a Northern Nigerian

of material of being

Resident,

degrading

48. 49. 50.

ibid. ibid. Telegraih was published from 14th November 1914 to 25th The African February 1915, and from December 1918 to December 1919; it was the African Co-operative Ltd.; Corporation by Taylor's published ATOR was published monthly from July 1912 to December 1913, weekly from 24th March 1914 to 19th August 1914, and monthly again from Its successor, the Africa an Orient January 1917 to October 1918. In the Cason Review, was published monthly January-December 1920. the main there were lacunae within of all three of these journals. runs of publication.

190.
punishments costs martyr of innocent African 0400, But it women. Taylor is Though naturally losing the case with and moment

and heavy in

damages of 51

became a hero to note that

West Africa.

interesting

this

of glory

came through

Taylor

repeating

what the African

Tines and Orient

Re-view had done back in July scandal attracted

Taylor,, it

1912, when that 52 It

paper had exposed a flogging that 53

surely

in Northern

Nigeria.

was precisely supplanters.

which had emotionally In fairness

go much of

the attention
tust

of Taylor's
that to

to
the

be conceded

him should

credit

for

this

earlier

exposure

too.

Eventually, for

Duse was to follow later he became involved ventures. 54

in Taylor's in grandiose,

footsteps

in more than one sense, but highly

over-ambitious,

significant

business

Before examining Times mod Orient as how groat its was its

the contents, ew, it

policies

and influence

of the Ac

would be instructive backing, run, what its

to answer such questions circulation himself was and who benefitted

financial In the short

agents were.

Dues Mohamed Ali

51.

The Fitzpatrick and with full AM, July

Case of November 1919 in diocueaed at greater documentation in Chapter V of this thesis.

length

52. 53.

1912, P. B.

In "Leaves", in The Comet. 30th October 1937, p. 7, Duse wrote; Number of the Review held a "These gentlemen on reading the first would be of meeting ... when it was decided that the publication because they were attracted by our benefit to West Africa grrat Government of the whipping of the two ixest African published report Taylor and Hall, at Zaria. " clerks, Chapter VI of this thesis is devoted to the study in London up to 1921, while Chapter VII discusses States between 1921 and 1931. of such ventures them in the United

54.

191.
largely a contract company), 0500 in from the creation himself August for of African Fred. Times and Orient Dove (acting receive Review Ltd. of the and the was him 56 By

between dated cash in

and

as trustee 500 in

21st return

1912, his

he was to

shares 0180 of

services. it is

He had received unlikely at that that the

cash by 13th ever paid,

)'ay 1913,55 this out

and though would

balance to give

even

have been enough

time

tem; orary though However, rather into efforts.

affluence. salary, soon his if the

In addition, any, African

he was manager, for these

editor services

and a director, is not known. cross

what very than

he received Tines Early in

and Orient 1914 the to support end of

Review

became his

Eldorado. 57

company collapsed the the magazine

and went own he

liquidation, 58 In

and he was left 1920, at

by his existence,

December

the

review's

55.

See BT. 31/20888/123943/11, contract of no. 1, for the contract 21st August 1912; For the payment of 180 to Duse, see payments dated account, in 81.31/20888/123943/13, of ATOR Ltd* on capital 28th Kay 1913. The Review's cover proclaimed "Dues Ilohamed'e" editorshipf director described in the prospectus of ATOR Ltd. an editor, manager - oeo BT. 31/20888/123943/11. general he is and

56.

57.

The order to have the company wound up was made by Mr. Justice Astbury in the King's Bench Division of the High Court of Justice on the 20th January 1914; use 13t"31/20888/123943 and J. 13/6470/ 224B51 No. 00403 of 1913. "Leaves", in The Comet, 1914, p. 337. 30th October 1937, p. 7, and TO , 30th June

58.

192.

lamented inception Witor

that

"The Review has always been costly,

and ever

since

its

in 1912 it

has been produced at a considerable born on behalf reasons

Ltd.

loss,

which the "59

has personally One of the basin

of the cause the Review represents. and shaky life

inadequate the firs; only picture, promised only nowhere t capital. (and only)

for

the short
very but

of African
Its notice had these These

Tines

and Orient nominal allotmentu,

Keview capital in

was its was 3,000,

authorised of share

May 1913, dissuises paid,

stated the were 1,164

that true

1,664

41 shares 500 of to

been alloted. shares, accounted

Even this as fully

since

those shares, is

by contract 425 fully the 58.

Mohamed Ali. 60 paid it is up. stated director, 62 Casely

On the Who these in Duseln 61

remaining

had been though only

shareholders autobiography Alade, Krona

were that

listed, company's

C. 4. Bette, acted all

other deputy,

Rotimi llaytord,

who on occasion Dove and Dr.

as C. W. Betts' took 63 shares,

3apara

as very Possibly

likely there

did

the other

members of the too.

take-over

(or rescue)

syndicate.

were others

59. 60.

AM,

December 1920. p. iv. T. 31/20888/123943/3 28th May 1913" of A! OR Ltd, l, 26th

Soo St e"t of ATOR Ltd.,, of NoMina1 Capital ea In-ATOR L, and Ngtige o Alloment of BT-31/208W/123943/13. See List of Persons Consentirpp to be Directors August 1912. i3T. 31/2Oa`-'x/123943/2" See BT. 31/20888/123943/13. "Leaves", in The Cornet. 30th October 1937, p. 7.

61.

62. 63.

193.
The review's "... It those added, of not at with our Accra special number for Christmas 1912 gave tribute nobly aided our "... of the of to "

and Freetown

who have to

efforts.

hope that best,

was to be largely that the other "

unfulfilled,, sections 64

as we have darker help races received

given will

we trust their

withhold the group of

immediate

support. with

The bulk had floated

came fron and their

who together persuading

himself friends in

the to

company, buy shares

hopes

their

West Africa

were apparently

unsuccessful.

65 collapse of African Times and Orient aspirations as a reflec-

To understand Review Ltd., and its tion it

the untimely

is necessary in its

to notice turn

the gap between its significance

means - which,

has a wider

of the gap between the aspirations West Africans at that time.

and the roans of politically It is thus significant that a

conscious largo part

of the company's

prospectus

and justification watering

of the review's of assets

was given over to a description 66 ideology, rather than to mouth profitability. (or likely In truth, profits) Fleet to tempt Street 67 were

descriptions

and likely

the company had little the prudent in fact investor

in the way of assets - even the offices

in prestigious

on the top floor

of a mean, narrow-fronted

building.

When

64. 65.

See "Proem",

ATOR, Christmas

1912 number, n. p.

from the "Leaves", in The Comet. 30th October 1937, p. 7. An article black American ChaxDion Magazine by William H. Ferris, in reprinted "wealthy West ATOR October 1917, p. 64, acknowledges that unspecified had provided the means for the creation Africans" of the review. Prospectus of ATOR Ltd., bT. 31/2006C/123943/11. in Fleet Street in ATOR, Ueptember office has since been demolished.

66. 67.

See photograph of the A_ 1913p p. 99. This building

194.
to 10 shares the been fully through up by inability the

offered the

the

public, 68

only

had already

paid its

promoters.

Eventually of 168.2.3.

company collapsed owing to

to discharge review's hopes first

a debt

Page and Thomas Ltd., between

printers. resources.

Here was a sad contrast After the in frequent

world-wide demand for

and pitiful

and unsuccessful and in the

payment hearing of the

Page and Thomas took obtained High toiled Court a judgement on 9th

company their

to court, from

an unopposed Bench Division paid; the

favour

King's

December

1912.69

The sum was not payment from

dispute

on via

a final

demand for

Page & Thomas's

solicitors, Review Ltd.

70

to a Companies Court order wound up. was appointed.

that

African

Times and Orient on 20th January effort had the was debt

be compulsorily receiver

Two days later 71

1914 an official

An ineffectual

been made by the company to pay its December 1912 judgement. raised from four

debts

to Page and Thomas after subscription this

In December 1913 the annual to six shillings,

and sixpence

no doubt with

68.
69.

This was only

with

marginally
of

more than the minimum needed to comply

the Companies Act.

the provisions

See BT. 31/20t388/123943/12.

ATOR Ltd, See judgement in favour of Page and Thomas Ltd* against bench Division 9th Decemby King's of High Court of Justice, given ber 1912, J. 20/1483/8334; also see Petition of Page and Thome Ltd. (6) and Companies Winding Up, clauses Justice, in the High Court of (7), J. 13/6470 No . 00403 of 1913.

70.

This was served on 30th October 1913; see Petition of Page and (7), J. 13/6470 No. 00403 of 1913. Thomas Ltd., clause See J. 13/6470 No. 00403 of 1913 for these proceedings.

71.

195.
in mind. 72 of On Ist share January it assigned 73 to its creditors who applied sums due in for shares

respect

subscriptions.

Had thoso

paid the whole sum properly sum of fifteen

able to meet its

due on application

and allotment

-a

combined

shillings
debts

per share - then the company would have been

and stave off collapse. But in fact only 0425.5.0.

was received

in respect

of 1,164 shares issued,

74

whereas L873 ought to

have been received. Although death

which

it

m. seem conclusive 3y Times and Orient

matter that until the

that

financial yet

weakness caused the there is other evidence

Duce Christmas

of African
takes

Review Ltd.,

the whole claimed

more mysterious. the time when the printer's

In his special bills

autobiography issue for

kohamed All

1912 was under paid. printer At that would

preparation, point, proceed,

monthly payment that

had been regularly demanded before the new the

advance "claiming

was,, he said, his partner

had imposed

rule

because there
75 Court

were so rany
is obvious of

outstanding
that this

accounts
does not the

which seemed uncolaccord review with the

lectable. Companies

Now it records

proceedings

against

company.

Nevertheless,

his explanation

of Page and Thomaa's alleged

unreasonable

72.
73.

A QR, December-January

1913, p. 187.
against ATOR Ltd., clause (e),

See Petition of Page and Thomas Ltd* J. 13/6470 No. 00403 of 1913.

74.

ATOIt Ltd. 's prospectus - BT. 31/20W0/123943/11 States that 10/for each x:l ordinary was payable on application and 5/- on allotment the notice of shares alloted share= of 28th May 1913 - BT. 31/20&3/ 123943/13 states that 425.5. had been paid in cash on the 1,164 -. Cl orde shares alloted. "Leaves"t in The Coret, 30th October 1937, p. 7.

75.

196.
is

oh$nge

of policy

of

the

highest

interost=

The sequel came a few days later. I chanced to null at the National Liberal Club where I encountered a friend a few who informed me that he overheard in the Club between a nights previously a conversation Soap-manufaoturer, in Niest Africa, well-known and who had connections The canufacturer had been opposed by ne because he had my printer. Protectorate in the centre secured a tract of Lend in a West African the right of a palm growing section of way used by which obstructed to reach the market. By this action the natives the traders and farmers to do a ten mile tramp around the concession were compelled before they could arrive at the market which meant delayed arrival it gras too late to secure adequate until palm payment for their The gentleman kernels. in question would only purchase at his

Their price which was very much below that obtained at the market. complaint was forwarded to me and I wrote in defence of the sufferers, a cartoon which they would understand and which was by no publishing hence his displeasure to the Soap-maker concerned. means flattering 76 to close down the Review through my printer. and his effort
There Lever, can be no doubt the giant of that the the "Soap-mi ker" wau none other industry, than iir . 'Ailliam

Liritish

soap and cargarine

whose firm

wa.. then engaged in a struggle products All in British 'eat

to obtain major concessions for oil 77 It is equally true that Duse Africa. ; iaee and Orient in every kteview to attack Sir

palm ohamed

had used the African nest African articles

William cartoons,

Lever's

projectu and letters

a lampoon,

way - through 78 from readers. allegations end Orient

editorials,

In fact, Lever to stifle

Dual Mohamed Ali'a the A?ric m Thee

of attempts

by Sir

William

Review go even further.

76.
77.

ibid,

p. 17.
Uni. l1PVer.. 2 vole., London 1954,

The HietoEy of iileon, See Charles vol. 1, pp. 163-5.180-3.

78.

Duae Mohamed Ali'a is fully discussed

campaign against Lever Brothers in part II of this chapter.

and its

background

197.
The review duplicates printer. by the that tion, 79 survived of his its December 1912 crisis, to Duse wrote, take because he had

manuscripts,

and was able we are told,

them to another Colonel tacit was sent

But subsequently, with

a retired on the

"Soap-maker" review

an offer its role

of 3,000

understanding opposi-

the

would

drop thual

of encouraging

West African

and was answered

I replied, 'I am afraid' to aid and he is desires devoid of strings; and be only produce I shall induce them to let your I am not I have stated,

If your principal am not for sale. to place his 3,000 at my disposal prepared for their price a fair will pay the natives to too pleased to use my poor influence But, as to have their produce. principal for sale. ' 'I

The Colonel thanked to for my candour and promised to convey I never beard to his principal. As I annticipated, decision my . any more about the remarkable offer... Is this to be regarded as a mere self--exonerating allegations? xas exactly Review Ltd. equal It myth, or could It there

be any substance coincidence capital assert Sir that

in these sensational the alleged bribe

is a curious

to the nominal would be unwise to

of African that

Times and Orient limes

the African Lever's

snd Orient Review teat African

would have been beneath to any scheme that time both vehement with J. Casely

William

notice. traditional

opposition was at that

seemed to threaten and effective Hayford,

land righto

- and wasp of course, rescuers

particularly

associated 81

and other

and backers

of the review.

Prominence was

79. 80. 81.

"Leaves", ibid,

in The Comet. 30th October

1937, p. 7.

p. 17. role in opposipp. 364-66 for Casely Hayford's 9 Legislation tradiwhich in his view threatened

See Kimblej, op. cit. tion to the Forest land rights. tional

198.
in the to Caeely Hayford's land

given

review

works

on native

rights

and

the threats
possibility with

to them.
that

Thus it

is

not possible

to dismiss
have

lightly

the

Duse Mohamed Ali offer to modify his

may, as he claimed, editorial to give policy. him control of

been approached thousand half from of his the

some cash would

Three of over pressure Likewise

pounds

have

been sufficient and thus make his

company's associates,

shares, as well

independent

as enabling question in

him to

meet debts. it may have to press

(though case that

more tenuously)

the

remains

that

been the

Page and Thomas were of money owed them.

some way persuaded it

for these

immediate questions

repayment remain

But,

must be emphasised,

questions. his readers

Wbat is clear to believe)

is that

Lmse Mobamed Ali

believed

(or wished Times and interests that

that

in some way the failure with machinations

of African

Orient that

Review Ltd* the review

was linked

by the commercial sense,

had attacked.

In a more general

he believed

"advertisers aiding Although ing large

were rather

shy of a venture races of the world, to say that yet it

which was primarily politically the review is did g to raise certainly , advertise advertising

aimed at " 82

the non-European it

and commercially. attracted true gQ advertisthat the pages.

would not be true British tropical

from large British

enterprises, produce

interests efforts

in its

A glimpse

of Dus Mohamed Ali's

revenue which the review's

can be seen in a letter solicited an advertisement

of October for

1912 to Booker T. %ashirgton and itemised

Tuskegee Institute

82.

"Leaves",

in The Co

t,

30th October

1937, p.?.

199.
advertising the review's advertisers, It is rates. 83 But no Tuskegee advertisement circulation was enough to deter factor. that the African Times and Orient ensued. Perhaps

limited

many potential

regardless a tribute

of any other to his tenacity of its

Review survived in various mittent, really

the collapse

publishing Its

company, and continued existence was, however, inter-

forms until proof that Its

December 1920. the financial first run,

difficulties as a monthly,

of the review from July

were never

solved.

1912 to December (Apart, readers 1913 of

1913 marks the era of African course, from the very first with

Times and Orient issue. )

Review Ltd. that period,

Even within

had to be content and February Ltd. After

bi-monthly

numbers for

December 1912 - January

March 1913 - the time of the breach with the collapse out again of the review

Page and Thomas brought

company, IUuse IIohamed Ali

the review conceived

as a weekly on 24th March 1914. spirited and inspiring

This weekly was history and comment by "... 84 which, hand, that black

as "...

a topical,

on the world's

passing

show... ";

while

more reflective in a quarterly

articles edition

the beet minds... however, survived

" were to be presented

never came to fruition. until August 19th 1914. for

The weekly edition, Evidently for

on the other

a time he accepted to his

the review

had then finished,

in June 1916 in a letter

83.

see fuse Turkegee Library page for monthei

158 Fleet street, London, to Booker T. Washington, Mohamed All, 23rd October 1912, Booker T. Washington Papers. Institute, The rates quoted were $30 per Congress, 1912. box 465. of $15 per page per insertion for twelve or one insertion, $60 per year. a quarter page was offered at

84.

ATOR 24th March 1914, p. 2.

200.

American Orient re-appear monthly. June

friend Review". from

John E. Bruce 85 Nevertheless, 1917 till this

he referred the

to

the

"late

African

Times and Review did

African

Times

and Orient time

January

October period review for

1918 - this there were

reverting for .arch 1920 under it the

to a to

However, The last 1920 (but

within run

no issues from January

1918.

of the

appeared October

to the

December slightly published

with title

no issues of Africa street, like back

and November) Review. number But under

changed at

and Ur ent and the in July after first

was still new title

158 Fleet

even had a symposium, issues of the review in

1912.

Although

no further DusO Mohamed Ali review

were produced mind until

December 1920,

may have bad it

as late

as 1926 that

some day the

might be started

up yet again.

86 after December 1913 is by no oceans clear. it to continue

How the review Duce himself

was financed

bought the goodwill

of the company to enable 1917-1920,

then resident

under the same name.

In the period
of Lagos,

one source of support

in London. It is

may have been T. A. Doherty

said

that

he helped

Buse in recurring staff

financial

difficulties,

giving But Chief

hin

money to pay the review'o

on several

occasions.

Doherty

85.

Duse Mohamed till to John E. Bruce, 5th June 1916, Bruce Papers* New York Public Library. Schomburg Collection,

1751,

136. Although he went to the United States at some time in the last 5 intention was to return to Britain, months of 1921, his original led to his remaining in the United and only unforeseen circumstances See Chapter VII of this thesis for discusStates for ten years. The A9 continued to be advertised sion of these circumstances. 1926. in the Newspaper-Press Directory till

201.
himself money in 87

denies

that

he put it

the

review*

No further company.

attempt Income

was made to from

support

by means of must

a limited have provided and Orient

liability

subscriptions for

and sales the post-war but

something. Review

The annual eight last It issue is

subscription shillings in

Africa was raised because

began at in its

and sixpence, 1920,

by two shillings of financial supported

December

presumably

difficulties. a money losing example) the title

hard entirely sole Africa,

to believe out of

that his

Due*' Mohamed Ali own pocket, as editor In though

magazine

he was (for in

named as the page of the on the

proprietor and Orient

as well Review.

and publisher fact, help

was received, in the first

though issue

often of

a random, weekly

providential Time

basis, and Orient ,,,

as was acimitted Review in June

African

1914;

There were times when we felt so we must give up the struggle, desperate so insistent were our creditors. was our position, believing Nevertheless, of our cause ... as we do in the justice

would raise friends and helpers through we knew that the All-Seeing from our difficulwe would be extricated assistance whose financial in this hope. We were rarely disappointed ties.

For example, the bankruptcy over the old proceedings after financial to most certain Company we gave our printers an undertaking The day arrived had when the second call calls over the 'Weekly'. had received The Editor to be met. of help that did not promises it was publication There The defy arrived; day. raterialiee. We went to the was no money in the bank and less in the office. The Editor bank through were usually sent. which remittances

87.

Alha1ji L. B. Agusto of Lagos, who lodged with Dune Mohamed Ali in London in 1920, stated in an interview in with the present writer Lagos in 1967 that T. A. Doherty had given Dues money to pay the ATOR's
Chief Doherty occasions. on the other hand, who staff on several in Lagos in 1967, denied any such benethe writer also interviewed is modesty o:. Chief Doherty's faction. Perhaps this behalf; on that as a student in the other band, he pointed out to the writer London at the time (1916-1920) he was in no rosition to Live finanFor Dues' Mohamed Ali's help to anybody. of the cial purchase Times and Orient of the company, see "The African 1teview goodwill (in liquidation)", 1914, p"56. Ltd. ATOR, 7th April

202.
could not face the printers by no means with excuses, and although he dreaded the admission a coward, that he could not keep an undertaking with one of the beet men who has ever been compelled to do business under modern conditions. The Editor walked the inhospitable streets of London in despair, not knowing where to turn for a friend. He returned to his office had returned at 6 o'clock when the staff to their homes. He opened the letter box and found two letters.

An unregistered for assistance who, unmindful

the non-arrival The two letters of his paper. were from the same The subscriber's country. The Editor feared was opened first. to open the letter it, of the Prince, as he regarded owing to its unregistered cover, to be yet another After of regret. mis4ve the subscriber's latter, reading the Prince's was opened, and a cheque for 155 fell A five upon the floor. to pound subscription the Anglo-Ottoman 6ooiety, and x:50 to help the work of the African Times and Orient keview. The tears to the of joy rose unbidden The help which the Editor eyes of the Editor. knew would come, he know not whence. On an earlier although friend ooctoion a white in California, who is by no means liberally endowed with this line world's goods, whilst in Arizona walking on a railway picked dollar He at once bought a money order and sent up a five piece. it to the Editor. On the day of its arrival the Editor was at his wits end as to how postage was to be obtained to send out the paper to the subscribers the money he had in hand being inand others, On this day the money order of the Californian sufficient. arrived Can there be any doubt that and the situation God takes was saved. care of his own? to pile up instances we could continue kind. The of this ... average businessman will say, it is not possible to conduct a newsOf course, paper without the average businessman capital. adequate be right, but you see this is not the average periodical. will We 88 are exceptional and as a consequence we adopt exceptional methods.

letter from an Griental Prince to whom he had applied some three months previous, the other from a subscriber difficulties, of the Editor's wrote to complain of

Nothing

could,

in all

probability,

give

a better

impression

of the day to Here

day running is displayed

of the African

Tisoea and Orient

Review than the above. alternating and a

the essence of its

hand to mouth existence, with up'. gross

between the need to butter Micawberish faith in

up the printer turning

flattery,

'something

On the one hand, moments

68.

ties "Our Second Year",

'Ott, 30th June 1914, pp. 337-8.

203.
of heartbreaking despair, and on the other of exhilaration when readers

responded generously,
In internal

which must have made the venture

the African

seen worthwhile.
Review was

organisution,

Timen and Orient

necessarily
editorial

modest.
staff in

In eptember 1913, there

addition to Dus himelf.

was one other

This

member of
Rosher,

wate Charles

an Englishman who gras the author affairs,

butor to

of a number of books on North African Races Congress,

89 . Kosher

a supporter
the review,

of the Universal
and an Islamophil

a regular
apart, the

contriother four

89,

Charles Kosher had been involved in the ATR from its early days, being named as the company secretary of ATUH Lta. in its prospectus by R. H. to the preface According see BT. 31/20883/123943/11. Cunningham Graham in Rosher's For John Pull book Light on the Moroccan Question London 1911, pp. 14-15, with a Note on Triaoli, he had served as Lngineer V. to Sultan Abd al-Aziz ulai of Morcccog, but his took nothing and not only "in a time of universal pillage in the place who did pay" but also "was one of those few Britons " them 'bloody of the Moors, call niggers'. not in speaking Clearly, this with Dias, was a man who could work sympathetically Mohamed Ali; loyal he was to be lluse'e comrade in the iurcophil For in Chapter V of this thesis. His Light novementu discussed John Bull but also to French Imperialism, was not only hostile ... (whom Luse too considered to the financiers, to be guilty of inspiring most of the aggression africun against and Asian countries) Hosher, Rosher who also the author op. cit., pp. 61 & 81. of an see The Red Oasis. A Record of the Hassacres pamrhlet, anti-Italian by the Italian Perpetrated in Tripoli This London 1912. Al=, disclosed friend that Ros}per W..a a personal Sioux of the eminent Indian Dr. Charles E. Eastman. In The Red Oes i, intellectual, iiuse Mohamed Ali would that with an approbation p. 32 Aosher quoted, Charles i.. Eastman's have shared, that in my rersonal "it verdict 35 years experience of it that there is no such experience after Civilization. " For mention thing as Ciristian of Roeher as a :; eptember 1913, staff, member of the ATOR's editorial see tim, For his contribution Races of a poem to the Universal p. 102. Congress, Univi-rea1 Races see Record, of the Proceedings of The First Congress, p. 6.

204.

mentioned Travelling Travelling General the

were all

coloured.

They were Africa; Arthur of

J. h., O. Fredericks, A. Andereon, John E.

described described as

an

rtepresentative, Agent, Agent for United the "90

:itaten

Americas

Bruce,

described "author about of

as

United It

litatea; is evident

und Henry from what

A. Downing,

current

serial.

has been said

the

review's
full time

finances

at this

time that
was, largely of

none of these four

course, a veteran

men can have boon

American - perhaps Negro one reason

employees. and race

Bruce patriot,

journalist

self-educated91

for

his

firm
of

friendship
lluse,

with

use.

But he was certainly

with at many other least

never a more
things besides four

protege his

and would It for is if

have been busy significant the African it also

General

agency.

that Tires

two of these Review

men were its ties Mates.

Anericansi to

and Orient

owed close

existence with the

West Africans,

had from, the conscious of

beginning of the

politically

and racially "staff" Negro

Negroes

United review

Clearly,

an American the

two could

not give But Bruce

the in

mass coverage,

even within

community.

particular

was clearly

a man of influence

and with

wide connections figure,

within

his great Heviex,

community.

Anderson was an obscurer respect for

but interesting

who developed

Dues Mohamed All

and the African

Times and Orient

90.
91.

ATOR, September 1913, p. 102.

lilson, C. Hill See Adelaide and Martin ca, eds. ADrQDos of hf Leaders on Africa Sentiments from the 1800a to American of Nero the 1950m London 1969, p. 126 for a brief c. v. of John E. Bruce.

205.

and later Negroes. for the 92

propagated But the Tines the the

a doctrine most eminent and Orient

of

racial of those

separateness from the

for

American who worked the future man. apparently

New *orld but

African Moses", for

Review

was no American, then capacity contrive

"Black

Jamaican review boy, in 93

Marcus a very though

Garvey, humble he did

an unknown young in to 1912-1913,

lie worked

as a mere messenger

have an atricle

published

in

the review's

October

1913 nunber.

94

It

would not seem

92.

For information A. Anderson, on Arthur see John H. Bracey Jr., Black NNationalisn hudwick, in America August Meier and f. lliott eds., New York, 1970, pp. 157,160 There was a prophetic ring and 177-87. 600,000,000 in 1913 he demanded indemnity about Anderson's writings in the United itatos for Negroes from the U. S. and a territory Government as an indemnity for black slavery and the Negro blood Presumably shed in building up the country see ibid, pp. 180-81. of . use Mohamed Ali he wrote "ke've a few smart men of other darker Much has already been published races in London that can help too. Times and Orient in the African Review of London to prove that among Negro American slaves Kings, rCyptian are descendants of African Potentates, Nubian nobility " exiles and slaves of Turkish aristocracy. See ibid, pp. 182-3. Black Moses. The :. See E. .. Cronon, itorv of Marcus G%rvey and the Un eaal Negro Improvement Assooiatio%, ftadison, 1955, Wisconsin, Garvey and Garverism, Jamaica, Amy Jaques Garvey, Kingston, p. 15; 1963. p. 9. and Dune Mohamed Ali's obituary of t;arcus Garvey in, Cor+et. 17th August 1940, p. 4. It is clear that the two man parted terms after this, first their on not very intimate of associaperiod The Coe tion. "Garvey was employed in the London obituary states Office for the greater part of a year, when this writer possessed .. * M, Garvey at close quarters. During of observing every opportunity r. this there was ample evidence to period, while of his determination there was no suggestion rise above his fellows, of his subsequently becoming a leader of his people. "

93.

94.

West Indies in the Mirror of Civili%ee A: arcus Garvey, "The British History Negroeo", in Africa, Taking by Colonial Tires and zation. Orient Review, October 1913, pp. 158-60.

206.
G&rvey's happy,

that

time

at

the

&'Ok was particularly .

since

au early

as

July
ing

1913 he was applying

to his native Jamaica,

to the Colonial
and eventually

Office
left

for
Britain

assistance
in

in return-

June 1914 with

help from the Aborigines

provided Coast, staff a long fron term

Protection
for resident the

Society.
review. in

95

hot only

the New World

of the the Gold

overseas African

W.F. Hutchison contributor to

London,

review

from its
acted

earliest

years,

and in 1917-18 its

deputy originated in the in editor fror Gold the in

official

war correspondent,
January to that man

as Duse Mohamed Ali's 1920. of early Sir Hutchison nationalism Garnet

the period town of

December seedbed served

the Coast.

Cape Coact,

He had as a young Ashanti dar; and in

under

tdolseley

second

1Lu6 with -.

John 5arbah and F. C. Grant he was appointed

extraordinary

member

95.

Protection Society (hence, Aborigines See . (. to Anti-Slavery and APS) 30th May 1914, which advises the APB that Garvey had applied to the C. O. on 8th July 1913, and had been refused, for assistance but told that if he first entered a workhouse he might obtain free See APS Papers, Rhodes house, Oxford, MSS Brit. Emp. repatriation.

Natives". On 28th ! ay 1914 the APB informed 22 G. 127 "Distressed . to them on the advice the C. O. that Garvey had applied of the Labour Gn 9th June 1914, the M. P. John Burns for assistance see ibid. the suggestion AP5 wrote the C. O. that Garvey had rejected of to raise and was attempting money for his entering a workhouse, appeal - to which the AP:, asked the C. O. to passage by private On 19th June 1914 the APS wrote the C. O. bee ibid. subscribe. Britain Wednesday, and on 18th August that Garvey had left previous "the Society 1914 wrote to H. J. Read at the C. (, that among raised to pay sufficient members of the Committee and one or two friends I am indebted See ibid. to Mr. Heil this passage back. " man's University Parsons, of Zambia, for of the Department of history, this information.

207.

of the Gold Coast Legislative It was certainly the United

Council.

96 hope to distribute end be tried who as will the review

Dues Mohamed Ali's States, and to this

throughout enlist later,

in Pay 1912 to be demonstrated

the help of Booker T. Washington, he had a great admiration for.

Booker T. Washington was asked American agents for distribution friends and and

to contribute correspondents, presumably associates. it 97

to the symposium, to help in finding and was also was hoped for But there offered distribution is no evidence free copies to his

influential if

of what,

any, action

the great

96.

W.F. and i* dutQhison Kimble, lists in his index, op. cit., separately them as separate that and treats remarking persons, *. r. Hutchison to the Gold Coast in 1919 after returned an absence of over 20 years, (see W. Hutchison's on the Legislative career p. 546) while mentioning (see Council But a letter from Dune elsewhere pp. 417, n. 6 & 456). London W., Mohamed Ali to Capt. The Hon. Aubrey Herbert, 28 Bruton St., 14th September 1917 states that he was "a British of w. F. Hutchison subject of the Gold Coast Colony, who ins been a member of the Legislative Council from of the Colony, a commission and received See Sir Garnet woleely, 'max. " under who he served in the Ashanti Dusk Mohamed Ali's F. G. 395/130/186216/58. with relationship is discussed in Chapter V of this The same Aubrey Herbert thesis. letter had been chosen as a suitable that Hutchison person to states the A TOR as its reporter represent on the Western Front; also see Jsimes Baird, F. C., to Lt. Col. ltaynond Greene, "J. 0., 18th : ieptember 1917, F. O. 395/130/186216/58, forwarding a copy of the above letter Also see ATOR, Ootober 1917, p. 75, from Dusk to Aubrey Herbert. had asked pezmission that the review to send W.F. which states Hutchison to the front The War Office as its war correspondent. did not accede to these requests; discussed this matter is further Nevertheless, ilutchison in part II of this chapter. a contributed on the war to the review, series of articles which were announced in For the information ATOR, December 1918, p. 108. about W.F. Hutchison' January-December 1920, editorship of the AOR in the period assistant

I an indebted to Mr. Wendell L. Wray, Acting Curator (at time of New correspondence in September 1965) of the :achomburg Collection, York Public Library.
Duce Mohamed to Booker T. Washington, Library box 465. of Congress, let May 1912, BT4 Papers,

97.

208.

man took later asking in

in

response

to

these

requests, iiayford

the

symposium to paper

apart. T.

Four

months

August

1912 Casely if

was writing show the of good. "98 it

Booker to

washington, as he here the is of

that

he should, that it will

interested,

friends, "us" regard

was "sure the highest

do us a lot

The word would be to Tines

interest,

and shows how unwise supporters contrary, of the they

West Review that

Africa

and Negro

American

African

and Orient at

as separate time with

groups.

On the

were men who already to be able Pan-African T.

had similar each other. `.here is

enough

interests

and problems fabric October increase advice Booker ian-African of

to identify feeling being

Here we see the evidence that in

woven. advised in the

1912 Booker the review's

r+aEhington circulation

Luse Mohamed Ali United 99 -tatea,

on how to but what is

that that

coi isiated T. washix project

of ton

is

not

known. as inception. in 100

tlowever, patron This recent

what emerges and adviser to

clearly this

acted its

avowedly that dismissive

fron

supports yearn

the of

rejection old,

has been urged attitude to

by certain Booker T.

scholars Washington*

the

98.

J. t,. Casely Washington,

hayfort, 4estminster Palace 7th August 1912, ibid.

Hotel,

London,

to

booker

T.

99.

Luse Mohamed Ali begins; "Permit

I note what you say in regard " in the United :itates. 100.

to Booker T. a'achin, ton, 23rd October 1912, ibid, me to thank you for your letter of the 11th inst.
to increasing circulation of the Review

The Arer can 8ackrmound of the Fhelta-wtg wee for e. g. K. J. king, ea Commissjons influences in Education in Frist afric4, and Their l, srecially in Kenya, Ph. D. thesis, university of rdini rgh, Yay 1968, "Booker T. %ashington pp. 21-2,27-30,370; and Louis T. Harlan, and Van's Burden", the ihite American Historical Review. LXXVI, 2, January 1966, pp. 441-67.

209.
The overseas a more organised Agencies course, didtribution basis than in of the kfric}, the n ''i^+es and urient favour of influential these review men. were, of had

canvassing every

were established commercial the It

continent.

1-tany of such of

booksellers review in

and newsagents the major that in cities

as Gordon Australia would the

and Gotch, and New

who distributed 101 -ealand. more than have

cannot

be supposed or that of

such a firm that part of

have

provided would the real

a passive

outlet, a handful

world

there of

been more than overseas in the

readers. that

But an examination of

review's significance Thus, if

agents their

reveals

a number or

them were men of the wider world.

local agents

communities

even in in

overseas to

and distributors Rev. very 3. i3. b. Kttoh

March

1914 are

surveyed, Vold in the

102

among them are Coast. Cold

be found, was then original

Ahuma at of

Cape Coast, life the Gold

Cape Coast Coasit, being itights well and

much u centre

political of

the

home and leading Society. Attoh the

centre

Coast of

Aborigines

Protection placed Orient to

Ahumb wire,

as Secretary of the

the A. tt. %. S., r. frican . 'irre

spread in

message and influence he had, since

view

Cape Coast. most racially

the conscious

eighteen-nineties, figures in the

been one of Gold Coast. 103

the

and politically

In south Africa, Fruncia laccheus

a far

more obscure

but most interesting as the review's

figure, Capetown

Santiago

Peregrino

was acting

101. 102. 103.

ATOi, ibid, z(imble,

uctober 24th

1912,

p. ii. p. 19. & 519-20.

March

1914,

op. cit.,

pp-371-2

210.

distributor. he had lived by his emigrate death in in

Born in both

Accra

of Afro-Brazilian and the Gold Coast,

and Ga parentage

in

1851,

Britain in the

and had been inspired in London till to his African contemHe was acquainted of the South tfricw-

participation to South

1900 Pan-African being

Conference in called

Africa, In

thence

domiciled

Capetown the

1919.

Capetown

he ran

a magazine

South

Spectator porary with African contacts Barotseland. doubt the with such

and created the better

a Coloured

peoples

Vigilance

Association,

known African figures and Dr. Southern small the the

Peoples as Rev.

Organisation. W. Rubusana of the

prominent

political

National ranged

Congress into the

A. Abdurahman ". friean interior in

A. P. O., North

and his as no on

as far

An active of

businessman Times races"

Capetown,

he would

have approved need for

African "darker

and Orient to run

Review's their

stress

members of 104 but

own business Peregrino honorary is members

enterprisea. speculative, of the Negro

how Duse Mohamed Atli one common link for Historical in September

came to know of both men were 105

was that

. ociety later, agents. with

Research. 1917,

A few years these States, the is overseas together Times

one finds

J. E. K. Aggrey for the accord but

among United with it pers-

He acted J. L. Bruce.

as Joint

General-Agent

How much Aggrey radicalism there is is

was in not

African perhaps

and Orient to

Review's that

clear,

legitimate

speculate

here

a different

104.

I am greatly indebted to my friend Mr. ;. Neil Parsons, History in the University information of Zambia, for this figure. obscure but fascinating See list in Hill for Historical of members of the Negro Society Apropos of Africa. and Kilson, pp. 176-77.

Lecturer about

in an

105.

Research,

211.
figure from the its ciruce. the review American 107

pective pages is yet of

of

Aggrey

from

the

accommodationist 106 the

who (-merges with

mith's r.. W. :.,

biography. of for

k,ggrey's close

connection

another

i1lustratiun supportern,

relationship of his

between J..,.

and }re=it African It my

he was an intimate for

be prf sutaed that as the

lsruce

was responsible individuals

A'TTOtt agency. as engaged

As well

significant

who one can cite

in the overseas
extent position of its in

distribution
outlets.

of the review,
If

it

is impressive
takes review Coast the

to note the
of the

ovt reea8 March

one again that the

example

1914,108

one findF

had more distributors lad an additional two outlets but There

in West itfrica
outlet in also to Cape

than anywhere else.

Coast at in $eooondee. Calabar,

The Gold Nigeria Baro,

had not Zungero

only

Lagos,

and others

Onitsha,

and Ibadan, in Ibadan.

had an African

Times and Orient in States pity, Freetown

Review

Committee

were also West Africa, to J. t. each in

two distributors the in United

and one in

! Ionrovia. - in

Outuide addition and one

had the there

most diet*ibutora were two in

Bruce Guthrie,

New York Oklahoma;

1'itteburgh

Wilmington, agencies Calcutta;

North were in Lahore;

Carolina; Alexandria Colombo

and Loa Angeles, (two); (two)= Cairo; Kingston,

California. Tokyo (two);

Other Kuala

overseas Lumpur;

106.

for the ATOP in the U. S. A., Dee joint For Aggrey's genera] Agency 1918. issues to October ATW, 3eptember 1917, p. 159, and following biography For the standard Ar'rP of Aggrey, of see L. W. : With, London, 1929. Afric&,

107. Hill 108. a

and Kilaon,

op. oit.,

pp. 126-7.

_OR,

March 24th 1914, p. 19.

212.

Jamaica; and Anoon, outlets took

Georgetown,

British lone,

Guiana; as well Additionally,

Paramaibo, as the

Dutch

Guiana;

Toronto;

Panama Canal mentioned. the review pattern

Australian

and Stew ealand steamship there review in 109 agencies, overall the lines wau some was pub1912

already copies in For in of

twenty-three R%, turally, that the

for over

their the

saloons. eight years

variation lished. being claimed is borne

this

example,

we find Memphis,

the American and Wilberforce of places columns. far

distributors University. from its

October

Louisville, readers out in

The review and this pattern review's

a wide

range

by its

correspondence satte. It

110

But the then, that

remained overseas literate the main

much the readership English overseas United

can be concluded, over the

was scattered speaking readership itfricane

world, were

wherever to

sufficient but that

and Asians

be found, in

was presumably

to be found

sest Africa

and the

-taten. question Review's to answer was. is what There there the size of the African

A more difficult Timen and Orient figures original review extant. subscription announced

readership

ap. ear is

to be no reliable that the

As has already list

been shown,

evidence

was a few hundred. pledges something; that like

In :3eptember warrant 5,000 us in ...

1912 the expecting We mean to

"We have received list of

an immediate

subscription

109. ibid.
110.

October

1912, p. ii.

See the regular feature 1"fhe Arena", ITCH correspondence which The impact appeared from July 1912, p. 19. of the review on ite III is discussed in part readers of this chapter.

213.

have no fewer than 259000 annual

doubtful higher British Orient if would even the have lower of

subscribers.
figures a notable the impact

"

ill

Yet it

is probably
while the

these

was ever

reached,

made the

review

phenomenum in of the

contemporary Times it this the it and

journalism. Review it must,

In assessing therefore, but

African that

be well on the other

understood hand,

was never condition review with its to John the had

a mass circulation was no doubt the character

organ; by its

though yet also

imposed of

financial magazine. was far

weakness, If

a "quality" it the were the in

one compared to

British Bye. face Since reached often of it

contemporaries, Furthermore, the globe

more akin of distributing

The New AKe than the magazine

problems

over

surely era of

an inhibiting air-mail

factor

in circulation by the time its its

growth. issues

pro-dated subscribers

editions, India

West Africa, stale

or California,

news must its most

have

been hopelessly articles channels.

- particularly from

as so many of by the to

important consuming part of in the

had been gathered At various circulation. to

such places

same timeplay their copy in

times, In

readers

were urged a free the

boosting review

September in

1912, of

post-paid who sent

was offered

anyone

any part

world

an order,

with

cash# for it

twelve

annual

subscribers.

112

This had little

enough success wilder

would seem, at least for

in terms of Ruse Mohamed Ali's he admitted that while new ...

aspirations,

a few months later "we are still

subscribers

were coming in,

a long way from the 25,000

111. AQR, 112. ibid.

September 1912, p. 101.

214.
we mean to and Orient frivolous the concept At another essay reason failed have 113 .. Other stunts tried. The Africa a merely

circulation

were

Review exercise

launched as it

a beauty

competition; to coloured "black

not,

however,

was open only by the Times destiny added

women and extolled is beautiful"* proffered there 114 a prize

expressed time, the

to-day African

phrase

and Orient theme. 115

Review Yet to to

competition to to believe add the

on a race that flood these of

is every message less

inducements needed

the

review's

new readers

make its

existence

intermittent

and its

ultimate

end more distant.

It

remains

to consider part

how contributions

to the review

were organised.

A very substantial himself, resources Orient as might

of the review

was written

by Duee Mohamed Ali limited and

be expected

in the case of a magazine with With the exception

is money and staff.

of the Africa

Review 1920, whose editorials apparently wrote all

were shared with

W.F. Hutchison,

Duse Mohamed Ali often

as much as three

or four

the editorial which were articles, 116 This was by no means the pages long.

113. ibid.

December-January

1913, p. 197.

AORO!'.ay 1920, p. iii. 115. ATOtr August 1912, p. 62. feature appeared under 116. From July 1912 to August 1914, the editorial To-day and To-}orrow". To illustrate the heading "Teeterday, with for the issue of February-March example, the editorial a particular in Bornu 1913. pp"233-5, discussed corporal punishment of Africans in Northern Rhodesia= and a recent penal proclamation and Zaria; Land question. In the period January 1917 - October the West African 1918, the editorial was simply headed "To-day", while the AOR editorials were all placed at the end of the magazine under the heading "The
Final Word".

215.
limit of his contributions. His reminiscences of the important people

he had met from time to time have already chapters. from January reviews 5tallite", political by Dues. items, These appeared in the Africa

been referred and Client

to in earlier issue

Review in every

to December 1920.

He contributed

many book and theatre The Savage and written

some of the latter but clearly verses 118 issuing

appearing from his

under the pseudonym pen. 117

Other articles were also

appearing

under

the pseudonym "Delta"

Appearing

under his of short

auch as a couple

own name can be found miscellaneous 119 storiea, comments on other editorial

She reasons for supposing 117. See for e. g. AOR,January 1920, pp. 12-14. theatre reviews were written by Duse are partly that these stylistic, but also because it is hardly to be supposed that any other regular to the magazine had his theatre experience. contributor 11k. For an e. g. of "Delta's" versifying, nee "Poor Pompey's Plea to Caesar", ATOR, July 1912, p. 25" The subject of this, the first of between the Egyptian "Delta's" was the relationship contributions, Britain topic that it is safe to assume that nation and Imperial -a This issue. Duce would reserve for himself in the magazine's first by the nature of some is given further circumstantial confirmation t'uoeun "British e. g. the article of "Delta's" prose contributions, Types" in ATOR, Christmas 1912, pp. 39-40, which contained a humorous Museum to be aeon in the British description characters of eccentric Library, which Dues Iohamed Ali had used two years before while But the Dusian provenance working on his In The Land Of The Pharaohs. is made certain by references in two of them of the "Delta" articles In AIIOR 11th August 1914, p. 468 "Delta" to events in his own life. refers to having, with other Egyptians in London, unsuccessfully for military Even more conclusive is "Delta's" service. volunteered "Rotten Row Conversations. White Womenand Coloured Men", article the circumstances ATOR September 19179 pp"63-5, which relates of his his article on the same topic for The New Ase in 1909. writing 119. See "Katebet the Priestess" pp-3-7 & 94-99. and "Abdul" in ATOR, Christmas 1912,

216.
artiolee, 120 open letters to various Abroad" worthies, 121 and a couple of articles in 1920.122

under the heading

"The Editor

on his visit

to west Africa Dusian writing

Such is the cannon of more or less

review. him. the of There are, however, other

undisputable
items in the that

in the
as by under critical are flavour From

tust

be suspected earlier issues

Numbers of articles pseudonym the British the "Sothis", than

appeared usually

review's

taking

a line

more unequivocally in which these articles

editorials. expressed one to infer

The style in them,

written, of the to

sentiments lead

and the

ancient author. prominent reasonable by the an article closely

Egyptian 123

pseudonym time, people least

that

he was their about is

time

unsigned appeared some of the oase,

biographical in the

articles review, have and it

or worthy to editor. was, speculate This as was 124 associated.

coloured that is at

these

would the

been, written of such

particularly the

case

where

subject

sometimes

a man with

whom he was currently

"The Future 120. e. g. Duos Mohamed Ali's remarks on Kobina Sekyi's article of the Subject Peoples", Part I, ,%L0R, October 1917, p. 78. 121. e. g. the open letter to Colonial Secretary Harcourt in ATOR, July 1912, p.

122. A2_R9September 1920, PP. 13-5 & December 1920, pp. 35-6. 123. For an example of "Sothis'" writing, From the African Standpoint". Ate, see "An Outlook on the World April 1913, pp"304-6.

124. e. g. the biographical on James Carmichael Smith -a West article Indian, former Postmaster General at Freetown, Tierra Leone, and author of a number of books on economics - in ATOR, July 1912, p. 26. Smith was a frequent contributor to the review, and was then living in Britain. in retirement

217.
Finally, he may well have been the of the

compiler

review's

city

column,

published mercial limited,

under the title

"In

Fly Lord rayor'e were at Eirat,

Domain". on his

Though his comown confession, 125 by

conThis

knowledge and interests yet

commerco soon became one of his major concerns* the large

it

Despite
the editor,

volume of material

in the review
It only is

contributed
likely that sum.

was by no means a one man band. normally paid, or were paid in

tributors

were not

a nominal

can be illustrated

by an anecdote

]aus Mohamed Ali'e

autobiography

about contributions sympathiser with

fron

the notable Alice

scholar

of African

languages,

and

Fun-Africanien,

Werner;

lady It was about the year 1913, summer time, when this rather stout Street Office I would like to and asked whether my Fleet entered I requested the lady to about the Swahili. a few stories publish bulky parcel let me read them and she deposited on my desk. a fairly

In due course the manuscript was read and I wrote asking her to 'hell, her eyes twinkling She dashed in breezily, and bright: call. what do you think of it? ' well, that I would gladly publish the stories I answered to the effect a financial shook by demanding more provided she did not administer than I could pay.
'is that all? 'Oh, ' the laughed, You'll experience no shocks I wrote the stuff in a moment of leisure from me. and as the I thought to a people in whom I'm interested, relate you stories to have them for your review. ' might like

I thanked her for her kindness and was entertained and informed for some two hours with her graphic stories of the natives she had encountered... Meanwhile she was busy at the University of London where she But whenever ehe passed through Fleet Street she became a Professor. (sic) word and an engaging with a cherry at my office alwayslsglled smile.

125. Duos Mohamed Ali's discussed in part 126. See the editorial July 1935, p. 8.

developing interest in commerce from July II of this chapter and in Chapter VI. feature "About it and About"

1912 is

in The Comet, 20th

218.
fiere we see the being by necessity, in The Hem. for a serious objectives, but

review

run

on principles

dictated

possibly But fee.

suggested the

by A. R. Orage's anyway,

"No wage" methods can have

few of

contributors, they

been looking with the

In most cases have

were people too glad

who agreed the

review's to

and would what

been only their

to have

opportunity

publicise

were also

own causes.

In this with with articles

category

would come euch contributors topics; 127

as J. E. Casely iiayford, 4thwaja Kamal-ud-Din

on Gold Coact land tenure and polemical politics; 128

Muslim apologetics of Gadia on Indian

Sundara Raja and Shaikh M. H. T. Gumede and R. Y. Selope

on the Gold Coast",

Kidwai

129

Josiah

127.

"The e. g. J. E. Casely Hayford, Oi, August 1912, pp. 58-9.

Land

4usation

128.

Khwaja Kamal-ud-yin was an Indian missionary of the : +hmadiyya movement who came to London in 19139 and became the Imam of Woking Mosque and keview. The influence of the Islamic editor and impact of the ATOR on in part III his work in London are discussed of this chapter, while important Luse Mohamed Ali's wider connections with him are discussed For examples of his contributions thesis. in Chapter V of this to

TOR, see "Cross Versus crescent", the A, yam, December-January 1913, "Jesus, an Ideal of Godhead and Humanity, ibid, pp. 197-8; pp. 217-22. 129. For examples of Sundara Raja's contributions to the ATTOR, which were Part I, AR September 1912, very numerous, see "The Faure of Persia", 102-4, Part II AMR November 1912, pp. 121-2; "India and Tarriff pp. "The Failure heform", ATQR December-January 1913, pp. 108-9; of ibid, in India", Liberalism "India's Political Demands", pp. 211-2; "Tre Indian Press and the Lien gTOR February-March 1912, pp. 265-7i ATOR June 1913, pp. 393-4; Behind It", "Politics and Public Life in India", The writer ATOR, May 19139 pp. 343-5. regrets that he has his authorbeen unable to find anything out about 3undara Raja beyond Indian Nationalist which reveal lein as a militant ship of these artiole, though not a supporter to the British in the of violent opposition manner of the contemporary terrorists. Shaikh Kidwai,. as one of the close associates of Duse Mohamed All. in his political in the era 1912-1921, and religious activities is discussed in Chapter V of this thesis. For examples of his articles, see "Is India Unfit for Self-Government or is England? ", Part I, A0 July 1917, pp-31-2; Part II, ATOR November 1917, pp. 96-8= "Home Rule for India", January 1920, pp. 19-20; A`, showing a and an article denouncing moderate leaders in the Indian marked Pan-Asian spirit and National Congress, "Indias The Fivot of the Last", OR, February 1920, pp"12-0.

219.
Thera various on African topics; in South 130 A. Ferris 132

grievances 131 Booker

Africa;

William

on and

T. Washington

on 'J'uakegee Institute;

various

exiled

members of the Egyptian

National

Party

on Egyptian

politics*133

130.

Cumede, "Britain's See for e. g. Josiah word of Honour to king Cetshwayo "British Rule in 1920, pp. 13-14; AOR, January and the Zulu Nation", 1920 p. 17; February 1920, pp. 19 & 21-2 and April South Africa", , Unrest in South Africa", AOR, May 1920, H. V. Selope Thema, "Native Native Policy", AOK December 1920, and "The South African pp. 12-14, Josiah T. Gumede, otherwise known as James T. Gumede, pp. 47-9. in the nineteen-twenties as the President was to have a stormy career National Congress; he became a supporter of Communism, of the African to the Union, delegate the Soviet and was a South African visited League Against Imperialism in 1927 - see Eddie Moscow controlled 1964v Oisconain, Roux, Time Longer than Rate, 2nd ed., Madison, Oxford istorv 211-2. and Monica Wilson and Leonard Thompson, eds., pp. Oxford 1971, p. 448. Rowever, at the time vol. II, of South Af'rica, National when he was in London in 1920 as a member of an African he was, according to Roux, an example of the Congress delegation, aelope leader "good boy" type of African see op. cit., p. 211. Thema had played a radical part in the AVC anti-pass campaign of 1919, 'moderate' African twenties but by the late was to be a tractable For the role of the two men in leader; p. 297. see Roux, op. cit., then to London at the time the ANC delegation which had brought

to the i0`:, c we K. J. and R. E. Simons. they were contributing Penguin Books, 1969, pp. 217-8. Colour in South Africa, and 131. for e. g. see William H. Ferris, TOR, 14th April the A. T. O. R. ", 132. Booker T. Washington, pp. 48-54.
133.

Class

"A Colored American's 1914, pp. 77-8. ADA,

Estimate

of

"Tuakegee Institute",

August 1912,

Party, leader in exile National of the Egyptian mad Farid, e. g. Conody in Egypt" and on "The Parliamentary articles contributed in A 1914, pp. 129-30 and in Egypt" 28th April F, ducation "Public For an examination A 0R 5th May 1914, pp. 161-2. of the relations between Dues Mohamed Ali and Muha mad iarid, see Chapter V of this thesis.

220.
On the hand, who had some years general 'Bruce with the the reviel,

other

there

was a smaller with the review. from

group

of contributors over the

more regular published

connection numerous

Thus, its United his

contributions published

States

agent, Grit'. review, Kosher, articles topics time 134

John S. Bruce, Marcus but this Garvey

sometimes contributed

under

pseudonym his time 135 staff,

one article

during

was a piece mentioned and book

of considerable the

significance. review's

Charles contributed hfrican

already cartoons in the

as a member of reviews 1914, in mainly but

on Near Eastern had faded 1. F. out of

and North the picture

the years review

1912 to re-appeared

by the

1917.136 to

Hutchison's

articles

were a apart,

feature

from

1912 right

through

1920 - he was,

!)use Mohamed Ali

134.

Bruce not only contributed but also was responsible for articles ff. Perris to the review drawing the attention of William see Ferris' Like Luse Mohamed Ali, in n. 131 above. he received cited article New Haven, in Ferris' book The African Arad, 2 vole, mention glowing II, Conn., 1913, vol. pp. 860-66, which is a valuable source on For examples of his writings life. in the ATOR, see John Bruce's "In a Lighter Vein", ATOR, March 1917, pp. 60-i; Edward Bruce-Grit, (i. e. J. M. Bruce) "The Attitude Negro Bruce Grit of the American and 1917, p. 85. Towards the War", ATOR, October

135. Marcus Garvey, "The British Making by Colonial history 136. Lee for e. g., his cartoon

West Indies in the Mirror of Civilization; Negroes", ATOR, October 1913, pp. 158-60. against Lever Brothers
his article in Britain,

concession

in Nigeria,

ATLOR, February-N. arch 1913 9 p. 256; Balkan states supporters and their ibid, Unlimited", pp. 268-9.

the Christian against (1912-1913) "Crusaders

221.
the journalist. 137 il. who in 1913

review's

most

regular

henry

Downing,

was in some sense regarded

Liberia most former in frequent the pro-Great contributors

no a member of the staff,

War period. 138 In the

contributed

on
one of the

same period,

was James G. Smith, in the Sierra

a West Indian and the

in

origin, of was

Postmaster-General books in

Leone colony, senior success

author ;oith on have

numerous presumably economics probably basis. earlier review's

on economics. receipt

As a retired and his

official, as a writer Thus,

of a pension, brought in

presumably been in

further

income. articles

he would

a position his he could Even in

to provide work appeared

on a more or less in the

voluntary

Nevertheless, years staff. that

so regularly in from

review's of the

perhaps the later

be seen period

some sense

as part

1917 onwards

he made

137.

His first AA OR article "Fr. was an attack on E. L. Morel, entitled in West Africa", E. D. florel 1912, ATOR October ueetion and the Land Other examples of his ATOR contributions pp. 143-4. are "Empire A Review of the Proposals Development of Empire Plunder? of the Committee", Part I, ATOl June 1917, Empire Resources Development July 1917, pp-5-8; Part II ibid. "West Africa Twenty pp. 114-6; 1920, pp. 16-17; Years Ago", A Olt, January West and "The British (i. e. National Conference Conference" African West Africa), of British June 1920, pp. 44-6. &

138. See Henry F. Downing, pp. 298-300.

"The Troubles

of Liberia",

ATOR April

1913.

222.
fron time x 39

contributions

to

time.

o far,
were time broadly to time

all

the contributors
to were The chief in 1917 by the the review's the

mentioned
review's which of

were people whose articles

position. contrary articles to are the But, from

conformable articles

editorial ran such

published examples Gold then

review's of which of

declared three acidly

policy.

a series bekyi, salvation

articles criticised

Coast policy

intellectual, of preaching

Kobina the

the world's

coloured

peoples

via

racially

directed

commercial

effort.

140

139.

See biographical article ATOR July 1912, p. 26 for on James C. Smith. details of his careers as a colonial postal official and as an author. iiis contributions to the ATR began August 1912, pp. 55-6, with the first of a series of four articles Marriage Customs"; on "West African in November 1912, pp. 168-171, began a second series of Smith articles, the economic role examining of the African, past and present, entitled 'wealth "The African In the Christmas of Nations'". 1912 issue, pp. 8-15, he had a long article Goodwill", on "Inter-Imperial and continued to be a very regular through the next year or no. contributor Suffice here two of his more interesting to mention "Peace, efforts, Home Rule", War - Or African Ot December-January 1913, pp. 214-5, for Sierra Leone, and a which demanded internal self-government biographical "Edward Blyden", eulogistic article, Blyden's portraying career of Negro racial in AT 1, Februaryas an illustration capacity, ! larch 1913, pp. 250-52. An example of his kost 1917 contributions

for the Africans", to the review is "Africa ATOR September 1911, pp. 33-4, which castigates contemporary British socialist plans for a International European controlled Commission to rule post-kar Africa. C talogue_of Printed Books, vol. 224, lists 1he 11 works on by Smith, . in Britain economics between 1892 and 1918. all published

140. See Kobina ekyi, "The Future of the bubjeet Peoples", Part I, ATOP, ", October 1917, p. 73; Part IT, November 1917, p. 94; Part III, December Sekyi was one of the cost interesting 1917, pp. 109-10" figures in the Gold Coast in his day; see Langley, West African Aspects of the Pan-African :oye ente, pp. 135-42,189, & 241-2; also see Samuel Rohdie "The Gold Coast Aborigine Abroad", Journal of African History VIA 3,1965, pp"389-411, which discusses Kobina $ekyi in Britain in the early 1930s.

223.
At an earlier (later :labour) date, in 1912, the review published material by the Liberal

politician, of

and industrialist, lands

Josiah

wedgewood, to the people

advocating of went

Crown ownership Africa. which, and the resisting was, to This as might Gold any

'4est African

as beneficial to the review's in

was directly be expected, Aborigines

contrary

editorial of Casely

policy Hayford issue in

was corpletely ztights with

support Society

Coast

Protection

on this tenure.

interference contemporaries, of the Britain's Colonial

traditional a British coloured

African politician subjects in

land

hedgewood sympathetic was to be the African land But also

among his interests harassing and Orient

comparatively and at this time to

the

found Times tenure,

Secretary Thus, despite

a manner agreeable hic views

Review.

on crest African enemy.

he was certainly

not

regarded

as an out

and out

it

is clear

that

as editor magazine.

ihue Mohamed Ali

realised

that

total

conformity have learned was an even

would make a dull from Orage. greater

This too is a lesson

he may well there

Naturally,

in the review's than in its

correspondence feature articles,

diversity

of views

some of them

224. 141 that were published

with material of

critical

of editorial As well

positions.

as the letters
the review

and articles
was also

under their
a more

authors'

names,

supplied

confidential
material

nature
by the

from West Africa.

Journalist Chief

From Lagoeg it
o. i. Titcombe,

was supplied
142 though no

with

veteran

articles

ever appeared under his

name.

Likewise,

it

reoeivea

confidential

141.

Clement kodgawood, `*..:. for Josiah let Baron iaedgewood, was Liberal 1919, and Labour member for the from 1906 till %ewcaatle-under-Lyme from than till 1941, being a leading of the Labour member same seat life The major object Party in the 1920a. of much of his political Independence, from the AT QA on the differing so although was Indian lands stuestion, there is no doubt that he was in general 'west African to the causes that of British politicians among the more sympathetic in. However, the ATOR was merely a small the ATOR was interested his autobioin his life, incident warranting no mention in either London, 1940, nor in the biography Lifo, Memoire of a Fighting graphy, London, 1951. C. Y. Ledgewood, The Last, of the Radical-, by hie daughter Secretary For an example of his hostile of Colonial questioning eat Harcourt, on the important see his questions and contentious 1912, XLI, Coinage issue on 22nd July 1912 - see Hansard, African For Josiah wedgewood'o defence of the case for Crown ownerp. 795. Lands and Crown Colonies", landau, see "Native of nest African ship This was an issue which particularly ATOA October 1912, pp. 128-31. Nigerian Lands Committee he sat on the Northern Wedgewood; interested Lands Committee 1912-16 the Commons in 1908, and the 4eat african of *edgewood'e Critics of Ymrire, p. 272, who describes see B. Porter, as "a curious and amalgam of Moralism policy on these committees he had been recruited L. Morel into by Earlier, Henry George". . ibid, the Congo Reform Association pp. 269-71. 1938, p. 5, notes in an editorial Titcombe's 26th February Comet. The Daily Tires and from the editorial chair of the Nigerian retirement Titcombe 'r. with ? reaches back to 1912 when adds "our own connexion Nigerian Times and to The African he became a regular correspondent Nev ew ... he served his journalistic Orient with which we believe " apprenticeship.

142.

225.
information basis Colonial were for leaking although rumour), founded. Nigeria which in and on this to the channels suspected events, brio very for well

from Northern

the

pre-Grat damaging

ar period, and embarrassing .xactly what

made allegations Office such of and the information

were both

Nigerian is not

Government. clear, but the

the

Colonial 143

Office At all (the

information review's information In view of

by African telegraphic on its eat

telegraph address African

clerks.

the its

was 'Congosah' matters

was usually this is hardly

ixest

African was not

backers, only

surprising.

West African channels, that not of only but also

information from the

obtained West African

through Press,

confidential particularly Indeed, were the of and was American L. the used,

contemporary but also of

Cape Coast heat

and Lagos, but also

Accra

and Freetown. in general Indeed, the

African

contemporary to called British, is the

journals races".

to collate review World", United hardly ? tegro Bruco, columns,

information

relevant feature on the It review

"dark-or Darker

r#. n ia regular drawing States an issue Prass. with with widely

"The

Races in Colonial,

Press

Indian,

Dominion that there from such

144 press. of With numerous support the

particularly did in not the

noticeable carry United

that agent

something :itateu to its

the

a general black from

as John

iurerican Booker

contributors T. Washington

correspondence and con-

and admiration

143.

The ATOR's relations III of this chapter.

with

the

Colonial

Office

are

discussed

in

pert

144.

Lee for e. g. "The Darker Races in November 1912, pp. 163-71.

the

Press

of

the

World".

AJOH

226.
tributions the review from turned the black

nu^erous to the

other

Americans, press for

it

was only information.

natural 145

that In

American culled

Negro from

general,

use of

material from

contemporaries

should, that

however, the

be regarded coloured light major in

as stemming

two causes. reported and that

One was a feeling in a distorted it was one of shortage reporters

peoples the white to

were generally owned press, this.

and unfavourable the of review's cash made it subscribe

tasks

combat

More prosaically staff other of

impossible to the press

to maintain agencies;

an extensive items from

or to

journals

were cheap.

145.

The AOR, January 1920, Lad in its "From the Press of the world" items from the Ne Worl ; the Liberator section, p. 22-3 & 26-7, (New York); (Chicago r'aa Favourite the New York kmoterdarl ; News; Advocate. This is a fair and the Cleveland example of the to which Luse Mohamed Ali drew on items from the black extent

American press.

227. II
The African a dichotomy rights,

s Policies.
Times

Camvaigas and,,,Causes _
Review from its first issue, of African to the British displayed and Asian Empire and as being of the

and Urient

between

vigorous, expression in him in and at the the

even militant of sentiments

advocacy loyal

and fervent Evidently,

and Crown. those entirely realised this

period review could the

1912-1920, did not

Duse Mohamed Ali see the world

who supported polarised, within the view The very symbolic figures sits of sit of in

quite their

times of world design

envisage British

aspirations Both review while unity, globe, the aspects from it yet

framework of the

Empire. in this, hands of the for in

ambivalent

were present expresses clasping the foot

beginning. figures these which hands

cover Africa

has also of

and Asia at

supplication winged

the

on top

an angelic the in the

European beneath. comment,

figure,

clasping

outstretched feeling in the was first

two supplicants the editorial

However, "A word to

a contrary our Brother",

expressed issue of

review;

Ra for YOU of the Black race, the Brown race and the Yellow race, The more humble you are, the more this is YOUR VERY OWN JOURNAL. need you have of us and the more readily shall we extend our sympathy and advice.

GENIUS IN EMBRYO Oe want to hear from you, the young and budding Sun Yet Jens (sic), the Mustapha Kamils, the Blydens, the Conrad Douglasses and Paul Laurence Dunbara. Reeveses, the embryo Frederick If you have anything to say for the good of your race, let us hear it.
YOUR PROPER PRIDE - Remember, you eons of 1. of India gypt, and China, in the four quarters of the Americas, you Indians and you Africans Remember that the eyes of the world are upon you of the earth. You will be discouraged in your forward ever. march, but your destiny is writ large upon the scroll of opportunity. ...

228.

YOUR PLACE IN THE SUN - Your day is coming. Your place in the Sun has been and will As darkness come again. overtook you for a Europe. The future the space, it must also overtake of Africa, future in the Chanceries of India, will not be decided of Europe, but upon the hills See that of India and the plains of Africa. firmly in your loins are well-girded and that you have your staff hand when you take your place in the Sun. 146 your Here is asserted the unity of the non-European world, pride in the great

men of its destiny.

But it and Orient

pact and present,

and confidence

in its

mastery

over its

own

is

in

Duse Mohamed Ali's that we see both

forward visions

to

the

first

African

Timen

Review

displayed

together;

The AFIIC Z TIAWS AND ORIENT REVIEW, in stepping into the arena of to itself Anglo Saxon literature and politics, arrogates no pretendoes it gird itself sions of superiority, neither with weapons of offence. Universal The recent Races Congress, convened in the ketropolis demonstrated that there was an world, clearly of the Anglo-saxon Pan-African journal ample need for a Pan-Oriental at the peat of Empire which would lay the aims, desires, the British and intentions Brown and Yellow races - within the of the Black, and without h. of Caesar. mpire - at the throne is an extensive Press devoted For whereas there Anglo-Saxon it is obvious to the interests that this of the Anglo-iaxon, vehicle of thought and information may only be used in a limited and restricted Hence, the of African sense in the ventilation and Oriental aims. is rarely truth African and Oriental conditions stated with about in the columns of the iuropean Press. As and accuracy precision the mind of and inaccurate of garbled result statements a natural is inflamed; Public desires the British native are manufactured The voices into of millions native presumption. of Britain's dark races are never heard; their enlightened capacity underrated; by reason of systematic is fermented discontent injustice and misrepresentation.

146.

ATOR, July

1912,

p. 2.

229.

From this is bred 'the germ of injustice and misrepresentation 'the native bloodshed agitator', rising', and with its attendant Lynchings, burninga, subsequent repression. murders and unprovoked ostracism, assault, segregation, of impolitic and a whole catalogue legislation Oriental bereaves the which alienates and African; Anglo-: ason name of its traditional impartiality; an establishing heaping Anglo-Saxon unnecessary resentment against rule and tutelage, indiscriminate odium upon the English-speaking race. These evils by what Mathew Arnold terms can be avoided sagely 'Love and admiration for bringing which they people to a likeness in place of acorn and rebuke. For the Black man, love and admire' the Brown man, and the Yellow man all have religions, traditions which they love and admire, and what not, and for which they expect love and admiration. love and admiration is calAnd this a little to enhance, Anglo-Saxon influence than undermine, culated rather inculcating for British instituand prestige, a wholesome respect Love begets love and confidence is born of admiration. tions. that the lack of understanding of the African and ne feel Oriental has produced has and non-appreciation non-appreciation, (sic) the hydro-headed contempt and unleashed monster of derision, We, as natives subjects of the British repression. and loyal hold too high an opinion Empire, to believe of Anglo-: jaxon chivalry other than that African and Oriental wrongs have but to be made Laudable in order that they may be righted. ambitions manifest to be appreciated, have but to be voiced and that touch of nature into operawhich makes the whole world kin has only to be brought brotherhood between the tion to establish a bond of universal Yellow, brown and Black under the protecting folds White, of the Citizen immeasurably Grand Old Flag, make the name of British which will than the name of icing: greater The man, therefore, who would be well informed as to native be well advised to study the will and development, aims, capacity be will pages of the AFRICAN TIC .S AND ORIENT R"VIEW, for heroin found the views of the coloured African man, whether or Oriental. to the Golden Horn, from the Ganges to Prom the pillars of Hercules from the Bile to the Patomac (sic), the Euphrates, and from the 'nest, North or South, wherever to the Amazon - East, the blissippi from thence Oriental habitation or African may found a congregated for it is our intention to produce spring, shall our information in the annals the most unique and formative publication of British 14 publishing. Thus, British from its inception, Janus like, the African Times and Orient different heview looked on the

Empire,

from

two very

aspects.

The fruits

147.

ibid,

p. iii.

230. of the Empire were found bitter, British people was believed here too, is

but,

nevertheless,

the heart

of the

to be sound. from these initial

Other seeming contradictions editorial comments. On century

can be itemised

the one hand there 'third larly world' calls

the remarkable

anticipation

of mid-twentieth

type concepts

"Pan-Oriental -

Pan-African" 148

- which particuhand, it

to mind the Bandung Conference.

On the other

echoes Universal so very different other

Races Congress type Pan-Mankindism, from the Imperial 149 Unity Due type oratory

and in tone is not of Leo Amery and brotherhood folds Imperial of

Round Table spokesmen. Yellow,

eulogises

"universal

between the White, the Grand Old Flag". citizenship over their

Brown and Black under the protecting aim of non-racial assertions of African British

How was this with

to be reconciled own destiny?

and Asian control

There can be no doubt that serious for this one for the African

the cause of Imperial

citizenship

was a

Times and Orient

Review and not a more douoeur of a return In its to Christmas

British

readers.

Numerous instances

can be given

theme, spread over the years

between 1912 and 1920.

148. For the main points of the 1955 Bandung Declaration, see Colin Legum, A Short Political Guide, rev. ed., New York 1965, Pan-Africanism. p. 156. 149. For the outlook and organisation of the Round Table Movement, see Conferences and I}nterial cap. VII of J. E. 8endle, The_ lonial London 1967, and cap. 1887-1911. A Study in Imteria1 Oraanisatpn, Proconsul In Political VII of A. M. Gollin, A Study of Lord Milner in Power, London 1964. in ODrition= For a particular example to the Imperial of Amery's use of language not dissimilar sentiments Life, vol. I, England Before of the ATOR, see L. Amery, My Political London 1953, p"350, which quotes from an address of his theme, to the Royal Commonwealth Institute in 1910.

231.
1912 number, entitled Imperial African Duse Mohamed All a long at by James C. Smith demanded all matters an on

published

article

"Inter-Imperial citizenship and Asian

goodwill", which would

which confer

some length rights in

equal

subjects.

Smith

concluded;

We must, in goodwill, in one mighty Federation the people of unify Empire the British each of the political unite which constitute by the enduring Citizenship, ties of one Imperial and the human and ties devotion then to the one King-Emperor; sacramental of loyal the United Empire continue for ever and ever, will as lasting as 150 her youth like the stars, the Moon. renewing In (as but for May 1913, Smith with "full Duse Mohamed Ali the wrote along almost identical lines, to the stressing Empire,

had done) the

non-European demands of

military equality

contribution of 151 before opportunity In March Parliament,

more modest

and "eligibility" 1914, the commenting review

and complete Imperial

Imperial Naturalisation

Citizenship". Bill

on a current urged;

We would respectfully to Ministers introduction the concurrent suggest Citizenship Bill', that every born of an 'Imperial which will provide the country subject of the King-Emperor, whatever of his birth, shall Empire everywhere in the world, be a citizen of the British with all Citizen. This would at once the rights of a British and privileges born in India being subjects put an end to such an anomoly as British in the self-governing treated dominions, as aliens and would give

the coloured subjects of the Kin8-Emperor Crown. 152 the British regions under

...

rights

...

in all

150. ATOR, Christmas 151. ibid, 152. ibid.

1912, p. 15-

May 1913, p"348. March 1914, p. 3.

232.

One can see here the in ship but direction Canada, 153 of

the the It is

tone

sharpening, Government's that

with

a strong anti-Indian

and hostile immigration Imperial political

hint

in

Borden clear concept to to in the

policy Citizenevents, British of this

continuing with

demands for current facing Empire. position,

were no Utopian were a response who wished were hardly all

unconnected actual

difficulties the in this

non-European the

subjects the topic larly the not review is

travel

within

Since its

founders in

some sense

interest was in the

surprising. position since to travel here

Dune Mohamed All, as he was to find adjudged 154

himself out at

a particuof and it is

difficult Great dar,

outbreak subject, case,

he was then to

to be an Ottoman That being in the

permitted

West Africa. to "The that this

understandable the French

that on the

he returned grounds that in all

theme again citizen implies.

June 1917, white,

lauding brown

French term

- black,

or yellow

is -

a citizen

" and demanding;

We ask for that citizenship a free citizenwhich has been denied us; and of the Empire to travel every subject permit ship which shall be an object which shall a citizenship when he lists; settle where and lesson to the world; of which every man and every woman, a citizenship be proud; brown, white or yellow, black, shall a citizenship whether be in which there shall freedom, equality and fraternity, representing the Empire, brotherhood but a bond of universal distinctions, within no be ONE KING-EMPEROR, AND ONE PLA-GI155 there shall where

153.

legislation, immigration For a discussion of Canadian anti-Indian in the United Nationalist Agitation Arun Coomer Bose, "Indian see Journal of Canada till the Arrival States of Har Dayal 1911", and Indian History, 43, Part i, 127,1965, p. 236.

154. See Chapter

VI of this

thesis.

155. AM. R, mid-June

1917, p. 113.

233.
No doubt the restrictions on his own movements within the Empire were in

his mind when he wrote

Mohamed Ali's about Dadabhai at United mind in

those words.
: eptember 1920,

The same topic

when in citing in the the the

was still
of

in Duse
reminiscence reprethan those into

course French Empire

Naorodji, Miestminater Kingdom their ...

he demanded, of "... for ... in " those

example, other

sentation of the to the

taxpayers the

who, will

most part, this

have been brought there

Empire

against

Till

was done, of the

was certain Empire But survived. the

be "unrest the

and discontent the of the brown, fairness

sections yellow British review

British i56 ... had not

where old

black,

and the of 1917, is of of too the

predominate people

confidence as late nation,

the the

Whereas, British those

as January as a whole, the help days

had proclaimed to ignore her need", in 157

"... the

the claims of

fair-dealing Empire in

who came to "in of

by 1920 Duse the by an

discounted possibility

these

super-colour or coloured

prejudice man" being

England" elected

"another

Indian

English
It

constituency
must be noted

156 to the house of Commona.

how the phrase "King-Emperor" was re-iterated,

almost

as an incantation, of Imperial principles (though

in African citizenship.

Times and Orient Support for

Review writings

on

the subject

the throne

was one of stance opposition

the fundamental was a convenient

of the review. not insincere)

But this

conservative

method of legitimising

156. AOR, September 1920, p. 7. 157. ATOR, January

158. AOR, September

1917, pp. 1-2.

1920, p. 7.

234.
to the real party Crown, centre of the contemporary When the it is also their British is to political be found system - parliathe

mentary Britiuh

politics. usually system,

review

eulogising the

to be found works.

attacking Thus, in

government, for decline

parliamentary

and all we find crown,

the

number the

November-December of the authority of

1913, of the

Duse Mohamed Ali and connecting this rise

regretting with the

worsening capitalist

position democracy;

coloured

British

subjects

and the

of a corrupt

have also ceased to count. And the utterances of Queen Victoria the Indian Queen Victoria's after which for proclamation mutiny, has been regarded of the a century as the Charter more than half is 'subject with its promise of equality of opportunity, peoples', 'natives' by the exclusion from Governbeing ignored of qualified to the officials' and the relegation of 'native ment Departments, lower ranks of the service. The Grandson of Queen Victoria ... by a Radical House of Commons has been reduced to a nonentity Cabinet, guided by an Americanised permeated with Yankeeism majority, of 'investments', which in less highly and engaged in the pursuit 'speculations'. In return the would be called placed mortals has been let loose on Africa, and the hunt for concessions monopolist by the enacting drafted is encouraged by the Colonial of ordinances by official through local legislatures Office, majorities and forced 159 to favoured the granting to legalise of 'exclusive areas' applicants. This passage the spells decline out of exactly the how the African rise Times of and Crient Review had

conceived harmed number in

Crown and the It

liberal

democracy to a granted to

Britain's of highly

coloured topical to in

subjects. events Sir certain

also

contains the for

allusions

- particularly William Lever

concessions rights

British

West Africa palm products

exclusive palm areas

process

important

oil

- which

Duse

jM, 159. A:

December-November 1913, p. 182.

235.
saw as the again those evil fruits linked Coast of democracy. with the Here, the of its review's backers, society principles especially background. can

be directly with a Gold

interests Rights

Aborigines

Protection

As time went on, the review

sharpness, number for which 26th is well illustrated

made this
by the

kind

of attack

with

increasing
fron the

following

editorial

May 1914;

African of the British and Asian British subjects who, in all parts Empire, because of the denial of the economic are now suffering liberty freedom and political to them in the hoyal Proguaranteed the issued during of her late Majesty clamations uueen Victoria, that the Governyears 1843 and 1858, should understand and realise Kingdom is no longer in the King-Emperor; vested ment of the United the Lords, spiritual conjointly with the Representaand temporal.; The Government in the House of Commons. tives of the Llectorate in the Shoaunate composed of the has been usurped and is now vested Premier by the Junta of the select pliant supported and his Cabinet instruments sellers of the plutocrats and servants - the successful calico, sausages, sugar. of soap, cocoa, wool, cotton, pork, fur, bombs and coffins beer, tobacco, who in the House of spirits, Commons obey the orders of the Chief Party Whip which are only the demands of the plutocrats who secretly echoes of the imperative the the party-war-chests with the money needed to maintain supply the organisation and manipulates which controls party political the United Kingdom. 160 electorate of

It

will

be noted how in the two passages above the King-Emperor, is shown as the pawn of the party who is looked non-Europeans. politicians,

though while

above criticism, it

is 4ueen victoria rights for

back to as the fountain Indeed, it

of justice to assert

and equal that

would be true subscribed

the African cult,

Times and Orient

Review review

to a Queen progressed

Victoria

which indeed became more marked as the years

160. ibid.

26th May 1914, pp. 218-i.

236.
and disilluaio^ This VII, about reached which its with contemporary in British policies and attitudes of increased. King Edward

apogee in

Duse Mohamed A1i's 1920, and which

reminiscence contained of the

appeared

January last

a long Royal

aside Prerogative

queen Victoria of black

as the rights;

effective

wielder

and defender

in Those were the good old days when a man cf breeding was respected England - then there was no 'colour bar'. A man of good character in almost any of respectability and unquestioned would be received lived for 4ueen Victoria the best houses in England; and her still ideas of equality traditional and justice were pretty generally Riches there were, and the desire to be wealthy was observed. keen then as now, but England has (sic) not yet been treated as quite to the invasion came of a herd of cheap Americans who subsequently but also how to teach the Briton not only how to make money quickly, by classifying to ruin the Empire with greater all men expedition of colour as 'niggers', political stock-in-trade and the other unholy Legislation fruits day Colonial in present of which we see pernicious is a preponderant there coloured population. wherever there were those who openly During the period of which I write, the throne in favour that declared of should vacate queen Victoria . in remaining Queen Victoria the Prince of Wales. was justified ... She well knew that a bastard democracy at the head of affairs. tumbthat there were Radical of the country; possession was taking lings the veto of the House of Lords, and that a quiet against for its aim the total on, having abolition agitation was being carried While she remained at the helm she knew of the Upper Chamber. handling herself to be quite capable of effectively any recalcitrant She also knew that abdication Prime Minister. would give the the chance for which they had assidiously faddist element political his popularity laboured, with notwithstanding and that her successor, the masses, was by no means the ideal element. of the Nonconformist her efforts in the direction Consequently, of among other things, the darker towards elements of the Empire, equity which and right in a series had been rigorously set forth of Royal Proclamations, whose place hunters would be set at nought by a pack of political idea of liberty was that they should have the exclusive and justice to enjoy those privileges and right which they would deny to others, Psalm-singing, whereby they might greed to their who had also joined those darker exploit people in the Empire, so that they could lay for themselves in the Earth rather than treasures up for themselves in the Heaven of which they prated on Sundays. so glibly

237.
As everyone knows, King Edward was large souled and generous. He was also a diplomat forces but the political of no mean order, for him. The Royal prerogative at work in Britain were too strong had passed to Frogmore with queen Victoria's ashes, and King Edward was broken on the wheel of an aggressive oligarchy and unprincipled in the guise of a Triumphant Democracy. masquerading Thus, above while all the towards bitter process. permeated review the was conspicuously memory of the old 'loyal', Queen, its loyalism was directed a basis for and

and provided British

increasingly political loyalism',

attacks This the

on the attitude, African

contemporary which could

Government as

be described Review.

'seditious

Times

and Orient

It
for the

is not surprising,
British bothered Empire to

therefore,

that
the

despite

its

apparent

enthusiasm
Review

as an ideal, the fulfil

African future

Times and Orient structure

hardly in

consider could

necessary their an Imperial

of an Empire An example for can be

which of

non-Europeans an editorial but despite

aspirations. Parliament "...

found Empire, British the

advocating the with usual

a confederated Imperial

rhetoric

about

one bond of

Citizenship, also to

one Parliament, that "Being

one Flag of the

and one King-Emperor", opinion that the of ALL NATIONS prospect

same article be allowed

stressed order even their

should of Irish

own views,

we appreciate the prospect clear

independence or African

as we appreciate " 162 This

rgrptian. to Duce

Indian

independence.

makes it

that

Duse tohamed Ali's 161. AOR, January 1920, p. ll. that Negroes contention in "the beat" circles had been socially in Victorian acceptable England is borne out by Blyden's experiences as Liberian Ambassador in London. See Hollis R. Lynch, FAward Wilmot Blyden. Pan Negro Patriot. 1832-1912, London 1967, pp. 173-4.

12th May1914, PP. 162, ATOR, 170-71.

238.
Mohamed Ali, ideals there

was no contradiction of national

between for

the

review's

Imperial and Asians. preponthe of the

and the Furthermore,

cause the

independence

Africans the

review of

constantly of with to

stressed

numerical within all the parts Empire white

derance Empire, world, survive. were

and identity their and the

interest

Africans their

and Asians brothers them if that of in

common interests need of with Britain this

conciliate

was to nations

Linked

theme were to destroy all

suspicions remnants in the

the African

themselves -a

combining not it

and Asian of the

independence time. whenever the of of

unreasonable is readily

feeling

circumstances review

From this independent

understandable or Asian states Asian the

why the

protested and saw guardians components but shown, appeared

African major

seemed threatened, as the Sometimes dealt with natural the

few remaining non-European this is collection no doubt

independent throughout related they

states

rights of that

world. were

matters were

separately, related, as is

there for in

seen as integrally "The Empire

example, June 1914;

by the

editorial

article

and Colour"

which

there are three hundred and twenty-two millions of British ... There are one hundred and eighty in India. in subjects millions Africa flag. of which some eighty millions are under the British Any injustice because they are coloured done to Indians men, must have its bearing interested upon African opinion, whatever parties Besides, to the contrary. the tendency is to introduce may allege Indian legislation into Africa, by reason of and such legislation, its unsuitability to African is only calculated to conditions, create a bond of sympathy between the African and the Indian. Fellow-sufferers, without any undue stretch of the imagination, in the direction may become fellow-workers of a common liberty.

239.
There is also quite It is a wellanother aspect of the case. known fact that the present is aimed at day European legislation the suppression In this of Asiatic sense Asiatic ambitions. ambition of to-day be African of to-morrow. will ambition The economic progress in the comity of Japan and her position Russia is now has not been to the liking of nations of Russia. linked Persia has been 'proin an 'understanding'. with Britain tected' out of her independence, and Turkey has only been saved from European dissection by the bond-holder. An independent Consequently Asiatic to Russian ambitions. state spells ruin legislation Asiatics, the pale of against whether in or without British influence, is only aimed at the one remaining independent The Japanese are well aware of this, Asiatic state. and they have Russian in China. taken measures to safeguard their interests dominance in China would practically place Japan hors de combat, her independence threatening short of war, could as no other act, do.

It

is not,

therefore,

in the interests

of Great Britain

to aid

Canadian expulsion otherwise schemes; and abet Russia in her ambitious in India. And a rebellion immigrants of Indian may produce rebellion for a general in India throughout the rising might be the signal kind would compel African And a rising of this and Asian world. Japan to make common cause with the oppressed for her own protection, But let it be clearly that whatever understood and then, who knows? be in the running. Africa is a field Africa the result which will is for centuries, has been fallow soil virgin and being practically Her sons are quickly receptivity. capable of great assimilating new ideas in government and industry, and the progeny of the one 'dark continent' in the so-called hundred and eighty are millions from the Bight of Benin to destined their to dominate oppressors 163 Caspian Sea, and from the Cape Colony to the Mediterranean. the In this instance weeks later, the combination review feared reacted Dr. was that angrily to of Russia and Britain. by the anglophil Chamber

Three

the

a speech 64 to

ex-Koicha

Kolonial

Minister

Bernhard

Dernburg

the

London

163. ti 01t, 6th June 1914, p. 242.

164. Bernhard Dernburg, of the was Director a Jewish banker in origin, first Department from :September 1906 and Germany's German Colonial Colonial His tenure of office from May 1907 to May 1910. Minister of friendly reform, was marked by administrative and by a policy "The See John Iliffe, accord with England in colonial matters. Effects of the Maji Maji Rebellion of 190>-06 on German Occupation Policy in East Africa", in P. Gifford 567-73, and W.k. Louis, p (eds. . ), Britain by Alison Smith assisted and Germany in Africa. Imperial Rivalry and Colonials, Rule, Now Haven and London, 1967.

240.
Commerce. only Commenting eulogised on this that (like between vernburg Roosevelt all

of

speech,

Duse pointed policy, of but also

out

had not in 1910)

British "...

Colonial the solidarity

had emphasised

interest

White,

dominating

naticns,

as against of colonial hold

the subject policy

races

" and that ...

one of the two big questions nations

opinion

was how the European races. It i was buse's

would maintain
that "These races

their

over the darker

two white

peoples "165

have made a compact accepting Great *ar matters

to dominate

the darker concept diality Colonial Wilhelm soon but his

of mankind.

tithout the

any extravagant there was such corthe British Minister,

of conspiracy, and a wish . ecretary, dolt. 166 to

on the co-operate

eve of in

colonial and the

between

Lewis

Harcourt,

German neiche in this

Kolonial case,

Dune Mohamed Ali's by the

perception of at war,

though exaggerated

rendered certainly publication

irrelevant not

outbreak His ire

was perhaps speech

unfounded. of

Uernburg's anti-iemitic

is

shown by

a week later

a violent,

by Frank

Hugh (r'l)onnell,

entitled

on Dernburg attack The Races. Nl67 "The German Jews Against/Darker

165. See "Combinations

166.

white

and black",

h'Otc, 23rd June 1914, pp. 313-4.

The : "Harcourt for Anglo-Gorman bee F. E. S. Hatton, and Solf: rearch 1912-14", in Africa, in The T eorl Understanding of Imperialism and }roceedinge the i. urooean Partition of Africa, of Seminar held at University November 1967, Centre of African of Edinburgh, -tudiea, pp-71-96. Frank Hugh O'Donnell, ATOR, 30th June 1914, "'ihe German Jews Against p. 340. the Darker Races",

167.

241.

But Orient

the

combination most feared

that

Duse Mohamed All of the

and the

African white

Times

and

Review

was that

English of in to the the the

speaking British of

peoples and

(invariably the United

referred States. there

to as "Anglo-Saxons"), It is will hostile be noted reference that

Empire the

several

passages in British how

quoted political this

above, life,

American previous Roosevelt early should Union in

influence

and it had roots

has been shown in leading beyond back that to

two chapters ransion years also of

hostility of

House travel and in Club,

speech the mind,

1910 and even The wider bodies but like

into

Duse's

theatre. with

contemporary the English

situation Speaking importance the the

be borne Anglo-5axon

and the British

unofficial life,

supported time 168

by men of given to

and American of the influence

and at

that "race".

stressing

world

"mission"

Anglo-Saxon

As he saw it,

harm done

by American

168.

Club See, for e. g., the report of a dinner given by the Anglo-Saxon in honour of the American Ambassador at the Hotel Cecil on 17th July This function by 1913, The Times,, 18th July 1913, p. 7. was attended and the Lord Mayor and Sherrifa worthies as Baden-Powell such leading The chairman "Englishmen of the occasion watched said that of London. hope, States the development of the United with the greatest Possible their that kinsmen on the other because they realised side of the by the same ideals " He continued; Atlantic as themselves. were animated by each others The hope of the future, "We ought to profit experience. depended on the growing the growing consolidation peace of the world, in of the Anglo-Saxon race. " Ambassador Page replied and unification of his vein, and much to the satisfaction even more high-flown an to assure them that the Anglo-Saxon, he was "delighted hosts; or in the United to this Staten first, British, race, who settled ... it how many men came from how many lands, day, no matter still ruled (Cheers) And there was no time in eight led it. when that and by This happy state of affairs was explained would have changed". Social Darwinist the Ambassador in fashionable, and rseudo-modest, "The Anglo-: baxon was quite terms; of men in the as much the leader That was not Republic great as he was in the Great United Kingdom. It was destiny, it was a natural and they phenomenum. a boast; Americans deserved no particular could not help it if they would. believed, that they for it. They believed, just as Englishmen praise It might be noted in passing that not the world. " were born to rule to this kind of thinkers cont'mporary/black all objected so strongly Blyden, stuff as did Duse Mohamed Ali; who had died in 1912, often that political of the world seemed to accept and economic domination destiny was the proper and providential of the white race - see E. W. Blyden, West Africa Before Europe, London 1905, p"25 and Africa London, 1903, pp-33-4. and the Africans,

242.
in British life led introduction 'get

public which coloured

was the to the

of

American

rich

quick' of

principles, Britain's The editorial

economic and the

exploitation spread of

and dispossession American race-prejudice. devoted

subjects,

column

"Yesterday,

To-day,

and To-morrow"

much space

to this
tion of

theme in the issue

England",

for

May 1913.
asserted into fair

Under the heading

that English play "... is "All the

"The Americanisaelements and the of is the so

Duae Mohamed Ali are imported of

worst

of American good old past. " strong of His

race. -hatred

Government, becoming

English His

characteristic conclusion have

a thing

gloomy mere

was that no rights " of

American the

influence accredited

that

'niggers' bound to the

which This British

Ministers state of with

Majesty

feel

to respect. marriages

deteriorating political

affairs American

was linked women. 169

leaders

The review
world States over role that

did
it

not have the ambivalent

had towards in Mexico the in British

attitude
Empire. review's

towards
During

the American
the United boiled was

intervention into of a violent having

1914 the

anti-Americanism the in United both States the

attack

on dollar appetite

imperialism; for expansion were of

accused

a boundless

aatern

and western "the honour,

hemispheres, aignity

and Mexico

and Japan independence

seen as champions of all Rations and

and sovereign

Peoples other was stigmatised life sion,

than the Anglo-Saxon as "debasing

Americans. "

American

dollar

diplomacy

and dehumanising" of the western

and "poisoning civilisation. "

the political In concluPolemic

of the nations the Americans

and peoples

were abused in

language reminiscent

of Marxist

169.

See "The Americanisation

of

England",

ATOR Pay 1913,

p"326.

243.
as "the for the pirates and brigands of the who threaten insatiable civilisation greed front the the linking of of on land and sea financiers", of both last and

gratification only

unprincipled nations by all "

who could

be stopped "enforcing practical a connecting

by a united everywhere policy thread of

the

and West from peoples of the is

acceptance Dollar those

nations 170 attacked

Diplomacy. the

There

review

most

violently

as the greatest

threat

to Afro-Asian politician,

interests.

The threat

of to

the Yankee, and of the liberal represent

and Asians

was that

both were thought kfricans

the interests
of their

of a capitalism
birthright, of the

which was stripping

reducing time, of the

economic that this

them to economic cosmopolitan 'Jew'

slavery.

To them was added financier opinions his - nor about is

bogeyman surprising

in view

Duse !Mohamed Ali'a role with article Using in society.

earlier In anti-

Jews,

their

personality to Frank publish

and their material

review, tone,

he was prepared such as the

a violently "The

Semitic and the but'

Hugh O'Donnell to. Jewish of

German Jews not to prejudiced libertarian

Darker

Races"

already

referred the

an 'I'm

technique, but then

O'Donnell bade wild (sic)

conceded allegations

contribution conspiracy;

causes,

Jewish

is rapidly the accumulating evidence which convicts ... Jews in particular, Capitalist of a leading part in the present to establish and monopolists, campaign of tyrants a new slavery the hellish the great financial of the Colour Line ... principle Jews must now be counted among the most interest among the rich enemies of human. equality sistent and unscrupulous and injustice.

on per-

170.

1914, p. 122. This editorial began by extolling ATOR, 28th April the Mexican President, General Huerta, in champion, as "the redoubtable the western hemisphere, the Emperor of the Japanese as His Majesty .. e is the invincible Hemisphere champion in the Eastern of the honour, dignity, independence Nations and sovereign of all and integrity than the Anglo-Saxon Americans. " and Peoples other

244.
Nor was personal shameless to range "leading the abuse spared; Dernburg was "this degenerate who had "the This last Jew", a

Jew Capitalist White

and Politician" Races". 171

effrontery reveals

Jews among the

statement

that

O'Donnell

was himself
too, about

a very
could

nice
still

calculator
be abusive bankers "sucking

of the colour
about

line!

Duse Mohamed Ali, with with editorial the British that thunder

Jews on occasion, bound up and in accord

"Hebrew" who were for

and speculators, England's "

Government, of justice that at

life-blood It in is

sapping with his

sense

which

she was noted.

general attacked on the

outlook together

Jews, the

Yankees end of of

and financiers in his first

general editorial

were all assault

1913, Africans

major

world

economic

enemies

and Asians;

is abandoned except Even the pretence of anything save self-interest in the pulpit or at missionary where pious dames assemble meetings, the Gospel'. the 'dear men' who have been 'spreading to lionise is the modern Pope, whose commands must be obeyed The 'financier' Fiercely in the bourses and by Kings and Ministers. competing to plunder of Europe, they can unite a 'new country'. markets in the gang is the depatriated Finance has no 'fatherland', and foremost through Jew. Oppressed, the 'Ages of Faith' and plundered maltreated Beside him stands the Tnkee, has put hin on a throne. industrialism Dollar. He has inter-married the Cod is the Almighty with whose by has been relieved whose poverty Gentry of England, nobility and the Sugarthe Beef-Kings, heaped up by the Pork-Kings, the millions kings and other monarchs of the Land of Freedom, where Government 172 are venal and corrupt. alike and Justice

"The German Jews Against 171. Frank Hugh O'Donnell, ATOR, 30th June 1914, p. 340.
172,

the Darker

Races",

1913, p. 182. Duse Mohamed Ali'o belief ATOR, November-December is strongly thY conspiracy of that reminiscent of the financiers Imrprialism. A Study, 7th famous work, be found in J. A. Hobson's 1968, pp. 56-7.

in to imp.,

245.
The article democracy concluded by connecting down of King, 'funds'. tycoon the the "Almighty ideal of Dollar" with British Oblige', with Jewish - were

and "a breaking of and its Yankee the

old

'Noblesse of the

the dethronement its machinery the to form

and the "

enthronement the three

Caucus, the

Thus,

persons

financier, joined

and the trinity.

British

Liberal

politican

an imperialist

Despite
ambiguous earlier

this

attack
towards

on Jewish finance,
them revealed (in their in

the review
its editor's

continued
writings

the
at an personae) the very

attitude period.

The Jews, as well of the

commercial

and financial

were a model first readers number were

as a menace, African

and this

was rammed hone from Review, in chic

Times and Orient

coloured

advised;

Money being the motive power, take a leaf from the sons of Israel. None of you have had more trials to combat than have been encountered Money and thrift in have brought them to a position by the Jews. be difficult Be to shake. the affaire of the earth which it will by their example. edified There is money There is money in the land and under the land. Grasp these things to be had in commercial with both pursuits. Yarn it honestly but get it! We live hands and - earn money. it. 173 take the world as we find in a world of raterialism and must This note was struck again, if anything even more urgently, heralding commerce the in the editorial in which

column the

"To-Day"

irr the of

mid-January and Asian This

1917 number, controlled

a period became the Afro-Americans

stimulation policy "They of

Negro

review's

prime

action. making

began by commending the is your politicians

because repressive

are

money whilst And this

are

introducing ... Get

legislation.

cue - make money.

173. ATOR, July

1912, p. 2.

246.
back to the and make money. " From this

soil

point

in

the editorial,

the phrase
strongly

"make money" became an incantation,

again;

and the Jewish example was

urged

There are many thousand square miles remaining in the possession of the African land. and the Oriental, and there is money in this Hence we say, make money. Our condition has never been so bad in the as that of the modern Jew, yet look at his present position world. He dominates parliaments and commerce, makes or unmakes wars, into the aristocracy either marries or purchases of his a title What the Jew has accomplished to pass. own. we can also bring Therefore, We have no desire to marry into we say, make money. the aristocracy Our aristocracy is at of any European State. least but we need money. as ancient as that of any European country, Money making may not be the highest ideal, but we cannot go it, far without and money has become such a power in the modern it we are socially, that without commercially world, and politically True, for the most part, damned! our morals; we have retained immoral. and there are those who consider money getting Ne, however, to think that this to the means employed rather venture applies Besides, than to the end attained. day we did not creat,: present They were created for us. Hence, as we conditions. commercial to alter existing conditions are powerless we must not only recognise facto but 'Rise from our dreams of the future' accomplished and make 174 money! Having recommended and powerful Wash.'Lngton, and effort preachers, the soil, seen who the for combating chosen those enemies enemies of the review were, "the the tactics to a safe Booker waste T. time

and raising Taking time

race"

position coloured in straining

can be understood. people after were warned

a cue from not to jobs

and again 'white-collar'

professional occupations agriculture,

lawyers, wealth to of

clerks to learn

and similar scientific

but -

to

utilise

the mining,

engineering,

send

174. ATOR, January

1917, pp. 2-3.

247.
if learn 175 of industrial as labourers number letters* proclaimed 176 wealth there But by

their in the this sweat the

sons, white

necessary, man's

to

techniques first capital

enterprises, "The a call Dignity to

The review's Labour" in

Booker

T. slogan merely alone.

was not and toil

roll

up shirt the miles

sleeves review

and create was aware in the that

As seen above, of square

were still

"many thousands

remaining

possession

of the African made it

future

and the Oriental.

"

Undoubtedly

its

West African merely

connections

particularly
asset, for the

aware of this.
Gold in Coast cocoa

Nor was this

farmer years being

seen as a
as a man that free was

was recognised a new industry the work of

who had already unique in the

created tropical

a few short Empire,

British

African

farmera

rather

than expatriate

capital*

1 was recognised there planter, itself as conferring

More possession no security a threat whatever

of the lane, on its

however,

owners.

Firstly,

were those who were concessionaire, with the lani

to coloured

land rights

the white -

and settler. question

In practice Africa;

the review it

concerned

in British

found the main threats settled

to be discriminatory

land legislation

in the white

lands such as the Union of South

175. ibide

and ATOR.July

1912, p. 2.

176. ATOR, July

1912, p. 2.

177. See the discussion of the development of the Gold Coast cocoa growing Migrant Cocoa Farmers of Southern Ghana, in Polly Hill, economy Cambridge 1963, pp. 103-113, and The Gold Coast Cocoa Farmer. A Preliminary Survey, London 1956, pp. 170-192.

245.
Africa British the and Southern west Africa. of land

Rhodesia: As editor, in

and Forest

and Crown Land legislation understanding narrowly from and of

in

Duce Mohamed Ali's communities the following was not

importance

African shown in

vulgarly of 1913;

economic,

as is

editorial

the end

To the African land is more important than it is to the European of In Europe to-day to-day. land is merely a possession in most cases, In Africa the land is and in others an appendage of ... wealth. the foundation The 'family' of the whole social or 'tribal' system. land is the land which keeps the community together, and the free best protection from being of the land is the African's possession As long as he retains his reduced to serfdom and wage-slavery. fertile him an easy and sufficient which yields soil maintenance, the white man cannot compel him to the perpetual toil which is the lot of the European proletariat, doled the pittances who must accept 178 or starve. out by the 'employers'

So in the nearly that deal. ifrican he knew little (Apart, soil. )

two years since

he had protested or co=erce about

to John Lldred he had learnt easy living

Taylor a great

about West Africa is,

that

from the old error

from of Casely of to

Ho doubt

exposure of the writings Protection Society clear

and conversation men, in particular of the importance importance

Gold Coast Aborigines Hayford, land

Rights

had helped him to form this

picture

to Africans.

But though he took in the wider yet it would still rather be true than other

of land the

blest African review

communities,

to say that aspects

stressed

the socio-economic

of the land

178. ATOR, November-December 1913,0.182.

249.
The editorial is vital of or to the the "The his Land

question. Question On the

quoted future 'Land

above status

also of

grimly the African his

warned, in

own country. owner

decision

question' to serfdom

rests

position

as a free "

and cultivator,

relegation

to foreign

capitalists.

It
necessity review pointed

is hardly
of

surprising,
retaining Africa

in view of its
control over

perception
their lese

of the vital
that case, to the to be

Africans

own land,

regarded out

Southern

as more or rather of than

a hopeless

as an awful Native will

example Act

an opportunity

be seized. but, for

The notorious reasons which

Lands

1913 was attacked far less vigour

editorially,

be explained,

with

and persistence

than were the less it only received

drastic

threats

to African

land in British inumerable

West Africa: mentions noted

one editorial

mention179

as against

of the West African that

land question. Native against National

Six months later,

the review

the South African to protest the Imperial

Congress was sending But with

a delegation

to Britain towards subjects

the 1913 Act, having it

some bitterness black South as a

Government for Whitep,

handed over its

to the South African

denounced the delegation

179.

ATOH, November-December 1913, p. 183, To-day and Tomorrow", "Yesterday, is proposed "Legislation to parcel out the South commented; ... (sic) 'Black into in the latter Colonies African and White' areas; be excluded from the ownership will of the of which the 'native' the 'Black' It in feared that be restricted to land. areas will the the barren portions of the territory, while and undesirable 'Whites' the best lands. " all appropriate will

250. 180 inside There was a tendency South Africa solely

waste of time. for oppression

for

the review

to put the blame (always referred

on the Afrikaner favourite

to as the Boer). targets for abuse;

General

Saute became one of its 1918 the editorial

Afrikaner thus

in February

column reacted Society;

to a recent

speech by him to the Royal Geographical

His speech, That the people of reduced to a sentence, means: Africa own lands of serfdom on their are to remain in a condition in whatever with politically manner and to be dealt and socially 181 General Smuts and his friends may deem ezpedient. In 1920 the review in published South Africa" a number by the of articles future under the of general African Mvabaza, title

"British National Solomon Congress

Rule

President in

the L. T.

Congress, T. Plaatje, delegation

J. T. Gumede, who was sent Rev. to H. R. Ngcayiya

1919 with

and R. V. Selope than

Thema on a second that of 1914.182

Europe,

no more fruitful

180.

The members of this ATOR, 16th June 1914, pp. 289-90. delegation, Secretary unsuccessful, were Solomon T. Plaatje, which was totally Native National Congress, Rev. of the newly formed South African Thomas kakipela, John Lube, Have Walter kubusana, and Saul Means There is no positive evidence see Roux, Time Longer Than Hooe, p. 110. that Ruse Mohamed Ali encountered the 1914 delegation. to suggest

Plaatje It may be noted that two of these delegates, and Dube, later Congresses became involved in the post-War Du Bois Pan-African Plaatje at the 1919 Paris Congress, Dube in one of the London ConSee iiison and Thompson, 0 xford History of South Africa, greases. vol. II, p. 444. "If the Euro181. ATOR, February 1918, p. 2. The editorial warned that; they must be prepared on Boer lines, peans are prepared to exploit for trouble of a very serious kind. 182. For the 1919 ANC delegation see Roux, op. cit., p. 111. Gumede's to the AOR in 1920 wares"South Africa and Selfcontributions January 1920, pp. 30-31; "Britain's Word of Honour Determination", February 1920, pp. 13-14; to King Cetshwayo and the Zulu Nation", "British Rule in South Africa", entitled and a series of articles March 1920, pp. 19 & 21-2, April 1920, p. 17, June 1920, pp. 29-30, and August 1920, p. 15.

251.
Cumede's the broken and betrayals by the

articles

catalogued

promises

British
on native i: li of

towards
labour it only Africa

the black
unrest possible where in

South Africans;
the to the stand mines. lament that

Selope Thema, too contributed

183 there of Editorially, was "perhaps the soil suffer Luse Mohamed

found British

no portion greater despite reduced West

rightful only

owners

disabilities" all promises

and that from of British

not

had the but

peoples also

lands that

been stolen had "been ... in the

authority, which is

they than

to a condition

slavery

more iniquitous

Indian

Colonies

prior

to 1834. "184 took a more negative

its sources the of former in

One of the reasons why the review

towards surely latter. African African South far than West Africa was that

attitude
were the the

information than South about Africa

more tenuous But surely

and second

hand about factor while land. in

the determining everything, of the So it

was that British

had lost still in the

almost

West Africa future,

the however, to fight a Society,

had control the Gold balance. Coast

The West African

seemed yet for it;

was necessary Rights

and profitable Society, Rights Indeed,

Aborigines of could

Protection

aryl in

smaller

way the

Lagos Auxiliary land battles

the

Aborigines 185

Protection the very

had shown that

be won.

creation

183. "Native

Unrest

in South Africa",

AOR, I lay 1920, pp. 12-14.

164. AOR, April

1920, p. 46.

185. For the A. R. P. S. struggle against obnoxious land legislation, see History of Ghana, pp. 331-57. For successful Kimble, A Political in Lagos to government expropriation of land, see James resistance Background to Nationalism, S. Coleman, Nigeria. pp. 178-9.

252.
the African Times and Orient Review be regarded

and survival

of

could

(inter circles.

alia)

as a demonstration

of the determined

fighting

spirit

of those

The review question. the aegis of

soon began

to

show its

teeth first

on the issue Ltd.

west of

African the

land under

As early the

as August Times

1912 - the and Orient review 1911. Gold to control

review

African

Review of Casely

syndicate

there Gold of Coast Casely

was a substantial Land Tenure Hayford's, as the alienating from another

and sympathetic Forest Bill

Hayford's an article attacked

and the

Furthermore, Coast, 'protect' in the which

The Land Question of those

on the

E. D. Morel from

spokesman their

who wished by vesting

West Africans Crown,

lands, 186

was reprinted

journal.

Despite

the publication

of Josiah
arguing the

W'edgewoodM.P. 's article

case for Crown control, unfettered

"Native
in the

Lands and Crown Colonies", October land 1912 issue, in in the the

review

continued Thus,

to uphold

African

rights

west Africa. same issue

Wedgewood's Hutchison's

article "Mr.

was counterand the

balanced

by W.F.

E. D. Morel

Native

Land 4ueetion

in West Africa".

187

From this

time,

E. D. Taorel

186.

Gold Coast Land Tenure and the For the review of Casely Hayford's Bill Forest 1911, see ATOR, August 1912, p. 57; for Casely Hayford's "The Land Question on the Gold Coast", see ibid, pp. 58-9, article te Royal Scottish from Transactions-of Aboricultural reprinted Society, July 1912.

167" wee J. C. wedgewood, "Native Landa and Crown Colonie: ", ATOR, October 1912, pp. 125-7, and W.F. Hutchison, "Mr. E. D. Morel and the Land ibid, Question in West Africa", pp. 143-4.

253.
became one of repertoire. the in the the growth of the But stock the villains article capitalist of the African significant with the Times and Orient for its concern Review over

was also

foreign

exploitation as one of capitalism its place

monopolistic source streams

tendencies feeding In 1913,

'west Africa, river of

and must be regarded editorial print against found

and monopoly. in editorial with had less events

West African occasions, Balkans. of

Land Question 188 despite If in later

comment on in Turkey

several and the basic status

much pre-occupation years land the review this

to say on the because the

premises

west African

tenure,

was surely

quo no longer Threats to his the lands

seemed so threatened West African's lands in

by Government - or the to his period

legislation. of the

enjoyment 1912-14. by cartoon of

produce 1912, for of

of the

- seemed imminent Government Ordinance, the cultivator, 189

In November and word the profits

Nigerian Tapping to

was violently under the But the resources nor the which

assailed only

a Rubber tapping

one third being

went

remainder most

shared target

between over the

Government question nor but the Sir of

and the the land

Chiefs.

frequent the

and its Government,

was not Colonial

Nigerian nor

Government, even F. D. Morel,

Gold

Coast

Office,

William

Lever,

who since

1910 had been seriously of supply for palm kernels oil trade

considering and palm since at oil, least

British

West Africa

as a source

and had been keeping 1902.190

an eye on the

West African

188.

1913, For e. g. see ATOR, February-March AMOR, June 1913, PP. 369-70. p. 282;

p. 235;

ALOR, April

1913,

189. ATOR, November 1912, pp. 166-7. 190. See Charles Wilson, pp. 165-7 & 180. The History of Unilever, vol. I, London 1954,

254.
It Orient making there History is not really attitude of possible to to fully Lever's nature study only understand in the African Times without Unfortunately, Charles issue, at which Wilson's and first

Review's

intrusion of of that this

West Africa

some assessment is no really of Unilever of at

the

intrusion. question. to this

satisfactory devotes having the

a few pages in

and suffers time the of the

the disadvantage fifty relevant eminent European of year rule official economic

been published Record A less is that Office

1954,

Public

prevented weakness it is discusses

consultation of this at work length

papers. historian of

excusable although no attempt regarded

by an

competitors

Unilever, apparently

made to do so in nobodies, firm's these which

the

case

West Africans

who are strenuous is passed

as economic

and West plans is at

whose skillful, African is plans

and successful over. entirely The failure,

opposition ultimately, Office

to the of

attributed a half

by Wilson truth.

to Colonial

policy,

best

Nevertheless,
why West Africans misconceived model of the the

Wilson does at least,

found Lever's plans Chief

if

inadvertantly,
Sir

make it
William

clear
Lever on the by the

so obnoxious. as being He was, develop a landed Lever his

West African aristocracy.

proprietor

British

believed, own land,

allowed nor allow

C. O. to be obstructive anyone else to do so".

and "neither Also;

by the arguments He was equally in favour unimpressed of tribal Natives should be treated children', organization. as 'willing housed, doctored, and moved from place to place as might schooled, Above all, they should be required. be taught the value of regular to time. Under such a regime, habits how could they and of working fail to become both healthy and industrious, and how then could they be happy. 191 fail to

191.

ibid,

p. 167.

255.
With this attitude of mind, the dire warnings of impending economic slavery

to be found in the African

rather an agonised perception

Times and Orient

of what could

Review seem not fanciful

very well be in store.

but
The

Congo, which proved a congenial

was well unfettered recognised white by the monorolistic review

climate

for

the Lever scheme of things,

example 193 of wkat could

192

as a horrid

follow

exploitation.

In British
concessions. that the native to

West Africa
This was, "...

there
the of hold

was, however,
settled Africa policy ...

an obstacle
of should soil its the in without produce

to Congo style
Office have

Colonial general

populations to

west their

secured

them rights it This the as they

ancestral

disturbance, as they thcught

to cultivate fit. "194 all

would,

and to do with for not only

was tantalising, Niger Delta

was British rich in of natural

West Africa oil palms, would

(above but also

hinterland) that modern

very

Lever

recognised

processing

palm fruit

enormously
way around of the

increase
the

yields.

195
Over test

By 1910, he thought
the next two year:, firms.

that

he had found a
up three step

difficulty. of the old

he bought 196

weaker

African

Trading

The next

192. For the beginning pp. 167-179.

of Lever Bros.

operations

in the Congo, see ibid, broad-

to Leopold and the Congo in the anti-Lever 193. See the reference in the ATOR, February-! 4arch 1913, p. 235. side printed 194. dilson, 195. ibid. 196. These firms were W.B. racIvor & Co. Ltd. of Liverpool, in Nigeria, Peter Ratcliff, in Sierra & Co., trading Cavalla River Co. in Liberia. See ibid, p. 181. op. cit., p. 166.

trading vainly Leone, and the

256.
was to for set up local the mills for extracting which mills followed oil from the palm parioarp to and foreign

crushing

palm kernels, The first and another

had hitherto were set at

been shipped

markets Nigeria, 1912.197

uncrushed. in 1910,

up at Opobo and Apapa, Sierra Leone, in

Tonnibannah,

The Colonial
developments, to support monopoly railways a matter Harcourt giving in but a further

Office

had been by no means enthusiastic

Secretary time of in the Harcourt Gold

about

these

by 1912 Colonial scheme, this

had been won ovor by which of a light "as Council,

Coast,

of mechanical would of be given

processing over of

palm fruit area.

and construction Despite the objections Executive Gold

a large

principle" that

Governor Bill

J. J.

Thorburn

and his in of ten the

insisted these rights ray,

a draft

be introduced a radius under principle

Coast Thus, to

over the

an area

with Office

198 miles. was prepared land Gold

a modified Lever's

Colonial so long

Harcourt of

assist

plans, intact.

as the

African in the

ownership in

was technically August 1912.

The Bill

was published

Coast

There was a delay reaction

of some months before This was remedied

this

business

produced for

from the review.

in the issue

February-

197. ibid. History of Ghana, p. 46. It is interesting 198. Kimble, Political to note, in view of his well known opposition to Lord Leverhulme's attempt the to create a palm-product plantation economy in Nigeria-after then Governor of First World War, that in 1913 Sir Hugh Clifford, the Gold Coast, was already worried about the consequences for Africans of concessions to another company, Apol Ltd. - see Clifford 13th June 1913, Gold Coast despatch 372, and ibid, to Harcourt, 8th July 1913, Gold Coast despatch 451, Ghana National Archives, Original Correspondence, ADM 1/531.

257.
March 1913. misgivings; Sapara, Committee eliminate whether to hditorially, and give of the the the J. J.

attention given lands

was drawn to the

to

Governor

Thorburn's Dr. 0.

invitation on the

review's to the

own backer, West African intended

evidence

question

Lands to

Commons, was denounced of partiality. of " the

as a sham, Furthermore,

"only it in

charge

was questioned the cold Coast

the chiefs

and people

area

concerned

had had the implications The Hansard record

by two M. P. a, Mr.

explained hostile

or were satisfied questions

Gwynne,

with

the conditiona. Secretary

Leone

199

of recent

to the Colonial
on Lever's

Touche and Mr.

Rupert

Sierra

concession,
a virulently

was reprinted
anti-Lever

in the same issue,

cartoon 201 and the

200

which furthermore
jingle;

carried

following

King Soap was no generous fool, When a palace he gave to John Bull; For that splendid say without palace -I Ensured him a very 'big pull'. know; And as all West Africans r'or his Quid he gained a fat qMj,

malice

lands (-ranted In the native and owners supplanted To work for woe. g weal and their the soil has granted For 'Lu-Lu' Of the blacks, must moil, who hereafter So that King Soap may fatten and on them may batten Through enslaving toil, and underpaid doch blaze, Where the genuine sunshine the Soap King displays While his sunlight figures, To unfortunate niggers, who cut sorry 'em to work - 'cause it Dave while he tells Forget not the Congo atrocities, And Leopold's smart reciprocities!

. ut 'mid this day's 'infernale' And King Soap's benign nnctuousitiea.

take stock

of valm-kernels

199. 200.

ATOR, February-March ATOR, February-March

1913, 1913,

p. 235,

and Kimble,

op. cit.,

p. 46.

pp. 276-7.

201. ibid, 202. ibid,

p. 256. p. 235.

258.
There clear noted to that Africa. of 21st In can be no doubt references that under its to the

at

all

of the

target

of Port

these

verses,

with

their will be

Lever's prudent

company town, cover of

Sunlight

and it -

inference, It in

the review was not alone

was prepared in alleging in west

attack there

man in

most damaging of

terms.

was an element C. O. records

corruption preserved the

Lever's

concessions the Daily

have

a cutting Labour Leader

from

Citizen

November

1912,

quoting

as saying; when it was concession of the 203 the public? by Mr. Moore

the House of Commons Yr. Harcourt was most indignant that the Government had been led to grant the suggested to the funds of Sir W.H. Lever's as a recognition gifts Liberal Party. But what other explanation will satisfy The question M. P. on 13th In the referred to here is almost certainly one asked

November 1912.204 Gold Coast itself, the . i11 opposition to the to the Bill was led by the A. R. P. S.,

whose petition by an address and Orient its attack. in

against

Legislative of the

Council of the

was augmented African review Times began

by E. J. P. Brown, Ltd. July 205

another

creators after

heview In

This

was some months

1913 the

editor

made a prolonged African land rights

attack there,

on Lever's and

interests

west Africa,

defending

accusing

Lever of introducing

South African

type

exploitation.

206

Lever's

203. The Daily

Citizen,

21st November 1912, in C. O. 554/10/37806.

November 1912 - "Mr. Moore: 204. See Hansard 1912, XLIII, p.1968,13th has been put forward by Sir will iam May I ask if the application Lever for exclusive to twelve miles of land, and was this rights specially granted to him in return for any services to the Radical party? "
205. 206. Kimble, AMR, op. cit., July 1913, p. 47. p. 2.

259.
re-appeared 1920, African at as a target a time produce in line, 1920, the in the were pages rapidly of the Africa and Orient their the position Review in in pleat

when they

expanding During

and shipping those but which

markets.

war they

bad expanded firms Niger had and

considerably a steamship Company in been one of time it could

directions, the with great the

acquiring coup was the African

three

more trading of the

acquisition Trade

and Eastern Trading the

Corporation 207

two great that

west ifrican Lever's last lap were to

interests.

From this trading monopolistic

be said

major

West African of 1929" the near It had in

company, United forward they of

and were Africa Lever's

on the

the

creation in

Company, that of

which

came into

being

was hencemind when prices African perhaps the than 1920.

west Africans the 'combine'

and their which

friends to

complained both produce

was said crush

be manipulating the independent (or

and imported the test that

goods African there

so as to farmer.

merchant one might

and control

The belief working

say experience) farmer since

was a combine course Var. in the pages of

against older

West African It had existed Thio Orient

and trader before the

was of Great

considerably

feeling It

was well should

reflected be regarded

of the

the

African

Tires behind

and

Review.

as part

motivation

the bitter capital

generalised in Africap

attacks

on the role

of would-be

monopolistic anti-combine

European feeling

already

noted.

More specifically,

207.

The poet-War of Lever Brothers expansion thesis. For the in Chapter VI of this op. cit., vol. 1, pp. 237-9. see Wilson,

in West Africa firm's wartime

is discussed expansion,

260.

was revealed West Lfrica the

to a high believed to in

degree that their its the

in

the

review or

during 'interests'

the

war, were

when many in manipulating 208 Thus

'combine'

war situation the review

own selfish first issue duty, British this

monopolistic of to the

purposes* series

we find the

1917-1918

attacking exported columnist, the

proposed

2 per

ton

export the that

be imposed Empire.

on palm kernels city after

to any destination "Change Allee", receipt within against European export of the the

outside pointed that Empire. African It out

The review's remitted

duty

was only

evidence British small

the

consignment This system, and in

had been received the review of that local prices

by a purchaser worked

believed, big, the

merchant

favour

well-capitalised, existence of an

firms. duty

saw an "obvious combination the natives

objection among the

may create prices to

purchasers to

and shippers in England. "2C9

to depress

and maintain

consumers

Even more objectionable

Development Committee,

to the review
body

in 1917 was the Empire Resources

of businessmen and politicians

an unofficial

208. See for e. g. M. Perham, Luaard. pp. 600-01 for wartime opposition
to the system felt that the 209.

the African tonnage; of shippirg of allocation 'combine' favoured was unduly expense. at their

The Years of Authority, London 1960, by Lagos African merchant interests

merchants

For details 1917, p. 21. ATOR, January of this controversial proby British Liberal and Labour spokesman was attacked posal, which Survey of Commonwealth inception, from its see Sir W.i.. Hancock, II Problems of Economic Policy 1918-1939, Part I, Affairs. vol. The operations in shipping London 1940, pp. 115-19. of 'combines' were attacked again in the ATOR in March as well as produce trading in businessman 1917, p. 56, by M. J. Hughes, an African operating Co-operation; "African Dahomey, in an article Nigeria entitled and An Appeal to Afro-Americans".

261.

advocating 'independent' a vague

control body

and development of businessmen, to act in the

of

Imperial

economic have vast 210 delivered Royal

resources overall A fair

via powers

an and of

who would public in

obligation

interest.

sample Alfred

T. R. D. C. propaganda Bigland, 27th time M. P., to

can be found the colonial Bigland Oil

an address of the only 212

by Mr.

section

Society

of Arts also at

on that knowledge"

February

1917.211

was not

an M. P. but and claimed

H. M. Controller,

and Fats, I)eeds

"intimate

210.

For a hostile op. cit., of the E. R. D. C. see Sir W.r.. Hancock, critique & 122. Hancock derides Part NO London 1942, pp. 106-9,113,116 farrago the of cant and reed" as "this plans and outlook (p. 108); the masses" (p. 109); "to the spite and greed of as appealing (p. 113). hats" imperial top out of their economic rabbits as "bringing duty on palm kernels lie sees the 2 per ton export sole as their "The trick of the vanishing war-debt and the sixsolid victory for the British hour day and two months holidays working-man deception by exploiting the and without scientifically achieved figured on their prono longer colonies of the British resources to But there was quite a modest item with palm kernels grummo. To their joy, the British they were particularly attached. which for this direct itself responsibility perforundertook government p. 113. mance. " - ibid. Assets and How to Use Them", M. F'., "The Empire's bigland Alfred LXV, 3,358, March 30th 1917, Journal the Royal Society of Arts, of discussion Among those taking 355-63. part in the subsequent pp. H. Wilson Fox, M. P., another prominent member of the E. H. D. C. was the k. S. A, Wilson Fox himself had addressed 364. ibid, p. see Resources", of Imperial and had received on "The Development earlier Bigland. See Alfred in discussion the backing of his colleague Journal of Arts December 1916, pp. 78-89. of the Royal society See W. F. Hutchison, of of the Proposals Part II, ATOR, July A Review "Empire Development or Empire Plunder? Committee", the Empire Resource Development 1917, p. 5.

211,

212.

262. 213 +frica. and cocoa African in

frort over that farmer

"forty the

years'' pros; ecte

business, in

experience"

in

.lest oils

He enthused a manner produce

Heat African the man; hackles

vegetable of

would

have raised

any seat

trader,

or professional

The proposed development scheme would afford a splendid means of the civilisation facilitating labour of our natives, would as their to the chariot be harnessed of progress and productiveness, and than at present their purchases would be to a greater under extent Government Control... I wish to draw your particular To one point attention, and it west African but capable is that resources are not undeveloped, of development. The oil palm, for instance, now growing much further be susceptible by the application of improvements wild might well 214 of scientific methoda. It takes cost could, no greet likely penetration here for to see that European "scientific owned and run African of methods" plantations, land and

would which

be a euphemism only

of course, African stated

be created

by alienating

proletariatising Bigland would of the airily

farmers. that "so far

Anticipating from rivalry the best initiative

a charge being different

monopoly, it

diminished, branches

be increased organisation

by the

friendly

between results. "

to produce

It

is

hardly

to be wondered at like a bull

that

the African

Times and Orient As early as February

Review

responded 1917 its

to such talk editorial

to a red rag.

was attacking

the E. R. D. C. secretary,

U. Wilson-Fox,

213. 214. 215.

Bigland, ibid, ibid.

op. cit., p. 359. p. 362.

p. 357.

263.
for the the interests But the in

neglect grown".

of

of main

the

natives of

"upon the

whose lands attack headed of these the

the:; e was "Empire Empire

nalms

are

216

burden

review's

undertaken Development Resources the the all

by 4.?. or

Hutchison i lunder?

two consecutive A Review 217 of of worst of of In British course, type the the

articles Proposals first of hfrica to

Empire

Development

Committee". element

he exposed

exceptionally '. x . R. 1, C. who thought lands

strong

South

Company men in Hutchison and of Jameson,

The 8.:;. A. C. was, like him of the

an example of European

expropriation Sir starr

African

and exploitation wa. the

African

resources. h.

B. 5. A. C. President, connected Directors of the with the

E. R. D. C. Chairman;

Wilson-Fox

had been its out

B. S. A. C. since its

1898 and was currently Committee;

one of

and a member of E. R. D. C. 's on the total of

Executive

and three

others In should be

32 members had B. S. A. C. connections. belief that Imperial resources by civil

commenting developed observed South

E. R. D. C. 's of

by a junta "men, in

businessmen, like the

unhindered chairman

servants, of the

Hutchison British

short,

and directors out that it

Africa

Company. "

He also the

pointed Empire's

was the thus;

Committee's

declared

intention

to develop

resources

Kingdom purposes, for United under United Kingdom auspisces, giving for the relief Kingdom an adequate share of the profits the United of Kingdom. The burdens imposed on the Empire the burdens the United of 2lb into the Committee's do not appear to enter ealeulations.

216, 217.

"To-day",

ATOR, February

1917,

p. 23.

"Empire Development A Review of the W.F. Hutchison, or Empire Plunder? Committee", Proposals Development Part I, ATOR of the Empire Resources Part II, June 1917, pp. 114-61 ATOR, July 1917, pp-5--B.

218. Hutchison,

op. cit.,

Part

I,

p. 115.

264.

"o The proposed

development

scheme will afford of the Nations. "-Mr.

a splendid means of facilitating Alfred Bigland, M. P.

the civilisation _

"TH:

TIGHT

SQUEEZE"

Anti-E

Resources Development pare cartoon in Sept.

Committee

Africa

and Orignt

Review,

1920, p. 26.

265.
This Royal out charge Society that it the appears to be borne who, out by the speech given by Bigland pains to lump of to the point tothe

of Arta,

to a British part of the of

audience, the

was at

was no "necessary" entire * not war debts 219 This

E. R. D. C. scheme "to Dominions Bigland's with those

gether Mother Empire

several that in

Country. would

implies

scheme the

Colonial

be so exempt.

But in his than in detailing

paper Bigland proposals. notice;

spent far

more time enthusing

over prospects

This aspect after quoting

of E. R. D. C. propaganda did not at length from the Committee's

escape Hutchison's
Kanifeeto, he said=

The latter of the prospectuses portion of the Manifesto is reminiscent There is the same vagueness as to localities, the of a boom-time. same indefiniteness as the methods, the same unbounded liberality for the in the promise of profits, provision and the same careful 220 of managers and directors. remuneration In his implied second article I: utchison further developed that the point that it was

in the E. R. D. C. view of things national and Bigland asset" rather

the African

was a more He accused school, and

"undeveloped Wilson-Fox pointed revolt free

than a human being. to the "lazy-nigger"

of belonging

out that

the B. S. A. C. 's policy

in Rhodesia had led to discontent, the African timber, the as a palm

and economic stagnation, agent had created and above all

whereas in West Africa in various

a dynamic trade cocoa.

products said

products

Not only was it,

Hutchison,

219. Bigland, 220. Hutchison,

op. cit., op. cit.,

p. 362. Part I, p. 116.

266.
"considered and African the of interest West Africa. E. R. D. C., the Colonial Office" profits to the poverty the in to protect West Africa, to of the land African but land also it

policy utilisation of

of

right was in

of land

British In the

manufacturers Rhodesia, Africans finished under were with speech at

sell sort

prosperous policy landless in

peasants

advocated "serfs". 221

by the

stricken E. R. D. C.;

The review reported meeting of in the at

was not length by the

yet

February at

1918 it

a hostile Committee

made by Rotimi Motel,

Alade Landon,

a public on the stressed 30th that or at

held

Cannon St. like

previous all

month. land since people,

Alade, time

Hutchison

before

him,

Nigeria

immemorial

had been either therefore, available

utilised

least

owned by the

and was not,

to be dis-

of as an "unused asset". posed In the post-Great the economic front the 'combine'

222 the enemy most feared on

kar boom year of 1920, Lever Bros. William impression

was once again

now, as has been shown, Lever was now Lord Leverhulme on Duse Mohamed Ali, with to -

par excellence.

Sir

a honour that his belief

would make the worst plutocrats funds. people

that

purchased

such honours by contributions a belief shared by

Government party inumerable British

This was, of course, in the last

yearn of the Lloyd-George first number a cartoon

regime. showing

The 1920 series

of the review

had in its

221. ibid,
222.

Part

II,

p. 6.

by Alfred This meeting was addressed 1918, pp. 6-7. ATOR, February have been a In his contribution, Bigland M. P. which can hardly Rotimi Alade stressed of the meeting, one to the organisers welcome to the imperial the willing war of Nigeria voluntary contribution effort.

267.
its west African but

a coroneted the Other Isle of

octopus Lewis, of

squeezing recently this sort

not

only

victims,

also 223 the

acquired followed

by Leverhulme in subsequent

as a vast issues. 224

hobby-farm. And in

cartoons

review's
business

final

issue

in December 1920, in the course of revealing

was held to be the salvation of Africa,

a new

scheme which

Duse Mohamed

Ali

have had Lever's must

chiefly

in mind when he wrote;

These are the days of combines and syndicates among the Europeans, to squeeze the African out of his birthright, and it is up who intend to us to show that we do not intend to become commercial or industrial We must show the world that we are indeed awake, and that slaves.

which has been a period must at length be put to the exploitation for upwards of 300 years. continent proceeding on the African If we are men we must acquit ourselves as men. Those who are wise will act with promptWe have said enough. We can afford to leave the fool to his folly and to his ness. subsequent enslavement.
AFRICAN SOLIDARITY

The time has arrived when there should be a decided origin. among the peoples of African tide of aggression, On every side we see the rising to engulf us. and oppression which threatens Combines in African raw commodities whilst crowding threaten to undermine the fabric smaller European trader, and Native endeavour. agriculture

solidarity segregation out the of African

Now, these combines are financially powerful and politically Because of the English it is party system of government strong. for these exploiters to pay the party chest a suffinecessary only for the wire-pullere large to start cheque, operations ciently ... from the party the most for the purpose of obtaining or coalition for the contributing trading favourable advantages exploiters ... have even been known to obtain Some of these interesting gentry a in the House of Lords in exchange for a six-figure donation seat

to the party

225 chest.

223. _" 224. e. g.,

January

1920, p. 24.

AOR, May 1920, p. 24.

225. AOR, December 1920, p. 61.

268.

"TIE Anti-Lord

OCTOPUS" Cartoon

Leverhulme from

A
ft

ids and Orient

ltgileLip

Jan,

1920, p. 24.

i{f+

269. Thus the African

were vigilant But the review

Times and Orient

defenders of

Review and Africa

surviving defensive African

and Orient
land rights. over

Review

and doughty

was by no means entirely as has already city

and negative general factual in terms.

economic only mation did

questions, it but run also

been shown in and other enterprise review,

Not infor-

a regular it

column coloured in world in the

commercial a variety

encouraged published men in time the

of ways. aspiring these editor of an of the London or were -

Among the successful

biographies coloured that

many were of

of

commerce. deals

Sometimes with the

men who were at for example, in

involved 1917, there

business

February

was published managing

a biography director

Indo-Persian

business

man, M. H. Ispahani,

firm

of Jules

Karpeles involved

and Co. with

226

Behind the scenes, firm's plans for

Duse ) ohamed Ali in Wiegt readers in

was intimately Africa, 227

this

expansion to his

and he was prepared terms in his

to recommend the firm Karpeles

no uncertain worthy itself firm

editorial;

was said

to be a trustestablished

which was hoping

to expand into

Nigeria,

having

on the Gold Coast, sympathetically involvement

and whose managing director, with other is 'Coloured' only

being an Indian, 228 This

would deal commercial

bu3inesses.

with

Ispahani that

one example of the increasingly found himself involved advice to

complex business in as a 'spin-off'

activities

Duze Mohamed Ali

from his magazine's

economic and commercial

226. "A Prominent

London Merchant", thesis.

A OR, February

1917, p. 38.

227. See Chapter VI of this 228. ATOR, July 1917, p"31.

270.
its large should were readers. enough all run Indeed, the story of these enterprises is heading, complex though and they them order

to demand treatment in

under

a separate to the

be borne entirely

mind as related the review,

review,

and soma of and mail

through

as advice

agencies

firms.

229

But Ispahani's simply

relations

with

Duse and his

review

cannot policis.
which

be

understood

ao commercial
active social in

'apin-off'
Muslim

from the review's

organisations ties in of in

The two men were both gave them religious, The review

London, 230 banking

and political of the

com, on. finding

was also

aware

problem

facili-

ties

and capital,
could

not tied
have easy

up with
access of

the 'combine',
to for the

which the African

of financing

trader
their

and farmer independent efforts It in

purpose

overseas this to

marketing too, here at

African

produce. in

Duse Mohamed Ali's detail in Chapter VI.

direction, point out

will that

be discussed the review

suffices

was fully

prepared For

to give example, of

space in the

to articles

aired

encouraging an article Traders

such developments. from O. T. George, of Kano,

September Native

1918 it and Foreign

published Native in

secretary entitled Abroad", country's establish

Association

"Trading bemoaning mineral

Possibilities the apparent

Nigeria

and Coloured of such

Capitalists men of his

unconsciousness resources,

rich

and agricultural

and calling

on them to

229. See Chapter

VI of this

thesis. in London in the years V of this thesis. 1912-1921 are fully

230. These Muslim circles discussed in Chapter

271.
trading editorially plans for "coloured this linen friends" contribution, revealed. 232 fligeria. and the 231 editor's

relations

with

in

George

was

commended for trade along such

own detailed

There are other

Negro early finance as August for from in the 1913, help

reflectioni
review the

of west African
to

interest

in American
appeal. from As

in addition review published Negro asked

O. T. George' two letters

West Africans signed "An

appealing African",

from

American Nigeria,

banns. for;

One, simply

Southern

the names and addresses of two or more insurance etc* owned by Negroes in the United cotton mills for the purpose of establishing branch can write West Coast of Africa where everything at present of the white capitalists.

banks, companies, States to whom I offices along the is in the hands

The other,

from J. S. Davies of sierra

Leone, argued that

agriculture

was

seen by thinking left for Africans,

members of the community as the only money making road owing to the disastrously But the difficulty successful competition was lack of of capital;

Juropeans

in trade.

in agriculture

Nov, with the Negro banks be done to induce nothing this or establish country,

one reads and hears of in America could them to establish bank in an agricultural some sort of advancing agency whereby

they would be doing good not only community.

bank

to themselves

but to this

straitened

to ventilate particular,

Negro financiers find If, it unworkable, however, could any in England be induced it. to undertake or body of financiers that you will I am satisfied put forth your best endeavours ...

the subject in the interests not only of this but also of the African race in general.

colony

in

231.

Possibilities in Nigeria Capitalists O. T. George, "Trading and Coloured =t George was secretary September 1918, pp. 26-7. Abroad", of the Native Native and Foreign Traders Association of Kano - see ibid.

232. See "To-day", Mohamed Ali's

The development of Buse A30R, September 1918, pp. 25-6. trading plans at this time is discussed in Chapter VI.

272.

Although

Duse Mohamed Ali to

duly

promised parties

to

forward in the

his United

correspondents' States of America"233 as the

names and addresses it is clear that saviour concrete in of in of

"interested

general the

no American

Negro business

banker

steppod

forward Indeed, bank

financial first advise welfare This

West Africdn by the

community.

support

given

review

to a particular who are anxious

was to material Bunk.

January the

1917 "all

Hest Africans should rally to

for

the

Motherland trink,

... in

support" the lebt

The Colonial Indies,

waa a British

long

established

and now

wishing

to expand in lest
the scenes

Africa.

234

Here again,
involved which

there
will

seen to have
be discussed in

been behind Chapter VI.

negotiations

This puff
review had lost

for

the Colonial
in the

Bank did
possibility

not,

hovGver,

imply

that

the

interest

of Afro-American

finance.

In March 1917 an African

and Dahomey, Appe.; l contributed

business
an article " 235

man, M.J. iiughe8,

entitled "African of

operating

in Nigeria
An

Co-operation; German competition,

to Afro-Americans.

The disappearance

the subsequent

strengthening

of the combine,

and the harmful

effects

of

233"

See ATOR, August 1913, p"79, All's comments on them.

for

these

two letters

and Dues Mohamed

234. ATOR, January

1917, P"4. An Appeal to Afro-Americans",

Co-operations 235. M.J. Hughes, "African ATOR, March 1917, p"56.

273.
the palm kernel duty was made the grounds for his plea;

In these circumstances I appeal to business men among the Afroto the in the United States to turn their Americans attention Racial Motherland, them an opportunity, and holds which offers for profitable out an invitation, enterprise. On the the the to of other hand, some caution was exercised wishing to by the trade with review in respect and of

bona fides review

of Afro Americans

West Africa, it believed

was prepared For

to denounce instance, it

an organisation attacked of this the

which African

be fraudulent. Brooklyn,

Union

Company

N. Y. City. of

The officers Pittsburg, Pa.,

company were Dr.

named as

Charles of

W. Chappelle Ala.,

President; Joseph

w. R. Pettiford of Cincinnati, The company, to the at

Birmingham, Manager;

Vice-President; D. Birch of 3rd of

L. Jones, Treasurer.

sales which

John and

Brooklyn, people,

was entirely Amsterdam at which firm for

composed News of it

coloured April its

had according held the

New York Cincinnati Company. years in

1914,

recently of

a meeting

announced was supposed

purchase

Charles for

W. Chappelle two and a half concession

This Africa

to have

been trading

mahogany,

and to

have a 4,000

sq. m. mahogany

valued

$1,000,000 at

in the Gold Coast.

This is a fascinating interest

fragment in Africa

of information, before with

showing both black

American commercial surveillance

the Great War, and the ATOR's close the black American press.

of and familiarity out that although

But Duse had to point American interest with suspicion

in general yet only Chief this

the ATOR welcomed black company must be regarded concessions

in the Gold Coast, Gold Coast law the

since

permitted Alfred

of 40 sq. m.

He classed

the company with fancifully with

C. Sam movement as the sort African

of scheme that

portrayed milk and

the long-lost

homeland as an idyllic

land flowing

274.
honey, wealth. fill the Afro-Americans

and which 236 Nevertheless,

would

pockets

of

with

untold

the the

emphasis of

of

the

African strengthen

Times

and Orient

Review the economic

with

respect of

to the

question races"

how to fell

and develop side of the parts the

position willing world. (excepting Negroes

"darker

heavily people

on the

need for of the

co-operation In practice,

between most of

coloured the

in different in effort

schemes mentioned a Pan-African The word in August

review of American became the enjoined pre-

M. H. Ispahani's) acting with

involved

West Africans. in an editorial world;

'co-operation' 1917, which

watchword, paration for

as stated the

post-war is

the 'development' we must have if we are to survive what **wealth just that are very much in evidence now. schemes African In the first you must combine. and Oriental place, They must basis. form societies on a co-operative must planters States, traders in touch with coloured of the United where there get Traders is a ready market for their produce. must combine for the in the cheapest commodities obtaining market. purpose of States these facilities. Japan, and the United India, offer will in those countries, Not only can cotton cheaply goods be obtained but other of goods ... may be secured at a very low rate, classes for competing Africans thereby an opportunity and Orientals giving their who are more fortunately placed from the point rivals with but you must combine. of view of capital. ... ...

236.

1914, pp. 99-100. For the Chief Sam Piovement, See ATOR, 21st April Goias, The Longest Way Rome; E. Bittle William and Gilbert see C. Sam's Back-to-Africa Movement, Detroit 1964, and Chief Alfred Black Exoduss Black Nationalists Edwin S. 8edkey, and Back to Africa New Haven and London 1969, pp. 291-3, Movements 1890-1910,, which puts back-to-Africa the Sam Movement in a wider context of contemporary It should be noted that the ATOR was not in the U. S. A. movements it was prepared to to the Chief Sam Movement; hostile implacably from "Accra Native" statements see the letter pro-Sam publish -

in ATOR 7th July

1914, p. 380 - but not to endorse them editorially.

275.
opportunity, war has given the Japanese their commercial This take it with both hands. that they will and we may be assured is also the opportunity We must of the African and the Oriental. the dignity readjust our perspective; we must begin to appreciate labour. 237 of The co-operation exhorted here was not that of the Rochdale Pioneers or This

the Co-operative
thinking bined in people

Wholesale

Society.

It

is evident
A usual

that

the editor
that Africans with the

was
com-

much looser, of African in was to larger,

more general descent or (to

terms. use his

arrangement phrase)

and Orientals, Europeans, coloured eulogy

stronger,

units, This would

more competitive certainly include

be welcomed. liability businessman, with the review

any sort by a 1920 company

of

owned limited of a Nigerian

company, S. *. since

as was made clear of Lagos, 1917;

Duncan

whose 238

had been connected

January

This energetic merchant, young Blest African who was in this country in 1916, is again in London working at a large scheme for the benefit Us last visit was in connection with the of his countrymen. and the allocation of a fair of tonnage question proportion shipping He interviewed Mr. including to native many people, shippers. the H. M. Controller Bigland, Alfred of the Trade in Oils and Fats for Native more consideration shippers. and succeeded in getting Mr. Duncan's plans are for fostering co-operation of a present (sic) for the purpose joint on the liability principle stock company to hold their west Africans own in competition with the of enabling Mr. Duncan has trade. European companies engaged in this wealthy for the conducting of such an enterprise shown hie capacity already Supply Company, which by the foundation of the British and African

three years the profits he managed so well that within almost equalled the original while the value of the assets of the Company capital, larger than the sum with which the business was started. was even

237. ATOR, August 1917, p. 59.

238. discussion For further of the business connections Duncan and Duse Mohamed Ali see Chapter VI of this between thesis. Sam

276.
The principle is so thoroughly of co-operation proved by European in West Africa have been so brilexperience and its possibilities liantly brilliant that it is to proved by Mr. Duncan's experiment, be hoped that his countrymen the prorally round and support will jected The best of good-fortune company with alacrity and zest. 239 to Mr. Duncan and his undertaking.

The African
world in the economic belief

Timesand
position

Orient

Review' view on the coloured

have its been dealt most with at

peoples'
length, and

and prospects is to

that doctrines

there

be found which, in

characteristic be shown in

considered were review or also

doctrines attempted

as will practice. its

Chapter

VI,

simultaneously the

Yet althou, 6, the h doctrine to beat of Pan-African threatening other (i) and

stressed

economic

angle,

preaching

Pan-Afro-Asian of white

mutual capitalism, it

co-operation nevertheless

and self-help it

the

forces matters. defence

by no means neglected other broad areas: States

Indeed, of the

had much to

say in of

three surviving

national

independence

Afro-Asian

of the national
the of dignity African

rights

of subject
of

Afro-Asian
Africans

peoples,

(ii)
and in

defence
(iii) actuality totally Thus,

of
defence

and human rights and Asian were not culture dealt

and Orientals, Naturally,

and religion. with in watertight

these

themes from

compartments, discussed.

separate

each other

and the

themes

already

defence

of the national for

independence

of African troubles for

and Asian nations

involved

support was blind How-

the Ottoman Empire in its connected suffering with

of 1912-13 and 1920; Islam as a non-racial, hostility themes will

and this colour

intimately religion, ever,

support

from white

Christian these

and aggression. be taken

as a matter

of convenience,

in sequence.

239. AOR, January

1920, p. 45.

277.
When it
no nation than

came to the question

more sympathy in in the

of defending
from the African

National
Times

independence,
and Orient and again, Review by

received

Turkey,

threatened

Balkan

wars of

1912-1913

imminent was bound Khalif. Turkophil, from

disolution, to have

1918-1922.240 sentiment the Great

As a Muslim, towards War, the editor the

Duse Mohamed Ali Sultan in his role its suspicion of

particular during to

Of course, sympathies without

review

had to keep enough

itself,

and its what but for

was under

authority

printing material.

would in

have amounted the review

to seditious returned to its

or even pre-war

treasonable position

1920,

as an apologist to the

the Empire

Turks. was no deluded recognised. Balkan love-affair The review's attack ill-

This in which

attachment the beloved's

Ottoman

blemishes reaction to officials

were not the first

immediate the

editorial of to for

war was to

corruption army defeat

Turkish its doom. the

who had sent the same time, world;

an unprepared, there

equipped in this

But at

was a lesson

entire

Afro-Asian

If the people of Africa, this. There is a lesson in all and the by Turkey's Lack of but profit Asia will misfortunes. people of lack of patriotism, of Turkey's were the basic elements unity, itself The house divided humiliation. against and it fell.

Europe stretches out her arms on every side to squeeze the darker races to her own advantage, because she knows the people Her aim has ever of Africa and the people of Asia to be divided. It therefore behoves you, men of Asia, been to promote division. in one common bond of lasting to join yourselves of Africa, men brotherhood.

240.

For a discussion fortunes the of thevsl-* nadir of Turkish after Lewis, The Emergence Groat Nary and revival under Ataturk, see Bernard London 1961, pp. 234-49. of Modern Turkey,

278.

Sink your petty Curb your insane pride. differences. religious The only pride is the pride the pride of you require of country, brotherhood, for in that pride of the you must gain the respect nations of curope, give and in that bond of brotherhood you will pause to the European aggressor. Your hearts may be cast down by the difficulties and the dangers that beset you, but YOUR TIME is not yet. The wise see it dimly. indubitably he very greed which tae produced your subjugation will 41 lead to the undoing of your oppressors ... At the beginning of 1913, the during the London for Peace Conference, ill-faith from and false these the editor

bitterly ship

reproached towards (and Turkey.

European Britain

powers was not

friend-

excluded

strictures.

He sadly

prematurely)

concluded;

the humiliation of Turkey and thr,, dismemberment of the Turkish ... 1mpire is a foregone be for Turkey to accept conclusion, and it will to Asia, the inevitable her forces there, consolidating and retire for it is absolutely her life, impossible for her to depend renewing 'cordial European Nations. 242 intentions' the promises and of upon Up to August columns. Thrace about of the 1914, Despite and Adrianople the long term is not Turkey was frequently in the It to discussed 1913 at in the the saving to review's of editorial

some gratification for position. friendly Turkey,

Lastern

review

continued that does ... it ",

be worried

considered Turkey, State to nor

".. * the disposition appear that the they r-uroof mankind their Councils

Powers allowing

intend peans in the

uropean any non-. : minds to

exist the

and "as

have made up their interests are "243 of sound their unless

exploit

non-European they the do not Turk

races

money making they

schemes, uproot

consider from the

interests of iurope.

absolutely

241.

ATOR, November

1912,

p. iii.

242. ATOR, December-January 243" A_" August

1913, p. 185.

1913, p. 45.

279.
In 1920, the editorial
Ottoman bility Empire, of handing deploring over

pen was equally

the Greek action

buoy in defence
in Asia Greeks, Minor

of the defeated
possiattention

and the

Constantinople

to the

and drawing

to the need of both the British

Muslim feelings within their

and the French to placate

Empires if they would

pro-Khalif
244

have peace.

Speaking in his
which

role

of admonisher
the Empirt-,

of the British
he said;

for

their

foolish

errors,

were undermining

1ngland is still technically at war with Indians Empire, to the british are loyal Muslim soldier knows there is something Flanders France, He and in ''alestine. but deep in his heart duty, Well, ... Kbaliphate, of 'T'urkey is and the Sultan

Turkey, and although even the most illiterate He has fought in wrong. He did his was a soldier. the Khaliphate is the the leader of the F'aithful1.

45

In the same article

against Logland In both numbers period Christian Peter article of of the in

it
the

was insisted
Great War.

that

Turkey had not been the aggressor

pre

and post in support out in

war periods, of the

the

magazine Empire. States "Peter 3chaap, entitled

rrinted In the

considerable earlier

articles pick

Turkish

one could

an attack Europe the

on the the

Balkan title

and their the Painter,

sympathisers Servia by the

under

and Peter review's

Hermit", Charles

by Ulis Kosher,

and a similar "Crusaders

own man,

244. AOR, December 1920, p. 59.

245. "Turkey AQR, April 1920, p. 44. In this and the Muslim World", same Dune Mohamed Ali made clear the racial editorial, as well as religious basis for his support "The sympathetic of the Ottoman cause; attachto Turkey, and, I might add, the sympathy which ment of l! uslims throughout the coloured is to be found in the fact extends world, that, of China and Japan, Turkey is the last with the exception independent to us. " non-European power we have left

280.
(1912-1913) Turcophobes. advanced the Unlimited", 246 idea 247 in Another that This the if in on British May 1913, lack with of the economic review's

concentrating article,

its

fire

in

particular

by William

H. Seed in of her tied in

Turkey line

was beaten of argument Africans to combat are

because clearly

development. overall economic If the belief

need for they were

and Asians the assaults

to promote of white

their capitalism. to be found opponent

strength articles

1920 on Turkey Pickthall, for

examined,

among them is erstwhile then

an offering of his days in

by Marmaduke as a writer the fight

Duse Mohamed Ali's who had since Empire. 248

The New Age, the

become a

comrade

to preserve

Ottoman

But perhaps more important

support an active used public place his of the role Ottoman in Empire

than these editorials

was the fact that the

and articles
review's in editor Britain,

in
played and and

fostering to give Indeed,

Turcophil, full the publicity offices for length of Duse'a

- pressure

groups

magazine

to pro-Ottoman in 158 Fleet

organisations

meetings.

Street

became a meeting This, in during the the

and corresponding will be discussed

address at

many auch organisations. in the following chapter,

however, course period

of a full 1912-1921.

examination

political

activities

November 1912, pp. 151-52 and ibid. 246. See AATOR 247. William H. Seed, "Why Turkey is Beaten", A

February-.. arch 1913, pp. 268-9. R, May 1913, pp. 327-8.

"The Fate of Turkey", A0, January 1920, pp. 33-4. 248. Marmaduke Pickthall, For the growth of the association between Pickthall and Duse Mohamed Ali, see Chapter V of this thesis.

281.
The review relations On the to was interested in the in

repercussions sympathy through via with

of

Anglo-Turkish nationalism. columns

on India, whole it

and was broadly this

Indian

expressed in

sympathy rather than

throwing

open its

Indians

living

London, in to India in

editorials. Indian political columns.

The post-Great movement 249 Even in if years within the she to

War Khilafat be regularly this India, would the the

movement referred to

was the review's lese to his

only

the

editorial for its

was important than

the

review

internal

significance Islam

as a threat her

and warning As in the of

Britain writings

to respect in the of Muslims review's than

preserve

Empire.

earlier Muslims were

editor British

chose

to emphasise in which 250

numerical the

position Indian the

Empire,

course But in in

largest politics defence exception took of the

Muslim

component.

general,

Indian

were less of Indian

to be found human rights, the

specific will of of life

issues

more generalised presently. War years, equality which of risk 251 other An

which editorials of risk

be discussed the Great

can be made of line that

"Equality must

and limb, of

financial India

war burdens must

receive full loyalty

equality

political as enjoyed for

treatment"; by the

i. e.,

be conceded of her

Dominion

status

Dominions

as a result

to and efforts

Britain

during

249. Por a survey of the literature of the Khilafat movement and the between the late Ottoman Empire of the relationship wider question Indian politics, see Chapter V. notes 31 and 117. and 1920, pp-43-4 250. See "Turkey and the Muslim World", AOR, April Empire. Muslims of the British spoke of the 400 million 251. "To-day", ATOR, November 1917, p. 92. which

282.
the it The Montagu with 252 delight All this Mission that is 1917 was well was to of and likewise at Imperial

war.

of

received,

was noted

India far

be represented the detailed

Conferences.

short

and intimate

knowledge of and comment on West African

to be found in the review's editorials.

or even black

American affairs

To some extent

this

was counterbalanced on Inlian

to be found in were

by numerous articles, by Indiana.

many Some of

of them long and detailed,

these Ali in contributors his political In this were

Nationalism
on the London,

same platforms as will Majid

as Duse Mohamed the next

activities category contributor

be shown in and , haikh topics in the

chapter.

Sayyid

Abdul political

M. H. Kidwai. review's have con-

The most frequent pre-war stituted years,

on Indian Raja, Indian

however,

was Sundara in

whose articles Nationalism were for "India

would African,

a political

education

American

and West Indian Reform", cottage violently industries

readers. assailing

Notable Free

among these Trade for its

and Tariff of in Indian interests

destruction industries

and incipient

manufacturing

the

of Lancashire.
mill of the

253

This was, of course,

economic theories,

not only
but also

more grist
a widely

for

the
view

review's

accepted

252. ibid,
253.

& ATOR, June 19179 p. 111.

and Tariff Reform", ATOR, December-January

Sundara Raja, "India 1913, pp. 188-9"

283.
among Indian notable Nationalists Raja articles the 254 Other Political to

of

the

reason

for

Indian

poverty. were

Sundara

on Indian terrorism a wide Service, "Politics

politics of range

"India's World

Demands"55 the frustration

which of

related Indiana the

pre-Firat of issues,

War India

over Public

including and India"256 Muslim them; and

education, progress which League, "The but to

taxation,

repressive and Public

legislation Life in

self-government; of the

gave summaries and their Press

Indian with

National at

Congress, differences which

All-Indian between only

leaders, and the

no hint It",

Indian also

Men Behind 257

was not

descriptive,

attacked

censorship.

254.

in the ranks of early The most notable theory exponent of this Indian was of course none other than Dadabhai Naoroji. nationalists Rule in India, London 1901, comprised His Poverty and un-British a on Indian speeches and writings of his most important collection Another Indian influential intellectual who affairs. economic tariff the effect of British economy policies on the Indian attacked Romesh Dutt, in his work The Economic was the economic historian India in the Victorian Are. From the Accession Historyf of Queen Century, let ed. in 1837 to the Conmencement of the Twentieth Victoria Dutt believed Government London 1903. that "when every civilised is endeavouring to help home manufactures, the Indian on earth industry Government has cruelly the infant repressed of India mill fiscal the Indian and attacked under the mandate of Lancashire", See op. cit., and 1896 by which this was done. measures of 1879,1882

7th ed.,

London 1950, pp-531 & 543-4. Political Demands", ATOR, February-March 1913,

255. Sundara Raba, "India's pp"265-7. 256. Sundara Raja, pp-343-5. "Politics

and Public

Life

in India",

ATOR, May 1913,

257. Sundara Raja, "The Indian Press and the Men Behind It", 1913, pp"393-4.

ATOR, June

284.
It Hindus for the is hardly were Indian

perhaps

surprising always

that

in 258

the

review's

pages

and Muslims review also

brothers. in

Sundara

Raja's

writings

show an interest

Pan-Asianism anti-European

and Pan-Islamism. article in praise

In November 1912 he contributed of the Chinese being, Revolution, in short,

a notably "China her vast

entitled to exert

and Her Mission" potential strength

- that against

mission

the Europeans who were oppressing A little

Therein,

her and the entire

Asian continent. on events

259 260

earlier

two articles

of his were published,

partition as bogus. of Persia Though

in Persia.

the Anglo-Russian pose denounced

was attacked, Russian he believed

and England's (with

humanitarian Inglieh

repression that;

connivance)

had apparently

succeeded,

fail, When revolutions they do not bring the downfall of nations, but only day a formidable foundation on which to base future revolu261 tions which will be more effective.
Pan-Islamic unity, which Sundara Raja saw not as a possibility but as a

reality India

would come to Persia's would unite with

aid,

and he believed

that

the Hindus of In conclusion,

Muslims over the Persian

issue.

262

255. There does not appear to be any example in the ATOR of an acknowledgement that Hindus and Muslims might at times regard each other let alone antipathetic, interests. as having divergent,
259. 260. Sundara Raja, "China and her Mission", ATOR, November 1912, pp. 149-50. 1912,

Sundara Raja, "The Futur_ Part I, ATOR, September of Persia", ATOR, October 1912, pp. 121-2. Part II, pp. 102-4,

261. ibid. 262. ibid,

Part Part

I, II,

p. 104. p. 121.

285.
he affirmed "... I believe in future Persia and the Persian

the

of

people

as I believe
Pan Asian

in

the future

of Asia and the Asiatics263

-a

resounding

hope.

Turning
the review

to the national
both took a close

movement in Egypt,
editorial The question National in the Party following national periods up to the during old interest of iius

there

as might be expected
its columns exact the years

and opened

to Egyptian relation 1912-1921 interest in the with

nationalists. the Egyptian

Mohamed Ili's the wiafd in but is his amply in the

and with chapter, struggle

will in

be discussed for

continuing demonstrated the review's Jar, led by

and support of the

Egypt's Three

pages

review. (i) the

can be discerned the outbreak of

Lgyptian during

interests; which support (ii)

period to

Great

was given 1917-1918,

Egyptian the

National review

Party demanded

Muhammad Farads

which

British era; Laghlul crisis.

sympathetic (iii) and

consideration

of Egyptian

aspirations supported Egyptian

in the post-war the demands of constitutional

1920, during

which the review in the then current

Pasha and the *afd

The first

of

these

periods

began

on a pessimistic

note,

for

in

the

review's that

first

issue

its

editor

lamented

that

"...

there

is

no gainsaying

the Egyptian

National

movement has never recovered

the prestige

263. ibid,

p. 122.

286.
it lost the death review Pasha Kamil. in the touch 264 with fate of

which This

with

untimely that the

of

Ifustapha

comment suggests politics al-datani, was in exile the support

was sufficiently estimate fast into of touch of

Egyptian al-iiizb ship

to form then

a realistic

current

languishing

a body whose main with the As, party's the Egyptian

leadermasses. the an 265

and increasingly review the was, National hardly in

out the Party

Nevertheless, prepared exile to

period exiles.

up to

outbreak in a sense,

of

war,

himself, Its

Duse would congresses as for 1913.266

condemn the

leaders Continent

on euch of Europe Congress

grounds. were held Party, Kitchener If

and publications example In of the line

on the

publicised in

so-called with the

Egyptian leader of

National the

Geneva in the

National by Lord

1913 granting was editorially

an Egyptian

legislative

assembly

denounced;

is ... to come to a 'real' Kitchener only anxicus underthe essential they naturally thing people, with the Egyptian standing conferring expect his to do, is to secure to them a real Constitution body reasonable 1 representative on a re powers in dealing with Otherwise the Constitution their own affairs. only be a sham, will fail which will 000267 Lord

264.

This opinion July 1912, p. 3. is confirmed ibid, by the recent work Jr., "The Egyptian Coldachmidt Nationalist Party: 1892of Arthur Political Change in Modern Essrot. 1919", in P. M. Holt, ed., and Social fromhe Ottoman Conaueat to the United Studies Historical Arab R ub c, London 1960, pp. 322-333. Goldschmidt, ATOR, June op. cit., 1913, pp. 328-9.

265. 266.

pp"370-1.

267. ibid,

p. 371.

287.

A generally Khedive, editor but,

respectful again that in "...

tone line

was maintained with the leaders

by the of

review

towards

the the he

the

National to succeed

Party, unless

insisted the

His of

Highness his people" his

cannot

hope

can regain effectively and, with above his

confidence

and "...

he can do nothing peace with "268 the the editor 'true' In Turkey line was best

until all,

he has cleansed satisfied ambiguity his Empire; his

court, of his

made his sincerity. Empire, terms of

people the at

usual

towards advice,

British in

inclined interests

to phrase of the

times,

interests to cultivate it is in the highest of Great Britain ... the gratitude can nation, of the Egyptian and this and friendship by helping the Egyptians to the establishment of only be obtained institutions, the military truly system on placing representative be worthy of the country, which ... may a basis which will ... ble support is cast into when the Mediterranean a most val prove 29 the melting pot. Appeals to all what editor to the was, of Britain's Egyptian in the effect, paper bettor National judgement Party. rebuke FpT)tienne were not, however, the always review acceptable printed

On one occasion from in 1r.

an implied La Patrie

N. M. Rifaat, Rifaat

emigre wrote; to a common Egyptian

Paris.

I would like to draw the attention of your readers ... by many enthusiastic overlooked which is often mistake, in England. correspondents

is their reckless and repeated This, I am sorry to state, to lend us their and public opinion, appeals to English justice! hands in the carrying out of the various reforms we need in .gypt.

268. ibid,

September 1913.

PP-89-90-

269. ATOR, 2nd June 1914, p. 242.

288.
They unfortunately to English think that by appealing public but a short opinion, study of something may be gained for Egypt; Irish history should and of English rule in India and South Africa this illusion. What Egyptians soon dispel must do, as they will is to trust to themselves, to educate and to organise. soon discover,

Indeed some of them have gone so far as to advocate the creation Committee for the purpose of promoting good of an Anglo-Egyptian feeling lead to evacuation. and understanding which might eventually
Certainly if they think in an illusion our people are living that the occupation to come to an end of Egypt by England is likely by have achieved What the English without a deathly struggle. they will drop treachery, the last shedding not abandon without

of English
Clearly, this

blood. 270

was rather

a case

of

'if

the

cap fits, the

wear

it'.

whether

Dues Mohamed Ali Committee" belief in is the not

had been among those known, but his of

advocating

"Anglo-Egyptian declared opposed puts to

continuing the British

and frequently people (as

good-heartedness Capitalists of

Politicians, line

and Colonial Rifaat's support

Officials) criticism.

clearly

him in

to be a recipient As well as editorial

for

Egyptian

Nationalism,

the

period

1912-1914 was one in which the review exiles. leader The most important of al-Hizb al-Watani,

published

many articles

by Egyptian was the visited

and frequent

of such contributors 271 Fand 8ctually

MuhammadYarid.

270.

Dr. M. Y. Rifaat Also see Rifaat'e ibid, p. 28.

to editor article

ATOR, ATOR, 31st March 1914, pp. 42-3. "Liberty Our Programme", in or Death.

271.

lieutenant in the leadership Muhammad Farid acted as Nustapha Kamille Party, National and succeeded as leader of the Egyptian after death in 1908. He was one of the original five Mustapha Kamil'a Muatapha Kamil, with Ahmad Lutfi al-Sayyid, members of the party 'Abbas II, See Afaf Lutfi from Zagazig". Khedive and "a pharmacist EayDt and Cromer. A Study in A lo-ERyDtian Relations. al-Sayyid, London 1968, pp. 164,186 The development & 200-01. of Uuse Mohamed in Chapter V. Ali's is further discussed relations with Muhammad Farid

289.
Britain this will in 1914, and was entertained further in the by liuse next attacked Mohamed Ali during his eist=

be discussed by the review in the detail review's he used of period In July

chapter. his

From the political bemusing his

platform in

offered Egypt majority to the

Muhammad Farid that must

enemies to the

- often of

have been somewhat 272 An examples the regime Egypt of

readera. it

contributions Assembly of education. pre-occupation accepted of the and 273

review, the

to denounce Occupation

1913 Legislative in the field

attack

record the

the

During of that the

1917-1910, 1917

was not

a major

review.

the editorial in

column the line of the

"To-Day" best of

the

Protectorate people. of al-Hizb

declared This

1914 was in not particular who spent the

interests the under surviving the

Egyptian remnants of Shaikh

was certainly in

al-atini, Shaxish.

those

influence sup-

"Abd ul-'Aziz

war years

actively

porting stressed ference.

the Central Egypt's

Powers*274

On the other herself about

hand,

the same editorial peace conperiod came

right

to speak for statement

at the post-war Egypt in this

The most lengthy

in October

1918 on the eve of the armistice,

when the entire

editorial

272.

e. g. his attack 1914, p. 105.

on the

new ministry

in

Egypt

in

ATOR, 21st

April

273.

"The Parliamentary Comedy in u; Muhammad Farid, ATOR, 5th gypt", Education 1914, pp. 129-30, in Egypt", Part I, ibid, and "Public Part II, ibid, 12th May 1914, p. 175, Part III, ibid, pp. 161-2, 19th May 1914, pp. 201-2.

May

274. "To-Day", ATOR, July Shaikh "Abd ul-'Aziz

1917, p. 2. For the wartime Shawish, see Chapter V.

activities

of

290.
"Egypt and Self-Determination". conservative in President statement, Wilson for 275 as it and Prime peoples

was given essentially was every George's to Egypt.

over

to

This

was an that there Lloyd applicable

moderate, reason to

even believe about

said

Minister being

professions

independence George the

subject

A statement awaited, not fulfil

by Lloyd though

on Egyptian of

self-determination trouble was foreseen conservatism hoping for review was of the had

was "patiently" if the Britain review's did

possibility

expectations. views at this time 1881. days the of era

The essential is If shown by its in July

Egyptian of the

restoration looked dreaming back of

Organic

Law of to the past,

1912 the now it

nostalgically an even remoter

Mustapha of Arabi

Kamil, Pasha.

Naturally,
the last

the harsh reality

of the these cagazine,

of political
in October, In the the

events

in Egypt between
next issue, in by in

1918 issue 1920, modified

and its interval of the

January Egyptian bald in

beliefs. that of

a new era Wafd, led

Political

history,

dominance

Pasha Zaghlul the pre-war era

had come into as 'moderate' the

existence.

Zaghlul

had been regarded Minister and

he had been a successful that briefly in

then 1914.

a leading Since with

member of the the end of British

Assembly

met between increasingly all

1913 and bitter by a had

1918 he had been locked authorities, the

conflict stubborn

who had outraged (which the

Egypt

attempt

to maintain wartime

Protectorate

Egyptians

seen as a temporary

measure)

and by refusal

to permit

Egyptian

275.

Duce Mohamed Ali, "Egypt October 1918, pp. 37-8.

and

ielf-Determination",

editorial,

ATOR,

291.
the Peace Conference leading power; be willing themselves the in Paris.

representation the hero of the

at

Zaghlul of

had become of be openly against to find

nation, British to found

Wafd to unheard politician with

lengths dared the

defiance his him.

against

no Egyptian

enemy or thought The British

to co-operate unable

British or

to maintain

order

any kind of effective

anti-Wafd it

Ministry. is
of

276 that
first

In these circumstances,
gulf between the last editorial the

not surprising
1918 and the of Egyptian

there
of

was a vast
which and

1920, during

accurately

summarised

development

affairs

since

the war;
in 1914, the world was told At the outbreak the that of hostilities Powers were at war to maintain the rights Entente of small nationalities. The people of Egypt were led to believe that the protectorate was a the national interests They war measure to safeguard of the country. that their were also informed religious susceptibilities would not be tampered with and that they would not be called upon to take up Turkey. Notwithstanding these promises, arms against enormous Funds were demanded and liberally labour in ipt. corps were raised for Red Cross work. The food of the fellah supplied was taken for the use of the army in Mesopotamia and Palestine. It will these demands were necessitated be said that by the .. * But quite why give pledges so. or promises with war. reckless ... Statesmen here British informed they that so vilely prodigality. believed the ignorant masses of hgypt incapable of rising? as it that the indignities heaped indiscriminately thought upon uneducated 1gyrptians by native-despising colonial and refined white and educated forgotten? troops would be so readily

276.

For the origins, rise and fulfilment of Zaghlul's career, political Constitutionalist of the Liberal see Mahmud Zayid "The Origins Party in Egypt", Kedourie "The Genesis pp-338 k 340-5; and .lie Constitution both in of the Lgyptian of 1923", pp. 349-51 & 354-8, P. AI. Holt, ed., Political and Socials Change in Modern Egypt.

292.

Was it conceivable that a race of men, who had been led to expect justice treatment and liberal at the hands of a country which gloried in proclaiming itself the Mother of free political institutions would remain passive while such semi-barbarous and countries as Slavonia Esthonia were being accorded self-determination? Is it a clatter for wonder that a country Dicey which Prof. for self-government than Turkey would said in 1908 was more fitted be content Commission of Enquiry with a Milner when it saw selfdetermination to Arabia? granted Could the people of Lgypt possess themselves in patience whilst leaders their because they asked to be to Malta, were being deported to lay their the Peace Conference before permitted at Paris? claims Finally their reprecan they be content accredited when they find to the Peace Conference in Paris and not persentatives voiceless 27? to lay their the British throne and people? just demands before mitted Despite should for this yet full and accurate rehearsal of Egyptian for grievances, it concluded Commons" to the article

be regarded liberty loving

as basically patriot in

conservative, the British

by a cry tale

"one

House of

the lead in arranging faction to the Egyptian

"a solution nation.

of the question "278

which will

give

satis-

The search for

the House,

such a "patriot"
by means of only

among the British,

a symposium to appearing Britishers strongly sups-ort

within
in - at

or without
January least this. at this were; 1920.

was promoted appear

The questions answers from

to have were

been put

none other of

acknowledged,

which

suggests for Egypt

The absence point must

any attempt

to gather

Afro-Asian omission.

be regarded

as a striking

The questions

asked

(1)

(2)

Are you of the opinion that the time is ripe for the restoration of 1881 which was suppressed in of the Egyptian Constitution 1882 at the beginning of the Occupation? Have you an alternative to suggest? ""' solution

277. "The Final 270. x,

Bord",

AOtt, January

1920, p. 42.

January

1920, p. 5. 1920, p. 5.

AOR, January

293.
Once again over fifty, we find the editor, in now no longer the events a young man but youth. all. a an of few Lord movewere Review; George of

somewhat to answer and C. F. him,

stuck

of his in in

Only a very Two of these,

bothered Lamington ments Sir Sir with

these Ryder,

questions

- eleven

had been involved appear in the next

Islamophil

political

as will

chapter. of the

The others Fortnightly of Liverpool;

Harry

H. Johnston; Morrison; Father Sir. Harry

W. L. Courtney, Sir Bernard rather to J. D. Rees; Vaughan;

editor Lord

Theodore Shaw; 280

Russell

Bernard Warwick. first tutelage dent

I. G. Wells

and the

Countess to the

contradictorally the second with in the

replied outlined object military old

"Tea"

question under

and in answer British but Sinai with

a scheme for of an eventual occupation Lord

gradual indepenof the

protection, Britain Sudan. from

kingdom,

permanent Duse's

Suez Canal, and C. F. pleased departure of the

and the

associates

Lamington

Ryder with

abstained

any outspoken admission Revolution The Countess lines in in the that

support, "whether

though

Duse was the new

Ryder's

reluctant the Russian "

we like the

or not",

had "sounded answered interests in of

death-knell terms about brotheryears

Imperialism need

everywhere. frontier

vague the

to abolish man. after

wider twenty the

hood of tutelace,

B. G. bells which

answered should

favour

of a further on exactly

Egypt

be "a state

same footing

20.

See ibid for the answers of these persons. A further 12 persons Earl Stanhope, Admiral Sir E. R. Freemantle, Cardinal Viscount Buxton, Bourne, the Bishop of London, the Archbishop the Editor of York, of Long M. P. (former Trutt, Walter Coloiial Secretary), the Archbishop Lord Beaverbrook, Lord Northcliffe, of Canterbury, and the Editor in ibid, of The Nation were listed p. 6, as having been approached, but having refused a statement.

294.
of (sic) Canada and Australia. " As might be expected, the most pithy

answer came from Shaw;

political reality in

he also

showed the most clear

understanding

of

such a situation;

The time is always ripe for the restoration liberty of a nation's from the point be ripe, from of view of the nation, and never will themthe point When the British of view of the invader. pledged to evacuate Egypt, the Egyptians selves should have asked them to fix a date. The date at present is the day of judgement. contemplated Shaw's answer apart, this symposium was more a justification of Dr. Rifaat's

281

scepticism
tendency issue of to

about appealing
trust Africa in British

for

British

sympathy than of Ruse Mohamed Ali's

Yet in in his foreward to the first

decency. Review

the

and Ur ent

January

1920 Duse had repeated;

the British own freedom, people are not only enamoured of their .. but they are also anxious that other peoples should be as free as This is proved by the fact for themselves. that they have fought the rights five of small nationalities. years to maintain and liberties empire have not enjoyed the If subject of the British peoples it is because the British freedom they have so justly merited nation to the aims is misinformed no information with regard or possesses 282 of Africa and the Orient. and desires

281.

his career ibid, 5. Despite as a Fabian Imperialist see Bernard p. Porter, Critics pp. 111,114-7,119 of Empire, and 231 - Shaw had as brutality He in ., gypt. of British early as 1906 shown abhorence incident the Dinshawai as an example of the menace of military cited Empire; "soldiers influence in the British of their pay the penalty by becoming, to the free civilian, relatively slavery and outlawry tyrannical, hysterical, destructive, dishonest, mendacious, alarmist abroad, politically reactionary and profesat home and terrorist See G. ii. Shaw, John Bull's " incapable. Other Island, sionally

rep. 1947, pp-45-6.

282. AOX, January 1920, p. 4.

295.
Through struggle was able of in 1920 the the Wafd. review But it followed must the have fortunes been with the and supported relief coming that of At ought, the the three last it review Wafd

June 1920 to to London the

announce to

with

approval with Lord

representatives must have July 1920,

negotiate

Milner. as they the

seemed that with

British audible

were behaving sigh of relief

and in

an almost

review

stated;

have never held any enmity towards Egyptians the English people. We have always said and we still that the English are maintain they only and a freedom loving and that a fair-dealing people, that the grievances desire the Empire of any body of people within to be righted. should be made known to them for such grievances The English people, as such, can always be depended upon to do but the bureacrats, thing, tax-payer the right of whom the British is having a taste just now, are and have been of late years at the root of the evil. The official have been blind advisers and they have fed the British that was blinding, people on information and, being blind, they found the ditch of '83 olitical unrest and discontent any without difficulty. very special Clearly, there the is there a great is more of irony in self-justification that from to the the British in this side than the reality. realisation the British of Indeed, of

need to make some concession but from the arch-Imperialist

Wafd came not ilnor. 284

from

public

Lord

The same note

self-justification

was struck

in the very

last

issue

of the review;

the finding Commission has been accepted that of the Milner Ae learn Government, by the British and we are glad to note that many of the by the Editor Review, Times and Orient of the African views expressed both in these columns, "In The Land Of The Pharaohs" and in ... 285 in the Egyptian have been accepted and embodied settlement.

283. AOR, July

1920, pp. 48-9.

Proconsul in Politics. A Study of Lord Milner in 284. See A. M. Gollin, Opposition role and in Power, London 1964, pp"587-95, for Milner's in creating War Egyptian crisis. a settlement of the post-Great 285. AOR, December 1920, p. 4$.

296.
But it would surely of be unreasonable Egyptian the less of time, to condemn this attitude as unduly in season

smug. and out in that the

The cause of light season, of

Nationalism settlement than

had been supported achieved it Britain of by the should

and if

Wafd has appeared, be recalled part

history,

satisfactory, from

these

were unheard at the that

concessions and decades British

to a non-European any similar advances

of her

Empire in

ahead

elsewhere

non-white was not only

Empire. about the National struggle in about given in Africa. its to

The review k.gypt, It is but

concerned in here

was also

interested to repeat Africa,

national what

movements

elsewhere

unnecessary in South National in view

has already to recall delegations with the

been stated publicity the United

interest the Native

other

than

Congress of its

and its

to

Kingdom. attention coincided educated

Naturally, was given with what

strong there.

connections The review's nadir,

West Africa, years of past the

to nationalism could

pre-war

be regarded He could Eamon, Sir

as the back

politically, so remote

West African. figures had held as Dr. official

look

on a not Lewis

when such Beale by 1912, Horton it was

Samuel of real

and James Africanus 286 But

positions

importance.

286.

Fyfe, A History For the career of Dr. J. F. Easmon, see Christopher Leone, Oxford 1962, pp. 423,433 for Sir Samuel & 618; of Sierra London 1958; A Lewis, of Sir Samuel Lewis, see John Hargreaves, -Lifeintroduction Horton, by George Shepperson for James Africanus see Beale Horton, Countries to James Africanus west African and Peoples, for Establishing Necessary British with the Requirements and Native. Recommended by the Committee of the House of that Self-Government Race, 2nd ed., Commons. 1865. and a Vindication of the African ), Africanus Davidson Nicol 1969, pp. vii-xxiii, Ldinburgh ed. and

Horton,

The Dawn of Nk, tionaltsm

in Modern Africa,

London 1969, pp. 1-15"

297.
undoubtedly service Africans, case of or the inferior however the spirit in senior of the times that Europeans, should qualified. Service, not This precluding but in practice of however junior in to in the of

qualifications, or well r.edical

be subordinated was explicit the possibility the

West African in

anyone rules

following

Easmon's convention

footsteps, in all

W.A. M. S. service. 287

were a working

branches

government

In Nigeria,
scope for the

which as the largest

and ambitious of Lugard of

colony

should

have offered
servant,

the most
the

able

West African

government imposing had earlier

dominating Nigeria the

figure

was systematically rule that

on Southern been developed

concepts

indirect

287.

Fyfe remarks of this Christopher in Sierra Leone in the process "Cardew's century; opening years of this policy of appointing Posts, to Senior Luropeans by his successors, continued slowly As they died or retired Europeans squeezed out Creole officials. (the Creoles) them", and "Denied hope for the future replaced ... could only look back to a Golden Age, the vanished era of queen Creole giants. Victoria " See op. cit., and the departed pp. 615 & 618. For the type of argument used to "justify" the exclusion of from the *eat African Africans Ledical Service, qualified see Committee on the we:3t African Report of the Departmental Medieal Cmd. 4720/1909, "the witnesses pp. xx-zxi, para. 55i who had local in deprecating were practically unanimous the appointment experience to the west African of West Africa, or of India, Medical of natives They think it, however, Staff desirable to add that the ... of the employment of West Africans tiedical question as a Subordinate deserves Service " In general, consideration. the appointment ... to an-v senior of West Africans post in any branch of the government became so uncommon in the early in lest Africa service twentieth the career that of such a figure century as Dr. Henry Aawlinson Carr of Lagos, who rose to the major position of Resident of Lagos (1918-1924) seemed like For the life a miraculous exception. and Henry Carr, Lloyd C. Gwam, "Dr. Henry (Rawlinson) see works of

Carr, M.A., U. C. L., I. S. O., C. B. r:., November 1963, pp. 3-8.

1663-1945".

Ibaden,

no. 17,

298.
in the North. 288 In that anomaly.

system, 289

the

educated then, gallery! official,

native that

was a disturbing Lugard was in there the as on be the

and disagreeable African

No wonder, rogues

Times and Orient of the

Review's

He stood imposing

the archetype the African

arrogant A typical remarks

colonial editorial of April

indignities would

people. retrospective

comment on Lugard 1920;

following

General always talked The ex-Governor about making Nigeria pay, but be found that his was a most expensive it will had administration. Service he filled some of the higher posts in the Civil with capable Natives, he could have given them a salary upon which they could in comparative have lived comfort reduced the cost and contentment, of the administration, would have been made to pay its and Nigeria beyond the limited way in a manner quite conception of Sir Frederick.

288.

For Lugard's to introduce his principles attempt of administration Nigeria, Report by Sir F. D. Lugard into Southern see Sir F. D. Lugard, NigNria. 1912-1919, of Northern and Southern on the Amalgamation I. F. Nicolson, Cmd. 46b, London 1920, passim; The Administration of largely hostile Nigeria, critique pp. 1bO-215, passim -a of both Margery Perham; Lugard and his biographer, and H. Perham. Li a, The Years of Authority, pp. 408-56, passiv. by the words of Charles This point Temple, perhaps may be illustrated the greatest dognatist of the theory and practice of indirect rule, the "Europeanised native" as "a kind of nondescript who regarded in a lackadaisical colourless and futile entity aping manner the the time knowing of the European, all appearance and shibboleths

289.

in his heart that he is notes never can become one of them", but wheel in the social machinery acknowledged that "they are an important though with regret, that it we have created, and I admit forcibly,
is too Rulers, See Temple, late to turn back now. " London 1918, pp. 218 & 220. Native Races and their

299.
The ex-Governor General was, however, to too busy trying Nigeria, create a sort of white where the black man was to become the serf in his own country. Where life and limb was to be at District the mercy of irresponsible Commissioners and Residents, who would and did use the Native authority as a cloak for their because under the Lugard regime the people of wanton cruelties, had no rights the soil felt bound to respect. which the white official Nigeria, attempts review great as we shall to defend was also ferment see presently, African dignity interested protracted review's whole the figured largely in the But life, 291 could in which review's by 1920, then in the

and human rights. in bleko Lagos political

strongly over the

controversy, as it the

was well

calculated basis the for rest

to engage questioning of Nigeria.

the the

sympathies, position skillful of

be used as a Lagos and even

British of

Under

guidance

Herbert

Macaulay,

the sort for

of educated

African

who Lugara most loathed, and who is

292

the man who regarded

many years dominated of Nigerian

Lagos politics, nationalism. administration.

now widely

as the father

the Eleko dispute As part

became a thorn campaign,

in the side of the British

of his

290. AOR. April

291.

1920, p. 44.

Background For the Ueko controversy, to see Coleman, Nigeria. M. Perham, Native in Nigeria, Nationalism, Administration pp. 195-6; Justitia Fiat: London 1937, pp. 264-71, Macaulay, the Moral and Herbert Obligation Government to the House of KinP Docemo of of theBritish

hjgLos, London 1921. 292. For a sample of Lugard's private remarks on the Lagosians, see Lugard to Lady Lugard, 9th December 1919, quoted in Perham, Lugard. The Years "I have spent the best part of my life in oaf Authority, p. 594;
Africa 29 years, 12 as Governor here, and after after nearly ... the people of Lagos are the lowest, the coat am free to say that the most prompted by purely seditious self-seeking and disloyal, of any people I have met. " money motives I

300.

Macaulay 'white able

came to Cap' chiefs

London of

in

1920 with

Chief

Oluwa, opened

one of its

the

so-called to the Macaulay's illDosumu).

Lagos. pen, Lagos which ruling

The review produced family,

columns against of

and vituperative of the old

a diatribe the house

treatment The piece or Infamy", of

Docemo (or title of

was given and the Chief

the

characteristically of

hacaulayan also the

"Honour

same issue giving

the magazine of

bad an unsigned complex as the background beginning of and Dose

profile to the the

Oluwa, 293

more details

dispute.

This that was to of

can probably was to develop until

be regarded between Duse's

good friendship which the in

Herbert death such in

Macaulay 1945.

Mohamed Ali, Despite C. *. bette,

continue Sierra

role

Leone Creoles, Sierra review.

as the

Doves and found to the Thomas. a

the

review's

foundation, place in past the

Leonean

politics

comparatively this

negligible piece

One major

exception of

was a long

on the Leonean,

glories

and present a Creole

miseries Kev.

Creoles For

by a Sierra in past

presumably

himself,

W.T.

no group the

British and the

West Africa present.

was there Thomas's

a more unpleasant article made this

contrast feeling

between very

clear; Leonians were found to be intellectually they As Sierra capable, very important posts in the Government and in merwere assigned They also acted as a very useful houses. cantile medium between Posts now occupied by whites the whites and the aborigines. were Leonians. As the number of Europeans increased by Sierra occupied had to be found for them, posts were created, positions and Sierra Leonians positions were ousted from their as heads or assistants

293.

Herbert For the

"Honour or Infamy", Macaulay, AOR, July of Chief Oluwa, see ibid, profile p. 29.

1920,

pp. 12-18.

301.
to-day, of departments, so that in the government or mercantile Leonian, A sierra assistants. inferior to a European, hooever Europeans on their have arrival to serve under them. 294 who are But the number of articles as the from there is helped "our too years old little of all heads of departments, all whether houses are whites, as are their is considered however qualified, ignorant and and incompetent, Leonians to be instructed by Sierra

sorts on.

on Sierra In April

Leone was modest, editor of

and

even declined a complaint ... this to that

went friend

1920 the

received Leone,

and agent, Sierra list review rather

C. W. Betts, Leone in in that our

Sierra

about

pages, " the

and that His reply

has not the

our of

subscription former affairs

colony.

ex-director in

the

company stressed than local matters;

review's

interest

Pan-Coloured

Obviously the Sierra Leonians have failed to grasp the inwardness We have always dealt with West African Imperial of our Review. rather than with matters of a purely insular affairs and domestic character.

for anything, If our Review stands it represents the common branch of the dark-hued interests of the entire members of the 295 human family.

Liberia,
major Haiti, the concerns, it world's

like
but

Sierra
neither

Leone, was not in practice

was it symbolic totally neglected. for 1920,

one of the review's

Indeed, the review, with as one of

had a particular two black at

importance In December

republics. the prospect

Duce Flohamed Ali loan with "...

was so distressed

of an imminent

American

clauses

...

that

are likely

to divest

the African

Republic

of its

independence",

294. Rev. W.T. Thomas, "The Position ATOR, April 1913, p"312. 295. ACIR, April 1920, p. 44.

of the Sierra

Leonian in Sierra

Leone",

302.
that Indian the he devoted Negroes an article for for not not to Liberia. he chided American to the and West Republic; brethren.

emigrating advertising a plan

in greater their

numbers

Liberians

country

more among their financial difficulties;

But also

he uncovered

to meet Liberia's

As a matter there could be no better time for her .. * than of fact, the present, when there is so great revival a Negro political perIf her Government is wise it will the world. seize this meating Loan issuing to float Loan Bonds, not only opportunity an all-African indebtedness, to the extent but also to leave a of her present large margin in hand to carry on the work of improvement sufficiently which is so sadly needed in the Republic and development at the The Liberian time. debt with the interest thereon present amounts dollars, there are at to about two million that and we feel certain English five Negroes in the world least million patriotic speaking Liberian to buy a one dollar Government Bond who would be prepared (sic) from a Circassian the Republic to extricate domination, which do not speedily come if the patriotic eventually sons of Africa must too lengthy from their slumber. arise Review is not only prepared The Editor to give advice, of this We are ready to buy the first but is ready to act. 100 Bonds at Government stock, dollar like each in Liberian one and we should to hear from those of our readers who are not only sufficiently to the extreme urgency but are alive of the situation. patriotic, but you may very possibly You might not have a hundred dollars, have be which burns a hole in your patriotism, and we shall a dollar to hear from you. very glad Reyublic from the fate We must rescue the Liberian that has Fiaiti. 2 overtaken Haiti's the still chapter case fate of was, African rather offer of course lands, than occupation the lost review causes. in raising by United preferred As will this States marines; as in on what the next could For

to concentrate be seen in All-African of the

existed the

to give loan

a lead

(one

say Pan-African)

was by no means an impulse

moment.

some years,

the editor

had been involving

himself

more and more in various

296. ibid.

December 1920, pp. 60-1.

303.
financial efforts. issue of schemes, This the the and the year 1920 was the however, culminating proceeded last. point no further, however, of of such as the although the for

particular in which loan

scheme, it idea

review Liberian

appeared provides

was the a useful

nugatory, review's true Kiroku country than

illustration

doctrine

that

financial

independence As the Japanese back its

was a pre-condition Professor in August of

political Hayashi loses

independence. had written its 297 West African had with the financial in

Economics "When a little more

the

review

1912, is

independence

sovereignty

a name*" Another

question National the

which Congress

must be asked of British both

is,

what

connection 298 chief

the

review those

west Africa. some of it might the

Since future that tion

who financed

review of

contained the stand of

organisers, the review

and opponents, would Its take first review to a strong

Congress, over the the

be expected in one direccame in column was pressing war. 299

Congress

or another. 1917,

mention briefly that

Congress in its

movement "To-Day" Record the

October that for it

when the

mentioned the to Lapoe take

was "delighted" West African

learn

weekly

a General

Conference

place

after

297.

Kiroku "Racial For the Langley, ppe study

(Professor Hayashi of Economics at Keio Reconciliation and Economic Pressure", Congress of British National Aspects West African of the the which is probably body to date. of this

University, Japan), ATOR, August 1912,

p. 39.

298.

West Africa's history, see Pan-African Movements 1900-1945, and authorative most thorough

299. ATOR, October

1917, p. 76.

304.
But no other Congress' Mohamed Ali direct reference in house, London, 300 it can be found and many of until its 1920 when, with the Duse

delegation at his

memb, -re visiting topic.

was an unavoidable

Nevertheless,
as more than West Africa, despite its

it

is difficult
in the story

to see the Africa

of the National It

and Orient
Congress is clear the of of that

Review
British in 1920, had

a footnote although generally information

an interesting excellent about the in

footnote. in

contacts Congress. ',arch

West Africa, The report

review

no advance Conference in that before matter time the for

the

N. C. B. w. A. by the review

which

met in Accra its

1920 was only This

received first

comment in

Pay number. in it the would review,

was the

mention of posts

Conference era of

received air-mail, advance

and despite

slowness

the to

have been by no means a difficult for the they review if the of Conference other, but more also in

arrange

information

organisers urgent, combating hands the in

had so desired. things their the of to do, not only

Of course, in

had plenty the

organising enemies

Conference, Chiefs

many and powerful Coasts. Africa report 301

among the of either those in

and old

A. R. P. S. sullied later.

Cold the the

Not a breath Review,

difficulties flay 1920 or too did late

pages

and Orient of the in Accra the

Though than

Conference the

arrived review

for

more an

a mere brief

mention

May issue,

venture

300. Information 301. For a brief

from Alhajji account

L. B. Agusto of Lagos to the author, see Kimble,

Lagos,

1967.

of these difficulties,

A Political

History

of Ghana, pp. 379-80 & 389-96.

305.
editorial comment on the broad issues;

We have all that unity is an along said ... among West Africans to commerce and political As things essential are, prosperity. it is but natural that a West African England, for instance, visiting but it is unthinkable should be accounted a stranger and a foreigner, that a Native Leone should be accounted of Sierra on a foreigner the Gold Coast or in Nigeria or vice versa. This being an age of combinations it of ona kind and another, behoves the coloured front. people of the world to show a solid There must no longer be the question foreigner in of a coloured the country All non-Europeans of other coloured men. are labelled 'niggers' by Europeans; being therefore in the coloured peoples it is extremely ludicrous for men same political and oconomio ship, to regard each other as foreigners. of the same ethnographic stock If for no other reason, the organisers of the Congress should be congratulated to bring the leaders upon their ability of west African thought together, where understanding and appreciation of for the each other's qualities, aims and desires may be unfolded 302 common good. The last in Accra sentence as little Clearly, (if vaguer) would almost suggest a localised inspiration terms, unity time into that the editor of the saw the Universal Conference his picture to Conference Races in

more than he drew

version from the

Congress: much wider about left

Accra

pan-coloured and economic by this

bringing the

own concern too. write It was

"combinations" to W.F. Hutchison,

assistant

editor,

enthusias-

tically

and at length

about the Accra Conference be accounted

itself,

in June 1920.303

Thus the review supporters,

must have it

could definitely

among the N. C. B. W.A. 's of its readers

favour. readers

and insofar

as a considerable
a force

proportion
in the

been West Africans, is hard to its imagine

working

Congress' west

However, would not

who among the the Accra

review's

African before

have heard

news about

Conference

long

302. "The Final 303. ibid.

Word", AOR, r.ay 1920, pp. 45-6.

June 1920, pp. 44-6.

306.
June 1920. Little

more was heard

about

the

Congress

in

the

review,

though there
headed "The

was an item signed

West African Problem"

"V. H. " in the review's

and giving details of

final
the

number,
petition

and memorandum being It

the in

brought

to London by the Congress' that the influence

the

delegates. traders
of

304 at
success -

was feared
Colonial other

by the writer
Office the would

of British

prejudice

delegation's at its

chances

words,

"combine"

was seen as being

conspiratorial

work

again. So the review's moderate us back to level its of interest of what things and involvement could be called unto in the

N. C. D. W.A. brings ye first the

policy

"beek you";

economic

kingdom

and all

shall

be added

or,

one might say,

the the

"Power grows out of a cafe full

priority develop to War. in given

of dollar
over

bills.
political political emerged to the

"

Yet despite struggle. views of the than

continuing did

to economic

review in of

more precise C. W. Botts.

and specific These views attitude

given

the answer the Great

out

situation therefore,

The review's some detail.

war

aunt,

be considered

Even before
had speculated States, Writing the

the Sarajevo
that in the

Crieie,
of

the African
a major

Times and Orient

by the the in States United

Review

event

war fought for crisis United

one consequence at the time of

could the

be real

emancipation

American Spring trying

Negro. 1914, to

United in the

States-Vezican event of the

editor

envisaged

that

304. V. H. (probably Vivian Harris, to the review contributor a regular Problem", AOR, December 1920, pp. 39-42. in 1920), "The West African

307.
conquer Hezico, climatic conditions would demand the raising of a black

army, 150,000 strong;

At the end of the war, with the United States the return victorious, home of this Afro-American victorious once for all, army would, either put an end to the lynchings, and other abominations practised by the mean Anglo-Saxons upon Afro-Americans of the United States, this Afro-American or, with sufficient army would be provocation, in a position Davis (sic) to do what Jefferson failed to do ... and the limits and create an Afro-American nation of United within States territory, This or line. south of Mason's and Dixon's 305 is the manifest destiny the Afro-Americans. of amalgamation Though what we have here is a speculation, a dream, rather than a

prediction,
form, during

this
the

was a line
Great War.

of thinking

which he developed,

in a modified

Nevertheless, objected with with to British

on the

very

eve of war, in a quarrel

at

the which

end of would

July line

1914, her honoy Asiatic" he up

he

involvement

Russia, rebellion

a "drink-soddened and discontent", to "the the Muslims

ana superstition which of

ridden

land, every

combed

was "a menace to the Near East.

and in believed caused

particular that by trade

Furthermore, indirect have

direct

expenses, dislocation

and still of subjects

more the will

losses to be met "306 of the The

and by the

finance, of

by millions actual extension those

of African

and Asiatic

Great

Britain. dread -

outbreak

of war produced over of

a different "vast numbers Gorman rule

reaction of Black

of German rule

and Brown men" by their treatment

"who know something

what

means and of

305. ATOR, 12th May 1914, P. M.

306. ATOR, 28th July 1914, p. 433.

3013.
of Africans of the in Togoland, Kamerun and other African the in colonies. outbreak " of In view the war but the

war hysteria there of

and jingoism of

accompanying convenience from

no doubt main

was an element this editorial

these

remarks*

burden

was far

accommodating;

unarmed, undisciplined, disunited, We can only watch and prey. we But whatever cannot strike a blow we can only await the event. the conquerors the combatants, that may be, all and the conquered be exhausted by the struggle, yearn require will and will alike, Watch that time much may be done. for their recovery and during It may bo that by the non-huropean races will profit and wait! God's ways are oystericusg buropean disaster. and out of the proud he ... their own contrives crane cruelty man's pride and the cruel of the are relieved and the afflicted and oppressed punishment, burdens which pride had heaped upon them. 307 and cruelty This may seem a cruious is ... likely in our mixture of two contrary spirits 'If 'Europe's will have

difficulty me King of the

opportunity' other. term

on the But it

one hand and

chance

' on the long

shows a more realistic of war about endure than the

awareness then

consequences as illusions did not

nentinents

prevailing The passivity "Delta", in

Europe, of this "Rotten of

such article

being long;

'home by Christmas'. by the next the week, certain of Indian

his

Row Conversations", troops, otruggle. review and reluctant 306 out,

was envisaging use by Britain

use by France troops, in At this the

African

Europein the

point

petered

due largely

to

official

hostility,

30 9

307. ATOR, 4th August 1914, tp. 449-50. 308.

309.

'Delta',

"Rotten

Row Converoations",

no. II,
this

ATOR, llth
chapter,

August 1914, p. 468.

under discussion

in Part III is diccuesed This point of influence and impact. of the reviow'a

309.
not to re-appear the till political view utmost, January 1917, by when the of editor had thought Africans supported right to out

more fully His Allies their

implications if they at the

the war for peoples the

and Asians. the have

considered to the

was that then

coloured

would

have earned settlement;

interests It

considered

the

peace

Empire to loyally is the duty of everyone the British within the Empire to the last drop of blood and the last support penny If you do this loyally their coffers. within remaining and willingly, when the day of settlement out arrives you cannot be left We have had it on the highest that of the reckoning. authority is a war for the protection All this of of small nationalities. 310 our people represent small nationalities. ... ...

Thus the propaganda version national liberation for rhetoric into

of British little

war aims as a kind of war of Belgium' Points, etc., reinforced in

'gallant

1917 by Wilsonian (as many others) tactic

in the Fourteen that loyal

deluded

the review

believing for

war service

was a practical

in the struggle

Afro-Asian

freedom.

This view was shared of the Indian

by such diverse

people as W.E. B. Du Bois,

and some leaders

310. "To-day",

ATOR, January

1917, pp. 1-2.

310.
National one. Congress. Nevertheless, of white 311 It there

was a mistaken is a sharp

view,

but

not

an eccentric the review's acceptance of

contrast the

between war,

awareness

double-dealing

before

and its

white

good faith
advice

during
given

the war.

This

can be weil
in respect In

illustrated
of the

by

comparing in

to Afro-Americans 1913 and mid-August

Woodrow Wilson former case,

November-December

1918.

311.

immediate to the outbreak W.E. B. Du Bois' reaction of the war was for the Western Powers, and, when the United States entered support "opportunities the war in 1917, he saw the situation as producing the Negro cause, and providing for arguing expanding employment for factories. " By the summer of 1918, he was Negroes in Northern the war effort, his now famous call supporting unequivocally giving to "close "without fight to the black Americana hesitation ranks", "by serving their and thereby or protest", country gain justice ... See Francis L. Broderick, America". from a grateful W. E. H. Du Bois, Negro Leader in : `lime of Crisis, Stanford, 1959, pp. 106-10. But Roots of the War", Atlantic Du Bois perceptive essay "The African CXV, May 1915, pp"707-14, Monthly, in some which made an analysis Y. I. Lenin's Imis i the Highest Stage of ways anticipating interests Cavitaliem, of the white noted the conflicting aristocracy imperial in the metropolitan countries, and the disconof labour In India, tented stricken world masses, mainly coloured. poverty the moderate dominant of the war, G. I. Gokhale, at the outbreak Indian in Congress, for Britain, figure support pledged as did Volunteer Corps in Gandhi, an Indian who even set about raising Ltithy, "India Imperial Britain; see Herbert and East Africa: World War", Journal Partnership of Contemat the end of the First 6,2,1971, History, Even with the death of Gokhale P. 79. porarv in Congress by the far more of the dominant role and the assumption Congress never refused L. Tilak, co-operation with the radical For Congress and the British, as it was to do in World War II. the Great War, see Percival Spear, during British ndia. a Modern 1961, pp. 337-46. Ann Arbor, Hirg,

311.

the advice

wee;

faith With touching the Negroes voted into power the party represented by a 'Southern Gentleman' of election on the strength as President We in the broadmindedness of a scholar. promises and belief ... in the United the time to our brothers States that would suggest

bas come for Afro-Americans Democrats, and to organise

By August 1918, Afro-Americana

to cease to be either a 'Negro Rights Party'

were being urged to give

Republicans 12 ...
their all

or
in the

war, so that;
be forced President Wilson will to see that those men who have ... for the freedom of small nationalities in Europe and elsewhere fought that freedom to which they are so justly entitled not be denied shall Atnerica. 313 States in the United of

The review's

attitude

to Lloyd that

George was equally

mistaken.

Having quoted

a Lloyd George dictum applied it

the principle

of national

self-determination European territories,

to the German colonies breathlessly;

as much as to occupied

enthused rather

The Allies there is not the slightest attempt at equivocation. .. for a lasting REALLY fighting peace and the RIGHTS of ALL small are It therefore behoves us all Great to support nationalities. ... to the death ... this Britain and her Allies war is the work of men, only those who prove to be men can hope for those political and to expect. No excuse must be given rewards which men have a right 314 for withholding just to those in authority our rights.

The final helps, to lift

sentence

of the above introduces attitude

a note of cautiong

which

the review'n

to the Great War above more gullibility

312. ATOR, November-December 1913,

313. ATOR, August 1918, p. 13.

p. 183.

314. ATOI, January

191a pp. 129-30.

312.
The key was seen that Africans the to be the

Puce

Settlement, be represented.

at

which

it

was essential there was a

and Asians disposal of review

should the

The prize It

say in

conquered the

German colonies. prospect the of Indian

has already representation of in Egypt also. should that India's

been seen how the at the

welcomed and pressed it

Peace Conference the review the

for

representation that Africa with

Likewise, have its there

considered post-war

essential

general

say in

settlement, of this. at

and noted Thus,

resentment welcoming the Continent "

seemed to to full

be no prospect representation the of African, Germany, in the

though

admission "regretted the ruthless

Imperial

Conferences, the African omitted. of of war, the

review from of

that

who has saved

hand

has been entirely dangers to and burdens the councils

In view

Africa's should

equal

share

British Post-War

Africans Imperial from any

as a minimum 315 in

be admitted danger

Conference. active part

The great deciding the

was the of

exclusion the former

of Africans

disposition

German Colonies;

be faced with the threadbare We shall, tale that no doubt, interests Africans and that being so their are a backward people, by European re gpsentation be served more effectively than will in that direction. by any purely effort native

that an African It is inconceivable population, some representing 24,000,000 souls, should be handed from one master to another when the possibility the hour of settlement arrives without of any form of native representation.

That being savagely

the review's

fear,

it

is not surprising to itself

that the role

it

hit of self-

at any white

group that

arrogated

315. ATOR, June 1917, p. 111. 316. ibidt p. 112.

313.
appointed the cular victory yet review the 'spokesman' called view of for the African. Anti-Slavery secretary, on Europeans summoning The chief Society Rev. target slime"; here in was what partithough

"patronising that Society's right

John Harris, native

that

conferred

no real precluded

to barter of wild

populations, to a

"common sense"

the This

illiterates

European

Peace Congress.

was considered

intolerable;

Society The whole difficulty and other which faces the Anti-Slavery in native is to be found in the European bodies dabbling affairs themselves that such bodies consider capable of dealing assumption first the native conditions without consulting as to with native For this his own requirements. reason such efforts are foreThroughout the continent the various doomed to failure. of Africa have managed their for centuries own affairs peoples and tribes the coming of the European, that the native, before and we claim being neither to 'carry child nor fool, can continue on' without 317 these busybodies. the meddling of However, had called the the review was somewhat to consider inhabitants, via mollified the at the next month when Harris German colonies was accepted and Councils. the review namely that Having could that from

a conference of their

conquered which it Chiefs

standpoint wishes by citing

African argued hardly Harris

could

be consulted African

their

traditional but the

self-government,

do otherwise. should support

now a further review in

demand was made, on African

insisting

representation

317.

It should be noted that the 'child 112-3. ibid, races' approach pp. Society Protection in vogue in Anti-Slavery and Aborigines remained 1917. Thus, the pamphlet long after Circles put out by the society in 1938 to mark the hundredth anniversary of the of the foundation Protection Society list in 1837, stated in its Aborigines as fifth "to secure the general objects, of the of the society's acceptance the child for the stronger doctrine that races of the world constitute See The Anti-Slavery and Aborigines races a Sacred Trusteeship". Society, London 1938, p. 13. Protection

314.
at the Peace Conference and Post-War Imperial Conference, and President

Wilson was quoted people to live

(in

capitals)

on the necessity which it

the

under a sovereignty
Society spokesman

did
only

of not forcing 318 not wish.

suspect interests. for the In

any

The Anti-Slavery acting as unwanted editor the

was not for

crime October

of

the African's

1918 the Doyle in

denounced Evening

a scheme recently for African

proposed

by Sir council

Arthur to govern to

Conan the his

Standard if the the liar

an international did not have of

ex-German

colonies; "then

the

right

choose are

own government

pronouncements

our

Statesman

valueless

and these warriors speaking

are fighting article

to uphold a sham. " by James C. Smith

319

Even more plain time a rare

was a two part appearing

(by this

contributor) "Africa for

in September and October 1918, bluntly entitled 320 Smith stated that "... the Africans". GovernAutocratic in Africa is the one principle unifying the British he J. Ramsay

meat by Europeans of Africans the Utopian left suggestions...

" and was shrewd enough to see that body of European opinion Labour Party, 321

was as guilty

here as any other

specifically

denounced here the British

E. D. Morel,

MacDonald, H. N. Braileford

and H. C. h`e11a.

He scorned the .

'aocialiat'

318. ATOR, July

1917, pp. 1-2. 1918, pp. 45-6. "Africa October for the Africans", 1918, pp. 38-9. Part I, September

319. ATOR, October

320. James Carmichael Smith, 1918, pp. 33-4, cart II, 321. ibid. Part I, p. 33"

315,
blueprint for Africa;

to the same utter in Europe in helplessness as are pheasants ... the presence of the shooting party. Such is the contemplated to which the Africans in situation Africa would be reduced if effect could be given to the special for in their of European Socialism, recommendations anxiety ... the possession in Europe of the ... securing and use by Europeans 322 tropical Africa. of and sub-tropical products An H. G. Welle Britain, tatives asking sisting African Greece. perhaps plan for governing Italy, Africa Portugal, by a commission South of Africa, Egypt consisting Asian he ridiculed for Europe Europe, of criticisms of represenby con-

France, of the of India likely China,

Belgium, and African success Japan,

representatives of an autocratic Persia,

commission Arabia, the

Siam,

Jews of

representatives 323 reflect Appearing

of Abyssinia in the closing in to Not

and European weeks of the

representatives war, these

underlying made great in troops the in

anxiety efforts war.

ATOR circles. publicise only but sent to did also it the military to role the of of

The review Africans African mined front through

and Asians and Asian efforts line the

refer the

deeds

editorials, Hutchison there. Duse's

editor to report Office

made deteron coloured was approached Herbert I. F.

to have and support good offices

W.F.

France

troops of

324

The Foreign the

aquaintance

Hon. Aubrey

322. ibid. 323. ibid.

P. M.

324. The ATOR announced its request that Hutchison be permitted France as a war correspondent in October 1917, p. 75.

to go to

316. In a letter
A: in

to Herbert,

Aule explained

his purpose;

the coloured people of the world are taking part a considerable the present there is war, both as combatants and industrially, to know what their on their a great desire part compatriots who have been recruited for service Being in touch with are doing. the coloured the Empire and the United States I people throughout know that they are eager for fuller information on these points. Empire with its The British for its coloured well known friendship has, I am sure, to fear from the fullest subjects nothing publicity the coloured tradigreatly and it will encourage races in their loyalty to the British Crown to know that their tional people, treated at the various serving seats of war, are well and that their I have received from the services are appreciated. requests Coloured States for auch information, in view people of the United States It is the war. of the United of the entry of America into that auch information most important should be given by a coloured be a tendency to look upon the reports man, as there will of white in the interests or, at least, written men as biased of the white than the coloured I therefore, rather man. would ask you to use to procure the necessary from the war your kind offices permission Office to enable me to send out a well-qualified reprepro-Ally 325 (Mr. W. F. Hutchison) sentative ...

Herbert passed it

forwarded

thin

request

via with

the Foreign a distinct

Office, lack

which in turn of enthusiasm. 326

on to the War Office being duly to the Front again, visit this

On the request for Ali that visitors tried

turned

down, on the grounds

is already

that "accommodation 32 Dune Mohamed taxed to the limit", to the Foreign 328 But his Office generally

time stressing his journal

in a letter

a short

was all

had in mind.

325.

Duce Mohamed Ali to Captain 1917, F. O. 395/130/186216/58.

the

lion.

Aubrey

Herbert

M. P.,

14th

September

326.

James Baird, FO, to Lt. Col. Raymond Greene, D. S. U., ). P., W. O., 18th September 1917, states; "I enclose from the Editor of a letter the "African Times and Orient Review" Buchan wishes me to put ... this forward It is, to the authorities. however, that he a matter does not wish to press. " F. U. 395/130/186216/58.

327. See Col. J. L. Fisher, 11.I. 7. o., W.O., Whitehall, to James Baird, P. O. 21st September 1917, ibid, F. O., to Duce Mohamed and S. A. Gillon, Ali, 24th September 1917, ibid. 328. Duee Mohamed Ali to 6. A. Gillow F. O., 4th October 1917, ibid. (sic), Department of Information,

317.
accommodating manner had no effect. he was bluntly
the Foreign that

In inter-departmental editor".
of the 330 official coloured Hutchison Part

correspondence However, since

referred
did

to as "The nigger
arrange the supply

329

Office "it

material, Press in

on the the to United produce 331

grounds Staten articles

may serve Allied

to encourage generally", Coloured

and the in

Niggers "The

was able in the

1918 entitled

Peoples'

War".

By the closing
specific Africa World* 'Back reward ought It to is for

months of the war,

Negro war services, over exactly in August to those

the review
one of the

had decided
ox-German descent in

that
colonies the

as a
in

be handed not clear But

of African editor editorial

New of

when the 1918 its

became an advocate proclaimed;

to Africa'.

Empire, it will be necessary for As for the Africans of the British Government to recognise their to considerathe British undoubted claim there is an organisation in existence Already known as the tion. Association National of Loyal Negroes, which has issued a most comThe Association that the members of claims manifesto. prehensive to free the world from the Prussian the Negro race have fought dominaCzechs, Jews, Armenians, tion, and that inasmuch as the Slavs, and the right to self-government, peoples are claiming other subject West Indies, the United those Negro people in the British States of Canada, and South America, having been denied the recogniAmerica, in those countries, be given one of the late tion they deserve should German colonies, to govern themselves where they may be permitted to be free from the exasperating in restrictions prevailing and the dominating factor. those countries where the European remains

329.

See James Baird, 1917, ibid.

F. O.,

to Col.

J. L.

Fisher,

M. I. 7. c.,

u. 0.,

? September

330.

F. U., See James Baird, October 1917, Baird to 12th Duse Mohamed Ali, in F. 1917, all October

to O. S. Ashcroft, House, wellington Buse Mohamed Ali, 6th October 1917, October 1917, and Ashcroft to Baird, O. 395/130/186216/58.

6th F. U. to 8th

"The Coloured 331. W"F. Hutchison, ATOR, January 1918, pp. 132-3;

Peoples' Part in. the war", Part I, Part II, ATOR, February 1918, pp. 10-11.

318. If in the early days There is much to be said for this claim. Settlement of the last century Sierra Leone could be made a British for freed slaves, and Liberia an independent Negro State at the

instance of American philanthropists, at which time the Africans and were quite unfamiliar with were for the most part illiterate it seems to us that the modern ideas of representative government, Association of Loyal Negroes ought to be carried aims of the National than obtained out by Great Britain of success with a greater prospect Leone settlement. in the case of the Sierra out as Nie throw this to Mr. Lloyd George and the British and we people at large, a hint that the idea will sanguine consireceive sympathetic are rather 332 aeration. The National was apparently in Panama", but Association "formed the of Loyal Negroes coloured referred Canada, Indian remains British to above an obscure Vest Indian to body. residents the review It ince own right largely War, it It

among the

"manifesto" of Montreal,

was sent 22nd July

by Dillon is probable

C. Govin that

and dated or a black

1918.

Govin his the

was a west

Canadian. in its

the

review

endorsed

document, political

and it

has an interest of end of

as illustrating organisation given at of length;

consciousness at the

a hitherto the Great

unknown is here

New 'World Negroes

Under the present circumstances few members of a local society, be taken by one better properly

I am forced, to take the situated.

in conjunction with a initiative which should

to your attention The matter which I an bringing and considerabelieve is agitating the rinds of tion is one which we sincerely Negroes all over the world.
is no doubt that changes of great of the present result war. importance will ensue

There as a direct

in the hands with victory or the ultimate advantage resting we are led to expect a greater measure of world of the Allies, to work out their democracy - the freedom of all nationalities destinies. respective

332.

"To-day",

ATOR, August

1918,

p. 14.

319.
Belgians, Serbians, Roumanians, Montenegrins, Creeks, Poles, Jews, and the people of Ireland independence all are promised and freedom of national development We cannot fail the war. to after however, that in the face of such pledges notice, to such peoples, despite the loyalty despite to render of our race, our readiness any service asked or even expected of us, above all - despite our in the present bloody active participation struggle - not a word has been made relative to our status, both now and following this great struggle. Dear Sir, the time is fitting that to claim the we should rise dignity of a nation, and to do so without much noise or hysteria. In many countries for centuries where our race have lived and their have raised children with an idea to the same equality of to all opportunity and rights of citizenship other as accorded born, such countries citizens, native and foreign are openly declared 'white intents the white man's'countries, and to all and purposes to be the ruler therein. man is determined Clearly the development such a policy must retard or stultify of our integrity and highest possible powers, and as a means of friction avoiding an ever increasing racial and clashes, we must find a means of outlet for employment of and scope for the development of our young manhood and womanhood. No nation to a domain in Africa, can deny our inalienable right Are we, though weak, to stand idly to see another and speechless, Are we to witness partition of Africa, our fatherland? a repetition of Congo atrocities, separate native restrictions and exploitations Are we to be crowded off the at the hands of the white nations? face of the earth and subject to the will of white men all over

In accordance to life, liberty, with our right and the pursuit develop, of happiness, colonise, we should and maintain a large State. Still further, African as the reward for the loyalty and for the of our race in the past, service and as a mark of gratitude service our manhood is now rendering on the European battlefields, independent African a large colony should be given us. That steps should be taken to petition Council the Allied on behalf letter. of millions of Negroes is the object of this (i. e, the As a representative member of your race, will you Please send us your opinion editor) co-operate? and suggestions If for any private as early as possible. reason you would not that is, to be nominated, if so care to be actively associated, chosen, the World Negro as one of the prime movers in organising Conference the petition, that at least and presenting wo expect forwarded you will to you. 333 sign the petition when

Never, if truth and justice the world? is still We supreme. the ultimate triumph of should not fear, though weak at present, our cause, even as the Allies expect to defeat German autocracy.

333.

"National Association ATOR, September 1918, of Loyal Negroes", p. 29. The present has bad the benefit this writer of discussing organisation the leading with authority on the history of the Negro in Canada,

Dr. Robin Winks, who feels it is clearly interest. of considerable The writer that at the time of writing Dr. Wink's major work regrets on the history from of the Negro in Canada was not yet available its publishers.

320.
This this document thesis on Duse Mohamed Ali. up the the of idea of a Negro movement in Chapter State the in VII

made a strong will Africa show him

mark taking

of

former

German East States. and called tion review affording of

as a member of the final issue

Garvey the

United supported, Associaliar the the

And in for

ATOR, support the

he personally for the the sense National Great of

general Negroes

world-wide plan. far 334 its

Negro Thus at original,

Loyal

end of vague,

had travelled

from to

war era 1918, it

an opportunity, the only idea of

be awaited Negro

passively. settlement

By autumn in

had endorsed This was the

New World Political personally of of theme the the of

ex-German nature

Africa. that

purely was ever 'the the from

scheme of involved exiles' movement. national

a Pan-African in. It

Dune Mohamed Ali in the tense that

was Pan-African thread,

return

has been an abiding 335 independence to that of topic.

running In rights

through turning in the

history the

and national human dignity Economic entailing the the review British a

African

'Piles

and Orient

Review

and human rights, oppression regime found Empire, Its field, views of

we are

moving

to a closely were

related

and political brutality.

oppression Geographically,

seen as inevitably areas in which were

the

and attacked the of United the

brutality States French

towards

coloured

people the

and to a lesser Empire, rosy. in what

extent

German Empire. the of 'civil granting rights'

may be called French policy

were suprisingly

Here,

the

334. Duse Mohamed Ali, open letter October 1918, pp. 45-6.

to :sir Arthur

Conan Doyle,

ATOR,

335. See G. Sheppe rson, "Notes on Negro American Influences on the EmerHistory, 1,2, Nationalism", Journal of African gence of African 1960, pp. 299-312, esp. pp. 301-303.

321.
life This the 'anglophone' the actual

French

citizenship the

and even factor with seen,

participation which produced Imperial

in

metropolitan

political response.

was undoubtedly could here, existing production, situation Like individual ficance. Northern 'Zaria review proved in

a favourable policy in

be contrasted as we have situation.

British the review

those

respects with

was gravely the review, well

dissatisfied as very informed

In

addition,

much an about

was correspondingly French colonies. journal,

much lese

any crusading cases Indeed, Nigeria of it which

from which it

time

to

time

the

review

took

up

injustice began its

believed with

to have a wider

signiin or of it so to the

life

an expose/ of an incident 'Zaria the best whippings' example but was this they also

came to

be known as the this present dignity survival, in July

Incident'. at to work in

Not only defence key Alade to of the

does African review's

and rights, for it

be the 8otimi

which decided

impressed come to

and his 336

friends

1912 that

the

review's

aid. involved

The incident by the coloured were, at review

was small, of

but

poignant, was wrong

and could with the of

be taken treatment the incident version letter of of

as a paradigm within in the

much that

subjects the time

British but, It

r.mpire. as will

The facts be shown, campaign Barcourt, the with in

dispute,

review's an open the course

was substantially from lluse

accurate. to

opened

its

Mohamed ali

Colonial

secretary

336. See "Leaves",

The Cotaet, 30th October

1937, p. 7.

322.
it described

which

what

had happened

as follows;

It would appear that on the afternoon 1912, several 14th, of February African in native clerks of 2aria were engaged in a game of football Laing, their Third in charge of the playground. class Resident Zaria province, The players, passed the field, who did not see the Resident, failed to salute themselves, and prostrate as is the custom by the Luropean officials in the Protectorate. Resident established Laing ordered for failing their to show those marks of homage arrest himself Resident to as a third entitled which he considered class having previously given them a severe thrashing stick. with a walking The African clerks named Taylor and Hall respectively - were taken under arrest to a town about two miles from the Cantonment, On the horning in the native jail. 15th the of February and placed before Resident Laing, clerks were brought who being both judge and them to be taken to the native ordered accuser, market place, clothing, of their stripped of complete rind, in a state nudity, whipped by the Jogaries. The African clerks, native unable to bear the horrifying sight to which their fellows had been subjected and torture of indignity by the Resident wired the Governor and Chief Justice a second time. tesident The Governor telegraphed Laing in code and in code to the Governor. did the desident reply hence, as there was no possibility of the clerks ascertaining the will of the Governor, and intentions of or the representations the African the Resident, fitters, native clerks, porters, and carto the number of 170 men, struck to perform penters, work, refusing till the Governor further duties 'give in should any some ruling' The rinr; leaders the matter. fined of the strike were subsequently for contempt of court. and imprisoned though 'non-natives' These clerks, Nigeria, of Northern are 337 towns African of the coastal natives ... The source news of in the all the of this story was most likely The Lai*os Standard, as Marcia 1912 - this above, but omitting the which version details carried being about

'Zaria

whippings'

as early with the

respects 338

conformable From that

strike.

moment the

whippings

were a major

preoccupation

337.

"Open Letter Mohamed Ali, to -Ouse P. C., H. i'. ", eO, July Harcourt,

the Right Honourable 1912, p. 8.

Lewis

Vernon

338. Lag2s itandard,

13th March 1912.

323.
of The Lags Standard for several 339 months. Its feeling that auch

events
gods of

"court

disaster
Nigeria

to British
are

rule"
to

and showed "what lengths

go to"340 coincided exactly

the tin
with

Northern

allowed

the views
British

Juse Mohamed Ali

in

had been expressing

Egypt.

a few years

earlier

over

high-handedness

The exact channel in not entirely

"News, Notes

by which this

information

was passed to the review feature

clear.

But in June 1912 The Laxos Standard

requested;

and Comments"

the gentleman Will who furnished us with the report of the flogging Clerks at Zaria on Feby. last of the Native please send us further We reported this incident in our issue of March details about it. 12, and commented editorially upon sane in our issue of March 20, this has caught the eye of an influential of person in the heart to us for further the Empire who has written particulars and better 341 moving on the matter. as he intends In view and those Taylor would of the close similarity made in the between Stan Duce Mohamed Ali's rd, , might not allegations Lldred Taylor

originally

he or John Of the of the

be the seem far

"influential more likely, cannot that

person" as prior have

referred to the

to hero. publication in vent elite

two,

review, though of In been

Duse Mohamed Ali it is possible

been widely of the

known

Africa,

a handful

intellectual the

had heard may have

The Land Of The Pharaohs.

Of course,

Lagoa Standard

339.

See further

whippings and their reports and comments on the Zaria 1912; in the Lagos Standard. 27th Murch 1912; 17th April consequences 15th Flay 1912; 26th Juno 1912; 7th August 1912; 28th August 1912; 11th September 1912; 6th November 1912.

340. ibid,
341. ibid,

13th March 1912.

26th June 1912.

324.
referring Anti-Slavery information, year. Miss 342 to someone else. and Aborigines as that Another society possible It is unlikely that a member of was the matter the London of the this

Protection did not

Society take the here to

recipient

up until

following

intermediary

was an obscure :itandard,

Englishwoman, an ardent lady this ...

5. 'r.. t, arples,

who was a subscriber at the

The Lagos Office to us at officials

Afrophile, who takes style"

and who was regarded in the Lagos Papers

Colonial

as "a fussy intervals in W. Africa in

and who writes British

and one whose "bias

against

342.

Buxton and John Harris Secretary wrote to the Colonial as "The society desires to recall on 8th July 1913; your floggings. This incident to the Zaria has, we public attention to the Colonial been fully Office, but as the reported understand, to rely upon inforhas not been published, we are com,: elled report from private sources, and by question ana answer mation obtained The main facts in the Hcuse of Commons. not in are, however, The offence the men was the comparatively dispute. alleged against football in the market place against local trivial one of playing the men were taken - it is also asserted and for this regulations, It is admitted flogged. that naked - and then publicly stripped the sanction It has this received of the hesident. punishment the real that has been publicly reason for the punishment affirmed has been credibly informed and our Society not been disclosed, the men were not only publicly that for the alleged offence simple their The whole incident but dismissed flogged, employment. savours that of vindictiveness as to provide so strongly additional proof had a more than remote connection the real motive with a refusal to prostrate. We realise that though the widest difference prevails of opinion for and preventive to the efficacy of flogging as a punishment as of serious not hesitate moral crimes that an unanimous opinion will to condemn such a degrading spectacle of grown men as the flogging place, and our Committee again expresses stripped nude in a public the hope that British be instructed to refrain officials will at least in future. " from giving to public floggings sanction iut official from the west having weathered vigorous and well organised protest indithe ATOR, questions in Parliament, African press, and private by this the C. O. was not impressed tardy the previous year, viduals and re lied with a bare acknowledgement on 22nd July 1913. protest, See C. O. 583/8/23740. Travers follows

325.
make-- her the April Colonial 1912, a fitting Office drawing chorus with her in to letters account the African the Lagoa Standard. on the from Zaria "343 She bombarded from 344 as early Later, battle much recollection the first 345 order on as

incident Standard.

The Lagos

ehe became involved behalf of Hall and

Times

and Orient years

Review's later But in with his to its

Taylor,

and was remembered in this respect. accurate review from

affectation of of 1935 (not

by Duse Mohamed Ali always at that time

very the

with till

regard after

events), which

she had not had brought

approached her "post

issue,

haute

Birkenhead

to my office.

343. 344.

See minutes

dated

29th

& 30th

April

1912,

C. C. 446/109/12594.

to 1912. The See Miss S. F. Marples of S., C. O., 23rd of April typical tone of her letter, of much of her correspondence, was the C. f.,.; "I am afraid to irritate there is no calculated exactly (of the Lagos Standard truth for doubt of the report of 13th tlarch) Is the time never only too frequent are unhappily such things ... the fact that we are to come when our representatives will realise law of Might over in Africa of the unchristian as an exemplification the least that for is that we should Right - and that calls justice ,, even if mercy and common sense are left rate deal justly at any iho are such tin gods as these despicable out of the question. 'prostrations' from men who are equal as men are, who require men to those who claim this dis, -usting as gentle-men and far superior I am thankful those unfortunate natives are at last allegiance. their to feel to show their beginning to strike power and resolved I hope that detestation countrymen of what their were suffering. 'cad' that for he is nothing if this this case is proved to be true, his position else whatever - may not only be censured - which only disbut publicly brings when the chance arrives added cruelty C. O. 583/e/23740. home. " brought graced and

345. The

20th July 1935, p. a.

326.
whatever may have the the channels this in 346 347 It of case, its of it communication is clear to that, the between despite Nigeria and the review by

been in

stonewalling and Aborigines to questions Laing struck were the

Colonial

Office 5ociety,

answers

Anti-Slavery Secretary Resident he actually seems virtually flogging

Protection

and by the allegations not

Colonial against that but it

in subtwo

the

House of Conmons, stantially clerks the real at true. the reason given

the is

provable arrest,

time for

their

certain was that

that they dignity. be

their

arrest

and subsequent that air

had not

him the of

prostration case, for

be considered Lugard, 'native his

due to his

On investigation suspected particularly courts,

the

Frederick educated in

who can hardly more Authority

of undue if decided

sympathy

foreigners', Native

they that;

were defendants

beloved

to the recent in Zaria I am of opinion that With regard events ... Officer this acted cost unadvisedly, although no doubt the measures the law as it standa. 348 he adopted were within This, Times behind mation of the however, and Orient the relevant 1906) was the Review whole burden of the Ingos Standard that and African sheltering Proclapunishment the offence

case against (in

Resident this the case cruel

Laing

regulations

Northern

Nigerian

No. 1 of

he had procured Native Authority.

and degrading

two men by the

They had alleged

346. ee note 342 above. 347. These Parliamentary chapter. questions are discussed in Part III of this

348. See Lugard to Harcourt, 446/107/39033.

Confidential,

18th November 1912, C. U.

327.
to be nominally not to did to to for disobeying football to not legal the the in orders a public It of the Native but in Authority reality police to that was refused articles did not be

(dogaris) failing not only

play

place, is

prostrate Lugard take

Resident. Laing's against

surely but the

significant also Lagos Laing itandard Lugard

support action

actions one of 349

permission which

he considered

"grossly

defamatory".

Presumably

want his
council from

inferior
in the

to have to face the cross-examination

Lagos Courts350 of view, Indeed, North, that -a process which spectacle, accepted "truly could

of defending
hardly have of been, the were is the

Lugard's of the in

point case. the

an edifying he privately his critics to

regardless that things this

outcome going

wrong

say that things

Northern

Nigeria

system

and point the system,

some monstrous thought, fron the to

which

have

been done. " the trouble

However, was caused result to of of

Lugard ...

was sound top,

enough; and Co. ", adminis-

by "the "Temple "

example and Co. 's To his on the

Temple the

and was the tration whole

trying

carry

native "the

system attitude

extremes. the

wife Coast

he could to the

even admit, trousered

European

black

is

wrong - one slips

into

it

oneself

in an unguarded moment. "

351

349.

the to be permitted For Laing's to take legal request against action Lagos Standard, see E. H. B. Laing, confidential memo to Sir Y. Lugard, by the C. U. that Laing was informed subsequently quoted in ibid. to re-open that it would be inadvisable "Sir F. Lugard is of opinion that no action in the Lagos Courts, the matter should and considers In this be taken by the Government in this case. view Mr. Harcourt Laing, Zaria, of H. J. Read, C. ., to itesident concurs. " See draft C. O. 446/107/39033. legal The Lagos Courts followed normal British its imediate being a Crown Colony. environs For these remarks, see Lugard to Flora Lugard, procedures, Lagos and

350.

351.

29th

December

1913 &

9th February

1914, quoted

1'he in Perham, Lup-ard.

Xeare of Authojity,

p. 604.

328.
The African Incident attack the lasting on what it Times well and Orient into the Review ran year, towards shot of a campaign on the "'aria into an in wider cases

following trend opening

and developing official this

saw as a general Even in Harcourt the

brutality campaign, are other

British

Empire.

issues which

were raised.

was challenged, to your notice"

"there

must have been brought

and he was asked;

into in the best interests this to enquire of humanity and matter Nigeria, justice, harmony in Northern of official and for the proloyal from tection of the persons of His Majesty's native subjects indignity and violence at the hands of irresponsible white officials the fair by reason of their name and fame of iiritain who tarnish 352 ruthless and aggressive methods. So a conservative be used to criticise that the seeming British victims appeal to British traditions African of justice, could It that;

actions were

and defend civilised

dignity.

was stressed

men and therefore

before the humiliating those ceremony of salutation and prostration by the same Europeans who are 'warmed by the same summer and cooled is by no means congenial to the native, as the African winter' that manly pride tastes of men possessing and inclinations which is to all men, and is not the exclusive property of the European. natural In Hall official Northern that the its next issue, the review amplified of the its attack. asked the It emphueised that

353

and Taylor of the

were

"officials

Crown", over to

"whether Courts

a European of and commented Also,

Crown would to be dealt "dignity

be handed with in

Native

Nigeria

this

lighthanded by such

manner" proceedings.

Crown lost

and prestige"

352. See note 337 above. 353. ibid.

329.
like a good sea lawyer, Nigerian mutilation and humanity,

the

review

quoted

section 1906, is

10 of "that

Chapter

LVI of

Northern involving justice

rroclamation or torture,

Number 1 of or which

no punishment to natural

repugnant

may be inflicted",

and asserted;

If the whipping in a state of British officials of complete nudity in a public than torture, to place be other and is not repugnant justice then we have no knowledge of the value and humanity, natural 354 of words. In the later in months the of 1912 the of review was preoccupied to with the Ealkan

War, of

but

new year in of Hall

1913 it not

returned only but

the attack up the

on floggings cases

native

officials to that

Nigeria,

digging also Jones

memory of the

previous of a

and Taylor,

producing in Bornu

new instance Ir: lashes railway a dispute but

sierra

Leonean Jones

telegraphist

called 40/-

trovince. Eiven twelve from

December

1912,

had been fined 5 5A persecutionc nature latter's with

and publicly letter his

by a Bornu clerk hall,

Native telling less

Court. of petty the

pathetic since

was printed floggings railway

- after official,

of a more or seemingly man', Hall

uropean a F; of what

involving

sense of his job,

was due to to six

him as a 'white nonths hard

had been deprived

sentenced

354. 355.

ATOR, August

1912,

pp. 37-8.

1913, p. 233, states A201t, February-March "telegraphist Jones, a Leonean of the Bornu }rotectorate, Sierra the was dragged before Alkali's days of November 26th and 30th court on the respective last, the witnesses being Christians on a charge of adultery; to swear on the Koran - the Alkali dismissed the case, and refused before the doctor to on December 13th Jones was summarily ordered be examined, him that and was then sent to the Alkali, who informed forty the resident had ordered the telegraphist to be fined shillings, " twelve lashes in the open streets of born. and to receive

330.
labour by Assistant he wrote= black. that "356 Resident "So this Bovill, is all and deprived I suffered next issue, of for it back the pay. simple In reason with

conclusion of being

In the

review's

was noted

delight for

telegraphist punishment. the bit

Jones

had been given

compensation

as recompense inadequate, review demanded and others per-

wrongful

The amount now well under of

C10 - was accounted its teeth, Hall, the

however, the repeal

and with of the

between which this

proclamation

Jones,

Taylor was held

had suffered. sonally

Lugard, for the

as author its repeal.

proclamation,

responsible By easy stages,

357 campaign into about the Zaria and other the whole

review's

Nigerian structure that pected review's overflowed;

whippings of

became transformed administration. a member of had played

a campaign

against review

Lugard's

Thus when the that influential part in at

was informed resthe indignation

an African

barrister, which

and highly maintaining Onitsha,

Dove family, existence,

a major

had been flogged

by soldiers

in Nigeria This began

Lugard has abolished law to establish Governor order! ... two years the whipping of Native officials with at :aria for Mr. Now we have the march of progress with a vengeance, ago ... Barrister Dove, a well-known and highly respected who practitioner, by men has been flogged is noted for his inoffensiveness, at Onitsha Regiment. of the Nigeria ... It is not a far cry from whippings to 'lynching and prostrations Office for dropping bees'. When will the Colonial see the necessity to Natives indignity its insane policy of permitting nsults and petty officials. at the bands of its -5

356.

ibid,

p. 233.

357. ibid, 350. ibid,

April

1913, p. 282. 1914, p. 50.

7th April

331.
The extension Southern thereby to its Nigeria all critics, the that of Lugard's in the concepts yearn of colonial administration into target, since

1913 and 1914 were a natural about the Northern Louth. 359 Nigerian As early

was most

obnoxious into Lugard's

administration, as July of the 1913,

was introduced review attacking and in the

we find judicial jurisdiction

proposed abolition

re-organisation of the

system, over

particular the

the

Supreme Court's A journal to 'British and which

mass of about

Nigerian of

population. Imperial subjects

was greatly Justice', which tive the

concerned which

the by,

right

was backed concerned the North,

among others, the autocratic

'eiest kfrican powers this by. of

lawyers, administraIt noted

was already officials powers of in

about could

hardly

pass

that

District were

Comr.. issioners, "to be extended going to for native

already to Life

"something and Leath, " country

approaching and the was connected own way. revenue,

autocratic

power", is well of "that

Supreme Court with Lugard's profits

practically

be abolished. making courts is the

This

known penchant justice the in Native the

pay its of

As the it

were in for

a source a pretty

concluded

'malefactor'

lively

359.

long time for the considerable has taken a surprisinwly contemto Lugard, which came not only from educated opposition porary in but also from some of his colleagues, to be reflected natives Miss Perham's magisterial biography the scholarly of Lugard world. but, to say, it would be fair by no means ignored such opposition, his old enemies with partiality her subject defended against as Not till the publication in 1969 of I. F. Nicolson's well as skill. 1900-1960 was a major scholarly The Administration of Nigeria work in a spirit of Nigerian administration on the history published to Lugard= this the more interesting hostile overtly work is all is a former Nigerian himself and is at administrator, as Nicolson of his former which he clearly service pains to defend traditions by Lugard and his feels to have been neglected and even besmirched partisans. It

332.
time. "360 shortly tartly Nigeria after that ,kith the the passing of of the Nigerian Provincial in 1914, Courts the to Ordinance noted

achievement

amalgamation

review

"whipping"

regulations

had now been extended "maliciously" being ueprived of

southern "the assistance justice;

and that

by depriving; subjects

Lrisoners were

from

of a lawyer", It

Nigcrian

British

from the courts would appear that the lawyer has been excluded Commissioner in order that the lcige-rian subjects of the District be denied that protection King George shall which of His Majesty lie may is accorded in Great Britain. felon the meanest English imporhis case to the Governor if considered of sufficient refer is hardly but it is notorious the most that an t. xecutive tance, 61 body to deal with the life competent of the subject. and liberty It was clear to the review why the from barrister the courts - particularly of southern the the Nigeria. Nigerian native This regards was

barrister action the

was being was taken

removed

as tantamount

to an admission the

"that

barrister

as a natural

protector";

District

Commissioner

360.

For Lugard's for amalgamation, ATOR, July 1913, pp"2-3. grounds by Sir ?. i). Lugard on the amalgamation of Northern see his "Report (ed. ), Nigeria ", paras. 16-23, A. H. M. r. irk-Greene in and :southern ... Record, A Documentary Luiard of Nigeria. and the Anal; nration "A Note particularly in para. 29 p. 73; London 1966, pp. 16-74. whose of Lagos land-speculators, check was put on the depradations lawyers, backed by certain had already native gone far actions, Kirk-Greene's to break down the native eyetem of land tenure. " to ibid, introduction gives a balanced pp-1-35. of pro and picture (p. 26) in Lugard's despite disclaiming amalgamation, con elements the balance-sheet that it "does not aim at evaluating of the 1914 For a favourable " critique of the amalgamation, amalgamation. Administration in Nigeria, London 1937, pp. see M. Perham, Native 61-80; for an unfavourable critique of amalgamation, see Nicolson, op. cit., pp. 180-215.

361. AMOR, 14th April

1914, p. 74.

333.
ignorant of the law, and felt animus against the barrister because;

he could not brook the as he is with unlimited authority, by a mere native wound dealt at his prestige when - especially the Native possesses: the legal cuhlifications which the Jistriet Comi issioner lackod. 362 so sadly Tt seemed very clear of white to Duse Mohamed h1i rights related in the that a regime to of the corporal encroachhim used

Vested

punishment ments

and erosion of

legal

directly FmTire. methods Britain;

and demands in

capitalism

Thus we find of coercion

editorialising by the British

i; pril

1914 on the in Nigeria

different and Gr*-at

capitalist

V, prate Majesty, White King George their subjects of his about in this liberties 1914; but this is more imagined of grace, year The underfed than real. through the cities and underpaid stalk is held in high We need only of Britain and the sweater esteem. to the termini take a morning traffic walk of suburban )assenger the infant to the arms of the and aged madly cashing and observe industrial to realise is enslaved. how truly the Briton octopus, time the allotted Five after may mean a weeks rest minutes with Ten minutes its in dismissal, want. would attendant result with This in the foreground. talking the gaunt of starvation spectre

in ingland, is the meaning of cheap labour but in ligeria punctuality be enforced The average company prowith the rod. will probably the contentment of the Black man too groat and his moter finds his purpose. freedom too unconfined to suit It is therefore needful be made to labour be the 'niF, ger' shall that in order that Iigeria First Ordinances; be these will we have whipping made to pay. labour Ordinances followed by forced which will compel the Nigerian to work as the sweated ones of Britain and being are made to work; Ur: inance to freedom, the whipping should he resist a man accustomed 3 for P: its fell iveria do work will must be made to pay13

362. 363.

ATOR, 28th

April

1914,

p. 122. p. 31. This piece also made a violent attack

1914, ATOR. 21st April on Lugard in person.

334.
Frank violently for ignoring the ilugi O'Donnell assailing the : upported tte current such Anti-. hose's 1avery in line with a piece in i%y 1914, :society on matters article

and : aborigines Nigeria while

Protection concentrating 364 This

change. as the

outwith was given

Empire

Futamayo In June

atrocities. 1914 the

editorial harping

backing. on the tie

review

was to be found oppression and

once again capitalist

up between

administrative

exploitation;

The capitalist has so great Office that he u hold on the Colonial 'ffice has but to express his behest and the Colonial is ready to obey. nie stated some time ago that figeria was to be made to pay; to have guaranteed this to the and the Governor-General was reputed City jugr-lers in African And the way to make Nigeria ventures.
is to or . youth Africa pay the company promoter, deprive the Native legitimate of his only means is ea:, y. 5 5 the rest rearecaed; grievances introduce of having laws his which

Cne must founded sion would right the in

clearly

ask to its of

to

what

extent

the

revie, w's

opinions

were

well oppresFew was Britain)

respect

views

on ttie

connection new areas texts society drastic in

between, in the

colonial tropics.

and the perhaps in his

intrusion care view

capitalism that in

into

to aisputo that in

general

Luse : ohamed hli (such labour by the as Great discipline evident

an old

industrial in to the

worker:,

had long

been broken industry,

required

by flodern

and were held

cnec.:

threat

364.

"Mr. recksniff !'rank xiudti (rDonno11, at .iome", from The New %itness, 30th pp. 155-6, reprinted

tMt, . pri1

5th May 1914, 1914.

365. ATOic, 9th Juno 1914, p. 265"

335.
As the The Nigerian black rural had the Country population security of has it "If yo do' yo do'

of want. ate".

old

saying;

werk,

had no such his uhare Thus it being other tools driven hand, of

compulsion, in the produce

as long of that the he economic the

as each individual land would forces Colonial at the owned collectively take to

by his

kindred.

was unlikely to it,

plantation to compel

work without him. On the

lacking or

working office time s,ostile the

can Lugard big I.?.

be regarded review study of

as pliable this

British

business

was making Lugard

allegation? argues careful that

Nicolson's era as amalgamator of the tropical 366 of

recent

actually the

his

was an economic astute'

disaster,

undoing

'development such

undertaken

by Southern

bigerian

predecessors

as MacGregor.

In general, the were or capitalist large uropean of "very

thou,, h Lugarc

was no state-socialist, and hostile which, with to

he was suspicious "the idea that there would

concession-hunter, areas of land in "367 Nigeria

rea.,, y labour,

allow out, he

enterprise. himself full" that

Indeed,

as Xiss

Perham has pointed and on the officers in it

"thou-rht of his

as primarily 1918 instructions

a political to

man",

evidence

political interest iffic",

omr:icomp, etent development, that Lord

personages as such,

they 36`

were

he had little the Colonial

economic is clear

at all.

As for

366.

MacGregor's op. cit., p. 7;, for a suamary of Governor willian z)ee Nicolson, Lagos; in developing see ibid, achievements j, p. 194-6 for examples of in the economic development interventions i,ugard's of Nigeria - his of the geographical survey of the South begun in 1903 cancellation he tried by Sir Ralph Moor, and the fiasco industry of the ostrich in Bornu. to create

367. Perham, op. cit.,

p. 579.

36,). ibid,

pp. 554-5.

336.
Leverhulme, astonished the the final colonial who will at do very well that l: igerian as a test it cane here, to hir. would have been

any suggestion of his

was partial :icheme6

Long befor. Olifford, 369

rejection Office witness sir of

by Governor-General. with the nis

was running this George could Fiddes

<>ut of be given

patience than

imrortunity. account of in a meeting January Nigeria; 1914, by

No better the with over

following office 371)

redoubtable sir . klilliarn

of the Harold concession

Colonial

Lever's

factotum,

Greenhalgh, at Uyo,

a requested

palm processing

aouthern

for J hour this You jointed You saw Mr. Greenhalgh out afternoon. for granting that though the justification such privilege was that Lev"-r's special machinery which would largely were introducing
thst the output of oil, such machinery we had no evidence in been introduced oast and was a ). Leone and the ,solo ., in the case of had askea the that that success; ). Leone Lever's . be reduced from x: 15,000 they were to :spend on machinery should amount looked the p; ecial to . 1, which as if was more an excuse machinery -OO9 (as he if they has patentes than anything; their tt that said) in b. taigeria, them why would not this sufficiently protect machine for legislation be necessary rcnopoly which a special would without To this he replied considerable oppositioi.. which would cause 3,600 dealing tons that had been of fruit pith a year machineryfor in the Gold Coast for for some time and that machinery established 6,000 tons of fruit per anzium leid been set up in a.:, eono, and that Lever's the machinery, though satisfied with were quite no doubt The chief difficulty the it was not perfect. was that so far to make and Bell the the oil bring than preferred rather natives this fruit to the factory, and that was the real reason why they had induced since otherwise, protection special when they wanted to 'ive & sell the fruit, the natives up oil making a competitor in and compete Lever's terms on equal step with wuo had spent would in converting the natives from 2 or i years their old money for increase had yet

369. 370.

Coleman,

Nii*eri

: Background

to NhtLnalien,

p. 436 n. 10.

reenhalgh Vol. I makes it clear The History that ''Nilson, of Unilever, As searcri for new sources of supply was rauch used by Lever during & 234-6. before the Firnt of palm-products war; see pp. 160,165 *orld

337.
You pointed the first out that methods. motor car manufacturer of a monopoly of making might have used a similar plea in favour to the spirit of were alien motor cars, and that such monopolies had shown, led to suspicions the age, &, as experience as to the intentions the natives towards comof Lever's and trade ultimate such and as to the Government's reasons for granting petitors That you felt the S. of S. would sure that before privileges. (even if they could S. Nigerian further their consider application that the find a more suitable area) he would have to be satisfied in S. Leone or the G. C. were fulfilling factories the expectations Mr. Creenhalgh being granted. which led to those concessions to think that this would be easy - but did not seem very professed You suggested that Sir E. Merewether confident. might be asked to the position the S. Leone factory inspect on his return and report He said Lever's there. erewether would be glad to show Sir E. M, 371 everything.

This
tone

fascinating
to Lever's obtain out from of

account
at that

not only
time, British ones. image Sir best". but

shows the Colonial

goes far to explain

Office's

hostile
failed

why Lever's

to either profit far

further

West African It is

concessions important to in the

or make much note Sir that Harcourt,

their

existing

Luee Mohamed Ali's pocket, endorsed was at his

of him as virtually Fiddes line with

William "Yes,

Lever's Sir

George 372

remark

G. Fiddes It

can thus

be shown that

Duse Mohamed Ali's

views

on the

relation

between on the one hand flogging and on the other

and diminution

of legal

rights

in Nigeria

a supposed puppet role

by Governor-General

Lugard and

371. Sir George Fiddes, account of meeting between himself and Lever Bros. Mr. Greenhalgh, 29th January 1914, C. O. 583/27/3447" representative This meeting was held at Lever Bros, request - see Lever Bros* to 3. of S., C. O. 24th January 1914, C. 0.583/27/3080" tinder 372. C. O. 583/27/3447,2nd February 1914.

338.
Colonial of the Secretary mark. Harcourt other in relation to capitalist be regarded should of which British the in interests were wide

On the

hand,

he cannot

as a mere crackin the aware.

brained context

sensationalist. of contemporary regime of Africans 373 that in

Such accusations African the in the Congo; Rhodesia, fate of history, the

be placed he *a only

too

The Leopold treatment vhipring all

South,: +frica review the

Company's another Africa; where

where Africans

dug up yet Union to of

scandal;

South that

were examples regime rights,

made it

perfectly

reasonable imposing

deduce

a European ing legal

in Africa the ultimate

was to be found object

floggings economic

and reducsubjection

was the

African's

and exploitation.

However, Dues Mohamed Ali

and this the review is well for reflected events in

was never a completely

an alternative 'Zaria explanation Whippings'. in

systematic
appearing This

thinker,
in

such as the than the in

alternative or another, T. 6wellibue announcement;

explanation of that

was none other Egypt, July

re-appearance,

one form Pharaohs, snooty

bane of Thus, in

exposed

In The Land Of The made the

Esq.

1913 an editorial

following

being drawn, for the most part, In the old days, the Colonial official did, from a class of traditional rulers, representing, as they usually these men knew how to govern; the off-shoots of the nobility and, although in many cases despots, they were benevolent.

373.

1913, pp. 234-5, in Northern TOR, February-March P. notes the provision Rhodesian of on 18th December 1912 for whipping gazetted regulations be "It for certain offences, will and comments; policemen native the pains and is liable to all the native that policeman observed the native but in order that of the European policeman, penalties or stand upon not entertain shall a sense of equality policeman

his dignity,

he is

to be treated

to a whipping.

"

339.
In these days of Board School education and scholarships a into the ruling new element has been introduced class, and the Colonies are cursed with a shoal of nobodies, who, being for the own most part beggars on horseback, about their are more concerned than. about the prestige prestige of His Majesty whom they so tsrepresent. incompetents And those short-sighted effectively Native the so-called that we read are at the bottom of all unrest 374 about. In April than the the British 1914# more in above in this vein appeared, that " the there though were a little more conciliatory in

acknowledging Service. in

"many good Englishmen were "frequently prestige", strange

Colonial to

These, interests

however,

compelled while to him, the and to

to administer "Jack-in-office, for which that his

a system ... vested training in "

of a false which him, is

with an authority does that not qualify

early

proceeds

forthwith to his

abuse artificial which

authority importance.

order

a few

inches

may be added for the it

Such men were responsible Great Britain. 375

"hatred is clear

with

extremists

regard

In general,

enough that that

this

aas a much more conservative brutality

line

of explanation

than

which explained

in terms of the demands of the capitalist

economy.

Outside In the years

had largely But the

British

Africa,

the review about

exposed few African

scandals.

from 1912 the clamour

died down, take and the note of

the Congo of a few years earlier

figured of in brutality its pages as an aside. in the German

Congo only accusations

review

did

374. ATOR, July

1913, p. 2. 1914, p. 121.

375. ATOR, 28th April

340.
Ie3t the African Togoland. This however, Nigeria,

colony

of

was not, events in

pursued though the

with the review

same tenacity

or vigour

as similar

allegations printed

were perhaps an article making later

even more serious. the gravest allegations, mild;

In July 376

1913, but

the

editorial

comment two months It

was surprisingly

is alleged that German officials have been murdering native harems, and generally the very and others, chiefs running playing If one half duce. the accusations the matter for are true calls investigation. immediate We are firmly these alleged that convinced the knowledge are committed without atrocities and consent of the His Imperial German Emperor. Majesty is too humane, and has too high a sense of his divine to admit of his counresponsibilities In justice, tenancing however, to those directly such acts ... to sus we are forced concerned nd further comment until we are 7 dates. supplied with names and Perhaps this rosy view of Wilhelm II can be accounted for by Duse Mohamed

Ali's
still

penchant for
enjoyed the

monarchy,
powers that,

and the fact

to Duse's

that
regret,

the Emperor of Germany

the to British monarchy practice

had lost. was made in Coast rumour

A rather April that

more astringent in the course

reference of editorial for swallow to

German colonial

1914,

comment on a Gold Northern the Nigeria "The with

Togo was to well known, ...

be exchanged rather

Nigerian, its

as is

would

hated

measure

whipping

clauses

than

be subjected

the

German 'civilising'

influence.

"378

376. "Quashie", pp. 20-21.

"The Gold Coast and German Togoland",

ASR,

July

1913,

377. ATOR, September 1913, p. 89. 378. A OR, 28th April 1914, p. 121.

341.
Turning 'human rights' than that from Africa to Asia, but there we find editorial and less to the interest detailed near that in scale

issues,

on a more intermittent on India the

in Africa, areas.

and a concentration No doubt this was for

exclusion within

of. other

same reason

Africa easily English

the review learn

concentrated affairs

on West Africa, from Indiana

i. e.,

because it

could

about Indian

in London, from the Indian Apart officials from periodical in India,

language

press and from the British and arrogance

press. of British

references

to the rudeness

auch as in Duse's Maharajah specific 1913 it

1917 reminiscence 379

of complaints did in its

made to him by the

of Cooch-Behar, Indian 'civil what it

the review issues

from time to time confront editorials. Thus, in June outrage" in India of

rights'

attacked

considered of three

to be a "judicial Indiana

in the form of the retrial murder,

who had been acquitted executed and the third

two of the accused being subsequently to penal servitude for life.

sentenced standards;

Again appeal was made to British

justification What is the political in India or social which makes it permissible to put a British in jeopardy twice subject when the law of England makes it impossible for a similar thing to happen It is an ironclad in this country? rule of law, that a man shall 380 be tried twice for the same offence. not

As the review repression

was in abeyance when the most spectacular of respect for Indian life,

example of British naseacre of

and lack

the Amritsar

379. Air

November 1917, pp. 91-2.

380. ATOR, June 1913, pp"369-70.

342.
1919, took place, it had no immediate, hot-blooded reaction to that event.

It

did,

however,
of

in August 1920, note with

the massacre, though noting

approval
at the

the House of Co=ons

same tine the existence

condemnation

of a die-hard
but in the

minority
'Indian' was also

in

the Commons and majority

issue which

in the Lords.
the

381

human rights a North

received

most attention Government's

the review

American

one - the

Canadian

discrimination

against

the flow

of Indian

immigrants

into

Western Canada.

This was attacked editor was still

in as early bearing with

as 1912,382 and as late

as June 1914 the

the anti-Indian

measures in mind when discussing "Yankeeism in Canada". into Canada as a States", to Imperial

American relations In this bulwark article against

Canada under the heading mass Indian "being

he advocated the country

immigration

absorbed

in the United

make Canada financially

British in with interests his in

solvent,
North

and as a means of strengthening

383 Though this British have would

America. of

have fitted acting

own private against possibility.

vision racist

a non-racist it

Empire,

as a bulwark as a serious

America,

can hardly

been envisaged

Far more detailed human and civil items rights 384

and persistent of black

was the review's Thus, it

interest contained

in the dnumerable the

Americans.

on lynohings.

Interestingly,

the review

did not share

381.

AOR, August

1920,

pp. 43-4.

382. See for

e. g. "Canadian

Colour

Prejudice",

ATOR, October

1912, p. 136.

383. "Yankeeism in Canada",

TOR, 9th June 1914, pp. 266-i. A

384. e. g., ATOR, August 1912, p. 61, which contained a photograph of 4 Negroes lynched near New Orleans for alleged stealing, and statistics in the U. S. A. between 1885 and 1911. of lynchings

343.
conciliatory of declining view of Booker T. Washington that lynching views was a phenomenuin in this respect would seem

importance. contradicted,

Booker

T. Washington's

were not that the

overtly

and were direct over his the

even reported385

it -

he was regarded review found the

as above outlook did in

criticism. lyncli4ng far

Editorially, more intolerable on the subject

however, than at that

Booker time. mation. of

T. Washington As in Thus,

public review

utterances had its on private

West Africa, in July

private

sources

of

inforlynching

1914, Scott

acting of

information for

on the killing

a black

woman, Marie

MusVogee Oklahoma, her, this the review

a white Pre-

man who was attempting sidential sexual action. background

to seduce In particular,

angrily stressed

demanded the true

editorial

to many lynchings;

the present time there has been a From the days of slavery until continuous system of raping of coloured women by white men, but we never hear of these things in the public press.
As in 1910-1911, the editor pointed in his the discrepancy between the about remarks Egypt,

made by ex-President

Roosevelt

Maneion

House speech

and the lawless wife' sexual

violence

suffered

by Afro-Americans. up as the explanation 386 women.

Also,

the 'Potiphar's

syndrome was again brought assaults by blacks

of so-called especially

on white

News of lynchings,

dated 8th January 1913, from Booker T. waashington to the 385. See letter Editor of the New York Times. in ATOR, February-, "Arch 1913, p. 255. 386. "Lynch Law and Lawlessness", pp"49-50. editorial in ATOR, 7th April 1914,

344.
if ings the Duse Mohamed Ali's Americans over bitter the feelcenturies,

victim the

were a woman, reactivated sexual bitter mistreatment feelings dare that

about

of black in the

and his American in Egypt.

equally

circumstances the state of

any white law and order

spokesman

should

to criticise

The review
attitude of 1912,

took particular
civil rights Roosevelt The editor but printed

care to investigate
during the presidential

Theodore Roosevelt's
election for on this campaign his new

to Negro during

which

was standing sent in

as candidate

Progressive dated velt's July

Party. 2nd 1912,

him an open letter the August

question, "Roose-

1912 issue,

headed

Remarkable

Reticence";

Sir,
I cannot see my Your opinions rast Africa on Egypt and British intended which you evidently seriousness way to accept with that I think this is made evident them to be received. in the chapter dealing speech in my work - 'In the Land of with your Guildhall

the Pharaohs'.
Having letter.

made this

quite

clear,

we come to

the

object

of

this

both European and American, The Press, inform us that you mean Doubtless this is a wise step, inasmuch as to found a new party. has become lukewarm in regard to those traditions your old party heritage by Abraham Lincoln, left to the Republican as an immortal Party. I an emboldened to ask your intenBeing quite aware of this, the political touching tions and social of ten or amelioration Negroes of the United States of America. eleven million I know that should you make any statement, will such statement by conviction, be influenced that such a statement and I think critical of your career. period should be made by you at this

You are quite capable of dealing with the trusts, and I am one you will amongst the number who believe that, given the opportunity, deal with them in a most drastic and effective manner - but that is not the point. Our journal will be read by every thinking coloured man in the in the United States worlds and every coloured man - especially and not a few white men, who will read our pages, would like to have statement from you with regard to your intended an authoratitive treatment Negroes, - should you reach the of those afore-mentioned White House via the New Party or otherwise.

345.
I therefore your intentions Times and Orient ask that you will for publication in 367 Review ... combining of to black this favour of us with a statement the August number of the African

Thus we see Duse Mohamed All, a concern Roosevelt's third section for the civil rights organisers chapter.

his

old

feud

with

Roosevelt, of in

with

Americans. letter will

The response be discussed

campaign of this

the

Though Duse 1Iohamed Ali and deprivation not the the to say that of rights of

used

the

review men in

to expose far

brutality that

against is

coloured

away places, happening

he was indifferent Be retained Thus, for in July

to similar a sharp

things

within in the Daily

United British

Kingdom. press. and The Star the Chicago

eye for editorial

racist

attitudes attacked

1912 the sneering Party

Telegraph tation coloured the at

their

remarks

about 388 Northern

Negro In My

represen1913, a mess, Having an

Republican

Convention. from the

barrister bar

having was attacked

been excluded for its

circuit's 389

English

racism

and hypocrisy.

387.

to Theodore Roosevelt from Duse Mohamed Ali, Open letter ATOR, For Theodore Roosevelt August 1912, p. 60. and the Progressive Party's to the race question in the 1912 Presiequivocal attitude Innocence. dential election, see Henry F. May, The End of American Years of our Time. 1912-1917, New York, A Study of the First 1967, Hofstadter, TheAmerican Political. Tradition. and Richard p. 27; London 1962, chapter IX, passim. And the Yen Who Made It,

388. ATOR, July

389.

1912, p. 3.

Here Duse Mohamed All, observed; "the ATOR, May 1913. p. 326. it beneatb. their English dignity members of the bar do not consider in Colonies to practise clients are no lese swarthy where their than the practitioners to whom they object, and in which places they enter in the natives' into the natives own competition with country.

346.
English wife himself, 390 Duce Mohamed Ali was naturally sensitive to

any suggestion
March

that

black

men were unfit

British

husbands for
clergy

white

women.
to

In

1920 he attacked

certain

who had refused

perform

marriage

ceremonies

for

auch couplea.

391

390.

is known about Duss Mohamed Ali's first wife, rhonhe abandoned Britain in 1921. An article in the ATOR, July 1918, when he left (n. d. ) comments that from the da1sh11 Observer 8, reprinted he was p. lady. On occasions, to an English him to she accompanied married and political receptions meetings associated with the causes he supported given for Xuhammad Farid at - e. g. she was at the reception London, 21st February the Savoy Hotel, 1914 - see &TOR 24th March 1914, p. 5; and rose to being a member of the managing Committee Islamic society 1918, of the London Central see A'1Oh, February The personal identity particulars noted from his wartime p. 11. book in C. O. 554/40/21897 that merely state she was English and that Her Christian her maiden name was Pardoe-Nash. name was Beatrice in ATOR, July 1917, p. 25. From time to time see her photograph (sometimes to the review verses she contributed over the initials On occasion, these were on racial B. 11. ). themes showing her "Unity" outlook solidarity with her husband's e. g. her verses in ATOR, August 1913, p. 76; Little

Come, join ye Blacks with 'Tis up to you to show

The sons of white Thy manhood's not

unity

community, laid low!

with Unison your might will Let all thy racial pride

come
sun life,

Burst forth as does the morning On life's tide! seething great Outwit them in their spheres of And care not what they say

Thro' dark clouds runs a silver A proverb tried and true!

Since words do only end in strife Plod on, and win the day!
thread,

And after all the rain is Come skies of azure blue. 391. A0, March 1920, p. 38.

shed

347.
Indeed, the review on more than one occasion specifically defended

inter-racial
following

marriage.

For example in a book review

in June 1913, the

comment was made; marriage; and as such but applaud. Race bow the knee to the god 392 marriage. the racist concepts

It is all an excellent plea for inter-racial Review' Times and Orient the 'African cannot must live so long as men and women prejudice by abstaining from inter-racial of ignorance But more fundamentally, the review was wont

to attack

which were then current,

widespread

and respectable

among many white

people;

There has grown up a fashion Europeans during the among Teutonic twentieth of speaking and writing century about the Child Races of in need of Euxvpean guardianship, Africa, minors, as being like in state, church and school. control and government, Europeans seen so blinded The Teutonic by colour-prejudice, they forget the history that when dealing affairs with African of the human race, and the discoveries of their own archaeologists, the long dead and buried civilizations concerning of tropical and 393 Africa. sub-tropical Possibly the most sustained the attack pen of in the review's writing stereotypes history in April on racist 1913. This physiognomy;

mumbo-jumbo article rejected

came fron physical

"Sothis"

scorned

anthropology's of African

of African

low estimates

intellectual

capacity

as demolished

by the numerous examples of African reflections on African

intellectual

ability=

and rejected of

courage by examples ranging

from the battles

Lake Trasimene and Cannae to the recent walking unflinchingly up to the ruzzles

examples of thousands of maxim guns. 394

of Africans Indeed, on

392. 393" 394.

Unsigned ville,

roview Kentucky,

by Thorns of "All of one Blood", in ATOR, June 1913, p. 356. editorial World. Fron in

H. Spence

of 1914,

Louisp. 243.

"The Mature

Races of Africa",

ATOR, 2nd June African

"Sothis", "An Outlook on the A OR, April 1913, pp. 304-5.

the

Standpoint",

348.
occasion the review even asserted in Social Darwinist language the

superiority

of coloured

over white

races;
and they Yellow up bound

the Anglo-Saxon fears is it that intellectual the rapid ... Is it that industrial the darker strides races have made? fear competition from the Black Man, the Brown Man, and the We know that the white Man? races are bound to be swallowed These latter, by the darker being the fittest, races. are 395 to survive. However, more usually the review was more occupied in defending

its

"darker

races"
in

from accusations
their

of inferiority,

and subjection

to indignity,

than

asserting

superiority.

In defending
the review often

the "darker
asserted the the ages.

raced"
positive

from the racist

achievements at

theories
of the African last

of the day,
and Asian category namely, sensitive many incidental its in

civilizations this survey of of

through the

Thus we arrive campaigns

review's culture. the fegro

policies,

and causes,

defence to the

Afro Asian that the

The review had no history, of civilization to outlining devoted

was particularly and apart in Africa, from

charge to

references an entire as the that the

antiquity

on one occasion in history of "proving" from blood. and Italy

editorial saw it;

was devoted the to article culture

the itself

Negro role to the task

editor

euch

contributions Continent Magellan, ... to

and civilization to those

as had emerged who had "Negroid" the "Mulattoes Portugal,

i: uropean included

were attributable Columbus, be found to the thin

These lesser

Normans and day in

Negroids

Spain,

and France",

descendants

from the

"mainly

Negro" armies

of Carthage

in

395.

R,, 9th June 1912, p. 265.

349.
the Punic " Wars and "the The slow incursions of of the Romans into of Gaul the with British slave Negro Isles -

legions. found

development by the savagery

the

inhabitants by the of

unclothed in

savages a state most their the of

Romane, Bold at with of of the time

Romans in the

markets, -

and still

William

Conqueror of Afroironic in

was contrasted Americans inversion Britain, lot; in of

unfavourably fifty years scale in

the

rapid

development in then to

freedom. racial

Indeed, valuation

a nicely obtaining

accepted A1ropeana

Northern

general

were found

be a poor

backward

lacked the initiative England, always a maritime nation although Iiegroid. Your Anglo-saxon imagination of the Latin or Teuton, and genuine specimen of the white man, have who is the only reputed (sic) and certainly never originated never possessed imagination They are both improvers and adapters whether we take anything. bogus philosophy. inventions The Negroes their or their so-called iron smelters, iron smelting their and they taught were the first they were also the first to the people of Lurope; manufacturers Negro philosophy in Lgypt, Babylonia, was taught of glass ... Syria and Arabia. forgotten It appears to be generally that it was the Negroid the middle ages of Northern Ioor in Cordova, who during Auropean darkness kept the lamp of science intellectual and semi-savagery The power of the white man of Northern burning Europe has ... This has been proved by his action been force, not intellect. the ages from the ruthlessness throughout of the Gauls and Vandals in Egypt and Amritsar, in Rome to the recent picnics military where Sir Michael Lieutenant-Governor O'Dwyer, find and his willing we the name of Britain by their henchman General Dyer, disgracing ... Where he has possessed Hun-like intellect ruthlessness. or initiabe found to have been the result tive it will of a strain of blood Negro ... from this very inferior German who invented It was the heavy and unimaginative the Aryan There never was auch a creature The real as the Aryan. myth. facts of the case are to be found on the bogus claim of the Germans to intellectual superiority over that of other white men in Europe. They knew The descendants of the Goths could show no civilization. that all the wisdom of the west came from Africa and the Orient... The The Greeks of Homer and the Etruscans people ... were coloured portrait which is to be se 6 in the mask of Rameses the Great, British Museum, proves him to have been a Negroid ...

396. AOR, January

1920, pp. 43-4.

350.
Obviously, black not very there is but it more of must polemic be borne of than clearly tower back have exposition in mind in that but this the approach review to was to

history, the real reflective

product

an ivory the ball

academy, into found its

a response court

pressures. task. than

To hit It turning could the

opponents'

was an urgent of doing this

hardly racist

a more pugnacious arguments against

way

negrophobe's

himself.

One way in which the review

bution to civilization articles. could Samuel Dr, a. 3. was through To give be made of

expounded the African

obituaries, some impression articles on "The the

and Asian contrimentioned, of of sub-

and as already of the variety

biographical jects, the mention musician

Late

Emperor of

Japan";

Coleridge-Taylor; Scarborough;

President the

Wilberforce 6avant", William Christmas objects Historical

University, by various Conrad

and "5arbah,

African

authors; by the the

on tuhamnad Farid, and editor. 397

Ahmad Arabi level,

sir and :. in its

Reeves

On a more general a long article

1912 number, and organisation

review of the

published then

on the

creation, for

recently

formed

Negro

Society

Research,

of New York.

398

This article

made clear

what the object

of

397.

ATOR, September 1912, pp. 85-6; buss "The Late Emperor of Japan", The ?an and his Music", Mohamed, "The Late Samuel Coleridge-Taylor. ATOR, August 1912, p. 70, on Dr. W.S. ATOR, September 1912, PP. 81-3; Savant", "Sarbah, M. F. Hutchison, the African ATO Scarborough; "Mohamed 'arid L3ey", 1912, pp. 35-7; Christmas and Dune Mohamed Ali, Conrad Reeves", 1920, AOR, February "Arabi Pasha", and "Sir William 1920, pp-5-8; June 1920, pp. 6-7. PP. 5-8; April and

398. "The Negro Society for historical hesearch", unsigned, ATOR, Christmas 1912, pp. 26-8 & 30. The society had been founded by J. r.. Bruce, William Presley Neekes and Arthur A. schomberg, avid u. iulton,
Sunny Slope firnest W. Braxton at Bruce's residence, thew York City, 1911 - see ibid on 18th April p. 27. than the foundation little earlier of the society a Negro given, which is 1912 - e. g. in August Leier, Farm, Yonkers, This places that usually lought in America,

1880-1915. Ann Arbor,

Racial Ideolovles in the Age of Booker T. rashinaton, 2nd imp., 1964, p. 262.

351.
Negro history It should be=

the race and inspire love and veneration for its was to instruct for Historical Research men and women of mark that the Negro Society into being. Our principal was brought aim is to teach, enlighten We our people in Negro history and instruct and achievement. ... believe the race can be made stronger that if it and more united 399 be made to know that it has done great things. can It was equally There is certain nothing than of the need for euch work;

to a struggling more disheartening and weakening that to feel he (sie) has contributed to people nothing ... that he has simply been an onlooker civilisation; others while that he has been a beneficiary builded and planted; of what others 400 have achieved. is a close parallel between mark" the Society's review's emphasis policy men. despite effort of on "veneration publishing African on the was

There for its

men and women of studies of

and the

biographical social individual the series the customs

significant totally

coloured neglected, major

However, this in that

were not man.

emphasis direction

great of title

The review's by the African former Farriage the

articles "West

Freetown

Postmaster, defending

James C. Smith as well of the as interior

under

Customs",

illustrating of sierra

and explaining Leone. 401 kept a careful on Africa

traditional

marriage

system

The review having any

eye through or Asia.

its

book of

reviews a few

on any work issues of the

bearing

A sample

399. ATOR, Christmas 400. ibid, p. 26.

1912, p. 27.

Marriage Customs", A'0 , August 1912, 401. James C. Smith, "West African FebruarySeptember 1912, pp. 90-2; October 1912, pp. 125-7; PP. 55-6; March 1913, pp. 245-7.

352.
review in with Bull Italian naturally which July gives 1912, a fair there impression were reviews of the of nature and scope of these. Thus,

three

works

on Africa were,

and a novel Light for John and was ,

an Afro-American on the Morocco polemical received was condemned savages' of

context. Question with

The African a Note

works

on Tripoli, own Charles Mary Grant's 'intrepid Orr's writing

an anti-French itosher, Alone i. nglioh in which

work with

by the

magazine's Mss. of the

approval;

West Africa

an an example genre; early work.

gentlewoman of-Northern which was

among black Nigeria, received Orr are

and Cuptain colonialist 402

The Making from

a classic

Nigeria,

as a valuable of some interest.

The comments

made on Tim. Grant for having

and Captain claimed

The former

was ridiculed

to be "alone" support Creoles

it -

was pointed

that

throughout

ehe had the help of 6iorra

and Leone

of a variety gave offence;

of Weat Africans;

and her opinion

he burls at the Sunday clothes ridicule with and maidens of Freetown youths ... takes the breath away. 403 Orr, on the other hand, was quoted at length

of the a wordy

respectable superficiality

coloured that

and with

great

approval

on

the genuine religious superiority

feeling

behind

the jihad

of Usman dun Indio, for native

the

of Islam over Christianity the colonial authorities

as a religion to support

iUegroeo, and rulers. 404

on the need for

402.

for

these

reviews,

all

unsigned,

nee ATOR, July

1912,

pp. 21-5.

403. ibid, 404. ibid,

p. 22. pp. 24-5.

353.
All this of the may seem, from indirect magazine bitterly obnoxious or feigned) African rule the in present Northern aspects Yet it rule culture, traditional Orr's time, Nigeria, of nothing and it but the standard apoloto

getics find

may seem bizarre it was in that other what

commending opposed about for subjects out to.

a system should

which

r'spects was found genuine educated the

be remembered it3 respect

indirect

was not but its

(whether of westernised

African of

deprivation rights.

British defence of of

Furthermore, against in the con-

reviewer

picked of

Captain his

the African

African labour in

common charge structing of African 405 the

idleness;

appreciation Railway; plantation reviewed in

Northern over

Nigerian European novel

and his cotton the

belief

the

superiority in Northern

peasant As for

cultivation it

Nigeria.

the

same batch, of :shadows,

was clearly by Stephen all the

a much more lightweight SWift406 correct on the liberal Toving Dr. only by

production American

The Valley Slavery,

theme of

and expressing

sentiments. February-? Reid of arch 1913, one finds Dawn in that the the Earl a long review article 407 Not by

on to

W. Macgregor was exception (and, in effect

John Harris' to the fact of)

Darkest

Africa.

taken the

book had an introduction of Cromer, but also the

imprimatur

405. ibid. 406. ibid,

407.

p. 26.
The writer has been unable to PrAcregor Aeid, apart from the to the ATOR and supporter of for between 1912 and 1921.

1913, pp. 257-63. ATOR, February-)'arch find Dr. out more about the reviewer, fact that he was a regular contributor the causes that its editor was fighting

354.
whole horror, thesis of a 'Dark Continent', rejected. lacking For any past the the but savagery and

was indignantly past of liberty

example, law with

review atrocities

contrasted of business Africans" that

an African Leopold's in British

and communal racial It prejudice asserted

Congo and the West Africa.

and exploitation that "Africa to Harris, belongs

by big to the

and in time

general the the

was a powerful most school eminent that

counterblast proponents, wished to

who was at of 'child forces. the

one of of from the to 408

as secretary 'protect' the

Anti-Slavery of other

Society, Africa hand, porting wisdom. to

races'

their

own ways as well of the magazine cut to

as from ridiculed

external

On the booklet pur-

same issue provide Thus, African

a shilling so-called for

a short there

genius

via

Indian writing

occult claiming

was no automatic thought.

praise

represent

or Asian

Popular
Africa

writing

was carefully
Perhaps this for

scrutinised
to

for

satter

bearing

on

or Asia.

was only

be expected on the stage

from the

an editor force of

who had himself colour examples 1913, prejudice

witnessed in British

so many years popular culture. type

One of in the

the

most for

interesting April was by

of a book review

of

this

appeared popular

issue

when A. E. W. Mason's by Kathleen Fraser.

enormously 409

novel

The lour

Feathers been read

reviewed

Mason's

novel

has surely

405. 409.

ibid,

pp. 263-4. 1913, FP"318-20.

ATOR, April

355.
millions popular reaction over culture to the the of years, 3ritish . and can be regarded Imperialism beat in as a major 410 by her event in the

tfrica.

The reviewer's own words;

book could

be summarised

It is the old story, of L_ngland'e vaunted and the whole story Imperialism. Not only is there but we robbery and repression for the robbed and oppressed. 41i find scorn and contempt . or good measure, this review included some highly critical and uncom-

plimenta: y remarks about the Larl

Though the . fro-Asian the so concerned world, works of the

of Cromer.
eye on British iteview writing about

to keep a watchful African Tines

and Orient writers.

by no means Thus, in the same review

neglected issue of that

contemporary ieathers.

coloured

reviewed of the

The lour Indian

appeared A. of r.astman, the

a most commendatory one of 412 the

The Soul

by Charles intellectuals

most distinof

guished

American

Indian

day.

The inclusion

410.

For a brief summary of Mason's novel's culture place in the popular Imperialism, Kathleen see Chapter II, of British n. 102 p. 61. is not known to the writer Fraser ArA0tt contributions. outside-her interested in and knowledgeable She was clearly about race affairs: "Frederick Douglass", AtTOR, hugust 1913, pp-55-6. see her article

411. ATOR, April

412.

1913, p"319.

A. Eastman's For the review book, The Soul of the Indian, of Charles 1913, pp. 320-21. For the story London 1911, see AT0: 3, April of Eastman's life, Woods Ci_isation: to see his From the Eastman London 1916. Chapters in the AutobioraiDhy of an Indian, to the Universal Races Congress in 1911; was also a contributor (ed. ), Indian", his paper "The North American in Spiller see Papers on Inter-Racial Problems, pp. 367-76.

356.
this wide work work in its book reviews in all is a clear illustration peoples admirer notice in of the magazine's The

ranging

interest

non-'European black American

and c-"lturea. *illiar" October a. Ferris, 1913.413

by Duce Mohamed Ali's Abroad,

The African

was given of a work

a glowing whicki highly

This him-

was to be expected self; but this

praised of

Luse Mohamed . tli mere mutual

was perhaps

more than example of

a case the those men,

admiration. to aemonby expounding

The book was a monumental strate the the capacity

genre of

that

attempted descent

of Africans of their

and great

African

deeds and virtues On occasion,

past

and present. men and ideas was at within

book reviews world example in that of in

were used some way the a review

to ettack magazine that of

the with.

Afro-Asian A fine

loggerheads

such

is

W. -,. B. Du boas' and pursuing nbat that of to

Darkwater, the full

reviewed partisan Ferris

June

1920 by William T. claim Washington by the

A. Ferris, sentiments.

pro-Booker here was the had This

particularly even

annoyed

publishers

Du Bois, the

more than coloured

Washington peoples.

been, called

was the forth

chief a tirade;

spokesman

world's

kanxs' how one of Du Bois 'Close When we consider editorials and in the U. . Army and editor to be captain his aspiring of the Ce at the same time was raked fore and aft by the Negro Press of the division in the summer of 1918 and how the Washington of the country interrogation it tempts one to ... N. A. A. C. F. rose in open rebellion, the extravagant But it is not our purpose in this revue to go into We friends claims of Dr. Du Bois' and followers. and exaggerated Oswald Garrison Villard was spiritually whether will not consider

...

413.

Terris' ATOR, October The review is unsigned. 1913, pp. 169-70. in Part III view of Duae I4ohamed All and the ATOR is discussed this chapter.

of

357.
blind luminary Du Lois as the only intellectual when he recognised We will Du Bois is too on the African plane. not consider whether too too touchy and sensitive, aristocratic and hypercritical, dainty too high and holy to lead the masses of his and fastidious, We will not consider race. whether Du Bole did or did not make fatal blunders to referee the work and worth of when he attempted We believe friends that, if our Anglo-Saxon other coloured men ... for the Negro to select leaders cease trying and well wishers will thereby tastes putting race, natural men in positions which their training them for, and previous and aptitudes and preparation unfit there would be more peace and harmony within the black ranks. 414 Du Bois Booker was accused T. Washington, of having "no constructive even to if in plan and programme", unlike 415

who had these, as irrelevant

some respects the black

defectively. massest

The book was dismissed

the demands of

is an amazing revelation 'Uarkwater' of the soul of a cultured, Negro of mixed blood. We see in it the agony of soul of refined in the writhing and twisting a Negro of mixed blood, and turning has confined it. It is the white cage in which the Anglo-Saxon for its It is the disinherited blood of Du Bois crying own. coloured of the Caucasian, offspring weeping and wailing and cursing and by his Caucasian brother damning because he has been disinherited ... But, while the black and brown masses resent the exploitation of by Europeans, Africa restricted and lynching, economic and industrial jimcrowism, in America segregation and disfranchisement opportunity, as keenly as Du Bois does, they are not as sensitive about social 416 ostracism quadroons as Du Bois and the nulattoee, and octoroons are. This attack may seem unduly vituperative. But to place it in context,

only was Ferris not

by this

period

probably

an associate

of Garvey in the

414.

William within

H. Ferris, of *. L. B. Du Bois Darkwatert review London 1920, in AOx, June 1920, p. 20. the veil, p. 23. p. 22.

voices

from

415. 416.

ibid, ibid,

358.
Universal feud Negro Improvement Aesociation 417 the at but days and therefore the of review its also a party to the open

between

Garvey

and Lu Bois, back offence to

had a grudge when Luse by him of its

against

Du Bois

dating

foundation, view held

Mohamed Ali prospects*

had taken 418

the

dampening

As well Times verse

as reviewing Review

works also

by non-European over the

writers, years,

the a large

frict-n _, body the of

and Orient by Africans, published not

printed,

afro-Americana African political be said which poet

and Asians. was Kobina but of the invariably the

Undoubtedly Sekyi. short his

most

regularly however, works. Japanese, hand, review values.

poems were, and lyrical by a other

overtly

romantic English) 419 carried of black

The same could Gonnoske the

(in many poems presented. verse

Kornai, large tone to

review

On the by the

some of

body of

of Afro-American race pride verses

had an overt 420

and assertion

cultural were

From time

time

by Duse Mohamed Ali

himself

417.

between iiu Bois and Garvey, Black Poses, For the conflict see Cronon, ibid, association with Garvey, pp. 35 & pp56-7 & 130-1 and for Ferris' Ferris to -whom 46 which mentions Ii. Ferris" as "the able Gilliam the raper" Garvey "soon turned over most of the burden of editing (i. e. the Negro World). Cronoii gives no date for the st&rt of the Garvey-Ferris relationship. it would Du Bois' had been "I think answer to the symposium questions like in London, if a review be a good thing yours could be supported but I do not see how it could possibly pay" - an answer that was fully by events. Ruse Mohamed Ali's justified was annoyed rejoinder "Dr. Burghardt to say the least, disappointing and uu Bois is, " ATOR, July 1912, pp. 13-14. pointless. For Rn example of Kobina verse as published -ekyi's For Dawn", AOR, February 1920, p. 8. see "A Stifled Connoske Komai's July verse in the review, see AU, An example below. of such Afro-American verse is quoted review, an example of 1920, p. 2?. on p. 364 in the

418.

419.

420.

and discussed

359"
published on British under the pseudonym 421 interest in black roles and black performers "Delta". These rode satirical comments

Imperialism.

The review

showed great

in the performing
of of Othello, the with

arts.
Beerbohm

In the review's
Tree in the lead,

firnt

issue

a current
for its

performance
portrayal

was attacked

Moor as light-skinned;

i3urbage, the actor, black. David Garrick, made 'Othello' ... Kean and John Kemble all Charles as Shakesmade up the ?'oor black, The Continental he should be. have always peare intended actors bearing thereby language contained out the express made him black, It was reserved for the American in the text. to introduce actors latter him as a sort of washed out mulatto, and as the 'leading' the trend of American day lights stage - following of the Lnglish 'artistic' improvements and vulgar opinion, which sees nothing good the old-established in the black man - have revised order, grading brown to roseate the colour of the Yoor chocolate we can quite pins, expect to see 'Othello' save the mark: - masquerading conceivably 422 Anglo-ba=on. as an Though doubted of the unsigned, that stage, part. influence, on British criticism this was surely person have from the editor's the hand. review the It had his is to be

any other and would In the

connected felt quite of his

with

knowledge of to of we find

so keenly the 'whitening' in the of the

'whitewashing' of Othello influence span,

a black American America further

attribution

we see again life. of London At the

belief

realign life in

end of

review's

productions

Othello,

January

and March

421.

See for example "Poor Pompey's Plea Caesar)", ATOR, July 1912, p. 25. ATOH, July 1912, p. 33.

to Caesar

(Lvery

Triton

is

422.

360.

1920,423 Othellos were for August took It

with

interesting over

reminiecences the years;

by Due as eight

Mohamed Ali be expected,

on 4ifferent his Negro. preferences In

he had seen those 1920, actors reviewing to

who had made the the play to

Moor unequivocally of Allah, people of his of of

The Garden the Muslim most

Luse Mohamed Ali Algiers as children. criticism 424

exception

references generalisation

would

be a fair for the

that

theatre race the

written

review took

contained great

come assertion in

pride. achievements in the

The review of famous

satisfaction artists. Ira Aldridge, in the

extolling

contemporary of the

Negro great

There but

was no equivalent there music. was the in were one or Two of

years Negroes

1912-1920 of

two these African

international attention.

repute

world of

of

received composer circles, into

marked Samuel and until

The first still death --oat

these

Anglo-West choral

Coleridge-Taylor, his one of early the

remembered

amateur the

a few months men in

after British

review with

came an of the

existence,

eminent

music,

international American of

reputation. community pride

The acclamation in to black

given the

by all

sections

to Coleridge-Taylor and inspiration

United

States

was a source 425

deep race

American

contemporaries;

423.

1920, pp. 12-14, AOR, January on the Scala Theatre, and AOh, March 1920, the New Theatre. AoK, August 1920, p. 16.

production pp. 13-17,

of Othello at the at on the production

424.

425. For S. Coleridge-Taylor's influence Jannifer, "Samuel Coleridge-Taylor

in the United States, see Ellsworth in Washington", Phylon, 28,2,

1967, pp. 185-96.

361.
had special rising eminence naturally meaning among the colored States during the early people of the United years of the present Lampooned and ridiculect in cheap minstrel century. vongu which image of them both and forming a negative rere sweeping the country Negroes were almost totally and internationally, nationally excluded from all lift. To Negro phases of American cultural and social ... Americans he was a chanpion -a symbol of race pride and cultural in their land. 426 fulfillment un-attainable native Jne might served add that to Duse Mohamed Ali, status for first Coleridge-Taylor in the his adonte: could land. well The have His

as a symbol opinion the

of attainable on the outlook in its

composer's by way of throws terms;

new magazine his thought

had been sought answer

"Sym posium" light

issue. usually

sympathetic of

inter-sting

on a man not

in political

I certainly that the issue of a newspaper such as the African feel Review will be a most internsting Times and Orient Whether event. by the British it will is, however, not be appreciated or will public on which I am not so certain. a point There is, of course, section a large of the British people in the coloured but it is generally interested races; speaking a Some of these may possibly interest be interested only. commercial in the aims and desires but taking them on of the coloured peoples; I fancy one accomplished fact far more weight the whole, carries though it may be. than a thousand aims and desiref7, regrettable It seems that the different sections of the whites are not even (excepting, financially), interested in the aims of each other perhaps, be inclined to study the aspiraand I doubt if more than a few will tions race. of those of another

Therefore, it is imperative that this venture be heartily supported by the coloured people themselves, so that it shall independant of the whites as regards circulation. absolutely

be
far

Britisher Such independence to the average appeal will probably and will ultimately else, arouse his attention more than anything and interest - even his support.

426.

ibid,

p. 185

562.
That Orient African medium, people promoting iomti medium for is wanted goe. and Occident Review is Time;: and Orient it be welcomed by all *ill fulfills as something which between f_ better underutanding without saying; and as the itself jetting -jut to be such a thoughtful and un-rejudiced 42'' long-felt a want.

After review kernel basis said,

Coleridge-Taylor's was designated of of this his

untimely

ueath, the opti: mber 1912 issue i1'umber". .emorial 428 editor whic! i made clear black americans would

of

the

a3 a "Coleridge-Taylor by the

The the gave

was an appreciation admiration 'race

- as contemporary man';

he was a good

because of ever proud of ais achievement, river proud of his race, the benefits those achievements to confer were likely upon the people of his father* he knew the darker races to be so indiscriminately villified, intellectual that so frequently abilities and their under-rated, himself for he always believed testiood, and a living a pioneer 129 intellectual possibilities. mony to their Coleridge-Taylor's details the of the memorial notables ita concert was reported in tribute 430 in to November the 1912, pith and

who attended own memorial

dead man;

review

launched

fund.

427.

ATOK, July 1912, pp. 16-17; see ibid. p. 13, for Luse Mohamed Ali's comments on Coleridge-Taylor's remarks, which were accepted with to Du Blois' laconic contrasting strongly with his response approval pessimism.

423. June I'.ohamed, "The Late Samuel Coleridge-Taylor. ATOii, z)eptember 1912, pp. ul-3. 429. ibid,
430.

The Man and his

"uric".

p. 81.
the

For the memorial for concert, see ATOR, November 1912, p. 154; fund for S. Coleridge-Taylor, ATOR memorial see ATOR, FebruaryMarch 1913, p. 264.

363.
This interest in Samuel Coleridge-Taylor existence by enthusiastic was echoed towards the and attention to the great were reported black during to

of the review's American singer, his

Roland Hayes.

His performances

European debut in 1920 in London, which Duse Mohamed Ali and Hayes was presented admirers with a formal 431 black

helped

arrange

document of appreciation

from black

in the ATOR circle. than praise

Even more striking the embracing the comeliness held view that

of individual "black

achievements

was

by the review of black

of the concept

is beautiful",

asserting.

men and women, and rejecting As "Sothis" usually forehead, pasted

the then commonly wrote in April 1913, by 432

Negroes were hideous. with the claptrap

"We are concerned would-be From time wiseacres

on to the African

the receding -

dolicocephalic

ad infinitum: .. 0 for Walter This

to time the review

published

items lauding

blackness

a poem "The Child example Everette Harkins,

of the Night",

by an Afro-American

which appeared

in the Christmas

poet, 433 1912 number,

for Roland area appearance in London in 1920, 431. For the A0 's publicity This See AOR, July 1920, p. 47 and AOR, December 1920, pp. 28-30. included the formal document of appreciation latter presented to him Oguntola Sapara, Casely by Duse Mohamed Ali, and, among others, Hayford, and G. H. O'Dwyer, a member of a leading Calabar merchant for this family, family of Sierra Leonean origin see Allister London 1920, pp. 124-5. Red Book of West Africa. Another Macmillan, was T. A. Doherty, of Lagos, then lodging as a student in signatory Duse's house, but in 1932 to be, as editor of the N erian Daily information TelearaDh, Dues's employer and benefactor; to the writer For Dune Mohamed Ali's from Chief T. A. Doherty, Lagoa, 1967. role Roland Hayes' European debut, see Khalil Mahmud introin arranging , duction to In The Land Of The Pharaohs, 2nd ed., p. xviii-xix. 432. ATOR, April 433.0 1913, p"304. Ibid, pp. 61-6, bas a review by "W. F. H. " of Hawkin's works, and a brief sketch

Christmas 1912, p. 20. , K. F. Hutchison? ) of several of his life.

364.
began with the lines; of the night am I, I am its son; Scorn for the light have Paleness I shun. Born

I,

Blackness

I court the night spirits and scoff at Midnight adorn. and ebony my features I am, Blacking the light I am, Backing the night Child of the night am I I am its son. But the most remarkable beauty the the effort made by the it of in ran review in in

was over me when I was born;

the

morn;

the

"black

is this

beautiful" may the

direction

was the to

competition world

1920.

Though

seem a descent editor It presented

banal

circulation serious terms;

boosting

stunts,

competition

for Europeans to select the most unprepossessing has been customary tribe, her portrait of some primitive publishing woman of colour 'An African Beauty'. the style, under beautiful type:: of Ethiopic wie know that there are remarkably to find the most beautiful for the enlightenand we desire womanhotd, Luropean readers of our and the edification ment of our unelightened Consequently, friends. throughout dark-hued we expect every reader the 4est Indies the United L)tates of America, and mouth Africa, America to seek our the cost beautiful coloured women of Negro origin 434 and send har photograph. There Despite was a considerable the incongruity that it response, of such even if not on quite in the scale ragazine, exhorted. there

a competition in

a serious with

can be no doubt

was completely

accord

"Sothis'"

remarks

of seven years

previously;

any incongruity

was of style,

not concept.

434.

AOR, ray

1920,

p. 47.

365.
Duce )ohaaed a white for man's A1i's animus against institutionalised from the days Christianity of his writing his as

religion It in or

was evident also, his

enough

The New Age. writing Empire,

as we have

seen,

was inferred as the with to Africa among the precisely for this

by much of fate of the

editorial Ottoman industrial that

review

- on such of the

topics

the

hypocrisy sending

British,

their

exploitive Orient man's as auch. the -

civilisation,

missionaries to be counted

and the coloured formulated was that 1tates

Christianity On the

was normally other that hand,

enemies. It

this the

was never reasons

may be concluded readers and though in

one of

many of

review's tians, churches, of

Britain,

West Africa men sensitive likely

and the about to resent difficulties militant in

United

were Chrisin their

as black

white root

domination and branch which might

nevertheless as such.

equally

rejection arise against Though

Christianity were

The potential to drop

here

illustrated tendered the review's matters be from staff

by advice in

support February requests-d they must

for

Islam

Christianity, welcoming of religious only Editorial

The Laos the

Standard Lagos or, paper if

1917.435 the

return, from the its

elimination they

columnar of readers. out of

be included,

should "The

pens

The blunt it. "

warning

was given,

must

stay

If

one looks

back to the 1912-1914

era in

the review's for

history,

one

lay behind can see what gave considerable

The Lagoa Standard'u

irritation,

the review often of

space in that

-period to Islamic

apologetics,

435. Quoted in ATUR, April

1917, pp. 76-7.

366.
a directly (though, of the this anti-Christian an will sort to be seen hue. in the These were next chapter, the not from the editor's pen articles such being

he did chief

contribute of

contemporary missionary,

journals), Khwaja

author

Indian

Ahmadi

Kama1 ud-Din,

who was to

become

a close
typical Crescent" In the era of this,

associate
Khwaja which clerical of the

of the editor
ud-Din in

in various

other
was the

activities*
article

436
"Cross

A
versus

Kanal

contribution the in Balkan number Britain bar, for

appeared

December-January Islam, of

1913.437 in mediaeval teachings only or in just

fanaticism recent Though

against was accused that

particularly reviving the the

context of holy

wars.

stressing

Ahmadis, jihad India

following

14irza

Ghulam Ahmad of of to Islam, raise and that the

Qadian,

believed

to be justified have no reason the in

defence occasion yet it

"Muhamrnaddans in of insurrection to into help

standard duty brought

against brethren by the

Government" Islam. " in Europe"

was "their

religious

their

Further,

"circumstances

existence

Christians

436.

in biography According to a potted of Khwaja Kamal ud-Din published 1912, p. 93, he was born in Lahore in 1871, was the ATOR, Christmas College, Lahore and Punjab University r'oreman I; is3ion educated at Economy. he became Subsequently, where he took a medal in Political Professor and Arts College, of history and Economics at an Islamic Iie nearly in 1898 joined the bar and became a successful advocate. became a Christian, but instead of the adhered to the teachings by many ruslim Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian, regarded reformer His later Muslims as heretical. orthodox career was as an Ahmadiyya in India, first teacher, where he had religious and then in Britain, His associabefore the publication shortly of this article. arrived in Chapter V. discussed tion with Luse Mohamed Ali in London is fully Khwaja Kama1 ud-Din, 1913, pp. 197-b. "Cross Versus Crescent", ATOR, December-January

437.

367.
"as from

could

turn

Pan-Islamism, Islam",

yet

a myth, into

and an invention a reality. were both field to

of

some priestly contri-

schemer butors

against on Muslim

a myth

Among other converts to Islam,

and anti-Christian and Khalid activities

themes Sheldrake,

Marmaduke Pickthall of Ellis the editor's Schaap, in

of whom were associates of journalism, Kinnaird 438 and the attacking and World's

outside

the

who issued Alliance" in to

"An Open Letter the review's countries as accomplices

Lord

Evangelical Christian

October

1912 number,

missions the

Islamic

as aggressive of white

and superfluous, Imperialism. in the review 439 could

and denouncing Instances be multiplied made that this kind the from of

churches

pro-Muslim at length,

and anti-Christian but the point to

articles has perhaps

been sufficiently attacks including of in his

editor

was prepared than

publish

even blunter the abit L. of

contributors

he was in

editorials. No other but to in the non-Christian first religion year articles received this degree emphasis on leading of backing,

review's in

or so considerable being published

waa given Buddhist

Buddhism

Ceylon,

438.

slid

for funds to build Sheldrake had an article a ap?,ealing issue in July 1912, p. 20. For an in London in the first mosque in the review, see writings example of I'arnaduke rickthall's Treaty", AAR, August 1912, pp. 111-2. "Reflections on the Turkish to Lord A. innaird Schaap, "Open Letter and the ATOR, October 1912, pp. 116-7. Alliance", gelical Ellis world r.van-

439.

368.
clergy At first that there time, time and on Buddhist Ceylon's the conflicts were with the British authorities. for 440 the century, K. K. Ceylonese crystal-

Buddhists unsuccessful

becoming of

self-assertive the

since

rebellions by the in

mid-nineteenth historian of modern

and this de Silva nationalism. used taxation It this is

has been recognised as a hitherto 441

recently

Ceylonese the growth

overlooked issue

element around policy

The great

which of

Buddhist raising

resentment through

was the

Colombo

Government's This the the

revenue of

on alcohol. remarkable that

offended Tines

Buddhist

traditions

abstinence.

African Ceyion

and Orient policy showing

cceview discovered editorially, a remarkably and sensitive

issue, its

attackea columns

Government's spokesmen,

opened

to Buddhist

440.

"Ceylon Drunkeness by Act of Parliament", article e. g. see unsigned the editor ATOit, October 1912, pp. 117-8; commented on this article People regarded Government as directly that as the Ceylonese carrythe creation ing out the King's orders, of Government distilleries indirectly total in a land whose rf-. ligion enjoined abstinence Ir: the same issue, loyalty to the sovereign. pp. 131-4, affected leadership in Ceylon there was an unsigned on the Buddhist article "The Great Buddhist it :teems likely and his ColAeagues"; entitled for these articles. that only a Ceylonese could have been responsible ord. ;lanissara Possibly this wa: > the '. who contributed on an article in ACTOR. June 1913, pp"392-3. "Buddhism in a Nutshell" "The formation See K. ii. de :Alva, and Characher Ceylon Journal Congress 1917-1919", National of 10,1 Social & 2,1967, pp-70-3. .tudie.,:, of the Ceylon iiistorical and

441.

369.
'nose' of the for truly a significant world wide note but vision on which then of rather the to obscure topic. 442 This example is

Lfrican

Times and Orient this survey of it.

Review

perhaps

a suitable and

conclude

"Policies,

Campaigns

auses". .

442.

de L; i1va op. nes "The Buddhist revival and its ancillary 1.71, one sees in retrospect the temperance agitation, as an movement, in all integral of of national parts pride part of the recovery "identified In ibid, the p. 7'0 he notes that tAs Asia. " rovement and Christianity with Christianity way of with a corrupt government have been very congenial This attitude " life. of course, would, to the ATOR. ibid,

370.

III

Influence

and Imract
in estimating the the i frican it is Times must all be

There and trient understood that partial zine others. other

are

considerable influence

difficulties and impact, rather than

xeview's that

and from an exact nature

outset

an impression Clearly,

calculation of things, of

can be achieved. and survives to

by the data

very on the

only

some extent to

random

influence to such that the

such a magaare two

be unearthed. it his is necessary

But additional to recognise years

hazards editor

Firstly, strings to

had many trading, pressure for of these

bow during

the

1912-1920

- produce

organising groups, other

a war charity, participating in

organising African

Islamophile in

and 'iurkophile London, writing most review

organisations a selection. if only

magazines403

to name only with them; many of the

Naturally, that the

had s ere connection medium to headquarters there connect their even at in extent advertise for

review,

was a useful

furthermore, these activities. review

158 Fleet

Street

was used as a to flourish they However, separate Secondly, the

They continued abeyance.

times

when the

was in

Clearly, and impact". given

some sense with and other and they will problem review on the

the

review's

"influence

affiliations not

warrants in it

them being this

treatment, there is

be considered in

chapter.

a related of the

how far that of

possible This was far is

to disentangle perhaps from the

influence difficult,

from

Duse? review

even more sum total

since

one hand the

of his

life

between 1912 and 1920, but on the other,

as a small

scale

403. These activities

are considered

in Chapters V& VI of this

thesis.

371.
operation, the review was dominated by him. Nevertheless, that clearly the attempt reflects his

has been made here to include influence

Before to see the

only material activity.

through
looking claims

his editorial
at the

some more objective review made at intervals

evidence, over

it its

is first

of

interest two years

for

itself.

In the Christmas of its Zaria

1912 number, emphasis was put on the revelations=

impact

in Britain

the right-thinking and we have in some measure enlightened ... Public, influential section of the British we have succeeded in Such opposite sections winning many of them over to our views.

Congregationalist" The British Press as 'Truth' the British and of jointly lamenting the unfortunate Zaria have cone to our rescue, into the methods of the incident, enquiry and demanding a fuller Mr. Joseph King, the member for Somerset, official. responsible the highest deserves appreciation ; for his fearless attitude ... Colonial that the British Secretary investiinsistence should and Zaria whipping there are numberless the ... prove that gate ... It must be borne Englishmen politicians. who are not merely ... incident in mind that the Zaria occurred on the 15th day of February 1912 - five we came into existence and the first months after in Great Britain was in the mention made in any paper published Review of July, Times and Orient and an we of the African pages in each subsequent issue, to the matter we at length reverted to the grievance, attention which resulted succeeded in drawing in October in Mr. King's and November respectively, questions in 'Truth' Congregathe notices appearing and 'The British and tionalist'.

Also,

credit

was claimed in Nigeria;

for

drawing

the attention

of Parliament

to rubber

collection

Native Council Rule No. l (1912) was published in July, and the .. Mr. Roeher's excellent the publication it was not until of cartoon, the section of the Ordinance, and our comments thereon in the columns of our November number, that the members of the British knew of the existence Parliament of this Ordinance and Mr. Wedgeinformed to put the question to Mr. Harcourt wood was sufficiently in that month.

372.
The review the views considered of the that the above efforts, over, 0404 made similar claims together allowed it with its expounding itself

coloured its its

man the initial

world

to regard

as having At

redeemed the end of

pledges year,

first

Luse Mohamed Ali

about influence
influence in the

in West African
1912 American

affairs,
presidential

together
election;

with

a suggestion

of

A few Governors of colonies we have howled to some effect. ... Colonial Office have often have heard our cry, and the British For have they not appointed wished that we had not cried so lustily. Land Tenure? We do a new commission to enquire into West African
for these achievements, but we do know the credit not claim all in the deliberations have had some weight that our efforts of the Roosevelt Even the great Mighty. could not ignore us, and we 405 know that we had some influence on his presidential chances.

roving also

on to Kay 1914, we find claiming new triumphs

an editorial it

still

talking had also

about created

Zaria,

but

which,

suggested,

powerful

enemies; Lugard has arrived Sir Frederick in ingland having His Excellency Office. The been called home by a cablegram from the Colonial Courts Ordinance has been hung up in the meanwhile, and Provincial Times and Orient Review to say that the African do not hesitate we has been and gone and done it', with the Whipping Ordinance even
the aggressive it scotched methods in Zaria as to the Turkish Empire. and saved Adrianople ago on the watch and we shall not lull we are still some eighteen months So far good. But to rest oureelves

To be 'black Office. the Colonial be circulated Reports will watched. Vany of these may be discredited.

We learn from authentic in a cradle of false security. both at the British Foreign that we are 'black listed',
listed'

be means that we shall we about us, in order that from statements spring will

sources and at

404. Editorial

to ATOR, Christmas

1912, n. p.

405. ATOR, June 1913, p"369.

373.
have the smile and promised preferour own people who would rather for the highest than fight good of the of those in authority ment For like the poor, the sycophant are country. and the traitor 406 ever with us. In to the the the chalk review review's 1917-1918 and 1920 series, On the impact Sa'd offered other hand, new force visit to in in its not there it is in was much lees evident Egyptian in that of a tendency in 1920

up successes. had little though have

on the Zaghlul's

nationalism, that year might Flut the was a firmly a great

W'afd, even to

London that

be supposed Wafd, unlike

an opportunity National Party

direction. yearn, it

the

Egyptian

latter expect

Egyptian interest with

based in

organisation, politics. Carlton

and one would

to have

emigre at the

Duse Mohamed Ali Hotel, 407 and later

was given a further

an intoroiw interview was

Zaghiul

given to a reporter rapport mative

from the review. Information "negotiations

it was not

408

But it given

is evident

that

no close

was establiehed. statement that

was limited

to the uninfor-

with

the British
at that date

Government were not

to state exactly

completed,

and that

advisable

demsnde of the delegation what

satisfied hope of "no with realising the progress the Years claims later,

had been ceded,

made so far as it

but His Excellency

goes,

is

and he has every This was merely made the a polite following

he has made... in 1936,

"409

comment".

Duse Mohamed Ali

406. ATOR, 5th May 1914, p. 147. 407. AOR, July

408. 409. AOR, August ibid.

1920, p. 48.
192C, p. 44.

374.
sour comments on Zaghlul and his one and only with him;

meeting

Zaghlul in my humble opinion His ideas were not was not a leader. I met him in London. He was not the man those of diplomacy. He could not have successfully carried with the creative mind. the recent Treaty through He possessed little negotiations. English, disadvantage in British diplomacy. which was a distinct

He was hone t but belonged to an old school of thought. Pasha is an intellectual Zaghlul. 410 giant compared with
This reads such like slighted lack to dignity. of Arabic No doubt Zaghlul

Nahaa

was as unimpressed scant English,

by Duse Mohamed Ali's and considered nationalist. welcomed the it that

as Duse was by Zaghlul's disadvantage" for

be a "distinct in December of the

an Egyptian Review by the British

Though acceptance did

1920 the

Africa

and Orient findings

Milner of

Commission's hurt dignity;

Government,

so with

a tone

by the we are glad to note that many of the views expressed ... Timer and Orient Review, both in these columns, Editor of the African 'In The Land Of The Pharaohs' have been accepted in ... and and settlement embodied in the Egyptian ... for our assistance We have not received and advice any credit Government or from our compatriots, from the British but either Et 'I will have a fair measure of we do not mind in the least. independence and we are catisfied.

Thus, it
the review,

is possible
which one.

to see, from the various

it felt it was making

assertions

made by
even if Nigeria;

areas in a negative especially

some impression, especially

sometimes in Britain,

These were, 'sympathetic'

West Africa, politicians

anong

and journals;

in the United

States;

and in Turkish

affairs.

Added to these can be

410. The Comet, 29th August 1936, p. 7.

411. AOR, December, 1920, p. 59.

375.
the supposed malign interest of the Colonial and Foreign Offices, plus

the calumny of coloured Much of this

Let us begin with

"sycophants"

and "traitors". corroborated

in

can be at least
the question Parliament the asking in of

partly
its

from other
feeding

evidence.

influence

information Here, there Commons does

to various is a difficulty

members of in that a direct 1912-1913, Lever's have also that

on West African of the a question African the of Tires

abuses. in the

House of

on a topic not Thus, Sir prove in

appeared connection there were

and Orient and the in but the the

Review review.

between numbers in

questioner questions 412 equally the

Commons on members conthrough of other the

William could

concessions obtained Gold their Coast

West Africa,

cerned channels,

information A. R. P. S.,

well

such

as the

Lagos Auxiliary or even

Anti-Slavery from the

and Aborigines London Anti-Slavery British must 'guardian'

Protection

Society,

more likely Society, Thus, the a clear of the

and Aborigines of the African possible

Protection interests. and the

traditional division review's about the

be made between with asked

proven

extent

connections questions

sympathetic by Josiah

Members of

Parliament. so-called

However, Nigerian

Medgewood on the

Secretary 412. For example, see the series of questions put to Colonial Harcourt, on the proposed Lever Bros. concessions in the Gold Coast, Fir. J. Wedgewood and Mr. Moore, on 13th Novemby Mr. A. Lyttleton, ber 1912 - see Hansard 1912, XLIII, pp. 1967-8; and the questions by Mr. Touchs to Harcourt, on Lever's Sierra Leone concessions, put on 24th April 1913 - see Hansard, 1913, LXII, pp. 519-20.

376.
Rubber doubt. Ordinance 413 and Joseph would King on the Zaria Incident itself there to can be little the possibility

The review

hardly from

have exposed these (of to men. which by the the closely else rather King

of an embarrassing The British Truth carried 414 the

disclaimer Congregationalist articles Neither but hard ifest both

was the in its

editor)

and

referred acknowledged stuck from press that the agreed very

review

Christmas Review of have

1912 issue. as their events. come except It of of is

African

Times acrid Orient review's version could source.

source, It is the

to the this

to see African

where -a

information

more unlikely

interesting

to note radicalism, of

British with

Congregationalist, Dune Mohamed Ali

an organ on the Office; effects

nonconformist the intrusion

'unsuitable'

types

into

the

Colonial

in modern colonial fault The chief administration - and the same Civil to our Indian Service nowadays is that fewer remark applies instincts their these are finding way into with refined gentlemen it is useless We would point to expect out that either services. in the tactfulness or manners - both of which are indispensible from men who have come of a rough-hewn of natives stock government but only brains of these qualities, neither and who have inherited 415 the ability to pass academic examinations. and

413.

to the Colonial Sec., 20th November 1912, dedgevood's question, for Joseph King's, 16th October 1912, Han,,, Bard, 1912, XLIV, p. 272; see _ King asked the Colonial Sec. a further XLII, p. 1202. see ibid, Laing's treatment on 7th of Taylor and Ball on Resident question XLIII, And as late as 27th November 1912; see ibid, p. 1441. For

January 1913, Mr. Molteno asked Harcourt if clerks Taylor and Ball been dismissed the Government service; had in fact subsequently In all these cases Harcourt refuted the XLVII, p. 990. see ibid, made or implied and refused to concede that there was allegations any cause for alarm or need for redress.
414. See British and Truth, British Conarepatioraliat 1912, 23rd October 5th and Bxaniner, p. 972 & 13th December 5th December 1912, p. 868, November 1912, pp. 1159-60. p. 868.

415.

Congregationalist,

1912,

377.
To move to first to the of appeared, less certain ground, twenty-five years after the review approach the House

1)use Mohamed Ali Labour Party

claimed to raise

to have made a successful African questions in

Parliamentary

Commons; Meanwhile the Labour Party was making its felt in the House presence (sic), Commons and the late member, Mr. Poynter having demonstrated of I requested through his activities that the Party was very much alive, Mr. Ramsay MacDonald to form a small Committee that could be depended by asking upon to deal with African and Oriental affairs questions by me accompanied by the fullest information supplied which were daily And the fact that the on the subject matter of those questions. in the columns of the 'African subsequently questions appeared and (sic), Orient Review' Officialdom that they naturally concluded 416 from my office. emanated

Little clearly conceive would

evidence contains of

has appeared an element supply

to substantiate of of exaggeration. information, without

this It

allegation, is hardly the its

and possible

it to

a "daily" act

or that exercising of

Labour

Party

simply

as a mouthpiece of contact

own political is, however, of 1968), concerned with the

judgement. credible. period

Some sort A detailed

and supply of British of

questions

recent

study

anti-Imperialism Emrire work being is (London is little

1895-1914,

Bernard of this

Porter's arrangement; to

Critics but

makes no mention with Parliamentary

this

opposition

Imperialism, There Times

more concerned of

theoretical evidence May 1914, House about in

and ideological the editorial praises best of the Africa

currents. the Af`

a scrap

circumstantial for in 19th the

and Orient for the

Review

which Fiji,

Labour

member Pointer particular

questions case of the

and in

flogging

416.

"Leaves",

in The Comet, 27th November 1937, p. 7.

378.
in Nigeria of a black in the man called review. in the Ben Nicholls. But the 417 The Nicholls between the case review Imperial

had been raised and Labour Party

connection African

interest

Commons in

and Asian

affairs

must remain an unproven

Lven if more positive there It proofs

possibility.
of Parliamentary to the help of influence likely the Zaria to could be

established, thereby. certainly cerned extracted Ali

were narrow

limits

be achieved incident officer was conwas

has been shown how the to the but of

exposure

an embarrassment was privately from the

Colonial no public

Office,

and the of

rebuked; Secretary

admission the what years, could

injustice

State,

Over about

Duse Mohamed be achieved in April

became realistically sympathetic

disillusioned Members of

through 1920;

Parliament,

as he made clear

the past seven years we have ventilated from time to time during in the pages of this the grievances of these voiceless millions the sympathies We have enlisted Review. of Members of Parliament Ministers have asxed questions of responsible of the Crown, and who improvements these gentlemen or investigation, promised although interests' to drift, have have been allowed and 'vested matters about418 stepped in to mar the work of those who were deeply concerned the future of its subject of the Empire and the well-being peoples.

This would perhaps review aired,

be the beat estimate circles; impossible it

of the influence

exerted

by the

in Parliamentary but virtually

was possible

to get grievances

to have them redressed.

417.

ATOR, 19th

May 1914,

p. 193.

418. LOA, April

1920, p. 45.

379.
In friends fact, in the ruling review circles. found it easier to make enemies belief than that effective review

Uuee Mohamed Ali's

his

was watched with

and the O'Donnell, review Foreign 419

unfriendly
Office,

eyes by the Colonial

of information

Office,
given

the India

office,
Hugh the of of even the iss 1"".

a piece too well the

him by Frank of occasions

was only

founded. Colonial It in could

On a number Office hardly the by its have Zaria

seriously

embarrassed matters. review

revelations

confidential the if part the

African played

been unaware whippings;

by the opening

publicising in that have affair

review's Office's

salvoes

had been overlooked, by the assiduous to 420 the

Colonial Marples, Standard

attention the

would

been drawn in

who gave in August

ATOR a glowing which the

mention Colonial

a letter noted.

Lagos But as

1912,

Office

the Secretary
perhaps the

of state
Zaria

was able

to brazen

the matter

out in the House,

revelations

caused

no undue alarm.

Far more alarm

1913 Nigeria, "Utopia under

was caused by an article

written

in the review
in

in October
Northern Office

Unlimited", the

by an informant Karia". 421

Zungeru,

pseudonym

"Maganin

The Colonial

had little
his article

doubt that
was based

this

man was a black

confidential

clerk

in the Zungeru Secretariat;

and entangled the

on highly

material,

419. "Leaves",
420.

in The Comet, 30th October

letter

1937, p. 17.
to Lagos Standard of 7th August

See cutting of Miss Marples'a 1912 in C. O. 446/109/20176.

421. "Naganin

karia",

"Utopia

Unlimited",

ATOR, October

1913, pp"13S-9.

380.

Colonial

Office

in a most embarrassing figure of Sir 422 William

fracas

with

the formidable an influential

and barrister

well-connected practising
cablegram

Geary Bart.,

in Nigeria,
from Charles

The core of the article

to Lugard, then in

was a confidential
England;

Temple

Geary and leele, in Kano for some time at house of London resident Company, not engaged in trade but it is to be and Kano trading Peele already of profession, caused notice presumed in exercise Emir Kano without to in anyway Resident, reference and as serving I understand in contravention glatter of order of Supreme Court. Kano unsatisfactory. attention, receiving meanwhile position Presence Geary and Peele worse than missionaries. Stgg, c3t Secretary Proclamation, of State requested allow short obligatory persons Governor for the night town, in native permission sojourn obtain list, including towns such as Kano and ::aria. as per scheduled General agrees immediate be taken. Existing Attorney should action 423 inadequate. legislation It is evident Colonial .aria's" and added Colonial that this (: ffice remarks a hint Office text never was substantially attempted to accurate, repudiate rubbed its these of for in the ensuing

row the "Yaganin tions which inflicted in

authenticity, unpleasant another revelamatter

on the

cablegram inside

of further wished expedition

knowledge very

the

to hush

up - the

high

casualties Fatrol. 424

by a punitive

known as the

Mada Hills

422.

For the Nigeria, This

circumstances of see his Nigeria taken from

Geary's becoming a practising barrister in Under British Rule, London 1927, pp. 9-13.

423.

"? aganin Karia's" see n. 421 above article correct, as "apparently" and it was correctly was acknowledged "it is calculated to annoy not only Sir W. Geary and that observed but alao the missionaries" Zr. Feele, hear more on and "we shall . test,

the subject",

in a minute

dated 27th November 1913 in C. O. 446/114/41035.

to the Mada 424. See ibid, which remarks "there is an obscure reference patrol which looks as though to knew more about the subject than has been made public. "

361.

Geary's account
embarrassment
his junior,

of

the

events

in

Kano makes the

Colonial

Gffice'

even clearer,

though it

does mention
for

the ATOR; he and

"whom the they "425 Govern-

Peele, to from this, eject the

were appearing from Emir their

as counsel factory in to

a firm

ment sought under course rent of

Zeno City the

which

held In the

und a payment it necessary against held

Government. a writ of

he found

to serve the

on the one of

r.mir. the most than this of the

One

can see how this sacred cows of the Emir of

was an offence indirect dignity Kano. to rule,

spirit

to even more firmly of telegram legislation a Native showed

by Temple in

by Lugard case Nigeria purpose with. normal however, the

and authority Temple's contemplate counsel for

authority, the

Government for in

as willing of Its judicial was not removing

specifically was engaged

the

of a body it

litigation of Geary, the

preference

administrative could the not

autocracy

and dislike illustrated. not sanction

procedure expelled;

have been better Office did

Colonial

requested
There

Proclamation,,
to no record

and he stayed
of

to win bis caue.

society

426
up with the

any missionary

taking

Colonial

Office

the slight

to missionaries the African and pro-iiuslin on the other Tree

in Temple's Ind Orient

cablegram. kyiew, with

It its in

is not to be supposed that pronounced anti-aissionary mission circles. Geary,

tone,

was much countenanced an whose profession

hand, was a

425. Geary, 426. ibid.

Nigoria

Under British

Rule.

p. 12.

382.

caused men at its

him to the

mix far

more in

African

circles of

than Lagos

was comnon with public to the opinion educated

white and

time,

who had a good knowledge himself 427 It

organs,

and who considered point the of view.

sympathetic is

African subscriber "Naganin At the Colonial client

and his to

even possible channel content sent to

that

he was a of rest. the to that their

review. disclosures, 1913,

But

by whatever he was not

he became aware let the letter matter to

Karia's" end of Office, from the

November in

his

solicitors

a sharp

which

they

demanded

"explanation Nigeria,

and apology" and insisted

Deputy

Governor

of Northern

the cablegram his profession. The Colonial is unable

cast

a reflection

on him and was liable

to injure this

him in letter.

A copy of the ATOR's article Office decided into to stonewall,

was sent with "that

and replied with regard country

Mr. Harcourt

to enter

any discussion

to confidential from Colonial

communications

which may be received

in this

427.

Note Geary's remarks in ibid, p. 14, in defence of the educated "these Africans Africans of Lagos and the coast; combine a hearty for official dislike and contempt methods with an affectionate for England, just as many a good Christian has a loathing regard I have heard the that West for the clergy. wish expressed ... India. God forbid! The condition be another Africa shall of India to either the governors is not so satisfactory or the governed; and The sound let us avoid methods which might lead to similar results. the African was to consider as an 'Englishold system in West Africa In return the African used to talk with a black face'. about man 'home to England'. A snob might sneer. But this good going is the result feeling of the statesmanship of Wilberforce and his the taking friends ordering of Lagos. and of Lord Palmerston's ... day policy, Let us take care that no latter or lesser men, and least of all prejudice, any 'damn nigger' may undo the work of the the love of our adopted children. " great men of the past and estrangein 1927, for But the last of this was disingenuous, written sentence in Lagos from 1900 to 1913, Geary must have known with his residence there the 'damn thought that in the opinion of leaders of African in incidents nigger' arrived, and was expressed era had already For the Lagos tress reaction such as the Zaria whippings of 1912. to the Zaria incident, below, see pp. 398-9 and Chapter IV,

Part

II,

pp. 322-3.

383.
Officials. Lugard "428 about the However solicitor's the Colonial letter Office also wrote Karia's" as follows article; to

and "Naganin

I do not know whether but it is clear the text is correct, as given that the words referred to are substantially those of the telegram from which you quoted in your despatch Number 76 of the 21st of April last. It is obvious that a serious leakage of information has taken You will to that the telegram referred place in N. Nigeria. notice I would in particular of leakage; above is not the only instance Patrol draw attention to an obscure allusion to the ! Iada Hills from which it would seem that the writer has had access to confidential correspondence on the subject. I have to request that you will into the make careful enquiry the person responsible with a view both to detecting matter, and (sic). 429 future in future to the prevention of occurences Meanwhile, to their Geary's first head, letter, they did solicitors were by no means satisfied clear that that though point they with were the not answer after was

and made it consider

Temple's involved=

a serious

of principle

Geary ... is prepared Sir William to assume that 1r. Temple acted through bona fide, having realised a misconception, and without that his proposed action was interference with the course of justice. Geary presumes that the Secretary Sir William of State will not under the plea of confidence justify improper a proposal which is clearly any more than if a crime were proposed confidentially. ...

Unless a lawyer is at liberty to get up his case he cannot ... If Mr. Temple's proposal had present it to the Court. properly been carried out dir William Geary would have been expelled from there, and thereby disabled Kano, and prevented from returning from getting up his case, and his clients would have been prejudiced. to use administrative The Government was attempting power to assist The proposition its position needs only to be as a litigant. stated to be demonstrably indefensible.

42g.

St.

Barbe, Sladen & Wing to and IL. J. Read, C. O., to St. C. O. 446/114/41149.

S. of S. Harcourt, 28th November 1913, Barbe, Sladen & Wing, 5th December 1912,

429. Draft

of Harcourt

to Lugard,

8th December 1913, C. O. 446/114/41035.

384.
from for excluding lawyers of policy may be reasons in really disputes between natives appearing petty and natives, but if the British over subject rule races stands for the cause litigation, to serious of justice, parties when the especially Government is a litigant, legal to retain must be at liberty the practitioner and when retained advisers, must be at liberty to conduct his case as he thinks best in his client's interests There

These considerations are more material as a question of legal is pending in Nigeria on the amalgamation. 430 re-organization
Thus, from this case raised courts the key points the of exclusion of legal counsel in -

provincial

and extension

administrative

'justice'

objections
plans. 431

to the judicial
However, riposte than out "as that it in

and legal
their second to had,

aspects
reply,

of Lugard's
the Colonial

amalgamation
Cffice official hit on

a better it

a refusal Geary does not

discuss after to all,

confidential stayed in that

matters;

was pointed and that was in for

Kano and won his sir not W. Geary's see any died down,

case, freedom

appear with, further.

be alleged the 432 S. of

any way interfered the matter

S. does affair

occasion

pursuing

The

then

430. St. Barbe, ::laden & Wing to Harcourt, 446/114/43686.

431.

19th December 1913,

in C. U.

Lugard's not only# as might be expected, proposals enraged African but even led to the resignation barristers, of a member of the Nigerian bench, Mr. Justice Southern Stoker 6toker. was so opposed judicial to the Lugardian to syutem that in 1919 he was prepared Case, in the ensutional Fitzpatrick witness appear as a defence Lugardian in which the entire system was assi. led by John 61dred These events are discussed in the following Taylor. chapter. For Stoker's Administration resignation, see Nicolson, of Nigeria, p. 204.

432. C. O. to it.

Barbe,

Sladen & Wing, 30th December 1913, C. O. 446/114/43686.

385.
and perhaps Office. though It Office caused. Ali applied not the Had it satisfied appear eye review done never so, with that on the after knew of the trouble would it had given the Colonial

Dues Mohamed All the from outcome. this time, and did outbreak for sir if

surely

have been delighted,

would kept its

not not

earlier, the

the

Colonial it had

review, the

forget Great

trouble

When shortly to the

of the

War Duce Mohamed to visit the west as

Colonial safe

Secretary conduct,

permission George Fiddes

African follows; His

Colonies

under

commented

diseminator of sedition paper is a notorious and lies mainly A good deal of space is devoted to circulated among Mohammedans, 'grievances' Indian It is a strong and 1; gyptian supporter ... for the Africans or Africa of the 'Pan-Ethiopian' movement - also It seems to me highly that he is going of Sir 4. Geary. probable out to stir up discontent. ? Reply that the S. of b. can take no action in the matter. ? And ask L. L. & Co. to let us know if and when Mr. Duse I think Mohamed sails. to keep an we shall warn the W.A. Govts. him. 433 eye on followed to to visit arrange as suggested434 British a travel and although over the Luse Mohamed All next few years, made further he was

Action efforts unable

west Africa permit until

1920.435

But much more serious

433.

22nd September 1914, See Duse Mohamed to Harcourt, September 1914, in C. O. 554/23/36403. minute 1,25th

& Sir

George

Fiddea,

434.

See draft of H. J. Read, C. O., to Duse Mohamed, 26th September 1914; 26th September 1914; draft of C. U. to Elder Dempster, and Harcourt Leone and Gold Coast and Governorto the Governors of Gambia, Sierra General 2nd October 1914, all in C. O. confidential, of Nigeria, 554/23/36403. Ruse Mohamed Ali's several applications . est Africa between 1914 and 1920 are this thesis. for travel in discussed permits Chapter to visit VI of

435.

386.

than his of

this

was the

fact

that in

shortly both to India

after

the

outbreak Africa. his

of

war

in

1914, Quinn

magazine Scotland 1916;

was banned Yard referred

and British in

Supt.

these

bannings

report

on Duse of

March

Times and Orient Review' 'The African to have a fairly appeared good in Africa the outand among the Orientals circulation abroad until break of the War, when owing to its circulation being prohibited, its last in Africa and India, on the 18th publication appeared his money in thQ August 1914 and Duse Mohamed, who had invested 436 his entire fortune to have lost in the venture. seems concern, Thus official lication believed in to ill-will 1914 -a possess. and in Colonial was directly compliment responsible of a sort to the for the cessation the of review that Offices he as pubwas

influence in

Duse Mohamed All the bad books of,

was right the the India 1.0.

believing

was known to, well as the

and Foreign

Office. on account of course

However, of his the

and F. O. animus rather to the

against than his as

him was primarily journalism, though

political

activities closely

one related

other;

a consequence of this
queutioned, Great 'war,

official

suspicion,
by the police

Duse was closely

in the with early years

watched,
of the 437

and even raided though never

imprisoned

or charged

any offence.

As well bite to attract

as powerful

official

enemies,

the review

also

had enough The African

the hostile

attention

of L. D. Morel's

magazine,

436. Supt. P. Quinn, Special Branch, New Scotland 27th March 1916, p. 2, in F. O. 371/3728/1316.
437. The I. U. and F. U. views cussed in Chapter V. and police

Tard,

Luse Mohamed.

and M. I. 5 surveillance

are

dis-

387.
World, which in April 1914 made the following attack;

The path of those who have aynaathy the yearning of the African with race for a 'larger place in the sun' is not an easy one to tread. find by They frequently themselves and heckled pushed, hustled however disinterested sections which, and pure in motive, do harm to the cause they espouse by retarding the advance of public opinion. That is caused b, the extreme attitude taken up whicl', deters sonne line, turn back into to fall whilst others men who might be induced because they realise that the preaching of a gospel of hate and to public in a position distrust officials of high responsibility is more likely the general to harden than relax outlook on questions directly in countries control. rules or exercises where England either Such results be produced by speeches as we indicate will probably Bey at by Mohamed Farid on Egyptian of the kind delivered affairs It 21alace hotel the Sphinx Society. the r'estminster before and is to be regretted that things which might be obtained practical, by moderate by the high of the case, are overshadowed presentation Those remarks also apply to the London organ doctrines set up. Times and Orient the African Review, which has just of the views, from a monthly to a weekly publication. The change should altered but we do not strength and influence, greater give the journal it persists in the present that probable think of while policy white people in and unreasonable preaching against extravagant 438 in particular. the British and general E. D. Morel was regarded of the what Lands In reply in the African Tines . and Orient Review circles than in

as a bad example the the African seat himself African 439 exploiter.

type

of white for

'Afrophile' him,

who knew better

was good

one whose intervention , the would

question to

allied

him with world's

be capitalist

The African

attack,

Dua Mohamed Ali

438. 439.

The African

world,

4th

April

1914,

p. 461. Land ;,uestion in 'rest

"Mr. E. D. Morel and the See W. F. Hutchison's 1912, pp. 143-4. ATOH, October Africa",

388.
bluntly it

characterised

as an organ

of

capitalism;

We ... that there are two points remind our esteemed contemporarE, the capitalist World so worthily of view; view, which ttie African represents, and our view, which ie the view of the underdog. Furthermore, of supposing he corrected the African the Times African world's "small to but important error"

and Orient

Review

be a party

organ;

We are not the London organ of any clique Our columns or party. World. We are even the hditor of the African are open to all, doing battle for those who cannot defend themselveo. 44 merely The extent made clear. neat Africa, in of the review's it ties with outside connections that its the interests with have already and support over had less with not from than the 441 carte been

Though there editorial is

had ,strong no evidence

editor implied

blanche hgyptian Indeed, 'Afrophile'

policy. Party, this to the

As for

connection Sympathy,

National it is

was one of general see that found one of the

affiliation. most and

instructive of

Britain's

supposedly

organs

time

roview

intolerably

abrasive

dangerously

radical.

It

is

by no means certain

that

e Mohamed Ali reminiscence;

wished to be ultra-radical,
Gradually

as is seen from an autobiographical

Review' the office became interof the 'Africa and Orient known and was the rendezvous for all nationally sorts and conditions in order to which necessitated a well-balanced cranium of reformers upon a too great attendant popularity among a avoid the pitfalls to lead me up the bywho were most anxious group of irresponaiblea 442 agitation. paths of irresponsible

440. 441.

ATOR, 14th This point

April is

1914,

p. 74. in detailed in Chapter V.

discussed

442. "Leaves",

in The Comet. 30th October

1937, p. 17.

:W"

In

London,

the

rt view to

achieved

%uf : 'icient with

stature Prican .

for

its

editor

to

be con only

invited

functions

concerned

and Asian

tatters.

Thus we find
to discuss African raining warded Africans :. ociety without to

him in 1913 attending

(abortively in Anti-. au it London. slavery of this turned 443

a meeting
out) the

of the royal
need for oocaaion

. cpire
for

")xioty

a hostel we find

students to the

On another that for "

hits comfor. eat

iociety paper

"no invitation function to the

has been to Anti-: (sic)

the at

Editor

Pondey'a He ueaerted in

the

Fiouse of

Co=ons. of

slavery

that the ,

"no gathering kditor 444 of the

West ,ifrictina Ti=ea there

London

can be complete

'.frican occasions at

and Orient

=Leview who repreeenta outcome Progress to auch Union

them here. claims.

On other July

was a happier of the African

On 20th

1920,

a meeting

in London, Dwe Xohamed All

"of

the Africa ruling bodieu,

and Orient body;

lieview" his

attended

as

a new viember of the organisation'u of various editorial Islamic position* and related 445

likewise

membership from his

Q&% cannot be divorced

443.

This neeting played and the role are discussed of the ATOR circle
i

in in

it by Duse and some other Chapter V.

members

A. Y. S., Denison House, 10th July 444. Buse 1iohamedto Rev. John ilarris, Empire S. 19. Sir SS 1914, in AeF. S. Papers, khodea House, E. British box 44D 4/6. letters J. Harris, recd.,
445. Duse Mohamed Ali's relationship Islamic organisations, etc., Progress with the African in Chapter V. are discussed Union,

390.
The review with interests found in some support and Middle on the to in other meistern landau London affairs. found the published journals

Islamic journal

The Near Last, ATOkt'a appearance known

an authoratitive of sufficient

Ottoman

interest of 'In given

comment briefly,

mentioning 446

Duse as "best

as the author waa the (later February 1916, this in support simply

The Land Of The Pharaohs'. to the ATOR by Muslim iteview), of of nhwaja the to

Much more enthusiastic and Islamic first Review in

India which

known as the the the

Islamic

appeared

1913 under

editorship reappearance

Kamal ud-Din. rimes

In November and (orient for Review,

anticipating journal paid

African its past

enthusiastic

tribute

and hoped

success

the

future;

We are hap y to welcome the re-birth of the 0rie9t Review and African Times (sic) under the able editorship of MMr. Duse Mohamed, who is attainments, work and whose classical well known for his literary
is recognised to be a very valuable The Land Of The Pharaohs' Being liberal to the literature in his views, on Egypt. addition Egypt, he holds progressive views not only for his own country, Review (sic) When the Orient but for all countries. was published both Muslims before it kept open its columns to Indian contributors, Month after : 4ndu gentleman month a well-known and Hindus. ... topic. The paper, to it on some Indian cosalthough contributed in its character, was always open to our Islamic contrimopolitan to Muslim countries butions relating and to other matters and Muslim Recently, Muslim Peoples. as the Hon. Secretary of the Indian War Fund, which was started Widows' and Orphans' Soldiers' under Islamic Society, Mr. Duse Mohamed, the auspisces of the Central himself coming from the land of the Nile, very rendered although to the cause of his suffering brothers services and sisters valuable We shall be very glad indeed if his on the shores of the Ganges. its deserving receives re-advent paper at its welcome in India at both Muslims and Hindus. 447 the hands of 'In

446. The Near Fast,

447. lelamio Review,

5th July
November

1912, p. 274.
1916, p. 528.

391.
Clearly the review had made its mark in Khwaja Kamal ud-Din's circle.

Furthermore, contributed
received.

it

is

evident

that

Duse Mohamed Ali's which the review's

work outside "re-advent"

journalism was

to the affection

with

But beyond this,

ud-Din in launched his to Thus,

it

is perhaps of significance
he did the first so in a spirit issue to of the

that

when Khwaja Kamal

similar, Times of and Muslim

magazine, that of

remarkably African issue

some respects, Review. and Islamic

Orient India

we find saying;

the

forward

the

first

Review

in this During our sojourn country nothing could amaze us more than to our great the striking surprise, which, we observed contrast to do justice, between the readinec3 of the hnglish nation and its That John Bull would for want of proper information. misplacement is as true of him to-day defend the weak and side with the aggrieved But he is a human being, and is liable as it was in days gone by. In a country if misinformed. like England, to make mistakes where the public agency to mould the trend of voice acts as an effective its it in itself from the Press, shape chiefly receives while events, the latter is not a free and unbiased for regret it is a matter 4' of enlightenment. channel

This almost
the that ATOR but Khwaja

paraphrases
also in

some of Duse Mohamed Ali's

dicta,
That

not only
does not but

in
establish the

In The Land Of The Pharaohs. was modelling There is his outlook

Kamal ud-Din

on Dusels, that Khwaja time his to

possibility was already started,

must be allowed. acquainted with

no doubt at seem,

Kamal ud-Din magazine him. 449

Duse Mohamed Ali it would

the

and even to

some extent,

indebted

448.

Fuslim

India

and Islamic

Review,

February

1913,

p. 1.

449. See Chapter

V for

the relationship

betwean Duse and kama1 ud-Uin.

392.
In other Orient and woes of the respects Review. Ottoman of the the Islamic As might Empire, Review ran parallel it took Wars to of the to the African interest threatened Ware 450 Times in the

be expected, from in the Balkan

great the

disLike

memberment the ATOR, it the in in

Caliphate Balkan of

the

aftermath

Great

saw the existence

Wars etc,

as a Christian Muslim political

European units. to the ideas to

conspiracy It was Muslim with

against stated League him. but his

independent from Khwaja he did original

an open letter February

Kamal ud-Din not bring such

All-India to Britain

451 1913 that his

On the stay

contrary, in Britain

purpose to

was only

preach

Islam, unknown;

had revealed

him things

previously

It is not merely a gradual total leading up to their the very existence of the fate of the itoors in Spain is only a question tion of Ur, as he also Christianity her wordly wrote in the first to

dismemberment of the Xuslim kingdom that has been engineered, but extinction ? uslim The community is threatened. us everywhere awaits and our annihilatime452 issue of nis review;

has proved aggrandisment.

Europe an efficacious means to further Missionaries lands are sent to foreign

to create is a hint

occasions for }:uropean interference. to burope to presume future subjugation

Conversion to Christ 453 to her sway.

450.

diplomatic See for e. g. Khwaja l'amal ud-bin's criticisms of the British India and Islamic to the Balkan 'Iars, in Muslin reactions and press 1913, pp. 1-2; Review, February sent and the account of the telegram from the worshippers at at Woking Mosque on 29th June 1919 to protest in Islamic Review. June 1919, pp. 242-3. treatment Allied of Turkey, ibid. February 1913, pp. 65-70.

451.

452. ibid, 453. ibid,

p. 65p. 14.

393.
Indeed, European Orient the this threat again outlook was seen as one to coincidence world. play 454 the with entire the non-Christian Times and non-

world, Review

in close on the

African

In many articles of the threat

and editorials, of Christian Imperialism an

Islamic

Review and its

made particular oppressed from people.

to Africa article, Gold ments and,

Indeed, Muslim, Agbebi,

one can even find Casely

apparently Coast in as Native paper

a Gold

Coast Mojola

commending for

Eiayford's senti-

Institutions; to the Universal in view

the pro-Islamic J.

his it

Races Congress; of his Islamophil

Mensah Sarbah; Blyden. Islamic 455

be expected a specifically in of

attitudes, the

Thus although displayed African his view to

Indian affairs Though for this,

and Muslim

journal, of

Review

interest leaders

African

and knowledge it it the was in cannot would papers all

contemporary that Duse and in not

thought.

be proved

review of the

were responsible close that in its association the Islamic

be most unreasonable, and their likelihood Times editors, strongly and Orient

between Review outlook

consider

influenced Having living India in itself.

African this let

by the African

Review. an Indian in

seen London,

probable us turn

influence to the the

on Khwaja of

Kamal ud-Din, ATOR's there,

question review

the

influence and had

As we have

seen,

circulated

454.

See Sayyed Rauf Islamic Review,

Ali Khan, May 1913,

"Islam and Christianity pp. 156-9.

in

Africa",

455.

See Abdul Tarim (D. i,. June 1913, pp. 220-4.

Gwira), Cwira

"Islam and the Negro", is a Gbanaian name.

Islar, ic

Review,

394.
numerous Indian of other influence Indian cannot contributors have and the been and connections. on the masses, in Nevertheless, view of the vast its size who example the

India's

population contact Raja, with

itsreview

linguistic found it

heterogeneity. congenial. contributor in Here,

Indians the

came into of Sundara

who was to referred

become a regular to by Khwaja review

(probably 1916),

Hindu cited.

contributor His

Kamal ud-Din

may be

reaction

to the

was as follows;

Allow me to congratulate It ISO you upon your splendid magazine. been for long my idea to have a responsible to voice the monthly of the Asiatics and the Africans, sentiments and I am very glad to has more than fulfilled It see that your monthly my expectations. to look after the interests is a glorious object of the two great from the field continents, which have practically retired of politics. But more, it is a heroic to attempt to help the surging object that bre silently, forces but nevertheless of progress potently, It is unpleasant, sweeping along the shores of Asia and Africa. the horrors to recount indeed, all which these two innocent victims have suffered, but it is anyhow a slight of western civilization that those who have inflicted consolation never-to-be-forgotten wounds can be made to recant and atone for the wrongs done and the inflicted, by infusing in them a better cruelties concept of ideal humanity, of administration, a nobler and, above all a better These,. fervently believe, sense of humanity. your magazine will, 4' _ in a measure, accomplish. Sundara Raja was, in however, India his English chance speaking of directly and then resident the have making such in Britain.

Had he stayed must

encountering would review Several

review been fruitless. its wrote mark in to

have been small, Nevertheless,

and had he not is

known English of the

there of

some evidence Indian

India

via

the

editors

various

papers.

456. ATOR, August 1912, p. 67.

395.
the review, either sending Thus in the editor that interests of articles the the there August Maihut for inclusion or letters there of approval

and admiration. letter from

1912 issue Herald,

was an enthusiastic Shri Jesrajsinghi many newspapers in London"

Tbakur not to

Seesodia, "representing

insisting the

was a need for and Africa,

one but

of Asia

be published

and every possibility informing

and creating the Indian

of them being successful. people of African

457

The review's

hope of

the British
a better Muslim press

and Asian

wishes and feelings

As might be expected, about Muslim the pres-

understanding was if Lahore,

was commended.

anything writing

even more enthusiastic on the singled It world the need to bring from

ATOR. sure

The Kachmiri to bear on the

of

London authorities, papers of in the London. Muslin

Duse out believed at large.

among those "the did

Muslims special

who had issued regard

he deserved " Plot only

and thanks editor

The KastiTiri's readers, "we shall and publiat. built

highly to

recommend

ATOR to its but for the also

English he stated of

speaking that readers that

and undertake often translate 458

take articles

subscriptions, from it

benefit close

our

them. ,

rven ATOR and

more important afar Ali

was the editor

connection

up between

the

Khan, This

of another largest

Lahore

vernacular

newspaper,

The Zarindar.

was the

circulation

457.

ibid.

458. See The Kmahmiri, 28th November 1913, quoted in letter in ATOR, 24th March 1912, p. 12. to ed., Ate, editor

from its

396.
vernacular paper in India at that time, and had a reputation over contributor the question to the for sedition

and anti-Government rights. in London Zafar in All

militancy,

especially

of Muslim ASR, and when the say

Khan was a regular

1914 was regarded 459 Thus it would

by M. I. 5 as a auspicious perhaps to not the be claiming swelling the

member of too political precise in

ATOR circle. that ness that bulk the in

much to

review India

contributed during at the

something years

consciousdetails the vast of

1912-1920, remain vague years.

even if buried -

contribution of the Indian

present of

perhaps

press

those

Turning

from India

to West Africa,

there

the review's

influence
much

is

much more clearly more considerable. educated, Africa, were British Gold to

discernible, It should elite, knit at

much more specific be recalled that

and was surely the English circulated group. major

speaking, in West

West African were a close in

among whom the

review small the

and comparatively three, with and those Fred not

Thus Dove b three, of the in the

be found

least

West African Coast, and Silas the family.

colonies, in Onitsha, This

Dove in

Freetown, the

Frana

to mention in

numerous everybody

cadet knew from

members of everyone

was a society ideas would easily

which

else,

and in which

percolate

informally

to the TOR, see "The 459. for e. g. s of Zafar Ali Khan's contributions Basis of a Common Indian Nationality", April 1913, pp. 295-8, & Reforms", 24th March 1912, pp. 9-10. For the "The Morley-Minto importance of The Zamindar, see Wilfred Cantwell Smith, Modern Islam London 1946, p. 196; for M. I. 5's susA Social Analysis, in India. picions of Zafar Ali Khan, see F. O. 371/2355/15047.

397.
one to another. influence of Thus, would grievances of Northern unlike readily in India, spread in West Africa the clerks of this. of Zaria is the review's class. still

name and

throughout from evidence Taylor the in

educated in the

The garnering remote hinterland

and information Nigeria is

Clerks, were at an even than the better the of

such as "Maganin bottom indication patronage Lagos, latter of end of of this the

Karia" group, extent

and the wretched and their of of its

use of

review

penetration professional

West Africa

and approval

the

and mercantile But its influence as this trips of wreath the for with of the to

grandees

Accra, is

Cape Coast

and Freetown. demonstrated, the habit of

among the was the London, class

even more easily that

especially making

West Africans

was in

Where The

undoubtedly list Taylor African families Macaulays, Vanderpuyes,

many made the to

personal review's its

acquaintance memorial

editor.

of contributors is an indication elite,

the of

S. Coleridge the West influential

extensive a veritable Doves,

connections roll call

educated

being

most

among them were Dohertya, Easmons,

numerous

Renners, Folarins, though

Saparas, Akitoyes, less

Johnson, Bannerinns, list,

Assumpcaoa, etc* 460

Cousseys, A similar,

extensive

460.

The full list BOR, September 1912, p. 80. of contributors was; Mrs. K. Agasa; Mrs. T. J. Palmer; Mrs. Easmon; Miss Ore Green; Misses E. and A. Sapara; Miss Easmon; Dr. W. Renner; Miss Smith; Frans Dove; Dr. 0. Sapara; C. Mory Esq.; C. W. Bette; F. W. Dove; J. E. Taylor; 0. Moore; S. Hughes; W.R. S. Renner; H. Assumpcao; K. Doherty; C. F. Hutchison; Dr. Kapo Easmon; Prince M. Ogunviyi; C. E. Quiet; J. Henley Coussey; Mr. Evans; T. K. E. Phillips; Ansah; Henry Bannerman; A. V. Labuigo; Charles Bannerman; E. T. Scott; Johnson; Adeyenu Johnson; Granville D. D. Johnson; A. Olumuyiwa; Akitoye; Prince Ibinkunle J. A. Mensah; Mr. Hefron; J. Korateng; Edward Renner; Bruce Vanderpuye; D. Niles Abadou; Mr. Hyde; J. F. Folarin; Kojo Thompson; N. W. Holm; Mr. Wood; E"P. Beckley; J. S. M. F. Daniel; Dr. F. E. Love; Dr. K. Faderin; E. J. Harrison; Dr. I. L. D. Moraku; M. R. Macaulay; Dr. M. Mahlengi; Mr. A. Pearce; B. A. Young; Rowan; M. Sebeta; K. Ata Amonn; C. P. Renner; Prince Silas Dove; Arthur F. Dove; Willie Renner; Horace G. B. Dove; Francis Williams; Wag Mohamed. Josu Tamaoo; J. G. Lawson;

398.
accompanied to Roland the formal document of appreciation it these presented should lists This the not by the review that friend

Hayes in

1920.461

Of course, in

be assumed

any West African of for or in even regular the

whose name appeared subscriber list to the

was an active

review.

can be demonstrated John Eldred Taylor. or to

Coleridge-Taylor people aware which were also

appeared families)

name of

But all lesser its that

these extent

(and their of the were all overt

were evidently

to a greater to respond fact

review's the appeals Coast

existence, more significant to press race pride.

and prepared in view

appeals; these

of the

The Nigerian commendations the Lagos of

and Gold the the its African Lagos first

provide

many references Review. warmly to To begin the

to and with

Times Standard reaction

and Orient responded it is

Press, In to

review's that it

appearance. referred

interesting

to note

Duse Mohamed Ali author of 'In the

as a man "who has already "462

made a reputation With the second

as .. 4 the number of

The Land Of The Pharaohs'. rtos Stan, ard

the review,

became even more complimentary;

It is not often that the second number of a new magazine attains, promised by the initial much less exceeds, the standard of excellence number; yet this is what has happened in the case of the African Times and Orient Review, the August number of which is to the full The as the first number. and instructive as entertaining ... for some scathing but just and wellZaria incident again comes i 493 deserved editorial comment.

461. AOR, December 1920, p. 29. 462. "Lagosian On Dits", Lagos Standard, 28th August 1912.

463. ibid,

11th September 1912.

399.
The Lagos editorial original this Standard on the exposer from from then laria of the proceeded affair. case in But to quote sine Nigeria, it is the it clear to the approvingly Lagos Duse's August

Standard

had been the grateful of for

was no doubt that African the the the flow

support only

London. the Lagos

information Review,

was not for from from in

Standard paper issue

Times and Orient of

November Taylor

1912 the in the

Lagos October

noted of 464

publication London

two letters and quoted the Lane

clerk

magazine, of

and commented for the

on them at Times

length.

The admiration Review was largely

Standard

African

and Orient

a product

of the latter's sufferers. letter

taking The first

up cudgels reference telling

for to

clerks

Ball

and Taylor

and similar

the review

in its

pages was in a response to

from Miss ?arples, about Hall

of the Colonial and adding;

Office's

her enquiries

and Taylor,

I have just the first issue of the 'African read with great pleasure Review' Times and Orient to which is to be a monthly magazine devoted the interests of the dark races and is published at the modest price of five per annum postage included and which I sincerely shillings by educated in all hope will be purchased of the world. natives parts I am sending As the editor has given an account of e Zaria trouble 4 him a copy of the official report ... Thus the it seems that through the Lagos Miss Standard agency. was helped It to become conscious to be the of

review

Marples

continued

ATOR's

chief

friend

among the Lagos papers,

and welcomed the ATOR's revival

in 1917.466

464. ibid,
465.

6th November 1912.

7th August 1912.

Lagoa Standard,

466. Lagoa Standard,

28th February

1917, quoted

in ATOR, April

1917, pp. 76-7.

400. On the Gold Coast, its close relationship the Cape Coast paper the Gold Coast Leader, with 467 became a strong supporter with Casely Hayford, In its it praise of the review's with appearance, it of

of the London review. significantly the Pan-African connected

in spirit

the 1900 London meeting

Association;

Review Times and Orient the publication We consider of the African for reevent in the struggle of British subjects such an important freedom that we have decided to give as much and political cognition in our power to our review We of the journal. as lies prominence have read this over and over again and the more we read new journal ladies In 1900 a number of coloured it. it the more we like and led by the late Mr. Sylvester Williams of Trinidaa met gentlemen in London and founded the Pan-African Association. in conference the interests This Association aimed at unifying of British coloured their over the world and presenting points of view on all subjects their interests justice at the bar of British affecting questions in the heart generally as a medium of of the Empire, and acting This idea was between white and coloured people. understanding

With characteristic Williams' Mr. Sylvester and it was a noble one. Williams set himself to the task but he encounenergy Mr. Sylvester Some gentlemen in England well known tered great difficulties. the idea in the cause of the coloured can didliked for their interest On the other band the movement met with apathy and opposed it.
indifference people in the British on the part of coloured and in it. But Mr. Williams Colonies no interest who took practically by noble minded English given persevered and with the encouragement ladies people including a number of coloured and gentlemen ... Walters American among whom was bishop of the citizens coloured Town Hall in A. M. E. Zion Church met in London at the Westminster the Pan-African Association. The publicaAugust 1900 and founded in aims with those of the African Times identical tion of a journal AssociaReview was one of the objects of the Pan-African and Orient to lack of supf, ort from coloured tion but owing chiefly people in Association the Pan-African the Colonies, soon collapsed and its All this happened journal of day. never saw the light contemplated Times and Orient Review, has twelve years ago, but the African that we have hopes that fir. Dune' inspired us with such confidence It Williams failed. Mohamed may succeed where the late Sylvester that Mr. Duse Mohamed has set himself is a tremendous undertaking

to accomplish.

To be the medium for

focusing

the views

of the

467. See Kimble, op. cit.,

p. 375-77.

401.
diversities the coloured of races comprising of the British subjects Crown is no light but bye the ability work; and the sense displayed first issue of Mr. Uuso NIohamed'a journal in this we have hopes Times and Orient Review shall that the African the yet fulfil Times and if the African of its expectations promoters. ... Review is to succeed, Orient if the aims and objects of its

Editor are to be realised, coloured people in all parts of the Empire will have to make up their minds to support it, subscribe to it, keep up and increase its circulation. As we have said it is ... Duse Mohamed has set himself to accomplish. a very great task that Mr. . interest To publish a journal the in London that will continuously of the many and diversified races that go to form the coloured millions Crown is a work of no mean magnitude and is subjects of the British that must task to the utmost even the genius and an undertaking But the author of 'In The Land Of The energy of a e. G. Stead. issue of the Pharaohs' is a man of great ability and the first African Times and Orient Review has furnished ample evidence of the We commend the African Times and Orient of its Editor. capability Review to the support of our people on the Gold Coast and to. th$68 of coloured people all over the world. good will and assistance Since the actually Association Pan-African, comparison. real then editor been present of the Gold Coast Leader, at the 1900 London meeting conversant with for the fate an allied Dr. B. A. Savage, had

of the Pan-African of its journal, jgi

and was fully this 469

was no mere 'puff' It is notable that

paper but an informed aware of the very of its

Savage was fully

difficulties

facing Indeed,

the magazine,

in view of the magnitude

undertaking. advice that if

he quoted at length to succeed it was

from Samuel Coleridge-Taylor's should not look to white

the review

468. Gold Coast Leader,

469.

31st August 1912, p. 5.

See kimble, op. cit., of the Gold Coast p. 375, for Savage's editorship African ?? West Leader; Aspects oyementa, see Langley, of the Pan-African Dr. I. Conference. at the 1900 Pan-African p. 278, for his presence Geiss has speculated that the ATOR was consciously on ULt modelled Pan-African see his "Notes on the Development of Pan-Africanism", Historical Society June 1967, p. 730. Journal the of Nipe of a, 111,4,

402.
for but mu3t be supported was not condemning alone, the 470

people

support Coast

by coloured Gold

people Coast

themselves. papers, in

The Gold joining

Le ader

among the aria

the

ATOR in for

*hippings. 1912,

The Gold lambasted

Coast res-

Independent,

example,

towards

the

end of

those

ponsible

for

the ".aria '.

and similar however,

incidents. continued It

471 over the years took its but also to be the alongthe review

The Gold-Coast review's firmest

Leader,

Cold Coast friend. in attacking the : aria

not only

place ien

aide the review ran into trouble

Whippings,

at the end of 1912 and beginning

of 1913, was solicitous;

there i: aa been nothing amiss in the vanagement we are glad that ... the journal pursues as vigorously as ever its spirited and that We are particularly to note that the editor of policy. pleased his vigorous denunciation the journal continues of the iniquitous Nigeria in Northern that obtains system system of government -a in the service the whipping that allows of that natives of educated Government . 472

On the return Casely ilayford

of the review himself

in 1917 the Gold

at Leader - now edited of the 'African of that brilliant

by

"the - welcomed

re-appearance editorship

Times and Orient

Review'

under the continued

470. Editorial,

Cold Coast Loader, 30tii ,

31st August 1912, p. 5. November 1912. 3rd Xay 1913, p. 4.

471. Gold C; et Indexe 472. "Editorial Notes",

Cold Coast Leader,

403.
author line trade. visit which 'est of and publicist, seeking the Mr. Dose Mohamed", . of the black time and endorsed through its new editorial and delayed panegyric, on the and gives in

salvation 1920, the at

people of

agriculture long

473

In July

Duse Mohamed Ali's published

to West Africa, is valuable Coast of

Gold of eight Street

Coast the

Leador

a veritable

evidence after

way in

which

he was regarded of the review, visitors

African

years,

on and off, of

us a picture London;

158 Fleet

as a focus

coloured

Review makes interesting Times and Orient The June number of the African The Editor is not from cover to cover. of this monthly reading Indeed, to our readers. the name of Duse Mohamed All is a unknown literary household circles; and we have referred word in West African the author historical to him before of that remarkable work, 'The as by birth, he went to England in An Egyptian Land Of The Pharaohs'. education received a most practical which early years and there fitted him for the literary role he was to play in maturer years in Review is Africa the interests and Orient of our common race. in West Africa freely and in one of the front pages circulating

may be seen the picture

him personally must also have made his acquainand some West Africans London, Office, Street, tance in his Fleet where he receives every African who comes to see him on important questions and Oriental worthy Those who have not had this privilege may have chanced of the day. (July her last 14). Abinsi to meet him on the S. S. outward voyage on the Gold being Nigeria his destination whence he hopes to visit Duse Mohamed Ali Coast before to England in September. returning the same type as you meet in West Africa is of deep brown colour, towns. of its principal every five as you walk the streets minutes We mention to show that he is bone of our bone, and flesh this of in every sense among Africans. And we are and African our flesh, to own him, for any people, any race, may well be proud to own proud He is fearless, and he wields a pen which man of his calibre. a in the mighty quake in high places and the craven tremble may make And his chief their weapon is the exposition of the truth. shoes. by they have attained Men fear the truth unless unto truth and live is the reason why Dust Mohamed Ali and his the truth; and that to officialdom. likes and are a trouble are unpopular

of our illustrious

countryman,

rie know

473. Gold Coast Leader,

n. d.,

quoted in ATOR, April

1917, pp. 77-8"

404.
Why do we make a point of Duse Mohamed All being an African? Not that there are not many such cultured Africans in the four but for the simple corners of the globe, reason that our detractors have a way of denying African to anything origin particularly good When they are confronted is the cradle that Africa with the fact ... of the world's civilization and philosophies and religions, and Egypt is pointed Pyramids and the everlasting out with its mighty silence

of the Sphint, Africa. 474

In 1912 Dust in West Africa he could against a famous

they cooly

turn

round and say that

Egypt is not

Mohamed All except be held official model by the in 1920. of

was,

we may be reasonably

sure,

virtually his books

unknown by

to a few who may have up to view as a well "bone of of

cone across known figure, our his bone, race.

1920, fighter flesh",

a "fearless" and flesh This in of our

injustice, the

attainments reception

picture on

can be confirmed arrival celebrated there in

fervent It

he was given that

Lagos

was even proposed

a day

be annually

Lagos as Duse Mohamed Deys475 that its the ATOR made on individual columns. Nigeria, that Thus, thought ex-Oba West Africans Mr. Okotie review of can be Eberekwele an Benin 476

The impact traced through

correspondence Warri, to air Southern his

of Agbash appropriate should

Chambers, channel

the Qverami

opinion

be rehabilitated

and repatriated

by the

British

Government.

474.

"Editorial

Notes",

Cold

Coant

Leader,

7th

August

1920,

p. 4.

475. Dust Mohamed Ali's in Chapter VI. 476. Okotie Eberekwele p. 272.

reception of Warri

in Lagos in 1920 is discussed to editor, ATOR, February-March

at length 1913.

405.
Kai Hankuri, of the "Northern from himself that official policy, Provinces Nigeria", forwarded Provinces to the review Director of critical &1R. ,. 477 suffice between a letter later clear to as Such as of

a copy of a letter Education, questions instances it

to the Northern to reply via

requesting

to a series of the

about education could

the editor

be multiplied the close

abundantly; that

but one more will sometimes developed published

illustrates

connections In January [baden, Garveyism. reader there

Dues and his readers. from Lkinpelu

1917 the review a pioneer 478

Obisesan of with

cocoa farmer letter

there,

to be a sympathiser that "bur

Obisesan's

made it

he had been a pre-war organ". lie hoped that

of the review,

which he referred

would be "changes this that "as a patriot

time in supportreceesary keep received. Chief 479

ing this

organ of ours", a supporting

and stated fee ...

I deem it I will

to be sending steady. " Three years

and as long as I live order for

Three months later later,

a postal

4C2.10s. was duly in Ibadan,

as one of the leading hospitality 480

cocoa farmers for

Obisesan was to organise during his visit

and support

Dune Mohamed Ali

to the city*

477. Mai Hankuri, open letter Nigeria, ATOR, 14th July

to Director of Education, 1914, p. 405.

Itorthern

Provinces,

9th December 1916, inATQ January 1917, 478. Akinpolu Obisesan to editor, , Information 188-9. about Obisesan fron Dr. J. . Webster and pp. University Dr. R. Gavin, then of Dept. of History, of Ibadan, February 1967. 479. Obisesan to editor, 480. See Chapter 23rd February thesis. 1917, A=, April 19179 p. 80.

VI of this

406.
Tiere was in by the service. to parents, that hotels they can be no doubt functions

that

one of place

the for

review's coloured formalised carried

most valuable people, into a notice

providing Gold Coast

a London meeting Leader. in This 1913,

as mentioned

was even the review to the

a regular addressed were informed suitable

From early guardians were always

and visitors welcome could Editor at

England; review's for

visitors offices

and that parents

and apartments that in "The

be obtained ... will

them;

and guardians suitable from the Africa

were told schools and the of being

willingly the

undertake of

to find

England, "481 under provide coloured Britain in

and superintend There are still

education

children

Orient. taken

some men who remember wing of his in this way,

experience

Duse Mohamed Ali's valuable people. as a very details

and their and protector of Lagos as

reminiscences of visiting who came to a schoolboy

role

of helper T. A. Doherty

One such is young man in the insight in

Chief 1916.

Sven before which the he recalled outside

then, in for

Nigeria,

he had read

review, into

1967 as giving his generation. in the

a new and wonderful Arriving capital, the but in

world

London

1916 from the

Manchester, Times even at established found

he knew and Orient, times when attracted with there We have

nobody Review the

made his of which the

way to he bad.

African Thus,

office,

address abeyance, in

review

was in visitors

name it

had already Doherty in

coloured

need of wife time

help. at other their

Chief

lodgings where

Duse Mohamed Ali were also from

and his time to

house

Clapham, boarders.

African

student

481. ATOR, February-March

1913, p. 254, and subsequent

issues.

407.
Chief for Doherty's the testimony in that London 1920 Duse Mohamed All Herbert in Macaulay, Britain

in of

made arrangements Oluwa, as National of the Lagos this Chief

acconmodation fir. son and ? of Cap' British Chiefs

Chief both

Oluwa's Congress 'dhite

E. T. Scott, West Africa dispute with of the

who were delegates the sort

and in

furtherance

Nigerian of

Government. that

Indeed,

was but a further providing Nigerian Government over sional no doubt all for

example for which to extend 482 also

service

Duse had been the

years,

according

to Doherty London Nigeria

he had met and helped in 1913 to protest the Governor's not Yoruba Nigerian with

delegation plans land

had come to to Southern

against control

rights. but the

As this chiefs for

delegation from various

included inland extend his

only

profesit

Lagosiane provided

town:,,

occasion students

Duse to

contacts. Chief

Among the Doherty the Ali's spent Gold

African at

who were contemporaries house

as lodgers Coast,

])use Mohamed Ali's Ennin,

was a young under

Fanti

from

Claud

who had been placed the

Duse Mohamed He

guardianship almost a year to

by his thus

brother-in-law, I"laced, in "improving

Omanhene of Anomabu. commercial This knowledge",

his

and returning

West Africa

summer 1917.483

was a real

indi-

482.

from Chief T. Adebayo Doherty, Information to writer Lagos, 2nd April Macaulay and Chief Oluwa to London For the visit 1967. of Herbert Background in 1920, see Coleman, Nigeria: to Nationalism, pp. 195-6. to London, see ibid, For the 1913 delegation p. lbl. ATOR, July 1917, p. 12.

483.

408.
Dusele in the Gold Coast for of the Omanhene the day,

cation

of

reputation

the

at

that

time, Chiefs

Nana Anonoo V was one of a supporter Council. 484 of of the

most

influential 1916-1921

Fanti

A. R. P. S. and from the review's

a member of

Legislative an relative

No doubt

A. R. P. S. connections have source in entrusted of

provide his young

explanation

why Nana Amonoo V should care. Another

to Duse Mohamed Ali's people Lagos, visits staying who spent by the with six

information is Alhajji

on coloured L. D. Agusto of

Duse Mohamed All months under of his

London in

roof

1920.

He recalls delegates Alhajji Lokko,

frequent to Agusto a lawyer 485 the

National

Congress

British

West Africa Others only Mr.

household remembers from the

- now removed as staying Gold Coast, in but

to a 'better' the house

address. included not

also

Roland

Hayes and his

accompanist.

1 entior.
influence

of Roland Hayes brings

in the

us to the consideration
In a letter to J. r:.

of the review's
Bruce in

and impact

New World.

September 1919, Duse wrote to present

"Hayes the tenor

has written

to me asking "486
with known. surely at

me

him in England and I am going

him through his of of to editorship

to try

to do this.
in is appeal touch not is

'Whether
him Though least

Hayes knew of through equivocally indirectly the

or was put friends Hayes'

good offices an example attributable

mutual

American

ATOR influence, this.

484. See Kimble, op. cit.,

485. Information to writer

pp. 391,456
from Alhajji

& 473-4.
L. B. Agusto, Lagos, 29th March 1967

486. Luse Mohamed Ali to J. E. Bruce, 12th September 1919, p. 3, Bruce Papers, Schomburg Collection, New York Public Library.

409.
Indeed, at present that in general the review's than the influence in the United therc night States can can

be more surmised in the files of

demonstrated,

though Negro

be little

doubt

contemporary that to time

Prese well

be found 487 the was 1912The

numerous review American contributing 1920,

references, carried Press.

illustrating from 488 to at time It the is

influence

enough. items

itself Negro

commendatory that Press

from

very

likely Negro editorial

Duse Mohamed Ali during in the period

articles

American when his

particularly

times

duties

London

were

interrupted. It will be recalled that the review claimed to t,ave had some influence

on Theodore Roosevelt's
election. Duse's

prospects
to

as a presidential
Roosevelt

candidate

in the 1912
race

open letter

challenging

him on his

policy

was at first

'answered'

with

a laconic

and uninformative

reply

from the ex-Preoident's

secretary,

Frank harper;

Mr. hoosevelt wishes me to thank you for your letter, and to say time he is unable, that at the present on account of the pressure of other work, to write or to go into that cutter any article, He has already his position to him about. stated which you write

487. To follow up this point thoroughly would require research in the United Staten, which the writer wan unable to arrange; unfortunately, holdings of even the major black library has significant no British American journals of the wa 1912-1920.
488. For example, for the first in the Boston Chronicle see the praise issue of the AOR, in AOR, April Of use Mohamed Ali, 1920, p. 31. the Boston Chronicle "The Editor to needs no introduction wrote; the American toured this He has on two occasions country, people. the West Indies, America. As a dramatist South and Central and he is well known. But his history actor of Egypt stamps him as an International Statesman. "

410.
fully and Iiis views have been and specifically, All his addresses and speeches have been issued full about his particulars and you could obtain Beyond this, : ir. to these volumes. referring 48 the subject. to say on nothing Not surprisingly, Mohamed Ali this answer his from was not found published. widely in volume form ... by views ... has Roosevelt

acceptable, 490 also

and after not

Duse only

had registered answer Roosevelt, sense of of

dis-satisfaction Harper but

he received but

a more conciliatory letter however, from Philip

a short son. both policy, son of 491

apologetic Neither had, contained, his

the

ex-President's for Negro Harris,

a great

the

appropriate, Roosevelt's

these

letters of

as an exposition open letter

Theodore subject

a copy 'Uncle

on the

to Mr.

Julian

Remus':

On this,

Luse tartly

observed;

the promises embodied in that document are so touchingly solicii .0 that we look forward to the ous for the welfare of Afro-Americans, in the United states for the coloured people, of the milleniu arrival the Colonel reach the presidential chair which he feels it should 492
his duty to sit on in the interests of truth and righteousness.

489.

ATOR, August

1912,

p. 60.

490. ibid,
491.

p. 60.

Roosevelt September 1912, p. 79 & Philip Dust Mohamed, Ate, Harpero Philip Roosevelt began ATOR, October 1912, p. 114. to Duse N: ohamed, his letter; "It is too bad that Mr. Harper sent you auch an unsatisletter. factory As a matter was of fact, at the time your letter his views upon the Colonel Roosevelt was busy formulating received, " Negro question.

492. ATOR, October

1912,

p. 114.

411. None of this

Negro voters;

amounts to a decisive
the general seating

influence
of

on the dass of American

the Progressives at the in to Negro

indifference of 'lilywhite'

wrongs493 Convention

and the in

delegations than the that or

Progressive the African

Chicago

were more persuasive Yet at least

anything

Times and Orient thoughts influence times of imply

Review. that it

Roosevelt the review's

camp's

second might election in default

was considered voters, directly

hostility But at

some Negro are

indirectly. would

politicians

super-sensitive, to read

and it too

be unwise all this.

more substantial It is evident

evidence that to

much into review's

some extent

the

readership Thus, by John "standard" E.

is

the H. and

United Ferris

; tates

was spread the

by personal

recommendation. number the

William Bruce, American in white

was sent

review's

1912 Christmas by comparison with its with

was immediately magazine turn

ixpreesed, numberso

Christmas

"vigour

and originality"; colour" and to

his

Ferris

showed the

magazine

to both

"men of

University Ferris

professors.

494 ranging

It

seems that

what particularly

impressed

was the world

scope of the articles;

because of the light that I read because they were illuminating, Went in America, Hayti, The West Indies, they threw upon conditions Egyrpt, China and Japan. South Africa, Africa,

493. 494.

ee Henry

F.

)ay,

End The

of

American

Innocence,

p. 27. of the p. 77. African

r. atimate William "A Colored H. Ferris, American's 1914, Times and Orient Review", ATOR, 14th April

412.

Factor' upon 'Drama as an Educational are worthy articles in a permanent form. The Hon. James Carmichael of an appearance Smith's by a masterly grasp economic articles are characterised The 'Outlook on the World from the African of the subject. point it was an 'inlook' by Sothis, was more than an 'outlook'; of view', by Harcus Garvey, Junior, And the article upon 'The as well ... in the Mirror issue in a recent West Indies British of Civilisation' and telling summing up the history of the west Indies. was powerful I know As a descriptive lived in the East, picture of life to compare with the African Times and Orient Review. But nothing To the thoughtful it is something more. and reflective mind, it shows how the Black Man, the Brown Man and the Yellow Kien, psychologically 495 European arrogance react against and caste-prejudice. Your It is hard to imagine Bruce all that sent Ferris copies of was the the have looked only an to let to whom the the to influential number

and respected whom he, in

review, urged to the

alone subscribe to

wider it.

probability, American

would readers

Some black Coloured

review

organise of

PanIn

institutions. to the

One such was Charles review to act as the

de Patters,

Yonkers. of a

1914 he looked

organising

headquarters

Vast international

coloured

organisation;

consisting society of men and women of organise a universal ... African chosen by the members and whose directors, extraction headquarters in a suitable have their throughout, spot in shall by the directors be selected London, which shall of the African Review. Times and Orient be to co-operate The aim of this shall with our African society in those parts brothers in the motherland of Africa and settle not it up, form a government by any European wolf, and to build occupied in one word rule that flag, promote education; with a national special part of Africa.

495. ibid.

413.
F. 'very a fund black to man in finance the this world dream. in the to to should contribute ten cents a ronth to provide London

The money was to Bank of at least England, $50,000,000 his readers

be banked, and would, in to five

by the de Fatters to ten

headquarters hopefully

committee, believed,

amount was asked

years.

Duse Mohamed All and donations no less than to

request

send their

names was "

the ATOR office. Africa under

The ultimate one head of that

outcome the African ideas

envisaged I.mpire. were engaged

"a United

Dose Mohamed Ali's in the League of

response Justice"

was to-claim - an organisation would it

these

"embodied in promoting

he was then with. shows 496 that

- which scheme, later before

he hoped de Patters pipe-dream though

co-operate

The de Patters the sort of ideas Negroes find to

may have been, were already

expressed the Great

by Marcus

Garvey to

current response man in

among New York Garvey the was to

War, and help

explain the only

the black

among them. look In to the

Nor was do Patters editor Toronto him of the

New 4orld

ATOh to act the National 497

as focus

of a Pan-African of Loyal

Movement. Negroes, named the Atlantic the the to coe t

191b the

group,

Association In 1912,

approached Agustus

in a similar from

spirit.

an individual side ... of

Warren

Philadelphia is transpiring

declared in

"we on this Africa and Asia for live

know nothing aid of your races

of what

without "of

most valuable only from

magazine", every country

He called where they

delegates in numbers"

darker

496.

See de Patters' letter in ATOh, 19th and Ruse Mohamed's reply 1914, p. 212. For Duae Mohamed Ali and the League of Justice, the following chapter.

?ay see

497. See ATOR, August

191, p. 14, & September 1916, p. 29.

414.
and discuss 1, 'ot across wa:s the important but 498 voices ci the were AO-i",. who in raised tine such November

all

matters also

affectir

; them. iy white

oz-1,, blac,

occaaioral

the Atlantic editor to of

in upj. recietiori the Jura c hire:.

and &upi, ort

T. Ai. 'acDermott,

1g12 wrote

June Iiohatned Ah ;

I an I was very, pleased to receive the July issue of the review. copy of our paper, a complimentary put ting you down to receive the courtesy right of copieu of your publication along anticipating I will from August. see what can be done with the business about I an very keenly and uymPersonally exchange of advertisement. it can be, in your venture, interested and I believe pathetically if you hive it a broad enough base and brine it to made a succeos thought of well-informed combination and knowledge. a sufficient I would make the sugEovition, that you do not confine your aCenta There are to the limits of race. rigidly and correspondent: hundreds of white men and women who take a broad and thoroughly and genius of 'the view of the position aspiration sympathetic 40 Native' of the world. sections kut in the went Indies, as elsewhere in the Lew world, the "C is natural

constituency, Cn 9th British July

I. h.

I:ac; )ermott of in

notrithatanaing, leading, the professional of

was among black ro4 in s. Dr. it

people.

1913 a group gatherod

Georgetown, aeil i. Kurshalle uillo, prominence

Guiana,

chambers the

barrister of

They formed "to spread

a committee, ... (the A

under 'e)

Chairmanship and bring

fired.

circulation

into

dose

498. ATOk, December-January 499. ibid, February-Durch

1913, p. 214. 1913, p. 272.

415.

before One is

the

public, to

both wonder from his if

in

this the

Colony

and in this

the

'fleet

Indies

. any who country.

bound

members of of action

committee before considered the full

included to their the

remembered But of it is

ihre evident

visit their

so many years that they

from

ALO}t to be of the boast

unique

importance. achievements, it

Perhaps, others to be "the in the

having

surveyed that in

range

review's that

might

agree

Duce Mohamed Ali's the annals empty. of British

he intended

most unique" event, entirely

journalism501

was not,

500.

The full ATOR, August 1913, PP-77-8. membership of the Committee Barrister, :. 4i11s, M. u., Chairman; 1.J. 0. i4cArthur; Lr. . red. was: D. B. wells; dev. James Persaud; Hannibal J.: j. Johnson; Barrister, for B. 3az3il %arshall, Agent and : jecretary Johnson, Treasurer; Solicitor, A. Mclean Ogle, British Guiana and the West Indies; Secretary. Assistant ATUtc, July 1912, p. iii.

501.

DUSE MOIHAMED ALI

AND THE DEVELOPMENTOF PAN-AFRICANISM

1866 - 1945

VOLUMEzI

Ian

Duffield

ol

._..

Ph. D. Thesis

Edinburgh

University

October

1971

BEST COPY

AVAILABLE
Poor text in the original

CONTENTS

11 VOLUME

Chapter V Chapter VI Chapter VII

"The Well Known Agitator" Business and Pan-Africanism

1912-1921 1912-1921

pp. 416-562

pp. 563-649
pp. 650-723 PP" 724-783" pp. 784-787 pp. 788-822

In America 1921-1931 Back to Africa 1931-1945

Chapter VIII Conclusion Bibliography

Illustrations: Duse Mohamed All, with Chief Oluwa of Lagos, his son Mohamed Yahya, and the Imam, outside Woking Mosque June 1920 Duse Mohamed All Gertrude as an Old Man in Lagos Students

p. 416 p. 724 p. 729

La Page and her Rosiorucian

HA ER V;

"THE WFLL KNtY(NAGITTOR". "1 1912-, 1

1.

Description of Dune Mohamed Ali in J. Loder, 1.0. to Col. J. F. Carter, Director Office, Scotland House, 13th of Intelligence's August 1919 and Carter to Loder 15th August 1919; see F. O. 371/3728/1316.

eil

"III

If II

\I i-

II\I

\\ l III\r,

I i. t. i

I iiur

I . ti. il ,

Chief Oluwa, The Imam and Uuse Mohamed Ali, coking Mosque, Mohamed Yaya, son of Chief Uluwa, outside

Lid-ul-Fitur
(from Africa

Festival
iieview,

June 1920
July 1920 p. 30)

end Orient

417.

Between was more than member,

1912 and finally a "unique"

leaving

Britain journalist.

in

1921,

Duse Mohamed Ali an active

crusading of best

He was also of clubs to the their

and often

organiser, perhaps the

a whole

range

and societies, nature: Islamic the Society; ComSphinx Pro-

whose names are Oriental, the

introduction Society;

Occidental Committee; League

and African the

Central the Nations;

Ottoman the

Anglo-Ottoman of the of

Society;

Albanian the African

mittee; Society; gress the

of

Justice

Afro-Asian Great

the Union;

Egyptian the Indian

Association Muslim the

Britain;

the

Soldiers' Society of for

Widows and Orphans Spreading People. the title# in Knowledge Some of the

War Fund; on the these were

Five

Continents for

Club; Civilization of His was here

Capabilities ephemeral the But

Coloured the longer

- as a rule

thumb, role

more shadowy and intensity. action

organisation. clearly there

in

them varied of commitment

importance to organised

it life

of a religious
in closely with

cum cultural
his editorial spent with

cum social
policies his

cum political
in the

kind,

which tied
Further,

ATOR and AOR. between in

since busying

he evidently himself

so much of of

time

1912 and 1921 London operating

a multitude

organisations

in certain ranks Society African

spheres,

it

must be asked why he was not to be found in the others - notably Origin, the Ottoman Association, and the Du Bois organised the Pan-

of some similar of Peoples

of African

Congresses of 1919 and 1921*,.., In addition

organisations to the

he did; belong, to. he was a frequent

or, might> have been, expected, to belong, to but did*'not, attender of public meetings and discussions on issues

418. to Islam, the Negro, -Africa, he belonged to, a number of fairly 2 to

related

Asia and the Ottomn

Empire.

The organisations belong to, fall into Firstly

or might have been expected clear, if

somewhat overlapping, with Islam may be Islamic -Society

categories, discerned;

a group of sooieities this applies

connoted

more exclusively, Muslim Soldier'a

to the Central

and the Indian

Widows and Orphans war Furd, connected with but one ruled

but also

in some sense to all (as more than just

the societies g, ! tuslim state,

the Ottoman Empire by the Khalif), and to

the Egyptian

Societies

(which

included in this

the Sphinx Club). Islamic group. of all there

The Albanian

Committee can also some connection

be placed

However, while these organisations, were the Afro-Asian Society, . referred and the to simply

with

Islam was a common factor Secondly,

they were autonomous in function. organisations - the Oriental,

Occidental

and African (normally

League of Justice

of the Afro-Asian -,, Thirdly, Progress

Nations there Union,

as the League of Justice). organizations African Origin, - the African

wore -the purely the Society 'Fourthly

Pan-African of

of Peoples there

the Pan-African

'Congresses. '.

were miefor

oellaneous Spreading People;

groups;

perhaps the most shadowy of the lot, for Civilization

the Society of Coloured club.

Knowledge on the Capabilities and'the Five Continents Club,

a projected

inter-racial

2.

An example would be his atteniance in 1918 at a meeting of the British Worker's League in London to protest against the Labour Party's Germmnyrto retain, her colonies; policy of-. permitting see The Times lot November 1918, p. 3: of. his letter to Sir A. Conan Doyle, AtOR, October 1918, pp. 45-6. .'... .

419.
Since Islam, even more than Pan-Africanisn, seems to be'the it could common perhaps of he

ground of the greatest be the boat starting this chapter

number of these organisations, point from which life. to attempt

the unravelling what point

in Dust Mohamed Ali's observation early

At exactly

returned clear. ignorant

to formal

of Islam is not,

from present

evidence, though one after, 3 in

To W.S. Blunt of the simplest

in 1911 he appeared as a Muslin, of his faith, but shortly

elements

The New Are, he had declared It is intended as no slur

allegiance

toi no particular of his personal

religion.

on the sincerity

and private intimtely

beliefs related of In-he

to say that with

his re-dedication political

to Islam was clearly

his growing

commitments from the date of publication

Land Of The Pharaohs onwards. e what point in time he became an accepted and even influenbut it was at

At exactly tial

member of London's

Yuffi1im community is not certain.

between The Now Age article some point

1913, by which time he was already called the Islamic itself Society. This

(dpril

1911) and the summer of

for Egypt of a body then Duse belong-

Vice-President later split, Society.

the faction It

ing to calling as far for

the Central

Islamic

iad been founded as a medium

back as 1886, and wan perhaps to the Islamic and lectures

particularly

suitable

hi,, re-introduction functions

community as its

main objects about Islam

were social

to remove misconceptions

3. 4.

use Blunt,

op. cit.,

p. 759. and The Raw Are# April Life",

26th 1911, p. 606. p. 14.

"Leaves from an Active

The Comet. 4th December 1937,

420.
and )uslima, being allowed ignorance and it persons of other religions was in no sense ezolusive# 5 In such a circle his, comparative to join as associates. Islam could be umediod without that undue embarrassment. regarded as a asset who-underoverseas lights to He

about

was evidently, valuable recruit.,

from the. office It

he soon attained, that

seems probable

he was a particular in Britain,

the Islamic stood Britain members.

Society (if

as a long-standing not Islam) better

resident than did

more transitory

Perhaps this Society,

was why in summer 1913 one of the-leading the Indian Barrister,

of the Islamic

Muslim Leaguer who helped in Huslim

to found the London branch of the League in 1911, and adviser Law to the India Office, Abdul timid, brought the recently

arrived , office.

Ahmadiyya missionary Nee has left both coloured The latter perspiration given

to Britain,

Lhvaja written

Kamal ud-Din,

to the k$0

us two accounts by resentment

at different Abdul ?ajid ". heavy,

times of this and Khwaja iamal

encounter. ud-Din.

against

was described

as "a rather -a

bearded Indian, could hardly

oozing have

from every pore"

Punjab civilian

a more offensive in his

description

and an "inclined rather

to be somewhat than a persuasive

dictatorial

manner ...
3.

an aggressive

5.

treasurer, the society's The Near Fast, 26th May 1911', P-98-reported defining its nemborahip and objects; ` they were Fhaja Ismail, an so in 1916 - see by M. H. Yidwai, with the date of founlation, repeated On the earlier occasion, The Near Eaat,. 3rd October 1916, p. 563. but funation; Khaja Ismail denied that the sooiety,,, had any political, mcmbersbip, and, tail of British-Islamophiles with its multinational it was clearly useful meeting ground for all those a and converto, . in political interested eauseq connected with Islam.

421. Abdul !"ajid,

miaoionar7. contributor

"6

An for

although

at that

time he wawa regular introduction it

to the ATOR and would hardly with

have muds this

he had not then been friendly see, he became Duee's enemy. As an Ahaadi, existing

Dust Mobamed Ali,

later,

as we shall

Khwaja I{amal ud-Din

must have posed problems

for

the

Muslim co=unity

in London, in view of the uneasy relations Islam. Aa DU3 : iohamed Ali related, During ,

between Ahmadiyya when they first his three

and traditional

met, Khwaja Kawal ud-Din was in difficulties. as a missionary, vethods "he had accomplished

months in Britain was that Friday IF this - all

nothing".

Duse'a advice non-sectarian Carton Hall. frienda

sectarian prayers

should be avoided,

and instead as

should

be arranged

at some such place

were done,

then Dose would persuade his

Sunni

to attend

of which subsequently,

00 he saysp happened.?

6.

See Due Mohamed Ali, Ulgerian Daily "Lord Headley's Conversion", in Times. 7th April 1933. p"7, and "Leaves from an Active Life", The Comets, 4th December 1937. p. 14. Abdul Majid van the author, of a number or translator co-author (trans. books, including The Rubiiyat Hatiz with introduction of of by Abdul MaJid), London 1910; England and the Moslem World. Artiolee, York, 1912; The addressee and essays on eastern sub octe, London 19151 Malay Self-Taught, London 1920; and, of Leadershiu, London with Sir he West and J. G. Buehler, A Digest of Hindu Law .^., For his part in the foundation 1919. of the London branch of the Muslim League, see The Near rasa, He All-India ay 1908, pp. 85-6. . took a place on the original committee of the Muslim League's London Branch. "A few days later he called to announce his acquisition of a room at' Caxton Ball for Friday prayers "and requested me to notify my I did his bidding and on the Friday following, friends. at ry Egyptians and Indians turned out for some twenty or thirty request, These prayers continued at Caxton Hall for period (sio) prayer. see "Leaves success. " of six or eight months with considerable in The Covet. 4th Decembor 1937, p. 14. from an Active Life",,

7.

422. towards Khwaja amal ud-Din, is fairly

Despite clear

his that

later while

ill-feelings

it

the two were both living enough= they contributed

in London they associated to each other's papers, and

together

amicably

Khwaja Kmal ud-Din became a'regular both at Duse's home and visitor a Though Duse'a, tale of dictating terns to the Ahnadiyya missionary office. need not be taken too literally,
in the continuance in its of the

yet

it

is clear
in

that
Britain,

he played

some role

Ahmadiyya

mission

and therefore its establishment

indirectly at Woking

most striking

outward

manifestation,

Vosque.

As far difficult

as conversions

were concerned, missionaries there

the Atimadie found Britain have traditionally early found

as

a field

as Christian Hovever, peer,

Muslim countries. that of an Irish

van one spectacular

conversion

Lord Headley, Isere too, ,

who though obscure previously, Mohamed Ali -Dues progress claimed that, but

became a minor celebrity. not only wee he kept also that he helped

informed to sort

of Headley'o out the trouble without

towards

Islam,

when Khwaja Zamal ud-Din permission, "filled at an Islamic with sensa-

publicly Society tional flat, advice.

announced his function. news", "in

succeaa,

Hieadley's

Next anorning, finding we are told, first

the press thing,

be fled,

to Duns Mohamed Ali's ar4 begged for at once and ahoy him his indiscreet use of

a- blue 'tunk because of the wide 'publicity", He raa duly advised "to see-Lord-Headley he could for

the papers and make what apologies

8.

Nigerian

batty

Tjm

7th April

1933# p. 7.

423.
the letter. " The advice this was taken, the noble convert was collified, but

any hopes that versions

newsworthy coup would lead to a large number of con9 Again, we must guard against were of course disappointed. that Dues Mohamed Ali yet it exaggerated that his with awn part his large in the experience

the possibility

Headley conversion; of Britain a confidant. 'The articles Din's Islapio

ceema plausible

and the British,

Khwaja Kamal ud-Din would have used hin as

which Duse Piohamed Ali

contributed

to Khwaja K al udconnection which are which charac-

Review reinforce Islamic

the Impression ideas.

of an intimate These articles, and insight

between his typical terised

and Pan-African

examples of the mixture much of his journalistic

of eccentricity writing, "Io all

and May 1916. attack with

The first,

entitled

appeared between January 10 Thought Original", was an Though dressed his up that

on the concept a certain

of human mental evolution.

amount of theological

"thought

was created

conclusion argument, i Creator in the beginning by an All-Wise and ministers for

being

to be imparted and

by Him to His chosen instruments enlightenment of' the world

the reformation

and as a lasting

memorial

to His Greatness",

9.

in The Comet. 4th December ibid, and "Leaves from an Active Life", It may be noted that despite the elation in London 1937, p. 14. Kuslim circles at the conversion of Lord Headley, hie appears to His rams is. to Islas. have been a very non-militant conversion of Islamic poliof British supporters notably absent from the roll tical movements in London. Duse Mohamed Ali, 1916, pp. 27-31. "Is Thought Original", in Islamic Revigivp January

10.

424. of the "darker

this

article

is

in essence a defenco it is necessary

of the rental

capacity

races". British

Once again, background

to bear in mind the contemporary in Social this (chief or that Darwinism. coloured How often nation was

of widespread

belief that

must he have heard the assertion centuries behind the "higher

races"

among whom were, of course, wonder taken capacity

the Anglo-. Saxons).

Now he rebuked the condescending "., 4 races" at evidence

by come members of the "higher among their racial "inferiors";

of some mental

It ban often been wondered in the breast civilized of the so-called that the reputed of assimilating uncivilized should be capable higher thought; that members of the "backward" races have frein matters the "advanced" of culture and excelled quently peoples erudition.

In this connection the whole question of the evolutionary It is generally process of mental development requires revision. that all "backward" races must pass through an assumed by thinkers development in order that they may be evolutionary-stage of mental We, lifted the "advanced" races. up to the mental altitude of however, find such examples as the holy Prophet, Mubamxed (on whom from the "backward" races to lead the world to be peace), arising higher realization of the omnipotence of God; a Booker T. a Douglass, among the Negroes of the Washington and a Frederick United States,, guiding the political, and economic destinies social another of a whilom slave population; a Toussaint L'Ouverture, whatever, attainments pure-blooded Negro, without any-educational leading a successful revolt an army from a slave rabble, organising a well-trained and equipped Napoleonic army in the island against and founding a government which has lasted for over one of Haiti, hundred years; a Sir Samuel Lewis, of Sierra Leone, on the West becoming Coast of Africa, whose parents were rescued from a slaver, leader of the bar in the colony of his birth, receiving eventually Victoria the accolade at the hand of G; as a reward for his ueen qualities and, unquentioned legal erudition. sterling These are, but a few of the cases that may be cited against the 11 theory. mental evolution

11.

ibid,

pp. 28-9.

425.
In this talist passage we see how the adoption religious claims position of racist of an uncompromisingly fundamen-

enabled him to contradict pseudo-science.

the then generally

accepted

What is even more illuminating Booker T. Washington; Frederick not euch

is his sequence of examples - )uhammad; Douglass; Toussaint L'Ouverturo; associate surprising he betrays

:air Scmuel Lewis - which is with Muslim apologetics,

as ono would normally have seemed a little readers. Admittedly,

and which tust to Asian Muslim who was

(and indeed enlightening) Dome ignorance 12

of Toussaint,

not so destitute

of education Islam,

as he supposed.

But more importantly, a little, to the

we see how he related predicament knew a great However, asserted

about which he knew only and the Arericaa,

of the Negro in Africa deal. this article always thouLt

about which he

anti-racist

was not egalitarian. few, whether 'backward'

It

"There will

be a favoured

among the 'advbnced' races, who will This be

races or within capable

the ranks of the so-called and assimilating hijhor article,

of receiving

thought. "13

was further

exposed in the succeeding

elitism 14 "God and Science" ;

12.

C. L. R. Janes, Black Jacobins, 2nd revised ed., New York 1963, pp. 19-20, states that Toussaint aas the on of an African chief and belonged to the small class of superior slaves with some education.

13.
14.

Islamic

Review,

January 1916, p. 29. "God and Science", Islamic Review. February 1916,

Duse FohamedAli, py. 50-95.

426. It is also very questionable whether a smattering of education in beneficial to the m*La. The co-called really of modern diffusion learning tends to unsettle the conditions not infrequently of life by creating false intellectual values; honest labour is despised and the hereditary scuilerymaid or the inestimable milkmaid becomes a bad typist or a shopgirl, and the descendant of a long line of farmers blossoms into a fully 'counter-jumper' fledged efficient l7 or company promoter of doubtful reputation. Here we must balance of T. Swellibus to the proposition and a snare. " apparent triumphs the apparent ilk. "Science snobbery of these views against of the article the figure

and his that Writing

Muah of the rest is

is devoted a delusion

a sham and an invention, he asserted

in a "doomwatch" vein, and technology

that

the

of science this

invariably

led to catastrophe, occurred

tkat and furthermore 16 in antiquity.

was a cyclical

process

mhich had already

One of the two reimaining on a theme he had already heart "Islam -

articles

deserves

some attention

- it close

was to his the as

expounded and which was evidently 17 As previously, the Christian, the latter life

and the African". favourably eooial. with

he contrasted the former

Muslim missionary perfecting rupting highly it.

portrayed and dis

the African

order,

as perverting

His picture

of )uslim

in Africa

was# of course, in an African dissension

idealised,

and when many years

later

he ras to, live riddled with

Muslim community it

was to be one notoriously

15. 16. 17.

ibid, ibid,

p. 94. pp-91-3"Ielam and the African", ibid. April 1916,

Dwse Hohamed Ali, pp. 180-185.

427.
and ill-will. descriptive claim 18 But the importance of this kind of writing was not man's

or even analytical just

but polenio, as the earlier man's claim

attacking article to mental

the white "Is

to moral superiority had attacked

Thought

Original"

the white

superiority. the African

He even ventured Christian

on the dangerous with

ground of contrasting the African Muslim;

disadvantageously

European Christian merchants in Africa will credit a Muslim African But with thousands of pounds worth of goods, without security. 'imtivo' howthe same merchant would not give a Christian credit, The were furnished ever well known, unless adequate security ... }:uslin is always accepted by the European Chrisword of an African African in a byword. ' tian, but the honour of the average Christian faith This ... proves how little the average European appears to 1v his religion. have in the ennobling qualities of But of course relations statement Africaniet with as it and, it was not possible for one with euch cloee and fruitful to leave this

a wide range of Christian stood. it

West Africans,

The Muslim polemicist to his loyalty

gave way to the Panto his friends, for he

may be said,

added a handsome qualification; Of course this peculiar attitude of the European does not do justice I have met and transacted business with, Africans to the Christian Christian ladies and gentlemen from the 'Dark Continent' African were the soul of honour and probity, and I was honoured in numwho On the other hand, I have met bering them among my friends. Muslims of whom I was ashamed because of their reprehensible conduct. Christian The bad African is the undoubted product of contact ... 20 the bad Eurolean Christian with ...

18. 19. 20.

This community ras the Muslim community his death in 1945. from 1931 till Magic ibid. Review April 1916, p. 164.

in Lagoa, where he lived

428. Though this to suppose that on the question they jointly controversy
to paper

article

was not written

till

1916, there

is

every reason

Duse Mohamed All of Islam in Africa

and Xhwaja Zarial ud-Din were in accord well before then. In February over the Kikuyu bodies in Kikuyuland
the feared

1914

wrote a letter - the attempt

of protest of Protestant
and

to The Tinet missionary

over of

their

differences Yet their it

form the

a common front outbreak to Bishop it

against of this

advance versy J. J. militant Islam secure, dwelt

Islam. provoked of

was not response, mid-February in its

initial

controfrom Bishop was

that Millis

but a letter 1914. languages where the

The Tim Willis' that position of really the

Uganda in not

letter although

though had had its in "the the

abusive

stated

day in of

Buganda,

Christian majority is

had become population serious.

rest

the country, Christianity

where

the

struggle

between

Islam and

The future a Kiluyuland that

.. * still style

hangs in the balance. " Protestant popular front

However, he did and indeed carefully

not call

for

explained

his present

visit

to Britain

was in no way occasioned, . Xe appealed three for funds

as many had to create for a

supposed, college training

by the Kikuyu controversy. to train Christian this could African African clergy

and to create

normal schools 21

schoolteachers

in Uganda.

Although trickery giving it that Africans

was hardly be levelled

open to the charges against

of expediency plan

or even involved

the Kikuyuland unity

(which

a false by Duz

impression Mohamed Ali

of Protestant and ihwaja

and brother1hood) in the course

was pilloried

Kamal ud-Din

21.

Bishop J. J. Willie,

letter,

in The T11jes

14th February

1914, p.?.

429.
of their long and angry letter which waa published a week later, and

which ran as follows; in England On behalf of the members of the Islamic faith residing to the hostility we desire to enter an emphatic protest against Islam displayed at a conference of missionaries belonging to a denominations number of Protestant at Kikuyu in East Africa*
that the whole of the hundred millions we are convinced of Empire share our feelings Moslem inhabitants of of the British and and indignation at the gratuitous on our faith; regret attack who believe no doubt that the vast numbers of Christians we feel are too sacred to be made the with us that conscientious opinions by the followers consider of attack creeds will subject of rival filly justified. There can be no doubt that important our protest have adopted against of Protestant enterprise agencies missionary Islam the device for the unity, of an artificial and pretended the chance of Protestant propaganda against purpose of increasing Islam. We are entitled, to ask, Oat is the 'menace' therefore,, The humble missionary of of which the Protestants are afraid? Islam, the accessories without of wealth and power at the back of immersed in absolute his simple faith to peoples others, carries them the teaches darkness;, them from pure heathenism, uplifts duties them into beings with a true conception of life, and turns to them the power, he preaches of the relation of God to man; the All-Seeing, who is not and love of God, the Omnipotent, glory, Who alone can give hapby hands, hternal, Who is the Creator made brotherhood to man; he teaches of mankind them the universal piness in the faith or race; of colour of Islam; making no distinction

them that Moslems are brothers, he tells andthat there are none he endeavours to turn them higher or lower in the faith Islam; of he society their lot in cast; into orderly in which members of the impresses on them the value of. human life and the rosporsibility of man to God; The letter the Bishop of Uganda published in the fi=r.e of of Saturday the 14th, shows exactly the spirit animates Christian which the bent on carrying into 'bennighted Africa' pastors who seem intolerance in Europe and Asia. 22 common

22.

that though the It is instructive 20th February 1914, p. 10. ibid, is put in 'benighted' in the final of this letter paragraph word itself talks about pagan Africans inverted commas, yet the letter that pagan Africans "imcersed in absolute darkness" and implies as If it is true that this letter did not know the "duties of life". by 'Iu.e ,Mohamed'Ali (see n. 23 ,below), it would was. solely drafted that his anger at Christian to contempt for pagan African seem-showculture more a stick to beat an opponent than a deeply held was conviction.

430.
This was apparently printed. It merely Fart of a longer letter, able, though all The Khwaja

is notable to olaim

that

Dune now felt

in company with

Kamel ud-Din, No-one, In fact, for this

to represent

the Islamic

community in dri tain. this claim.

Muslim or Christian, he was disposed letter. Writing

stepped forward Fhwaja }mal later, his

to contradict ud-Din he said little that

to give

of the credit the idea was the "letter gentleman whom

a few years colely

F. H. O'Donnell's, was afterwards I had induced letter helps till it

the execution circulated

own, and that

in India

uslim as the work of the A. with

to sign the communication appeared in print'. . 23

me, but who never saw the illustrates und perhaps

His pique

to explain Indeed, if

his dislike related

of Kamal ud-Din. organisations it with is clear Islamic that connotathe

to the various

tiono claim At this

with

which ho was by that

time connoted,

to speak for

the Muslim community was more than more rhetoric. in both the Islamic close Society and the Anglowith exile Egyptian

time he was active

Ottoman Society, Nationalist derided tuslins

and was developing

connections

circles;

however much a man euch as W.S. Blunt his religious a brother In this his religious idyllic situation beliefs, he was accepted

may lave by his fellow of their we may and even as we

and queried as'not only

Muslim but what is co=unity, position small,

more as a leader and therefore,

community in Britain. cuppoae, respected. inticate, This

Wa3 both acceptable however, to. lst;

was not,

23.

See-Dse Mohamed Ali,

Africa Pnd Orient

"Frank

Rugh O'Donnell,

of O'Donnell",

in

Review,

p. 6.

431. the Islamic actions,

shall

see, within

a few years

Society

was to split

bitterly, rather

though over Lute P.. ohamed Ali's than his religious orthodoxy. discussed

and perhaps personality,

The activities were primarily he was also

to far, But in

though having leading

political

implications,

religious. increasingly

the years

up to the Great gar political fortunes political,

ccnce)ned by the declining and here his activities implications.

of the Ottoman Empire; though not without was the Albanian issue

were primarily The first

religious Committee, Here,

auch dnvorlvement 1913

announced in the December 1912 - January the connecting thread wau Islam, for of

24 of the ATOR.

the areas
runlim

severed from Turkey by the Balkan Wars, only Albania

and it was in danger programre Serbia of of partition was to by its

had a

majority,

Christian indepen-

neighbours. dence the of (that is,

The Committee's from of Balkan Greece, the rights Christians. the

demand Albanian

and Montenegro), 1usliaa Of the

and more especially from the threats in the

safeguarding aggressive

and Jews there twenty naces

announced six

review to

as members of

Albanian with

Committee, Charles

no less

than

had or were colleague

have other

connections

him.

Romher was his

in the ATOR; 1)r. MacGregor Reid, (head of the All-India ; ". usliti

T. D. Pillans

and the Hon. Amir All contributors

League in London) were all

24.

Dus complained 'sup 1913, p. 185. AT R, December 1912 -January (press) silence 'obtains which to the time of writirw a ,conspiracy. of . This is, however, is. extremely mystifying. " - see. ibid, p. 106. Ben Kendffn. A Record of Faltern in Aubrey Herbert, contradicted Trgv 1,2nd ed., Hutchinson &, Co., London, n. d., p. 214.

432,
to the review. sentimental Turcophil The lion. Aubrey Herbert, with Albania)25 with M. P. (who had personal was subsequently Duse Mohamed Ali; to share while C. F. and

connections platforms

and committees with

Ryder was to join Nations. It

him in the League of Justice Committee was of little

of the Afro-Asian in itself.

The Albanian

importance

advocated the candidacy of Prince Ahmad Y'uad of Egypt for the Albanian 26 delegates of the three main Albanian throne, and received various

25.

Ben Kendim,

Part

IV,

struggles political work and difficultues

Aubrey Herbert (1880-1923) was the second son of that Earl of MinisCarnarvon who was Colonial Secretary under the Derby-Disraeli He travelled tries. in Albania but also in Anatolia, widely not only 'Iraq and Syria during the late Ottoman the semen, the Persian Gulf, indeed, much of his time in the vital years 1912-1913 was spent era; in and around Albania; he was a good linguist, speaking, among Turcophobe, he became a Originally other languages, Turkish. a (see op. cit., Turcophi]e after a youthful to Turkey pp. 24-48). visit for Yeovil, In 1911 he became Conservative Member of Parliament "Though his political and, in the words of his posthumous editor; he held almost interrupted for four years' fighting, career was with from the time he was elected until his death a unique position of to Near Eastern questions. He understood the intricacies regard Balkan politics, both Turkey and Albania trusted the rulers of and the experience He had, therefore, him as an unprejudiced friend. frequently being treated both as advocate and adviser by Turkey of Albania, he was listened to as an expert on Eastern affairs and and for this in Parliament. " - see op. cit., pp. v-vi., pote, editorial, biographical Despite his anonymous editor's details. and other Herbert gives, much more the judgement on his political sagacity, impression of being a man of action, of warm friendship capable but not at home in friends, loyalty to his acquaintances and and intrigue. For example, he accepted the popular belief political conspiracy in Turkey was a flasonic-Jewish that. the C. U. P. revolution (see op. cit., pp. 15-16) and found the Albanian Committee almost too to handle, (see op. cit., p. 213). much ATOIt, February-'. arch 1913, p. 235.

passim, on behalf of the

in travels tells of the author's of Albania; pp. 207-15 discusses Committee. Albanian

and the

26.

433.
com, unitiee, Herbert Muslim, and Greek Orthodox, in London, where 27 But the Comaittee, quite then to Lloyd George. Roman Catholic as a magnet for all aorta of Asians and even Africans of its chairman,

introduced noted

unexpectedly, living

in London, to the bemusement and even distress wrote;

who later

It was a The Albanian Committee passed through difficult times. fierce light Because some Albanians canoe negotiating rapids. 1ahom edsns from the Gold Coast and many were ! ahommedan, political Committee, parts of the world came to the meetings of the unfortunate taxed to the utmost the intelligence the Chairman. 28 of and IS this was a trial to Aubrey Herbert, It vas his first it must have been an eye opener to of a political the so-called to its pressure "political tanners,

Duse Mohamed All. group,

experience and Asians,

and the flocking

of Africans

Vahommedans" of which he himself can surely activities. of Kuhani ad Ali have appealed be regarded Further,

was a prime exempla, of his

as the detonator the advocacy

subsequent

political

Puad (vho as a descendant of Ahmed for the Albanian throne must

was of Albanian to his its

descent)

sense of Egyptian part his in creating social

patriotism. his political

Thus the Albanian circle connections in London. and ardent to waa-:

Committee played Further, Herbert, for

with

and political

enthuaiasm have made.

Albania

and Turkey,

was a most valuable

acquaintance colour

attachment -"Dusets

to the Committee shown that

27. 28.

Herbert,

op. cit.,

pp. 208-l1.

ibid, to protect himself against the throng of, p. 213. Ultimately, to him, um anted eupportera, he decided to have meetings only in to exclude "that public which came only to ezproea its private, ibid, irrelevant p. 214. grievances" -

434.
not the sole touchstone his 'eyr athtes, of an other an the Albanians could hardly,

by any yardstick, It in clear

be regarded that t!nslia

than white. strong feelings grf'at

the Balkan Wars of 1912-2913 aroused community in Britain, By 9th January

among the small

as among the world's

Fluslim'communities. branch of the All-India

1913, the committee

of the London

Muslim League was resolving;

1. That the Committee ... desire to express their amazement at the report that the great Powers, instead of urging the Balkan Allies to abandon their uncompromising attitude, propose to place pressure on Turkey to submit to the extreme demands of her adversaries. 2. That the Committee further desire to express their emphatic to a conclusion opinion that the proposed procedure for bringing the Balkan War would be tantamount to a violation of the neutrality trust that Euglard, proclaimed by the Powers, and they earnestly whose Empire includes a hundred millions of )ussulmans, will withhold her consent from a course of action which, whatever purpose it leave behind a legacy of lasting may serve for the present, will bitterness. 3. That the Committee, although' Hilly conscious of the fact that no the feelings of European word or warning from thew will alter peoples or the policy of their Governments, consider it their duty to place on record their sorrow at the sentiments of Christian Europe towards Islam and the East, evinced by its present attitude in the towards Turkey; an attitude amounting to co-operation of a Musaulman State with which it t. no quarrel. spoliation aa be forwarded to the 4. Resolved that copies of this resolution Right Honourable the Zeoretary. of State for. Foreign Affairs and to the public press. 29 This resolution
,...

reflected,

of course,

the reaction

of

the Xuslin

League's

29.

The rear

Fnat,, 17th January

1913, p. 302.

05"
parent limits growth 30 body in India* on the effectiveness of Turcophil Its realistic tone, recognising the likely. the

of euch resolution,

was not to deter

organisation

among Muslims in Britain

and their

sympathisers. It Turkish Turk) would be worthwhile events revolution Sultan on India to pause and briefly consider the impact of

from the Committee of Union and Progress though it should also

(Young

of 1908 onwards; Abdul faaid

be borne in movement

mind that to fasten via his

bad earlier

launched

the Pan-Islanio

international office

Eui 1tm sentiment to the cause of his shaky throne 31 The Italian invasion of Libya in 1911, as Khalifa. Balkan 'wars of 1912-1913, feelings were already agitated India's

followed Xuslicia British

by the disastrous at a time when their

by the annulment Turkey's

of the Partition sorrows,

the aroused against 32 Now, they not of l3engal. began to suspect to destroy - that all is, Christendom that was

only mourned for in general left

but also

and Britain

in particular force solo

of wishing

of Islam as an independent the world's

in the world remaining

to destroy 1M. uslim.

the Ottoman Empire,

major independent

30.

31.

32.

The growth of Turcophil in India prior to and during the feeling Great 'iar is well auxmarieed in Ram Gopal, Indian 11uslims. A Poli(16-58-1947), London 1959, pp. 121-135. Also see History tical Aziz Ialnm in Indfa, pp. 195-207; Wilfred Cantwell Cmith, N'. odern London 1967, PPModernism in Pakistan aid India, &hnad, Islamic ? for Pakiatann, 2nd Iohtiaq 131-149; Tho 3trutr'le Husain 4. ureshi,, Karachi 1969, pp. 36-511 and for an unashamedly Partisan )uslim ed., l"ovement, ir Political Jamil-ud-Din Ahmad; EnrIX hose Of ? account, Labore, n. d., pp. 78-86. There ie, unfortunately, no monograph study Muslims India's in };nglish on the effset, of Turkish misfortunes on the Great war, despite its from 1911 to the Xhilafat movement after in that period. history importance to Indian political crucial Cantwell Smith, op. cit., 195; Nikki IL Keddi, "The Pan Islamic p. Vol. 3. ? iddlo Eantorn studies, Appeal: Afghani and Abdtllhamid Ii", no. l, October 1966, pp. 46-67, passim. Ram Copal, op. cit., p. 122.

436.
pover. 33 The violently pro-Christian polemics of preesuregroups Press, such

as the Balkan Committee and of sections The TimP9,34 gave colour matic attacks norsimlly coapliande on Turkey, with to these fears, Greek,

of the British as did Britain's

including diplo-

apcrent

the Ititan,

Bulgarian.

Serbian

and Montenegrin still

and the continuing euzerainty.

British 35

occupation

of Egypt,

under the $ultan'a the Riddle

In particular, consciouenoss A highly

)u8lims

Class Rualim&'were

goaded into years

political earlier. developed;

Turks during

and activity.

as the Hindue had been forty Indian Muslin

political
boycotted

and pro-Turkish
ittian goodie,

press rapidly
for the

36

and collected

nosey

the Balkan Wars; by Indian figures

37

these funds

were personally were forged

delivered with

in Constantinople Turkish

Muslim leaders, 38

and links later

auch eminent

as Enver Pasha,

to be a famous Turkish

Mur hero during

33. 34.

ibid,

pp. 122-3,

Qureshi,

op. cit.,

p. 36.

to the"I3alkan For an example of- partisan British Turcophobe'attitudes for = 'dare, see Lt. -Colonel Sir Reginald Rankin (war correspondent London 1914. The Inner History of the Fn1kgn vier, 2 vole., Tires), in the The hero of this work is The T'irea special correspondent Balkans, J. D. bourchie r; who Rankin represents architect as the'real the downfall of Turkey in Macedonia of the 1912 Balkan Alliance and and Albania. Gopal, op. cit., pp. 122-3. pp. 196-7. p. 79. p. 131.

35.

/Ram 36. Cantwell

Smith;

op. cit.,

37. 38.

Janil-ud-Din ibid,

Ahhad, op. cit.,

'pp. 79-801

Aziz, Ahmad, 'op. cit.,

437.
the Great War. In London, the London branch step by urging Hindu Indian Indian of the All-India Muslim

League took an historic front the with the largely

Muslims to form a united Congress# till this time by

National in-India.

in expression

of nationalism at that

This was not accepted important

the parent as it

body in India

time,,

39

but is historically

anticipated

the Lucknow Pact between the Congress and the League Hindu Muelia unity over the Khilafat delighted moveat this called the Copies obtainable

in 1916,40 and the subsequent ment after the Great War. for 41

The Turks were naturally regime.

source of support ahan-i-Ialar express

their

In May 1914, a periodical in Constantinople against for

(Muslim World)

vas started up the Indiana

purpose of stirring way to India 42

the British.

found their

in considerable

numbers and were freely

in Lahore and Calcutta.

With'thia

background in mind, it

is easy to see that the Turcophil

of great in an" alien of a vast other significance land, for the

in London were linked movements British Empire. Though a tiny feel themselves

to events minority to be part but frommany solidarity

the' Turco philes

in London could

`and as movement, countries, Thus, ' their through

they came, not only" from India international sense of Islamic

t uslim

was heightened.

39"
40. 41.

Rm-0opa]., op. oit.,

ibids pp. 129-131=

p. 123. '
'Cantwell Smith. cit. ', p. 198. op. Cantwell Smith, pp. 198-246

Ram Gopal,, 'p-cit., passim. Ram Copal, op. oit.,

pp. 136-51, p. 125.

passim;

42.

438"
these movements, a mn like such figures brothers as the militantly Duse Mohamed Ali could Indian come into contact with the

Shaukat Ali 44

anti. -British 43 and 11uhaaaad Ali.

? luelion Leaguers,

Amir Ali,

Muslin League leader the ?

in London was by late

1912

43.

See Herbert, op. cit., p, 213 for the role of the Ali brothers in the these were the "Indian seditionista" Albanian Committee; very likely in keeping under control that he found Dune Mohamed Ali helpful 16th I4ay 1918, C. O. 554/40/21897; see Herbert to Sir William Bull, conversation with W. Stewart of the Foreign Office, and Herbert's 27th September 1919, F. O. 372/1274/135061. Amir Ali, born into a respected Muslim family of Persian descent in Bengal, educated at the Inner Temple and called to the Bar in 1873, Indian Yuslim leaders of the later C. 19. the most important was one of in 1877, and He formed the Central National Mohama. edan Association He retired became India's Muslim High Court Judge in 1900. second to England with his English wife in 1904, and in 1909 was made a Indian to be so honoured. the first of the Privy Council, member Mohammedan In many ways he was a conservative his National figure; but on the Association was strictly constitutional and "loyal"t Muslims to embrace western type education, other band, by'encouraging Muslim he was one of those who made the emergence of a more radical pp. 49-51. see Has Gopal, op. cit., middle class possible, Islamic proBut his most important work was`as a modern style in 1891 and subsehis SDirit first of Imo', pagandist; published in many editions, claimed the comquently re-published not only ideas, but went' liberal of Ism patibility with modern western' further and claimed that it embodied` them and was their highest pinnacle, possible expression - thus Islam raised women to a lofty to slavery, republican antipathetic was totally was fundamentally See Cantwell Smith, op. cit., pp-47-55 passim. and democratic. It is obvious that similar ideas are also to be found in Dune Mohamed Alt's the question ,is whether Was had read The Spirit writings, and of Ida am (and perhaps other of Amir Ali's voluminous writings) directly, or whether these ideas, -had come to him by some interIt is obvious that here, rather than in the Arabic mediary. we should of Muhammad 'Abduh and Jamal ud-Din al-Afghani, writings look for the source of 'modern' Islamic ideas in Duse's outlook.

44.

439.
already through in touch with other Islamophiles This ito and Turcophilee still (including Dus),

the Albanian

Committee.

somewhat amorphous group a pro-Turkish pro-Christian organisation and anti-

had by July

1913 begun to feel no doubt, which till

way towards

in England - mindful, Turk Balkan Committee, unopposed. noted that

of the violently

then had pursued its

propaganda virtually journal The boar East though its

On the 4th July moves were afoot was not clear Its first

1913, the authoritative to create whether a "Turkish a permanent

Committee", or merely

correspondent was intended.

ad hoc body Rosher held resolution

move wan to be an address exiles from Macedonia. also

by Charles

of the ATOR - on the Turkish Journalists at Hall,

The sleeting,

London, on 4th July, 3chaap,

put the following

which was seconded by Ellis

an ATQR contributor;

That this meeting. calls upon Her I4ajeoty's Government to suggest Commission, to to other Powers the formation of an International inquire-and. report upon the offences committed, without military ton of Moslem necessity, against the persona, property, and reli b) That thisand other non-combatant inhabitants. of. Macedonia. meeting is of opinion that the Moslem and other non-combatants who (c) That loss and injury have suffered should be indemnified. (following the precedent of the Treaty of Berlin), the Moslems and should others, who for various reasons must remain in racedonia, be. officially by the Balkan States, guaranteed their full rights they have become an a result the war, 45 whose subject. of Though Duse Mohamed Alin report them. of these moves, it is does- not appear in The Neer East'is name inconceivable that he was not a party in his to review,

Ali we have seen,, at the same time he was campaigning

45.

The Near Flat.

4th July

1913, p. 246.

...,

r,

440.
with which Sahaap and iioaher were both connected, he was much more than an inside the scenee, footing. in putting observer. on exactly these issues. the

In fact, lead,

He was taking protest

behind

the pro-Turk

movement on a towards the

much firmer organisation

His own account pro-Turkish

of his activities

of an effective

movement in London is as follows;

I visited the Turkish Embassy where Itaif Bey, the then Chancellor of 'Please Mohamed Bey, do what the Embassy, fell upon my neck crying; He immediately you can for us. ' ushered me into the presence of Tewfik Pasha, the Ambassador, to whom I outlined any plan for the We at once got in touch with the lion. Aubrey Herbert public meeting. I to my office, his active assistance who promised and, on returning found Harmaduke Piokthall awaiting me with an enquiry from Aubrey Herbert about the proposed meeting. We called up Caxton Hall, fixed the date of the meeting, and in to Lords Newton, Lemington, and the other prominent persons addition 46 their support. communicated with a host of others soliciting ... It may be wondered, after this, how much he should be regarded as an

of the Ottoman Embassy. agent very sensitive to=

This was a charge which he was later b carefully stated= intereet, 48

in his autobiography

Aa I have never been any men's hireling in matters of public that meeting was bo=ne by myself. 47 the entire cost of The meeting but before planned in Caxton Hall itself, it. duly took place

on 6th August 1913; about who

discussing role

the nesting

a little

more needs saying to Arthur descendent Field,

Auge Mobamed Ali'a was prominent

in organising

According

in both

the Ottoman Committee and its Robinson,

the Angioto the

Ottoman Society,

a Mrs. Margaret

who had seen bis

letter

46.

in Tom Cow, "Leaves from an Active Life", 4th December 1937, p. 7. The use of the title "Bey" in addressing Dune Mohamed Al!, if reported Bey ras, of course, a Turkish indicate correctly, would respect. but also was used more loosely as a respect term. title, The Cant, ibid. 8th August 1913, p. 38D. See The hear East,

47, 48.

441. Christian the editor retention

prows attacking communicate with support Turkey's

atrocities

in the Balkan bar,

urged him to a meeting to

of the ATORwho was organising of Adrianople;

FIr. Mohamed got together body of supporters, including a fire Lord Newton, Lord Movbray, Lord Lamirgton, the Bon. Aubrey Herbert (of the Tripoli M. P., Captain had Crescent Dixon-Johnson Hospitals] Hr. Hugh O'Donnell, Dr. Pillano, Mr. C. F. Ryder, and several of the Ellis to this Messrs. Schaap and journal including contributors Rosher. 49

Gladly I proffered to the able and single-minded ray assistance Egyptian, who by thirty years of residence in England has made his English friends themrespect his opinions and ideals and identify selves with his hopes and enthusiasms.

49.

Arthur Field, "The Ottoman Committee", in ATOR, fovember-December 1913, p. 165. Of the persons mentioned by Field as members of the Ottoman Committee, it is noticeable that at least two of the more Lords Newton and Lamington, were friends of Aubrey prominent, Herbert's see Herbert, op. cit., p. 77; and 213-4, in which he observes of Albanian Committee meetings "These meetings had their Once, brighter side, especially when Lord Newton attended them. he Government that he disliked, the Liberal when he was criticising 'Sir Eduard Grey, ' said he, 'is made a characteristic epigram. He He is above criticism. life. a phenomenon in our national is something between the lava of first-class cricket and the Ten Coamandmenta. '" Up to 1914, Lord Newton's public career was confined to a in the diplomatic from 1860-86, and as a Conservative spell service Retrosi>eo tion (London His autobiography, P. from 1886 to 1899. M. indicates the low place Turkey held 1941), based on his diaries, it makes no mention of the Ottoman Committee, in his priorities= but includes Ottoman Association, Tuch or Anglo-Ottoman Society, his presence with Aubrey Herbert at the epic Carpentierdetails as in London on July 16th 1914; also see Z; 1 Gunboat Smith fight London 1959. 1941-1 Lord Lamington was a more weighty figure than this witty He was a friend of Lord Curzon, with whom he bad epigramitist. Subbeen at Oxford, and was Governor of Bombay from 1903-1907. he often spoke in the Lords on the claims of minorities sequentlf, the main interest of his life was the and "... and small rations, Empire, and the advocacy of a good underof the British welfare government and eastern peoples. " standing between the British Curzon in India, vol. 2, D. Dilka, see D.! x. B. 1931-40, pp. 30-33; London 1970, pp-148 & 171-2. Though euch figures no doubt helped the Turcophil movement by for either the British and difficult making it respectable, or Indian governments to be overtly hostile to it, yet they were figures. To Herbert, the cause of Turkey essentially establishment and landowner, admired the `was =a. romance - he, as an aristocrat ." the'. Turkish soldier, loyalty of but could contemplate` courage and in the- 'Persian Gulf the, British of Ottoman territory acquisition. blessing for` all concerned Iraq as an- unmitigated and; -. see`Herbert' cit., As,,, for- Laming ton, : Wilf red..: oawen.;blunt; ' one' of op. pp. 83-4. ,the few Eng1is i Islamophiles who was an authentic anti-imperialist rather than a more sentimentalist, He regarded him as useless. wrote,, of a meeting on the Italo-Turkish, War; "Lamington, in the,.. Chair, made an unmeaning speech,: excusing the Italians and excusing Grey,, and exhorting all men:.to moderation;. till the'meeting. rose .. against him. T ... . -'I was `called -for, and rose, =_ Lamington trying . -; to stop me, but I persis ted, anl, pointed out`the, usslessness of', ' relying upon mediation and the Gar-can Expire,, and, that if the ward: was to stopped it must be by England,, alone. : "... Nestings,. _be of this sort, unless', they are indignation meetings, do loas`than no good" ; 'It = was `absurd' to hold this one under a man like' Leaington, a more wilt blinket'" Blunt' .fly Diaries '" entry for. 4th, Ostober 1911, p. 78. ,

442.
Thus, Field's account corroborates contact Duse Mohamed Alitsi with the Turkish in getting it also implicitly since with it

confirms states official for using

Duse Mohamed Alt's that after the in meeting

Embassy, in have

he gave "help 50 There that would

touch'

opinion his

Turkey offices,

.. in

hardly if

been any reason already made. to

good

respect, Nevertheless, were

he had not it is still

some official exercise when the each other

Turkish

contacts.

necessary same side

some caution, Ottoman in the

as he and Field split, of

partisans factions

on the

Committee columns

and the

rival 51

were sniping

at

The Hear East.

On 6th August
and it Aubrey is clear

19130 however,
as meetings

these difficulties
go, the Adrianople

were still
meeting

far

off,

that, -a tory

was a success. above, and

Herbert

M. P. -. took

the

chair,

as recounted

the meeting establishment

was graced with to give an air

a sufficient of solidity,

of members of the British number together with a sufficient an air of number

of men who knew something expertise. sympathisers".

the Ottoman Empire to give about attenders that were described

The rank and file The major

as "Moslems and proposed by

resolution

emerged from it, was;

C. P. Ryder and seconded by ! armaduke Pickthall,

That this meeting expresses its deep sympathy with the undeserved that have befallen the Ottoman Empire, and protests calamities troops, and thereagainst the massacre of Eoslems by the Bulgarian to see fore appeals to Sir Edward'Grey to use his great influence

50. 51.

ATOR, November-December 1915, p. 185. See letters from Arthur Field in The Near East, 22nd t: ay 1914, p. 75, and 5th June 1914, pp. 144-5" and from William H. Seed in ibid, 29th May 1914, p. 108.

443. that the same principle is applied to the Turkish occupation of Thrace as that which is applied to the Balkan occupation of Macedonia, so that those territories at present occupied by Turkey, and whose inhabitants Moslem, shall remain under Turkish are predominantly

52 rule .

Had this
worth

been the only

outcome of the meeting,

even have in'a study of

it

would have hardly

been
Protest

more than of this

a footnote, sort often

Duse Mohamed Ali. on events than to

meetings in their

no more effect

excite

participatoro unkindly at

a false observed Hall

sense in

of achievement diary

and self-consequence. addressed meetings and by are

Aa W.S. Blunt Muhammad Parid entirely

his

of a meeting "These young

Caxton the

a few years

earlier; of

useless,

audience

made up mostly

Indiana

enthusiastic So it participants as to its

middle-aged must be asked, not only consequences.

ladies.

53' meeting "entirely useless"? The chief claims

was this

did not think According

so, but even made the widest to Arthur Field;

The meeting was a great success, and contributed not only to a change to the of public opinion in England towards a view more friendly Turk, but a stiffening sentiment in Constantinople. of official for the Turk. Vany aiall that they saved Adrianople coteries claim If any such claim could be made by any one person, no one would be better justified in making it than Luse !! ohamed, the organiser of the meeting of August 6th at Caxton Ha11.54

52.

8th August 1913, p"388. ibid, Abdul Maid proposed and Duce Mohamed Ali seconded that this resolution should be forwarded to Sir E. Grey, the European Foreign Ministries Asquith, the Turkish Government. and Bluat, op. cit., entry for 28th June 19101, p. 727. =0 November-December 1913, ,
S

53" 54.

Arthur Field, p. 15.

"The Ottoman Cosmittee"o

444"
Not surprisingly, Dume lohamed Ali 55 Obviously, quoted Arthur as it stands Field's it flattering remark

in his autobiography. seriously. Adrianople erstwhile It

cannot be taken retention and their of

ignores

the major factors

in the Turkish

and Thrace - the quarrel allies, and the resilience, which was later leaderahip.

between the Bulgarians under disaster, to be demonstrated Yet there remains

of the Turkish on a far grander that

people themselves, scale under Ataturk's

a possibility

the Adrianople Ministry to Turkey. the presence

meeting was a factor supposing that

in influencing' in Britain

the Turkish

Foreign back with

towards

sentiment

was swinging together

Herbert

was a well-connected

? P., and this I. Constantinople

of several weight

peers may have given than the meeting

the impression This would of British Trade Caxton'

of more political

really

possessed.

depend on the accuracy political society, Hall that life,

of Turkish

knowledge of the realities the days of the Anti-Slave meeting fail,

in which,

ever cincs

the pressure counted

group and public for less

had 'been a part. but it for

clearly

than Exeter it

is conceivable But a search resources

to the Ottoman Foreign a definitive

Ministry on this

counted

sorething.

clearly,

decision Office

problem would require

of Ottoman Foreign or abilities

documents -a of this

task beyond the present 56

of the writer

thesis.

55. 56.

"Leaves from an Active

Life",

in The Comet. 4th December 1937, p. 7.

The difficulty documents is formidable, of using Ottoman official . language, written since the Ottomans used a special administrative in Arabic script, but consisting of a compound of Ottoman Turkish, Persian and Arabic; thus, use of these documents requires maatary all three of the Uddle East's main languages.

of

445.
Fortunately, this meeting. there'is less it speculative' evidence of' other effects of

To begin with, political who after

was the cause 'of the subsequent between Duse Mohamed Ali for sympathisers

friend-

ship and close Hugh O'Donnell,

co-operation the request

and Frank Dugs,

to contact

"was one of the first letter. mittee, Ottomn role "57 Without

to send in his doubt, it

neme accompanied by a most sympathetic of the Ottoman ComSociety and what

led to the formation (and rival)

the parent Association.

of the later

Anglo-Ottoman

fitere, the only creation. that brief is,

argument is over who played was admitted

in the Committee's

One thing that

by both sides

and ie beyond question= Committee throughout itself Ali. argues that its

the headquarters was 158 Fleet was played

of the Ottoman Street# which in

existence role

no inconsiderable

by Dune Mohamed of the Ottoman

This much can be derived faction. William 58

even from the polemics

Association Secretary,

From the same pen, that

of the Association's

H. Seed, came the sneering

remark that;

I note with interest that he founded the Ottoman Pr. Field's claim Committee. I an far from wishing to dispute his claiz3, but I understood Mr. Dune Mohamed also considered himself its founder, and the same claim is made by a lady, who is a member of the Ottoman Association, divided, ' Perhaps the honours are4qually as they generally are in such cases. 59

57.

Dune Mohamed Ali,. March 1920, p. 6.

"Frank-Hugh

O'Donnell,

of O'Donnelx',

in

0.,

58.

Letter from William H. Seed, Secretary, in the Ottoman Association, The Near East. 29th-May 1914. makes it clear that even the fatal meeting which led to the rupture in the Ottomn Committee, and from leaving Seed and E. N. Bennett which Field and Duse withdrew in disgust, to take over control as joint secretaries, was held at 158 Fleet Street.

59.

ibid.

446.

This,

at least

by iiaplication,

concedes Dune Mohamed Ali to ridicule him and Field Field

a leading

role,

though clearly sension

in terms designed

and vow dis"I would and

between them.

The manoeuvre failed. on distinguishing

replied,

be unwilling

to spend time

the claims

of myself

Mr. Duet Mohamed to be the founder the first to propose its

of the Ottoman Cormittee. to organise

I was the proposal. "

Mr. Mohamed the first with

This was written

in what he had written 60 It is clear, the AjOR at the end of 1913, the time of the eplit. in June 1914, but accords then, that Dues Pohaved Ali he provided Turkish played a major role corrittee in organising and secretarial the Ottoman work, and

Committees contact with

promises

for

officials. was formally announced as in eziatence in fie,

The Ottoman Coaaittee

Nar Faat of 12th September 1913, under the preoidenoy Segravo and ltourton,, respectable figure-head. who with 61 his Its nultiplicitly d'etre

of Lord ftowbray. titles was a

of ancient was stated it

raison

as "Following that an was

the succeaeftil

exertions

of the Balkan Connittee, be formed in. 1ngland. "62 committee

was logical

Ottoman Committee should not only elected

Dune Mobaned Ali foreigners

to an advisory

of representative

60.

in ATOR, November-Decomber 1913, p. 165, with cf. F'ield's article letter in The ? ear lash, 5th June 1914, p. 144.

his

61.

dated from the thirteenth Two of,, Lord Mowbray's three titles century, he was the Premier Baron the third from the fifteenth and century, 2nd ed., 1967, p"978 and Who, Vol. III, of England: see who Was Deb t, 1970 ed., p. 799. The Near Fast, 12th September 1913, p"537.

62.

447.
in England, but also made one of three that, despite his members of the finance later disclaimer 63 commit too &

Here we may speculate biography, or other at that his role Turkish time, it

in his auto-

was to dispense

funds

provided

by the Ottoman Embassy financial position for op*nly

sources.

Considering

his other

own parlous

in hard to see in mat But this would necessarily

way he was qualified

such a post. proclaimed,

have been clandestine; funds

any such distribution

of Turkish

hin and the Committee and embarrassed In its brief existence, which

would have compromised 64 the Ottoman Covernment. in December 1913, the but provide
its only

terminated

Ottoman Committee seems to have done little

rancorous the quarrels among its and publication members. of

grounds
solid

for
act aas by

Perhaps

translation

the work

"Turquie

Agoniaante"65

63. 64"

Field,

"The Ottoman Committee",

ATOR, November-December 1913, p. 185.

Accusations Turkish financial made from time to time of support were even against the Ottoman Association, which was the more respectable, ''moderate', the two fragments into which the even establishment of : chaap called Ottoman Committee split. A. C. M., Ellis first At"its to an article in the muck-raking magazine Truth, suggesting attention that the Ottoman Government had provided the Association with 300; this was denied by B. N. Bennett. The ast. 31st July 1914, p. 453" see Pierre Loti, Turkey in Agony, trans. Bedwin :.ands (George . Riffalovich), for the Ottoman Committee, London, by the African Times and Orient pub. the Review Ltd., London 1913. The translator's preface, ignoring fired a shot in the under which the book was published, auspices "It has been considered battle for control of the Committee, saying; in that only Englishmen and British residing advantageous subjects the United Kingdom should serve on the Committee, since the main the British the founders gras that of the education-of purpose of this was written public in Ottoman nattors. " - see op. cit., p. 8; in September 1913, that is when the formal organisation of the Comwas present from and shows that division was in its infancy, mittee the very beginning.

65.

448.

the ominent was George

French author Raffalovich,

and Turcophil,

Pierre

Loti.

The translator of

a member of the Ottoman Committee and later and the book wau published gave their
Committoe's

the Ottoman Association, the ATOR.

proceeds was said of

for

the Committee by and the

of publication

Loti
sales

and Raffalovich
went to the

services
funds.

free,
The cost his

by William

H. Seed to

have been met by one of

faction,

Captain this

Dixon-Johnson,

but Arthur is

Field

credited

Duse Mohamed All

with

benefaction. 66

The truth

impossible,

on the evidence

available,

to tell.

The profits

on sales

wont to the Committee. of Turkey in as India, away government,. Office; Agony, these were where they attracted and

As to the effects considerable. the attention requested

of the publication as far

Copies circulated of its security

conscious from,

which informed,

further

information

the India

The Bombay Government has recently brought to notice the importation 'Turkey in Agora ' being a translation of a book entitled of a work by Pierre Loti (Turquio Agonisante and published for the Ottoman Committee by the African Times and Orient Review Ltd., 158 Fleet St., London. The local Government desired action to be taken under the Sea Customs Act against the work, but the Government of India have docided. to refrain from doing so, looking to the eminence of the the auspisces under which the' translation author, was produced, and the fact that it seems inexpedient, to revive the bitter memories of the Balkan War, which have to. some extent subsided, by bringing into prominence stories of atrocities and the like.

66.

For the various conflicting of Turkel In claims on the publication Agony, see "Leaves from an Active Life", in The C, t. 4th December 1914, p. 14; Wm. H. Seed, letter to The tear East, 29th May 1914, letter to ibid, 22nd May 1914, p. 75. p. 108; Arthur Field,

449.
2. At the same time the circulation of the book in India will that it will probably do a certain amount of harm and it is likely be quoted from in the ):uhamxeden Press. is to be This result regretted, of the Comand I am to suggest that if the activities mittee in this direction could be checked It might be advantageous. The book contains various attacks on Her Majesty's Government N. g. at pages 175 and 179) and the whole trend of its criticism . 67 is against Europe and Christianity. This document also made a puzzled request for information it on the relations and the

between the Ottoman Committee, Ottoman Association, of these particular Office to the Foreign or requests

on whose behalf

was published, for

who apparently copies. Office,

were responsible

the distribution

This request

was passed on by the India refused to make direct that;

which however,

enquiries

to the London Turcophiles,

on the grounds

we have no means of it advisable to ... can incur a certain be trusted to exact Apart from publishing with

the 'Committee's' nor is activitieo, checking these bodies anything as a favour, as we ask to them thereby, for which they can obligation 68 payment. contact was established In the Novemberby

Tur ey in Agony, direct Turkish

the Co=i ttee December issue

bodies and individuals. Baid;

of the ALOR Field

The Committee is in direct communication with the Committee Of ?ational Defence in Constantinople, to the and the heir-apparent The Ottoman throne has expressed his approbation of our efforts. Press of Turkey to the Ottoman Comreferred as repeatedly ... mittee and its work. '9

67.

Govto of India, Home Dept. Simla, 28th ? 4ay 1914, to India Office, India Office, to G. K. Clark, Foreign Office, enclosed in A. Hirtzel,, 17th June 1914, F. O. 371/2135/27468. confidential, Minute by G. R. Clerk, F. ., see F. O. 371/2135/27468. Arthur Field, 1913, p. 185. 23rd June 1914, approved by Sir E. Grey -

68.

69.

"The Ottoman Committee",

ATOR, November-December

450.
The quarrel matter, hardly within worth the Ottoman Committee would be merely a tedious were it not that, firstly, principle there was

re-telling, point

from Dust Mohamed Ali's and secondly, pressure group, the faction

of view an important

at stakef well-conducted

he belonged

to became a cohesive, throughout

which was kept in being

the Great War, and re-

emerged as a defender Treaties. structure As early

of the Ottoman cause in the era of the Peace as October 1913 there leaders were coves for changes in the

of the Committee icy future

of the Ottoman Association. This group, according Executive to

These moves came to a head in December 1913. Arthur Field, was headed by E. N. Bennett, on 11th December;

und hold a scratch

Committee meeting

they called

a General Meeting for of the Chairman's this casting

15th December at which, vote,

counter

by the narrow majority 70 Naturally,

General

sweeping changes were rtade.

charges as to whether this

led to charges and

conducted

Meeting

was properly

and constituted. proposed,

What is

important

is to note the nature own spokesman;

of the changes

as explained

by the Association's

A resolution the organisation and appointing was passed reconstituting changing was also carried a now executive, resolution and a further "... we aim at forming an the name to the 'Ottoman Association'. organisation of people who have special knowledge of Turkey, and
Turkish. in other ways, with rattere by trade, are connected who or The Anglo-Ottoman Society to create movement a popular endeavours is resThe Ottoman Association and welcomes anybody an members. that tricted to British of European descent, as we believe subjects body, command more we can, by forming and influential a more select in quarters Turkey is largely British regarding respect where policy does For good or ill, decided. the man-in-the-street we fear that decide the present day. 71 these matters not at

70. 71.

See note 51 above. See note 51 above.

451.
This office, To begin particular of of the racial coup (for euch it have the clearly was), effected to in Dus Mohamed Ali's more than was surely on

must with,

been gall decision hirz elf,

and brimstone on racial

him in

one way. aimed in

exclusiveness only active the

against original

as he was the 72

non-European principle but

member

Ottoman

Committee. must have

Secondly# only such

introduced also disEmpire type

exclusiveness he must enemies. knowing infuriating of the

been not with

obnoxious friends voice the of

illusioning hardly

have felt This what

that was the

Ottoman }:all

needed

authentic for lesser

Exeter ant Next,

humanitarianism, thereto with

was beat

breeds,

"do-gooding" the the social more

paternalistic Ottoman Association

condescension. would have

exclusiveness

been all

galling, talented himself street that,

as Duse had no objection minority, 73 but like all

to this

in principle,

believing;

in the

such stratifiers,

no doubt assuming the can in the it is possible the

to be in the upper bracket. would have been gravely with its offensive

To be ranked with to him. business

Finally,

emphasis on those with might well

interests

in Turkey,

Ottoman Association tion of British

have seemed to him as an embryo organisabent on exploiting point, of view, with a non-European by Arthur himself Field, country. the acting

Capitalists,

The day wan saved, Secretary Executive

from his

of the Ottoman Committee, member of the defunct

together

and one other Through

Ottoman Committee,

George Palmer.

72.

No other Africans or Asians are mentioned life. brief of the Ottoman Com ittee's

in any of the cited

accounts

73.

See note 15 above.

452.
the columns of the TOR they proclaimed;

They place before the friends of Turkey an It on the old work with the old methods. Ottonan Society. The Anglo-Ottoman ... tional defending the interests organisation It in open to all men and the Caliphate. 74 Unction creed and race. of politics, Bearing sentence in mind the constitution was an explicit Field invitation, took the post

to carry organisation the Anglois entitled Society is an internaof the Ottoman Empire and women without disthe last In the despite

of the Ottoman Association, not an empty pious of Secretary,

formula.

the new Society treasurer, post of the accusations lost

Luse uohared Ali 75 But,

and George Palmer that of the Association,, they retained this

of orgsniser.

was no more rump. if probably

Though they nominal

Lord Lomini; ton,

the prestigious

services

of Lord Powbray, who indeed held that and ought to have retained the best that neither faction

the Society the original tried

Ottoman Committee, doubt action it was for

was the original 76 So name. - such an and cause

to dothia

would no doubt have led to yet more bitter action, which would have ruined

recriminatiors the pro-Turkish

perhaps even court in Britain.

74.

in LLO?, ! ovemberby Duce Mohazed All. and Arthur Field, See article Deceeber 1913, p. 184; this also contains an angry and confused account of the recent meeting of the Ottoman Coznitteu which they had walked out of. ibid. President President, "Lord )Towbray and 3tourton, the original remained of the Anglo-Ottoman Society, " and "was always of opinion that the Resolution of December, 1913, should have been ignored and our work from Arthur Field the Ottoman Committee. " - see letter continued as

75. 76.

in The Yea East. 5th June 1914, p. 144.

453.
The next great hurdle for the Anglo-Ottoman Society ras the entry

of Turkey into foreseen

the Great War as one of the Central it happened. let,

Powers - an event remarkably, in the few the it

by most even before

months between the Society's war, it managed to establish supporters

foundation itself

and the entry basis.

of Turkey into In Britain, Thus its

on a firm

secured sufficient

of the right

calibre.

executive Field;

in June 1914 included, Marmaduke Pickthall;

Ahnadi Societe editor 4uilliam convert and the

additionally

to Duse Mohamed Ali Adolphe 6mith;

of a London Sciences Miss to at

and krthur Henri

Douglas Fox Pitt;

leading light

Leon, an
called J. the 1'rolooker,

organisation Beaux-Arts; Ellison; voluminous

Internationale of the Bey, journal Liverpool

de Philologie, The Anclo-Russian; )erchant,

Grace

He Ahimd writer

convert

Islam,

on his

religion,

and President already

of Leon's

Societe

Internationale

do

Philologie; Committee, and Louis 77.

C. F. Ryder, and associate Willa* 77

mentioned

as a member of the Albanian in the League of Justice; was Frank Hugh members

of Duse I4ohamed Ali's and active

Among prominent

ATOR, 15th June 1914, p. 309. Some of this very mixed bag of AngloThus, 4uilliam Ottoman Society Officers of real interest. were men by Abdul Hamid II during the Bey had been awarded his Turkish title Pan-Islamic latter's the author of many books in -phase, and was English on Islam. Prelooker was the son of a pious rabbinical family in Pinsk. From childhood he had, to the horror of his family, Educated i. e. Russian - leaning. in "Christian" taken an interest in Government schools, he had been appointed by the Czarist authorities young ran to a post at a Jewish school in Odessa. There he as a doctrines aimed outraged the Jewish community by preaching heretical At first Judaism and Christianity. encouraged the reconciliation of at by the authorities, they later decided that he was a dangorous figure. to such in and sympathetic himself, A sectarian he became interested Russian sects no the Doukhobora, which were (among other things) aotial for He also became a fighter of the peasants. protest movements to the oppressed Turkish population women's rights, and sympathetic
Not surprisingly, Caucasian he soon found of Russia's provinces. the auf horitie: in grave trouble himself with s, and in 1892 emigrated the toured to Britain, and ran The Anrlo-i'useian, where to foinded tours, the English country supported on lecture suffragette movement, See his autobiography, the Turcophil movements. and supported Under the Czar and Queen Victoria, London 1896, passim, and his Russian Flashlights with a biographical sketch of the author ... by Helen Frank, translated from the Italian London 1911.

454.
O'Donnell. appellation 78 usually referred to in Dusian circles or even The O'Donnell unbalanced, scanner. he still by the more imposing of O'Donnell. Though

of The O'Donnell,

now old and perhaps a little vitriolic

tho Lahore

commanded an able and editor of

pen and platform

newspaper On at chaired

Another
Zafar Ali

was the Indian

Khan. 79

The Zarindar. least

A third the

was lhwaja

Kamal ud-Din. meetings being

one occasion T. Miller the all

wo find Y, aguire,

one of 80 author

Society's

by Dr. Nor did of

of many books pore bizarre would League any

on war and strategy. supporters not for be too

movement fail

to attract

(a common fate unfair to class

protest Fleming

movements), Williams those of

among whom it the Free Church join

Rev.

Women Suffrage,

who was perhaps

one of

men who will

73. 79.

ATOR, 15th June 1914, P-309. See Cantwell Smith, op. cit., to The 2-Windar as p. 196, which refers one of "four periodicals which appeared at this time and to which Muslims subscribed in great numbers. " "... the He continues: ZF. Lahore, (was) edited by a born rebel, Zafar Ali Khan. mindar of had He was profoundly his vigorous agitations anti-British, and Ile wan issuing 20,000 copies of his paper twice large influence. for the for the vernacular a day - an unheard of circulation press; first time the J'uslims of North India were awakening to a newsThey eagerly drank in the consciousness, and awakening mightily. then. " indar offered seditious propaganda that the Zam_,,,
1914, p. 122. ATOR, 28th April Among those present meeting at this Lurham, one of those single English ladies of the was Miss Edith formidable faraway period who "adopted" peoples and Cade themselves in their 'Her' on propagandists people were the Albanians, cause. books; - see M. E. Durrham, The Struggle or whom she wrote several 'the Balkans, London 1914; iui, London 1905; the Burden of London 1920. A1b___rnia, London 1909; Twenty Years of Et4ann Tangle,

80.

455.
protest active movement to hand. membership, 81 What is clear interlocking is that group, the executive, and in relation him too, either and to as

were a closely nearly all

Luse )ohamed Ali contributors of 4uiiiian Pickthail,

had other (even if

connect! one with

to his

review

only as an, advertiser,

as in the case

Bey) or in other had been acquainted

organisations. with hin for

Some, such as Marmaduke come years. was far stronger in respectable orientalist

By comparison, establishment Professor 'Professor' (Herbert Caster. tions names.

the Ottoman Association 82 It could boast

two peers;; catch

the eminent

E. G. Browne (clearly Leon); and Walter

a better

than the rather

dubious both Hone. Rev. Eosea protestabetween of both. 83

a Lt. -Genoral= Guineas);

two N: ecber3 of Parliament, Chief Rabbi,

and the Sephardic and Louis Wills

!. armaduke Picktball of mutual friendship

took at face value

that

usually

preceeded recriminations

the rival

Turcophil

organisations,

and were on the executives

81.

To be fair to the Rev. Williams, he may the Society by the support of his follow J. Prelooker. But it is still rights, have had any vital concern for the fate the, Caliphate:

to have been attracted well for women's male fighter hard to imagine that he can of the Ottoman Empire and

82.

See letter from F. H. O'Donnell, ATOP,, 9th June 1914, pp. 285-6, which list executive of the members of the Ottoman Association gives a full (19 names in all) committee as a stick to-beat the Association's O'Donnell alleged feebleness; of the Association's recent activities, "... of so remarked; a very weak way to express the indignation Here strong a committee upon a scandal so woak and so abominable. "O'Donnell was taking on his preferred role of abusive controversialist. cf. ibid with the list of rembers of the Anglo-Ottoaan in ibid, 15th June 1914, p. 309. executive Society's

83.

456.
Despite be noted British highly the that greater the social weight of the Ottoman Association@ 'unlit it should element, as more through

Anglo-Ottonen

Society for

had a substantial that reacon fact that

and non-britiah, motivated the war, of its

and could

be regarded it continued the

and activist. unlike the

The very Association,

and after strength

demonstrates

greater

members'

convictions.

The Anglo-Ottoman
it should be remembered was the

Society
that

forged
there is

close

links

with
to

Turkey,

and here
that Dune

good reason original all

suppose of

Mohamed Ali in tion this of

Turcophil

movement's that

channel

communication

direction the Society

and to

remember

correspondence the 158 Fleet

and administraStreet Office.

was conducted

through

His services

to the Ottoman cause were rewarded, though the evidence

he claimed,

by decoration, on this point. 84

the Order of Y. ejidieh, 84.

is not conclusive

Mohamed All., T3ey. This alone would dove little, as few peoples than the Torubas, can be more fond of honorifico and as an old man in His obituary he would have been automatically respect. granted The Daily Co 'et. 27th June 1945, p. 4, says; "In 1892, for services Abdul Hamid Sultan to Islam, he was decorated by the late rendered thus Ottoman ! ajidie, of Turkey, with the order of the Imperial there is no the civil title earning of 'Bey'. " This is puzzling; in his autobiography or elsewhere at that evidence of any activity Indeed, it reads like time that could have earned hin this reward. mixturo of his own case with that of the Lagos :uslim, a garbled If Duse Shitta Bey, who was so rewarded leader, by Abdul ;; amid. Mohamed Ali 'did receive Turkish it must have been at decoration, a those years. during some time between 1913 and 1921, for his services

In Lagos between 1931 and 1945 he was often

referred

to as Dose

The only reference in his own writings to this decoration comes in his article "The Editor Abroad", AO_t, September 1920, p. 14. In this he says; "The Colonel spoke again this morning. ... He inquired I informed hin that it button was the Legion of Honour. whether my We were silent, he continued his promenade. " the Mejideah. was and Presumably the good Colonel had either never heard of this decoration late eneries. or disapproved of it as coming from one of Britain's It could be that L`use's failure in his autoto mention his decoration biography could have stemmed from a reluctance himself to identify as a former Pan-Islamists

457.
however, persistent his services to the Ottoman causa were certainly a reward, and the bestowal point faithful and

enough to merit virtue,

of a decoration of view, of costing Turkish

would have the great nothing. connections at the tics

from the Turkish body of firm

There is a fair and at least

evidence approval.

of the Society's

semi-official in favour

The Ottoman Grand Vizier

was an Anglophile

which made open official of the Chaplain Caxton Ball

approval

of a rapprochement with Britain, 85 impossible. But wo find the presence ud-Din, at a

to the Ottoman Fmbassy, Imam Chazi Khair addressed by O'Donnell in Islamic on 2nd April Countries". alcohol 86

meeting

1914 or. "The (The speech vice in

Abuses of European Civilization was a violent East. ) the attack

on Europeans spreading Patriotic

and sexual

In March 1914 a Turkish sent the Society

organisation,

the National

Defence League,

the following

acknowledgement;

the disinterested The National Defence League Sincerely Appreciato in work which is beint done by your Society and other well-wishers England, and trusts that it will of throwing have the desired effect for Turkey. e the weight of British influence on the side of justice

85.

See Feroz Ahaad, "Great Britain's Relations 1904-1914", fdle t, aatern Vol. 2, Studies, on tho abortive pro-British and pro-Entente

the Young Turks with 4" July 1966, pp. 323-5# no. of Turkey on policy

the eve of the Great war. 86. 87. ATOR, 14th April ibid, 21st April 1914, pp. 92-4. 1914, p"100.

458.
A sister tion this the of body was formed Constantinople. passed, for its of in the in At Constantinople the first the the of British its Ottoman executive a resolution of Ottoman Associaconiittee thanking interests" "au

meeting

body Society

name of

Ottoman

people, in defence It

"disinterested Justice for work.

efforts Turkey". Since

and "in courant" His

the with

cause the

requested President ex Grand Ari bey, Faculty 88 it will

to be kept of this

Society's Chaci

the Pasha,

body was and its of the

Highness

Marshal His

Ahead fukhtar Jalal Professor then

Vizier,

Secretary-General Law Society private this legal sister

Excellency

ud-Din at

President of

of Constantinople, adviser body in that the to the

the

Law, and be seen that

Grand Vizier, had the Society slow the

Constantinople Anglo-Ottoman was not with Turkey,

social rather of

tone lacked

and important in London.

connections

The Anglo-Ottoman supporters to link to this with Faris in overt its

Society arguments from in

to boast

these

impressive 89 In addition a went

Ottoman

Association.

support

the Its

Anglo-Ottorran corn ittoe found Society.

society

forged Prelooker

Turcophiles in January

France.

member J.

1914 and there with terms the is

helped English

a Franco-Ottoman 90 flow far this

League, over

which

was to in

co-operate practical these

developed

not

cloar. :, ociety had come checks in its

Yet despite

successes,

the

policy

of expanding

contacts

outside

England.

early

in 1914, it

attempted

68. 89. 90.

ibid. Arthur Field, letter Iyear to The East, 5th June 1914, pp. 144-5"

ATOR, 26th April

1914, pp. 125-6"

459.
to persuade the society. the Grand This Vizier himself to become a Vice-President a statesman event the who was British to report of

was a forlorn policy, Sir

hope from and in Louis

co=itted Ambassador to Sir

to an Anglophile in Constantinople, Grey;

the

Mallet,

was able

Edward

The Grand Vizier told ne to-day that he had declined to become (sic) the Anglo-Ottoman because he did Association a member of himsolf not wish to identify with any particular Group or Party in Great Britain, case, however wellespecially as in this (sic) intentioned towards the Ottoman Empire, the Association to Her Majesty's Government. seemed to be hostile In spite that bad recently happened he felt of all confident that you, Sir, towards the by hostile sentiments were not inspired Ottoman Empire and he relied of upon the goodwill and friendship Her Piajesty's Covernnent. I replied that His Highness had, in my in his opinion, come to a most wise decision and that he was right 91 estimate of your sentiments and intentions.

This decision deoieion

by the Grand Vizier

confirmed another Society,

of the

the For ign Office official,

in its

to step in and prevent by the Anglo-Ottoman

Claude in the J.

Turkish

who had been a Vice-Presidency.

then in serving

approached
This

from accepting
Coldstream at

was Lt. Col.

Hawker

Guards,

as Yajor-Ceneral Turkey. to the

Turkish

Gendarmerie by the

Trebizonde Hawker,

Eastern

When first Turkish

approached to

Society the fruits

who had been lent in Eastern Turkey

Government one of Ware, the 92

reorganise

Gendarmerie

and represented after the Balkan

few meagre

of Anglo-Turkish to accept the

detente honour.

was naively

eager

proffered

91.

Sir L. Fallet, British Embassy. Pera, to Sir Z4ward Grey, F'. 0., 3rd March 1914, P. O. 371/2127/10316. It will be noted that ! lallet conTurcophil fused the titles organisations. of the two British
For a discussion the Great War, influence in of British see Perot Ahmac, op. cit., Turkey p. 324. immediately prior to

92.

460.
He wrote to the Foreign Cffice;

Being employed by the Turkish Government I felt that it would not be to refuse to belong to any society that is anxious to proadvisable I between r"ngland and Turkey and Fersonally cote good relations 9j should be rather pleased to belong to the Anglo-Ottoman jociety.
fie had already Turkish pleased the work written in the same vein to hear of to Arthur Fiold, adding "and public that the be very in Foreign

authorities if of it could the

were glad be arranged

the

invitation British Wallet

would interest the "it to

as a mark of But Sir application

Gendarrerie. countenancing any chance permanently Office's in the

"94 his

Louis

advised that

Office would to his drew

against prejudice

on the getting

grounds

he may have of in the

the

Russians "95

agree also

employment the Foreign

frontier to the sort

provinces. of

Pallet the

attention local Turkish

publicity "I

Society that

was engendering this ting is cufficient in

Press,

and commented of Colonel

think

to show the any way with

undesirability society. "96

Hawker ausocia-

himself

the

93.

Major-i: oneral Claude J. Hawker, Trobizonde, February 1914,1.0.371/2127/8751.

to S. of S.,

P. O., 18th

94.

(n. d. ) quoted in Anglo-Ottoman Society to S. of 3., Hawker to Field, The dating 11 0., 24th January 1914, F. 0.371/2127/3721. of this lost little time in letter Society the Anglo-0ttoran shows that its in Turkey. connections extending

95. 96.

Mallet Mallet

to Sir to Sir

A. Nicolson,

P. O., 23rd February

1914, P. O. 371/2127/6859-

E. Grey, P. O., 10th February

1914, F. O. 371/2127/6U59.

461.
On the surface, the outbreak meetings
were letter

the Society's

activities

between its enough pattern.

formation Public

and

of War followed

a conventional 97

were held at Caxton Hall.

forwarded by the have to

Resolutions
Secretary. in February to force

paused at these meetings

An example 1914 urging the Turks out would the of of be a

normally received to

the Foreign Office

Foreign in

British the both

Government islands Turkish of

no part ? 'tiytilene, interests.

any coves

Chios,

Lemnos and Samothraoe, This letter

on grounds

and British

was signed

by O'Donnell,

Dune Ylohaied Ali

that they formed

and Arthur
an inner this

Field,
leadership.

98

and can perhaps be taken as evidence

But behind in which

open activity, was the to aid

other prime the

and clandestine mover. Firstly, and the -a

roves in

were afoot,

Duse r; ohataed Ali in their efforts struggle

1913-1914 officers that was

be was engaged with them, in

Sanuasi the

Turkish struggle

against

Italians

to continue,

in its

first

phase,

till

1916, and conclude

with

a compromise connection

peace between the Sanunui and Italians. between the worlds Pan-Africaniat's of ?an-Iolanisa

flare we have a striking

Turcophilia and independence

on the one hand and a on the other.

co=ittaent

to African

r
97. There are records of meetings of the Society at Caxton Hall on 2nd April 1914 - see L JOR, 14th April 1914, p. 92; and on 22nd April 1914 This is probably not a complete ace ATOR, 28th April 1914, p. 122. list of the Sooie ty'o meetings. Anglo-Ottoaun 2128/8171. Zocity to Sir E. Grey, 20th February 1914, F. O. 371/

98.

462.
Obviously, with such commitments, about.
unlike a high

the Sanuasi cause was one which he was It must have given him deep satisfaction
resistance movements" to

bound to feel
to aid of that a cause era,

strongly
which,

so many African degree of primary

"primary success.

achieved

According

M. I. 5.; Duse Mohamed assisted the Turkish officers with the Senussi Arabs Omar Tousson who, the Italians, through against probably a Prince He is believed it is said, has been detained to have in France. collected money in England, which was sent via Egypt to Tripoli, Arabs in Tripoli in 1913 in providing with and to have been active It is further that in September 1914 he was in comarms. alleged A in Egypt. ocieties munication with young Turks and Vationaliat friend in London, at the latter's of an Italian official residing sent money to Duse Mohamed for the Senussi cause, and asked request,. how she could help them and especially persons in England and what Replying Turkey were prepared to receive on 9th contributions. September Duse Mohamed refused to give any names and said that his 'in from igypt to be very cautious correspondents were compelled believed that Turkey intends making war as much as it is fully the Triple Hence any pro-Turk rntente. and the persona against is, identified regarded pro-Turkish with the movcment are decidedly being with suspicion and communications coming from that quarter to censorship has to be exercised are and delays subject care great bound to reeult. '99

This episode,

which

not surprisingly light

was not included

in his autobiography, figure of some other in their

shows him in a different episodes struggle as British in his against life.

from the serio-comic

In view of the success of the 5anussi we should not wonder that worthy

the Italians, thought

Ita11an as well

intelligence

his activities

of investigation.

99.

(C), report on Duse Mohamed, enclosed in P. Nathan, M. I. 5 (g), M. I. 5 7th February 1915, F. O. to G. Clarke, Foreign Office, War Office, 371/2355/15047.

463.
As E. L. Evans-Pritchard has remarked;

The small Turkish had behind them all the Bedouin garrisons ... Order. of the country and behind the Bedouin the 3anusiya ...

They were fortified also by the knowledge that behind the Sanusiya was the moral backing of the whole Arab and Muslim world, and even Throughout the Near of peoples who were neither Arab nor t: uralim. East in particular, but also everywhere in the world where coloured the struggle was seen to have a deeper peoples were articulate, from Turkey to than the more transfer significance of territories Italy, or the mere acquisition of another bit, one of the few Like a great octopus, remaining bits, of Africa by a European Power. Europe had stretched the to seize and exploit out its tentacles The tentacle whole of Africa and Asia. which now held Tripolitania and Cyrenaica in its grip belonged to the same boast which held
half the world in its It was not the future of a handful clutches. Bedouin which was being decided, Europe. 100 but the future of of clear that from for Duse was a skillful the cautious Italian (it agent of this anti-imperialist of the unnamed were

It

is

struggle,

way he answered Official. would story) liberties would

the

enquiries his

woman acting at least partly

the

Though be unwise to

own activities

revealed the of whole

assume that his

M. I. 5 necescontacts, crisis who, in

sarily given

uncovered the state

he had not in no doubt of Egypt have trust

revealed and the

civil

threatening

Anglo-Turkish The episode

relations, also reveals

been unceremoniously reposed in him by the

arrested. Turks

the degree

and by Nationalist mentioned as his

and pro-Turkish principal contact

Egyptians. and as, having

The Prince

Omar Tousson in France

been arrested

by the time of the report

(February

1915) was the President

of a body

100.

Oxford 1949, See E. L. Evans-Pritchard, The Sanussi of Cvrenaica, of the first and pp. 104-133 passim for a wider discussion p. 116; Turkish In this lit points Italo-Sanuaei War. out that the future during heroes Envor Bey, liar Ittnister the Croat War, and national Mustafa amal (Ataturk), of the of Turkey and founder saviour Sanussi resistance to the republic, played a part in organising Italian Bee op. cit., pp. 110 & 115-6. conquest;

464.
called
emigre at

the Egyptian
organisations. of

Society,
In the

101
the

one of a number of Egyptian

light of these at connections a later date

Nationalist
we may wonder against

the sincerity

strictures

he ade

'Abd ul-'Aziz leaders

Shevish

one of the riout'violently National ?owers. Party,

pro-Turk

and anti-British

of the Egyptian the Central

who spent

the Great War actively

supporting

103 that there was connection between

Duae'a autobiography 'Abd ul-'Aziz Great wars Shawish,

does admit

the Young 'l'urks and himself,

on the eve of the

$haykh thaweech was an ardent fanatic Nationalist as and quite his religious When he escaped to Turkey he becaro regards views. a persona grata with the Young Turk Party who were then in power. he bad successfully impressed the Young Turks with the idea of being University Medina, its establishing execution a f'.uslir at In this held up owing to lack of funds. temporarily connection the United States of negotiations were pending with me to visit America on behalf Government to negotiate a loan of of the Turkish 12,000,000 thorough on the mineral which fell of Anatolia resources (sic) owing to the outbreak of hostilities.

101. Report on Duse Mohamed, Supt. P. quinn, Special Branch, New Scotland Turd,, 27th Earch. 1916, pp. 2-3, enclosed in J. Carter, Director of Intelligence's 15th August 1919, office to C. Loder, Foreign Office, F. O. 371/3728/114805. 102. cf. ATOR, February 1914, pp. 6-7, which, inolude3, as well an information about 5hawish a photograph of him dated 30th September 1913 Abdul Aziz Shaweesh" a token of and signed "Tours very sincerely friendly between the two sen, with "Leaves", in The Corset, relations 11th December 1937, pp. 7 & 11,. and AOR, February 1920, pp. 6-7.
103. See Arthur Goldschmidt Jr., (ed. ) Political in P. M. Bolt National "The Egyptian Change in i and So Party, kodern 1892-1919" Eaynt,

London 1968, pp. 323-330 for Pan-Islamist.

Shawish as Egyptian

Nationalist

and

465.
I had already Up to that period known Shaweesh by corresponin London however, dence. he immediately When he arrived sought I dined with him at the Westminster Hotel on the night me out. found him and his Indian of his arrival evening and the following friend dining This occurred night on the Saturday at my flat. On the following to the declaration day the police of war. prior He somehow during his absence to make enquiries. his hotel visited for boarded a train obtained news of the visit and immediately Paris leaving his luggage behind which his Indian friend secured

in a manner quite with this man.

As the

unknown to me, as I had very

few conversations

war was on and his guide Shaweosh, who knew England had disArabic well - and taught at Oxford some years earlier the Indian appeared, also vanished.

I never heard from bhaweesh again but I subsequently 104 (sic) of his death in Constantinople. Despite its tone of apparent political hostility activities, to hax i is ti this,

learnd

in the light

of

Duse Mohamed Ali's

one of the most revealing

passages in his autobiography. Constantinople

Shawieh "had core to England from merchant who wanted to (sic) inevitably and Turkey. " 105

accompanied by an East Indian to ply

purchase a few cargo steamers At that political natioraliem berate ment. plan for date any scheme to link significance,

between Indian India

Turkey with

bad profound forces of

in view of the rise feeling

of the interlocked tuslims,

and pro-Turkish

India's among in India

and the deliGovern-

fostering

of anti-British

feelings

by the Turkish

There would seem to be a psychological steamers between India and Turkey,

similarity and Garvey's

between the Black Star Line.

Note 102 above suggests the 104., AOR, 11th December 1937, pp. 7 A 11. and dated back into correspondence between the two men was cordial 1913. 105, ibid.

466"
In the Turkish refugee, capital Shawish was, by August 1914, - established enemy of the regime in Egypt. to raise guns and money for as a

and inveterate

Was he perhaps

engaged in the efforts in Libya?

the Turks and Sanusei corres-

, This was perhaps one of the topics j

of the previous with

pondence between Duse and 3hawish. Shavish, British however, authorities.

connection highly trat

'Abd ul-'Aziz by the services

would have been considered' Here is an object Neither Shawishs Scotland this

incriminating intelligence

lesson

are not omniscient. of his dealings matters, with

I. Yard nor P1. 5. seem to have known care and skill can hardly in these be regarded

suggests

though dinner rendezvous!

at the Westminster

Hotel

as a secret Aa for possible well

the 12,000,040

loan,

dubious

though this

may sound, it

is as Dues business

that

some such scheme was considered. and a political involved

From 1912 onwards, and intriguer, and commercial

as being a journelist was increasingly eise

organiser

Mohamed Ali

in financial

of considerable plans black

and complexity. raising for -

A characteristic

of many of these sources - usually He was a

was the 'attempted American sources

of money from American in 'Vest Africa. of turkey,

developments

ISulsim, travelled ficant

a Turkish and lived friends

subject,

a proven friend States by'Tn even if

a man who had

in the United 'there

and who had made new and signiThe Land Of The Pharaohs and the no Arabic or Turkish, list who had

and admirers

ATOR, who spoke perfect shorn skill for it, in his covert

English

Turcophil

activities

his -

of qualifications implies

some part

in auch a plan were impressive. he was to be the loan's

Though he rather sole

he nowhere says that

or even chief

467.
negotiator. Turkish that if An for the loan's purpose, with a major war looming and enemies, we may surmise to contri-

resources

no much weaker than those of-her exist, it

the loan scheme did

would have been intended

bute to more immediate

It is hardly

needs than a new Muslim University.

with these things-occurring behind the scenes,

surprising

that

on the eve of the Great War, the Anglo-Ottoman of the full

Society

(many of whose treasurer's Immediately to

members must have been innocent activities after donate in the cause)v

scope of their

seemed to take an ambiguous position. appealed to all

the outbreak

of war the Society

Ottoman subjects

to the London Branch of the Red Crescent to British War Relief,

Society.

Money so given

was to be forwarded British Society outbreak relief for

for as a mark of gratitude 106 Yet in other ways the Turks in the Balkan Wars. tactlessly pro-Turk in the brief of Turkey. interval between the

was almost

of the Great War and the entry of the Society

C. F. Ryder, writing Review Of said that it and

as an officer

in the African the entry

Times and Orient the war,

11th August 1914, foretold would net India that alight,

of Turkey into

permit

Japan and China to pay off into "...

old scores,

thus the war would develop

a war of extermination

between

the White and the Coloured like the prophecy

Races of mankind. "107

This reads remarkably and was as

at the close

of In The land Of The Pharaohe, own thinking, suggesting his

at one with

Duse Mohamed Ali'

influence

106. ATOR,' 11th August 1914, p. 474., 107. ibid, pp. 469-70.

468.
a disseminator was a pamphlet Duse and Arthur India, especially of ideas in his issued Field. for circle. Even more recklessly as late as loth tactless

the Society This-particularly

November 1914 by the Government of been informed

disturbed that it

in view of the fact Office that nothing

had earlier

by the Foreign Ottoman Society's

could be done to check the Anglo-

activities

It is recognised that the Government of India are not in a position instance but as another in England, to judge of the circumstances is at in India of which the circulation of the kind of publication, I am to invite to a pamphlet objectionable, attention present by the Anglo-Ottoman Society issued on the 10th of November 1914

the attitude in which they criticise of England towards Turkey; which led to war was created give it as their opinion that the crisis of a rumoured not by Turkey but by Russia; refer to the absurdity descent upon Egypt by Turkey; state that if Russia is to be permitted the object of seizing Conthe present differendewith to utilise dismembering enter the Empire, the Turks will stantinople and that the same justification the struggle with the same feeling and Belgium had in entering on hers; refer to the chagrin and and They by Britain. by recent unsympathetic humiliation acts caused against the dismemberwith an appeal to influence conclude others of peace with ment of the Turkish Empire and for the restoration Turkey. It is precisely this kind of writing are being which endeavours to check in the extreme section of the Pan-Islamic press, and made it is indulged in by a body difficulties are obviously created when home. 108 of-some repute at ostensibly It may indeed be vondered at, that at a time generally in Britain, in particular thought to have been

one of super patriotism Society in general

and war hysteria

the Anglo-Ottoman should have been

and Dues Mohamed Ali

t ,,,.

108.8.

Judicial to Secretary, Wheeler, some Dept., Govt' of India, and Public Dept. 9 -India' Office', 12th MMarch1915, -enclosed in S. of. S. , 1915, F. O. 27th April for India to Under "S. of S:, Foreign Office, `For the-1.0. "s decision 371/2488/50954. not to check-on the Anglo68 above. Unfortunately, Ottoman Society's no activities, 'eeenote has been traced. copy of the pamphlet itself

469. It may be

able to advocate that this

the cause of an enemy country because the main target

so openly. for popular

was possible

anger was

Germany. while enemy. It survive the fact Arthur

Turkey was perhaps for

many British

people a more auxiliary

is even more amazing that not only that Field,

the Anglo-Ottoman the entire period

Society

was able

to

the onset but also

of the war, despite ae, with as an

Duse )ohamed Ali, its key mn,

recognised

by the authorities of intense 109

was under a cloud

suspicion Official

of Turkey, agent

Pan-Islamism, during

and Ethiopianiem. the war will

investiga-

tionei of his activitie Some of the Society's the outbreak Field

be discussed

presently.. at

members - for with fears

example Henri

Leon110 - resigned

of hostilitieo

Turkey,

but Luse Mohamed Ali

and Arthur that the a the the

set about allaying

among members and sympathisers To this it crowed that

organisation circular

was in any way anti-British. 1915, which while had, been reduced

end they issued its old rival, stated that

in January

Ottoman Association, Society

to, silence, footing

also

would reorganise

on a non-political

during

the war in

109. For ausiciono 554/23/36403,

of Duse flohamed Ali minute 1.

as an "Ethiopianist",

see C. O.

110. Henri M. Leon to Sir E. Grey, F. O.. 23rd January 1915, P. O. 371/2482/ to inform the S. of S. that 9577; but the burden of this letter was "if the Society is reorganised a basis, as is not opposed to on such British interests, then (I propose) to co-operate with them in to restore peace between the two countries, and also, so efforts firebrands from .. '. at all far as I'can, to restrain any political to a safe, hostilities hampering the British Government in bringing conclusion. " speedy and satisfactory

470.
order during to unite the membership. of the terns Political functions could-be resumed

the discussion

of peace.

Meanwhile,

the motto "For of

Peace and a Better the Society (I)

Understanding"

was propaeed for

1915, The objects

were now to be; of peace with and development Turkey on terms of the Ottoman understanding

To advocate a speedy restoration which shall assure the independence nation. (2) To promote the establishment between the two nations.

of a more sympathetic

Or, for brevity, the establishment relations and a of pacific between Turkey and Great I3ritain. 111 sympathetic understanding A cultural sister society, It the Orient to give Literary a series Circle, was also announced

in the circular. ture, history,

planned

of lectures

on the literaEmpire,

geography

and other

cultural

aspects

of the Turkish

the first It

euch meeting

being on the safe topic

of "New Turkish

Orthography".

would seem that Due*" Mohamed Ali took the lead in this venture, assisted 112 by Arthur Field. Later in the war, in 1917, we find him Vice-President of a similar described ancient sounding organisation, for the study the Cercle d'Etude Ethnographique5, and manners, was and

as a society

of languages, lands.

religions,

and modern, especially and other

of Islamic

As the President included M. H. Kidrai

1. armaduke Pickthall, S. M. Leon, it under another is clear

Vice-Presidents

that in many ways this was the old Turcophil group 113. " .:; . ...., .. Whether this body bad the name acknowledged name.

ill.

Anglo-Ottoman Society Circular, oee ?. O. 371/2482/9577.

158 fleet

January 1915 -Street$

112. ibid.

113. ATOR, March 1917, p. 49.

471. the Ang1o-Ottoman Society as had the Orient Literary

-connection Circle

with

is not clear. Despite the disavowing one occasion declaration. Affairs of political ends for the duration , of the

war, on at least strictly Hinister gratitude rather to that

the Ang1o-Ottoman Society In July 1917 the Society

did not keep wrote to the deep

of Foreign Russia's at

of the Russian Government, of territorial expansion

expressing

rejection stating;

as a war aimp

condescendingly

We dare to hope in this connection that the humane intentions Turkey, the new Russia include the recognition of progressive in 1908, exchanged a military autocracy for free institutions Russia herself has now done. 114 as In addition to Arthur Field, C.X. this was signed

of which, just

by Lord Mowbray and Stourton, Prelooker and the ex-

Marmaduke Pickthall, M. P. Arnold on the letter Lupton,

Ryder,

Douglas Fox Pitt,

but not by Dust Mohamed Ali= as Vice-President society

but his name appeared

heading

and Treasurer. itself after in being, the and

Thus the Anglo-Ottoman if at a fairly

in keeping succeeded War.

low ebb, during again,

the treat and by public agitated the retention

Immediately

war it

sprang to life

meetings for

and resolutions

memorials Turkey, its

to the Foreign and in particular

Office for

favourable

peace terms for Once again, of the India

of the Caliphate. attention

activities

began to attract"

tbe: uniavourable 4

Provisional 114. Ariglo-Ottoman Society to Minister of Foreign Affairs, Russian Government, Petrograd, 5th July 1917, enclosed in AngloOttoman Society to S. of S., P. O., 24th July 1917, F. O. 371/2127/147160.

I/1 r

472.
Office, which had its meetings reported on by an agent. 115 This might Muslim dismem-

be expected, All-India

in view of the rising

Khilafat

movement, the great and prevent Congress, the total

camFaign to save the Caliphate As the Indian their

berment of Turkey. guidance, Khilafat national

National Iuslim

under Chandi's matter, the

chose to support

brethren

in this

Movement was an important feeling and nationalist developments,

component in the vastly political activity

increased 116

in post 1918 India. Society

But despite-these overtaken Imperial

the Anglo-Ottoman identifying it committed

was boon to be the old cause,

by history;

by so firmly

itself itself

with

Turkey and the Caliphate, its

to a dying

which was to receive

death blow not from the British,

nor from the

Creeks but from Ataturk. In the post war yearn, part in the Anglo-Ottoman presumably the executive Dua 1obamed Ali Society. In July seems to have played 1919 he was still a declining

a Vice-

Prosident, to hold

an homrary position, post of treasurer.? ll

but had ceased, apparently, One reason was perh4ps that,

115, See Confidential Report, Puel1f in Ing1t M.C. 3eton, Judicial & Public Dept., 1.0., F. O. 371/3419/199619. 116. For a selection of works dealing with note 30 above, and . K. Aziz, Britain Public Britin sh the rion _, movie-p-vie India. 18357-1947, London 1963, pp. in

i 25th November 1918, in to Under S. of S., F. O.,

the Khilafat movement, see and Vimllp. India. A Studs of Nationalism Development of I'uslic 94-113, passim.

117. The letter heading of Anglo-Ottoman Society to Be of S., July 1919, F. O. 371/4219/105630 makes this clear.

'. 0., 21st

473.
as the sole surviving Turcophil people, organisation in Britain, some of the old Professor E. G. ll8

Ottoman Association

including now joined

Lord Lamington,

Browne and even E. Fi. Bennett 158 Fleet address, Street remained

the Anglo-Ottonan headquarters

Oociety.

the Society's spirit

and corresponding seems signatories

but the old exclusive

of the Ottoman Association were only native British

to have made some ground. to a protest invasion this sent

Thus, there Office

to the Foreign 119

in February Field still

1920 on the Greek remained Secretary, have offended from the had occurred. to the foreign

of Asia Minor.

As Arthur

process

was probably

not too explicit,

but may well hold aloof

Dues fohamed Ali Society's

and caused him to increasingly

activities.

Other changes of an unhelpful

nature

Thus The Near East$ which before Turkish cause, now gave its

the war had been sympathetic to schemed for imposing

support

118. Anglo-Ottoman Oociety to U. of 3., P. O., 13th February 1920, P. O. 371/5140/E 139 denouncing the Greek occupation of Western Asia Minor, expressing feeling alarm at the growth of anti-British throughout Egrpt and Asia, and requesting Government the British to make good Lloyd George's declaration of 5th January 1919 on the of the integrity contains preservation of the Turkish heartlands, these, and many other, "establishment" signatures. 119" ibid. `

474.
rule on Anatolia in the name of tutelage. 120 Additionallyg was increasingly and with career as will be

shown, by the post war era, with Pan-African organisations, for

Duse Mohamed All with

pre-occupied States.

kiest Africa Statesp was over. his

the United

By 1921, when he left except in purely

the United terms,

as a Turcophil,

sentimental

120. TheClear East, 15th November 1918, p. 932, contains a letter from Arthur Field on behalf of the Anglo-Ottoman Society which complains= "You will, of your wo hope, permit us to protest against the spirit 'Great Britain leading article in the issue of the 8th inst* entitled 'For come tine to come, ' you say, 'When the strong and Turkey. ' hand of the Committee of Union and Progreso has been removed, the Turks may be unequal to governing themselves without foreign help. ' The world has decided, you say, that no nationality shall be ... left domination; against its will under foreign yet you calmly to the Turks of Turkey, and our dictation contemplate our domination of the form of her government and of the personnel of her governors. The only application is you make of the principle of nationality to cut off the territorial rulers. possessions of Turkey as imperial How can you square 'Self'-determination to with a blank refusal ... allow Turkish subject nations to decide for themselves whether Turks, Frenchmen, Greeks or Jews shall rule them. " Such protdsts We find The Near East were little regarded. in a similar editorialising vein on 7th Larch 1919, p. 208, when, of demands for Egyptian representation Paris and Egyptian independence, at it said "Between the subject races of Austria-Hungary and Turkey on the, one hard,, and India and Efypt, on the other, there is no analogy. The two latter countries are as much part and parcel of Empire as the Italian, the British community of New York or the Virginia It is conceivable negroes"of are of the United States. that, if the American Government wore lax enough, a certain number or Red Indiana, of Italians, or negroes might be found ready to but it is claim the privileges of a separate independent State; that no appeal to this effect certain would ever reach officially for the British the Paris Conference. it would be as intolerable ... to have Egypt cut herself the manner proposed by the adriftin Nationalists as it would be for the Americans to have the negroes set up an independent kingdom in the United States. " The 'reductio aspirations ad absurdum' argument here about American Negro political British public opinion at this time could be shows how offensive to a man like Duna Mohamed Ali.

475.
Side by side behalf Egypt. of Turkey Indeed, with Uuae Hobamed Ali's interest in and activities on behalf of on

in the years

1912-1921 went activities

as we have seen, to some extent of Egyptian links

the two overlapped, and Turkish with

because of the interconnections politics. exiled Kamil. tributions Dune's Egyptian

Nationalist

were mostly, National

though not entirely,

members of the old Egyptian It

Party, chapter National

founded by Muatapha bow he welcoced Party figures the latter's was possible conas

has been shown in the previous to his review In fact, from such eminent

MuhammadFarid. visit leading activities real political

he net )iuhammad Farid 1914.121 At that

during

to London in February the peripatetic were severely life

time,

MuhammadFand As such, his

of a political cut off

exile.

limited,

power and influence and contacting therefore,

as he was from the sources of l22 in igypt, and reduced to speeches, sympathisers up and down Europe. presence We

newspaper articles, need not be surprised, he found it worth

either

at bis

in London or that while there.

his while

to contact

Dune hohamed Ali one), an editor be useful politics.

As an Egyptian activist, bearing

(though

an Anglicised

and a political to Farid, always

Duae was the type of man who could in mind the narrow confines of exile

"kohamed Farid 121. Duce Mohamed All, and "Leaves from an Active Life", pp-7 & 14.

Bay", 0R, February 1920, PP. 5-8, in TheCoMgtt, 13th November 1937,

Farty 1892-1919", in P. S. Holt "The Efiyptian National 122. Goldaohidt, (ed. ), Political Modern in y t, pp. 323-30, gives and Social Char d, details of t: uha=ad Farid's vacillating career from his aesusption in 1908 to his final Party leadership years as an of the National exile in Germany and Turkey during the Great ar.

476"
Duse felt heir real extremely flattered by his acquaintance well with the pditical

of Mustapha Kamil. failings as a leader, in his

Though in fact his party, "lack

aware of MuhammadFarid's his inability to

of magnetism"and

restrain warmth;

factions

yet he remembered him with

the greatest

Mohamed Farid Bey ... has passed to the beyond and I am My friend One whom I by the loss of one of my few sincere friends. poorer held in the highest possible esteem and for whom I had the greatest not only as a leader, but as a man; for if possible admiration, ever man deserved a better end at the hands of fate that man was Mohamed Farid. 123 He regarded the final MuhammadFarid as, if not a great true patriot leader, a man who "made

sacrifice 124 of the martyr. He probably given in Farid's first

which every

may be proud to make: - that

met MuhammadFarid

at a reception on February

and dinner 14th 1914, by Party, with Dues

honour, 125

at the Savoy Hotel, an exile organisation 126

the Sphinx Society, branches introduced in several

of the National

major European cities. to his friend

At the reception,

MuhammadFarid

and ally

Frank Hugh O'Donnell, house* 127

few days later and a

the three

men met again

at O'Donnell's

123. A_,

February

1920, p-5Life", in TheComet. 13th November 1937, p. 14-

124* "Leaves from an Active 125. ibid, p. 7-

126. For information p. 328.

on the Sphinx

Society,

see A. Goldschmidt

Jr.

op. cit.,

127. AOR, March 1920, p. 7.

477.
It may be said here that O'Donnell visitor and Duse were on good personal terms, 128 MuhammadFarid at vume's house. together with a number of

O'Donnell also dined Egyptian It

being a regular at his

students

house on one oocasion, 129 in London. living that

seems unlikely

Duss Mohamed All country. 130

was ever more to Muhammad Farid spoke poor English Duos spoke both -

Farad than a kindly

host in a strange

"what he did speak was Anglicised languages, Ha acted he was useful in that role

French

- and since

not only as a host but also the call on O'Donnell.

as an interpreter. when he writes this cannot mean personally stars or

during

131

of MuhammadFarid that there

as one of his

"few sincere

friends",

was any close His close political

relationship Egyptian

between them, either friends

politically. of the Egyptian studying writings regular

were not from the great figures

firmament,

but were more obscure time. It is clear

and working

in London at that

from his

own

and from intelligence visitors at both his

and police office

reports home;

that

such men were

and his

128. ibid,

p. 6.

129. ibid.
130. ibid,

February 1920, pp. 6-7.

p. 6.

131. See note. 127 above.

478.
An ex-employee Street of Duee Mohamed says that 158 Fleet was visited by Turks and Egyptians of all characters, some of whom were undesirHe instanced All Farm i, a Sudanese, able. one Abushady, an Egyptian, 132 El Bakray, Egyptian. and an

Ahmad Zaki Abushady,

Mohamed Ali's hospital,. his return closer

to give him his full

Egyptian in friends.

tame, was certainly

A medical with student at

one of Duee
St. George's

he remained to Egypt.

correspondence in

Duse Mohamed Ali Duse Mohamed Ali's verses, Egyptians composed to cease to

even after wife an

Early

1915 he sent Arabic of for

English students slaves ancient written

translation and urging and,

of some patriotic the young generation

by school to be the

by sacrificing of Egypt. to his

themselves 133 father that Before in

the

Motherland, Britain,

restore had

glories "a letter

leaving which

Abushady

Cairo it

was violently yet Turkey's "

anti-English war with 134 It

and in which England

he stated

although

was risky the

was undoubtedly

a source

of hope for

Egyptians.

through was a photocopy

the good offices of bis birth

of Abuahady that

Dune Mohamed Ali birth

obtained

certificate

(or purported

certificate)

132.1S. I. 5. report on Dune Mohamed, Pbbruary 1915 - see P. O. 371/2355/15047. Chief T. A. Doherty, in a'discusaion in his home in with the writer Lagos on 2nd April 1967, recalled boy at Farmi as being the office 158 Fleet Street. Since Chief Doherty did not come to London 1916, it would seem that Frmi continued in attendance at till reports by Military no-158 despite the unfavourable collected intelligence boy, he can hardly have As office on his character. been pursuing any very sinister This is merely one of a aim. number of details accepwhich serve as a caution against literal , tanco of intelligence and police reports about Du3e and his circle. 133" ibid. 134. ibid.

479.
from Alexandria. document, visit it 135 Wbatever the truth at an opportune 136 Yard man. was a regular about the authenticity moment - five of this a

was received

days before

from a Scotland Duce Mohamed Ali

attender

of meetings

of Egyptian

organisations Additionally, Office

in London, in the months leading he was circularised with

up to the Great W'ar. from the Central is, of course, and but

information 137

of the Sphinx Society

at Geneva,

though this

not to say that other later

he was a member of the Society. make no mention this silence.

Bis autobiography

reminiscences

of the Sphinx Society, Certainly

prudence could enough with

have dictated

Duce was conversant in June 1914

the Egyptian

organisations

in Britain

to be able

it will 135. If this' photocopy survives, be in closed' Rome Office files; to obtain but it was referred to by Dues Mohamed Ali in his struggle in 1919; Foreign Office recognition of his "gyptian nationality "I must draw your attention he wrote; to the fact that a photoin the possession of the certificate graphic copy of my birth was New Scotland Yard authorities. This ... was obtained for me from Alexandria, by Abuahady Hey, Advocate of Cairo, on my birthplace, information It should be known to you that to supplied by me. birth procure an L1rptian certificate one must not only know the full but one must also know the name of the name of one's father, for the is responsible by whom one was delivered, midwife and who (sic). concerned of all births registration one is directly with which 9th Foreign Office, see Duse Mohamed Ali to Rt. Hon. d. J. Balfour, August 1919, F. O. 371/3728/114605. The Advocate Abusha&y Bey was Cairo, of Ahmad Zaki Abushady, the father, lived-in presumably who see M. I. 5. report on Dune Mohamed, Y. 0.371/2355/15047. 136. "Leaves", in The Collat. lot January 1938, p. 11.

"

137. $ee .4TOB, '23rd June 1914, p. 316. '

480.
to write Presidency important and the But that, in He listed Hilmi; for the Society, the "an women'; 138

an article of

on them.

the

Sphinx

under Society;

'Abd ul-Halim Society

Egyptian

Debating of

debating Egyptian these

uplifting also

the status

Egyptian

Club, uhow President the great

was 'Abd ul-Halim to his or the proceedings in Arabic. in the honour of full

Hilmi.

circles in the

limitation Society, their

participation Society, English, Thus, the

was which

unlike

Anglo-Ottoman and conducted were normally an Egyptian it is

Islamic in

were multi-national Egyptian June Societies

conducted Club clear

when in

1914 he attended his

function that

of a member the speeches

who had taken were in Arabic,

F. R. C. 3., since ... the

bulk

ATOR reported; in English, congratulated the Students on

Duse Mohamed

speaking

their high national he thought to be the spirit and unity, which will strongest and patiently, moral weapon, and if applied sincerely help their national He pointed out that the cause immensely. brilliant and at such success of Dr. Shafeek in so short a tins,
age, is more than an early hypothesis which has often Egyptians are incapable of sufficient appeared reaching the ridiculous to refute that in the English press, in education. high standard a

Significantly, would hardly this

the review have bothered

did

not give

details its

of the other editor

speeches,

and if

to mentio'n' that to the rule. al-Hilbaxi

Egyptian

spoke in English

had not been an exception

The same circumstances addressed the club in Arabic

in

arose a month later,

on the 5 topic"A

when Ibrahim
to. the

Greeting

Club

and the

Eope. of Egypt

138. "Yesterday,

To-day and Tomorrow",

ATOR, 23rd June 1914, p"315.

139. ATOR, 23rd June 1914, p. 315.

481. Her Young Generations". again boas, who had been invited 140 spoke a few words in English. a marginal role in Egyptian

to the taeotingp

Though having the period before

organisations,

at least

in

the Great war, that of informal

is not to say that

Duse Mohamed Ali who fre-

did not play

the role

advisor

to the young Egyptians

quented hie home and office, in Britain. outbreak attempted public in this There is a well

especially

perhaps on how to behave and act this at the he

documented example of his doing with Ibrahim into al-lilbawi,

of the Great War when, together to guide London's

young Egyptians It is

a position that

of at least his colleague and in many time. Us had

"loyalty" should

to Great Britain. have been al-filbawi,

interesting

who was an important politics Egyptians at that

ways rather

ambiguous figure enmity Dinshwai

in Egyptian all

earned the violent in the notorious about face Butrus cause.

of almost trial,

by being the prosecutor a remarkable of

but bad later Ibrahim

performed Ardani,

in passionately

defending

the assassin

Pasha Ghali, 141

and raking

a public were well

avowal of mupport for

the Nationalist who had

Both these facts

known to Duso Mohamed Ali,

140. ibid,

14th July

1914, pp"401-03.

in Liboraljam 141. See Ferhat J. Ziadeh, Lawyers. the Rule of Law a al-Sayyid, EPYRt Fodex Erytt, -Stanford, 1968, p. 39, and Afaf Lutfi London 1968, p. 173, Relations, and Cromer. A Study in Anvlo-Esvotian Butros "The three Beyptians involved in the trial which relates; Cbali, Fathi Zaghlul, Ibrahim al-Hilbawi, the. Public Prosecutor -and despised, the public hover forgave them their share in the were and It is ironic trial. " that al-Hilbawi tartly redeemed his reputation by defending the assassin of I3utros Chali a few years later!

482. them in In The Land Of The Pharaohs. weathercock. In a recent 142

recorded

But Eilbawi Farhat

was more

than a political pointed out that

study,

J. Ziadeh has and

he had been a student him with those leas

of Jamal ud-Din students

al-Afghani,

indeed brackets

equivocal

of al-Afghani'a, could be

Muhammad 'Abduh and Bald Zaghlul, said "It was fortunate for

as one of those profession

of whom it

the legal

that

the careers with

of some the

men who were to become among the most famous in Egypt started law. " Like Zaghiul, in his youth al-iilbawi with Zaghlul, had supported the great

Ahmad Arabi, moderniser and

and in 1880, together intellectual p1-Visrivyah elected president

had assisted

Muham ed 'Abduh in editing Later, following

the official

gazette,

$,1-Wsaq'i'

his defence National

of the Egyptian

he was in 1912 143 Thus, Bar Association. in the moot

of Wirdeni,

he was a, man who had for progressive elementa

decades witnessed

and participated

in Egypt. action with Mall Ibrahim al-lilbawi was to send the

Duse Mohamed Ali's following letter

to the pall

Cagette;

On behalf of the Egyptians resident in ngla"d we bewail the present Whilst we must warlike preparations on the Continent of Europe. hold the independence of Egypt to , be of paramount importance, ever of Great Britain. we also recognise the present critical position ,

Indeed, as late as July 1914, 142. In The Lana Of T1 I1s rte, 339-40. pp. to his prosecution in reporting self-justifying remarks in relation "Hiss defence of himself the ATOfi remarked; of the Dinahwai villagers, did not convince most of the audience more than to bolieve that his at Denahawai was not intended. " - AT013,14th July 1914, p. 402. mistake,

143. Ziadeb, op. cit. o pp. 3E3.40.. 46 & 68-9.

483.
As we have always believed in, and relied upon, the justice of the English people, we heartily sympathise with them in their struggle which seems both imminent and unavoidable. We would also state that the British nation need entertain no fear that its interests in Egypt will be imperilled should it be found necessary to withdraw the Army of occupation. The withdrawal of the Army of occupation at this juncture would, in our opinion, be a sure Deans of winning the hearts of the Eyptian nation; and the F rptians would, in such an ovent, voluntarily assist Great Britain in the final to the utmost limit struggle of their resources, whether in money or in the dearly prized blood of the nation. 144 The motivation
that;

behind

this

letter,

according

to Du3e Mohamed Ali,

was

On the afternoon of the declaration of war Holhawi Bey came to my full in the House of Commons office of John Redmond's declaration in which he signified his determination to support Great Britain in the war by every means in his power, as leader of the Irish Home Rule Party. Helbawi Bey was in the House at the time of the Declaration and upon arriving with overflowing at my office, he asked what we could do to prove to England that we enthusiasm, I told hin that we could write were with her in her hour of trial. a letter in London which owing to our on behalf of our compatriots The Bey agreed age and experience should be acceptable to then. and I sat at my desk and drafted the letter which he fully approved and signed with re. 145 It was a clever letter, well designed to depict "loyalty" a withdrawal to a grant to Britain of British yet

appeal

to Nationalist forces so the

sentiment.

Obviously#

occupation to Egypt,

would have been tantamount tenderness expressed PArthernore, anticipating for it

of independence here cannot

British

interests that

be taken too seriously. Ali was already in fact

is possible

Duse Mohamed and 't'urkay, or

a war between Britian

144. P811)'ell

Gazette,

4th August 1914, p. 7.

145. "Leaves",

in Comet, The

11th December 1937, p. 11.

484.
at least knew that that this Z'urcophil knowledge# in his then lull Egyptians which were hoping for one. It cannot

be proved 1914,146 If that

he certainly in August, in

possessed but writing it is the

by September a possibility. letter into for would a false despite pamphlet in November to

was already were to the help case, to

possession his true British

purpose people

have been sense his of

the

and government of duplicity, war, the

security. of

Certainly Turkey's Field

he was capable entry for into the the

foreknowledge he and Arthur specifically Egypt. 147

pro-Turkish Society were

which 1914, attack

issued

Anglo-Ottoman that letter the Turks

and vigorously The Pall

denied

planning up by a

)iall Gazette

was followed

letter

from Duae to Lord Kitchener, who had arrived to serve the British

offering

the services

of a number of

Egyptians anxitus rejected, accepted softened fully

in the country Government.

from Germany and France and were This offer British thou& this was, however, subjects rebuff can be was is he

on the grounds for service wit}

that "only naturalised the British "their But it his Army",

by the statement "148 in fact

patriotic should letters

offer

of their

services

appreciated.

be borne in mind that were powerless to alter

whatever

may have intended, sweep of events one individual

the great

then under way, which were far to control. -

beyond the power of any

146. See note 99 above. 147. See note 108 above.

148. ATOM, December 1917, pp"106-7. --

485"
On a local Lall tians Gazette scale. among the Egyptian community in Britain# effeato. the

letter

was, however, advice

not without

some young Egyp"He ...

took the apparent

of the letter several

M. I. 5. believed -

was instrumental to offer students professed Ali their

in inducing services

of the Eaptian

to the British

students in London 149 Government". But other

took objection. to be pro-British,

A group of than led by a Copt, who bad hitherto descended on 158 Fleet signing their that letter " Street. Helbawi Dues Eobamed Bey, which

was "violently

abused for

they claimed During Egyptians

did not express the course

sentiments,

with 150

of the Great War his gain formal the Islamic Society

contact and its

with off-

seems to have been through Islamic society.

shoot the Central veillance, Egyptian whilst religicus Office.

As he knew hir. self part

to be under surExplicitly

no doubt discretion Nationalist

was the better would hardly

of valour.

organisations and Central

have been tolerated, as, at least disliked overtly,

the Islamic bodies, But after

Islamic

Societies, even if inhibitions advising inclined

had to be tolerated, the war, wartime with

by the India away, and students in

soon fell young Egyptian body,

Dune Mohamed Ali the formation Association attention

busied

himself

of a new and Nationalist of Great Britain,

the Egyptianearned the unfavourable of Great Britain

and thereby

once again

of the. authorities.

The He yptiaa ,

Ae ociation

149" H"I. 5o report on Duse t:ohamed,in F. O. 371/2355/15047.

150. "Leaven", in The Cow, 11th December-1937,.. p. 11.
t -. ,

486.
was investigated warded via by the C. I. D., and Scotland of Intelligence Yard's findings Office. were forThe

the Director

to the Foreign consisting notably

E. A. G. B. not only but also extend all day. Paris. President Protectorate extended large

had a London branch, to other centres large towns,

maj.nly of students, Liverpool, and hoped to t) enrol

to all

in England and Scotland,

intending

Egyptians In its

in Britain turn, this

in the service British

of the national

movement of the in to

body was linked British

to a headquarters. M. P. s, protesting of the British

Activities Wilson

included

circularising States

about the United

recognition

in Egypt,

and attempting for the Egyptian

to win the sympathy of Latin struggle against the British.

American governments The leaders

of the E. A. O. B. were Dr. Mustafa Ahmad Omar(President), and Ihsan el Bakri, ,.as evidently for an old friend link of L'ine's,

H. Y. Awad (Secretary), (Organiser). and various with

The latter useful contacts,

the vain

between the E. A. G. B. terms and

he was described

as "on intizate Arthur field,

numerous Labour leaders, and Agit*toro like

such as George Lanaiury, Sylvia Pankhurst, Islamic

John Arnall,

Arnold

Lupton, "

and Indeed,

Duse Mohamed Vice-President to the worthy rather like policeman

of the Central

Society.

iho compiled cum Indian be noted

the report,

the E. A*093. cum hitasian

looked Jewish plot:

an Egyptian it will

cum Socialist that

More seriously, four Field several

the E. A. O. B. sympathiaere Arnall Egyptians

included an

members of the Anglo-Ottoman and Duse; indeed, it

Society

and Lupton as well and Indiana

was noted that in'Lonon that

attended queetiono

"semi-religious" It

societiee is evident

at which political

were diecseed.

the E. A. G. B. found its

place

in the

487.
complex of Islamic Ali societies and Turcophil 151 was 8o gaminent a member* But, conclude he left that as in the case of his '! urcophil that for his Egyptian Nationalist in 1921. in London of which Duse Mohamed

activities,

we may perhaps wert even before this was

day was really The basic in Egyptian the National It

the United

States

reason for politics Party

by the end of 1918, the initiative unlike

was totally of 1914" was no

in the hands of the Wafd, which, party Ali of exiles was marginal but firmly rooted

in Egypt. politics its

follows

that

if Party,

Dune Mohamed he was Cyypt.

even to the exile

of the National

nothing

to the Wafd, which derived

power from mass support chapter, when Zaghlul

within visited to any

As has already Britain special It in

been noted in the previous

1920, Dune Mohamed Ali relationship necessary in Egyptian with

was permitted Zaghlul's

no pretensions

or close is clearly role

delegation. claims He was about Dwe ta Wafdist to major

to discount Vationalint

any extravagant movements.

Mohamed Ali's

and bad, probably London, a prejudice

because of being neglected against Zaghlul.

by the 1920 delegation with

lie did bavo come contact

of Egyp151. F. O. 371/3717/78495, "With reference to the activities report New tian Nationalists in the United i. ingdom", Sergeant J. O'Sullivan, Scotland Yard, 17th May 1919, forwarded to F. O. by Director of Intelli21st May 1919. There can be no doubt that Ihsan el Bakri was gence, the "El Eakray" who was said to have been one of the undesirable frequenting the 4TOIT office at the beginning of the war extremists 11.I. 5. report onjDuse Mohamed, F. O. 371/2355/1504,7 - and was the see Ehean El Dakry, a fellow member with lime Mohamed Ali in same man as College of Chromatics - see 1917 of a body called the International Secretary of ATOR, I+ovember 1917, p. 93 - and who in 1918 was Assistant February 1918, p. 11, advertisethe Central Islamic Society - see ibid, ment for Central Islamio. Society.

488. Egyptian being figures; Mmh=aad Faridp 'Abd ul-'Aziz $havioh and Ibrahim the connection we are partly

al-Hulbaxi

the prime examples. importance,

In the case of uhaxinh but here, unfortunately,

may have depen-

been of critical dent on inference Ali played

and speculation. role in relation should

In a more general to a generation that

nenne, Duse Mohamed of young Egyptian company these Americana,

a fatherly

students

in London, and it

be recalled

in his

young men would have also West Indians, have surely of them could It that Indians

bad the opportunity

of meeting black

and West African

Christians.

To meet auch men would as the like of most

been a widening scarcely that lave with

and enlightening been encountered his record

experience,

then in Egypt. on behalf of Turkey Inieed, mixture in case

is strange

of agitation during authority

Thaw Mohamed Ali. eacaped internment of his relations and harassment* with

the Great War. reveal a curious

the whole ratter of liberalism Britain

In general,

Ottoman subjects

living

were an anomolous group compared with enemy aliens. more anti-Turk all

the more straightforward

of German or Austrian who were probably the t:uslims could far

?any were Greek or Armenian Christians tt, an the average as hostile; Engliahaan. But even

not simply ottoman sensibly

be regarded this that

many of them Egyptians.

were only nominally So the Rome Office subjects,

subjects, decided

being the case with "persons

born in Egypt are Turkish consideration of tho (Aliens of travelis to

and neat be required

to re sister,

but special

be shown to them as regards Registration) ling permits Order, all an

enforcing reasonable them-""'"'

the; restrictions facilities

in the natter

be" given should

Unleoa "suspect

or of brad character" if left at

or persons who would "in

existing

circumstances

become destitute

489.
liberty", only Ottoman cubjecta were not to be interned, corpared with and by October 1,562 who were left 1916 in

138 of them had been interned 152 the various activities

freedom.

Despite described

he was involved it

in that

could

be fairly

as anti-British,

nevertheleen complex personality

would be an over-simplification to regard aspects him as unequivocally the throne, in his

of Duce Mohamed Ali's co. As has already "British

been shown, certain justice and fair

of Britain

the monarch, 'heart.

play"

touched a deep chord the neaeures he took

Thus, it

would be unwise to regard to Britain

to give with,

the appearance he offered

of loyalty for

as aero expediency.

To begin

himself

military

service;

I received an immediately after the outbreak of Hostilities, ... Theatre, London, where invitation to a man meeting at His ?. ajesty's' e call was being made to all able-bodied ron engaged in the arts to In view of my long residence join an Artists corps for Home defense, in England I considered it y duty to be present at this meeting b3 I enrolled my Hare as a volunteer. where It would bo ludicrous to ouppose that e 11 intended to act in this Arty, unit, which

was hardly columni3t:

one of the key combat units At a tine

of the British

aus a fifth it carried

when he was bound to be under some suspicion, but not one which, as it transpired,

was a declaration

of loyalty:

152. See draft of circular of the Aliens to the Police on application Order to Turkish subjects, Registration an amended by P. O., 5th November 1914,11.0.45/270431/la; "Treatment of Ottoman Subjects in and U. K. ", H. O. 45/270431/128.

153. "Leaves", in The Corse , lat t-,

F

January 1938, p. 7.
ti .,

490.
much weight when his case began tobe examined. ' Ai he put it;

When England was at, war with Turkey and an enemy to Great Britain ... in every bush, I quietly withdrew because I was being discovered felt would be misconvinced that my loyal and honourable intentions 154 understood. In fact, beginning he could not but be aware of the interest the authoritieu were

to take in him;

I had detectives visiting eqq office at all hours of the day upon I requested Scotland Yard to leave a plain some f limey excuse until to closely ecruclothes officer at my office permanently stationed 155 tinise all visitors. This, folloving on the banning 156 in India of the ATTOii was his and Africa position. 'He related (in itself at the outHis interhow. having an interestto
.: p

bresk of the war, views with received

showed how precarious were not at all letter

the police

pleasant.

an-efftisive

from a Muslim in Batavia spread were his contacts),

ing example of how widely Scotland Yard;

he was called

I was questioned by a rather the 'suspicious' pompous j eraon about letter was in the pay and asked whether I knew that my correspondent I replied that I did not know-that Turkey possessed any of Turkey. to pay anyone, whereupon my questioner you in asked: 'Aren't money Whereupon he asked: the pay of Turkey? ' I answered in the negative. 'Is your price too high? ' I responded with"some'-heat I fears 'Do you mean to insult me? I for sale. '15? I as not in the pay of Turkey nor Great Britain, nor am

154. ibid. 155. ibid, pp.? & 11. -, 0n L`use

tuet. "New co land Yards report P., Quinn, especial Branch, 156. E: 27th, March"191 5, p: 2 -3aee,. h. .. 371/3728/114805" ohamed, 157. "Leaves", in The Corgt 4th December 1937, p. 7. .

491.
It is difficult to blame the interrogating But equally, it police officer too harshly Duse'e comment in

the circumstances* feelings on this here, epiuode;

in necessary

to appreciate

which are probably

honestly

enough summed up in his

Official The average British mind could not be brought that I could be pro-Turk, or pro-anything, pro-Lgyptian 158 anti-Britieh. The climax was a police tion received raid of official investigations into

to understand without being

Dues Mohamed Ali's

activities of informa-

on the AOR on 22nd December 1914" an a result But nothing on his at all noted; incriminating

from Y. I. 5.

was found.

The 11.1.5. confidential

report

It is seid that inflammatory papers and some -incriminating material tian by an Egy(sic), named Degouski to Liverpool were removed secretly the Editor of the Effendi and an Indian named Zaffer All, Kahn This statement does not appear to have Lahore paper 'Zemindar'. been confirmed. 159 Despite having failed to detect him in'anything from satisfied. that criminal or treasonable, a pro-

M. I. 5. end Scotland British

Yard were far

Though noting

and anti-Central

Powers artile in the "United to offer their

he had written Force"# and his

in December persuasion

1914, his enrollment of Egyptian students

Artists services

to Britain,

the conclusion previous conduct

of the ' M. I. 5. `file

was "Having

regard

to the whole' of his

158. ibid,

pp. 7 & 14.

159. M. I. 5. op. cit. It is remarkable that M. I. 5. were, seemingly, unaware that Zafar Ali Khan was notoriously and the Zam dar, anti-British a one' of the then'largeat`circulationvernacular papers in India, Cantwell Smith, dedicated supporter Turkey and the Caliphate; see of op. cit. p. 196. -

492.
it is difficult to place much reliance concluded in their on his protestations. 160 Scotland

Yard likewise 1916, "It of support,

summary of information

on him of 27th Larch obtaining means with

is not definitely

known how he is at present

but he is regarded 161 him as not straight . In the circumstances alien, register police which was actually as an enemy alien station

by those who have come in contact

he was lucky considered. of Turkish

not to be interned He was, however, nationality, He did,

as an enemy required to

registering however,

at Brixton from

on 9th November 1914.262 granted to Egyptians, and despite

benefit that

the relaxation, this

of the usual restrictions police surveillance,

would have implied, more lightly

in general

escaped far

than he might

have done. difficulties

But his registration over the next for permission

as an Ottoman subject few years, to visit since British States

was to cause him real

in 1914,1917,1918 West Africa for similar of his

and 1919 he applied whilst

on business reasons.

in 1921 he wished to visit (which, discussed

the United

On each of these occasions will be more fully of hill

as they formed part in the next chapter)

business

activities

he came up against the registration In a long letter

the problem

nationality.

He chose to have regard his Egyptian status.

of 9th November as establishing to the Foreign, Office dated 9th

160. ibid. 161. Supt. 'Quinn; 'Special Branch, New Sootland lard, -op. cit.

162. See J. Carter; 'Director of Intel i once' Office, to G. Loder, Foreign office, 15th August 1919, F. O. 3718/3728/114805.

493.
August 1919, he stated;
I registered Like all in England, as an other Egyptians resident Egyptian was ordered subject when the order for such registration I received by the Government. from the police Although visits for one reason or other the matter of my of a political nature for Ia for a Passport nationality until was not questioned plied Africa in 1917.16} the purpose of visiting

The upshot
three Brixton them to

was that
elapsed.

after

a verbal
After

assurance

from the Passport

he was sent the Home Office as the for

Office,
by the had instructed Govern-

months Police;

a further he said,

enquiry that

they

told (sic)

him,

re-register

him as a Turkish 264

subject,

Egyptian

ment know nothing events with was written

about him. two years

Of course, and after

his

letter

recording years

these

later;

several

of interviews

the Police

and other

officials, exactly

no doubt all what was said

of a wearisome nature, on what occasion. of records and 165 Even

he may well the Police files, Yet it if

have forgotten

and M. I. 5. authorities, errors

who had the benefit

made clear is also

in the information that his letter

they recorded

about him. disingenuous; further

possible

was deliberately Office

so, quite

unsuccessfully.

The Foreign of Intelligence,

asked for

infor-

oration from the Director

sent the 1916 Police and were

163. Duce Mohamed Ali to S. -of S. Balfour, F. o. 371/3728/114805. 164. ibid. ,.. ,.

F. O., 9th August 1919, p. 2,

to a pro-British 165. For example, M. I. 5., op. cit., written article refers by Duse in the Chrrietmae 1914 number of the ATOR, despite its last issue being in August 1914 - presumably a confusion with an article in some other magazine.

494.
report and information about his effort to obtain Office a passport in )arch to allow 1918.

In 1918, the Var Office his journey "although

Colonial and his bona-fides

had been prepared

and loyalty refused

were under suspicion", his as an

but the Egyptian 9gyptian. 166

Government in Cairo

to recognise

Nevertheless, determined the Foreign first having Part effort Office

this

1918 decision recognition

did

not deter

him from an even more Nationality or mislaid his from

to obtain in 1919.

of. his Office

Egyptian lost

The Foreign further

application, received

and on his that officialdom

enquiry

had to ask for

a duplicate; decision. that the first Office and

was tardy

in making a final

xr of the contusion.

seems to have been caused by the tact by the Turkey section and neither

application

was processed

of the Foreign

the second by the Egypt section, the other, of Cairo's though, both separately refusal that to recognise the Cairo

seems to have liaised decision year. 167

with

came to a negative him of the previous

on the basis It hardly

needs saying

Government at that

time simply

meant the

Residency, Ramleh to 166. bee, note., 162 above, and M. Cheetham,, British ,Lord Curion, P. O.., 9th October'1919i "I """ refer ... to Sir R. that Wingate's Telegram No. 197 of the 28th January, 1918, stating ,DU3E MOKAXED through Authorities was only ]mown to the nglo-Egi'ptian Press - see formerly articles published by his in the British Viscount Grey's despatch No-43 Secret of the 10th of February 1915. In view of his long absence from Egypt, he cannot be regarded as an Egyptian entitled to-British-protection abroad. " --F. 0. -371/3728/143799.

167.. of. F. O. 372/1274/126606.'rith 3728/143799.

F. O. 371/3728/114805 and P. O. 371/

495.
British wearing different hate= indeed, Sir likely year Reginald Wingate'a staff

at the tcamleh Residency were even less than the authorities But this in Britain, in that

to be helpful of crisis

to such a man 168 in Egypt.

time Dua Mohamed All., battle

yhose business

plans had been seriously to fight. The letter

held up by the long He instructed was duly his

over hie nationality, to write

was inclined Office.

solicitor

to the Foreign questions;

sent and asked some pertinent

(1) A person having a nationality, in it possible for him by residonce in another Country solely to change that nationay? In the absence of express power to charge a person's nationality Can the British without his consent, is it possible to do so? Government deprive me of ny British unless I ask them nationality or some other country to do so? (3) tian Is there any express Government? power in this behalf vested in the Egyp(2)

(4) Is there any power in the British Government to make a person the=aubjI$4 of anotherXountry when as"a fact he has never hitherto been so? But the Foreign cussions that Office was too oxperienaed to be drawn into informed general die-

on the law of rationality, Curzon regrets raised that

and blandly he is unable

Lawyer ) oaaop, you with advice on

"Lord

to furnish

the quostion should obtain

in your

letter,

and directs

a competent

legal

opinion

me to suggest that you 170 This would have upon them. .

166... In 1919; the whole country ; vas r immobilised -by the, auaoeaeful operations M21ern Hj tr Cory T-hg of Zaghlul Pasha and the Wafd. See Y. J. Vatikiotie, London, 1969r DP. 257-61.,,,.. of_,.

169. ii. C. Moeeop to Under S. of S., P. O., 22nd September 1919, P. O. 372/ 1274/132591"
170. P. O. :to H. C. sHoseOp, 27th September:: 1919,. ibid.

496.
been impractically expensive and uncertain. this fruitless correspondence was going very class.

But at the sane time on Duse Mohamed Ali limited connections his

that

was also,

and most wisely, boy" network Aubrey Herbert argued

making use of his of the British to call ruling

in the "old

He persuaded Office

old associate Herbert

on the Foreign although be

on his behalf.

tenaciously rather

for'Duee,

had been a member of the Ottoman Association, Society. that In conversation with W. Stewart

than the Anglo-Ottoman Office, he showed was the

of the Foreign point

obtuse refusal

to understand

an opposite

of view that

prerogative connections. carefully

of one who combined social Although explained the Foreign "Herbert

and military

rank and political view was

Office

and Ramleh Residency

to him.

seemed puzzled

to know why Ottoman for the

any more than some more agreeable man if be could notion not be recognised that

nationality

had been selected He brought

as an Egyptian. "

up his

intriguing this

Duse Mohamed Ali

was of American Negro descents Office to recognise He said dealings with Indian insisted that that him in the Dues,

may have been a broad hint States citisen,

to the Foreign

as a United context

but if

so was ignored.

of the Albanian

Committee "he had bad certain for speaking

with sedi-

Mohamed Ali, tioniste what little

bad found him & he useful callers

who were frequent

upon him. "

Herbert

that "if the

he knew of Duse was in his favour reasons for travelling

and suggested

man had important gency certificate

we might issue him with an emer171 The Foreign Office conceded to enable him to do so. "

171. Conversation

between Lt. Col.

the Ron. Aubrey Herbert,

M. P.,

and

W. Stewart of the P. O., 27th September 1919, F. O. 372/1274/135061.

497.
to Herbert arrangement in that that they would do this, 172 and it was doubtless to travel to under dent such an

Duse was allowed, But the Egyptian coveted

belatedly, Egyptian

Africa conceded he travelled in Britain,

summer 1920. or the

nationality

was never In 1921, Mission of the to the

by Britain to at the the

Protectorate provided Ambassador, nominally was at which while

Government. by the 173 at last Swedish

United behest

States of Turkey the

on papers Turkish being

on behalf war with granted

Turkish Powers. postfor refusing

Government, Apparently Protectorate him. This

still

western

Egyptian Egyptian would

nationality Government, transpired

him by the

would

have had no reason in America

have

he was living

between

1921 and 1931. So far we have seen Duse Mohamed Ali's connections with Islam and

Islamic

nations

'in

contexts

which if - not .exactly, at cross-purposes interests. of his efforts "Islamic" It

fron with

his 'point

of view,

anti-British, British if

were certainly of British

any normal official of importance

conception

is

therefore

a balanced

understanding of his

activities

is to be under-

stood

to take account

in 1915-1916 to promote the Indian to as I. M.S. W.O. W.F. impulse, an

Muslim soldiers In this as a Muslim, support for

Widows and Orphans War Fund - hence referred combined a charitable with It Pan-Islamic

body, he dexterously

and pious

towards widows and orphans, the Imperial War Effort!

sentiment,

is perhaps impossible

to untangle

172. Stewart
173. "Leaves",

to Herbert,
in

29th September 1919, ibid.

29th January 1938, p. 16.

The Comet,

498.
the here, though both were no doubt

elements

of

principle

and opportunism

present.

I. M. 3.14.0.4. F'. could in his support editorials

be said

to anticipate

the attitude

to the

war developed peoples should

in 1917 and 1910, namely that War Effort

coloured not

the I3ritiah

in every way possible, of their into full participation after

as a sign as equals, war.

of subservience, whose interests

but as a gesture

would have to be taken

account

the

According

to his

own account, to contradict

the idea of an I. M.S. W.O. W.Y. was his. this; and''it is supported 174 by implicaThe idea

There is no evidence tion

in the 1916 Scotland

Yard Report

on his activities.

came to him during

the 1915 Hamadan Fostival-at

Yoking Mosque;

I net and conversed with several of the wounded Indian Muslim soldiers In my conversations who bad been sent to England for treatment. that they were greatly with them I discovered perturbed regarding the well-being of their women who, for the moat, being secluded, for any financial would be unable to approach officialdom assistance they might require. These facts suggested 'The Indian Muslim Widows and Orphans War Fund'. 175 The vehicle Society, though, led through which he launched held his I. M.S. W.O. W.F. was the Islamic of Vice-President old post turned off out to be deeply for divisive Egypt, and 176

in which be still as we shall

see, the project supporters splitting

to him and his

to found the Central

Islamic

174. Supt.

P. Quinn,

Special

Branch, let

New Scotland

Yard,

op. cit.

175., "Leaves", -.in The Comet 11 6. ibid,

January

1938, p. ll.

8th January 1935, p. 7.

499.
Society. The target of the Fund was 10,000177 modest sum in relation Society, 178

-a

to the need, but huge in relation which amounted to leas and far

to the funds of the Islamic

than 410 at the tine

of I. M. S. w. 0. W.F. 'e inception, in his life have had at his

more money than he can ever before

disposal.
Before examine its considering ideology, the details of the Fund's it administration, let us

which is what raises

from being merely

one of a which Duce/

host of minor war charities. Mohamed Ali contributed towards

This is expounded in an article

to the magazine World's the end of the Fund's

work in September 1916.179 there is no reason

Though written to believe point that

existence,

the justification

of the, Fund given his

here was at any earlier article made the that;

any different.

To begin with,

World's work Imperial point

unexceptionable I take it cementing But this wau

comment, from the British

of view,

ideal than that of l that there can be no higher political friendly between the governors and the govern ed. relations a launching both before especially pad for attacking Britain's policy towards to true

merely

the Ottoman Empire, Imperial interests,

and during as it could

the war, as dangerous be misrepresented

by the Germans;

177. Dusel Mohamed, "The Indian Muslim War Fund", xxviiI, no. 166, September 1916, p. 350. 178. "Leaves", in The, Comet, 8th January _

in World's

Work, Vol.

1938t p"7. in WWorld'v Work, Vol.

179. Duse Hohamed, "The Indian Muslim dar lind", XXVIII, no. 166, September 1916, pp. 349-50. 180. ibid, p. 349.

500. Every indiscretion statesmen in regard to ... the of the British Ottoman Empire was made to masquerade as a new form of aggression leading up to the humiliation and suppression of Turkey and to the Now, it must be distinctly underof Islam. ultimate extinction stood that the entire Muslim world, and Muslim India in particular, advanceregards Turkey as being the sole remnant of Muslim political )'oreover, view may be taken of the Young Turk's whatever ment. the by the Indian Muslims, to them. Turkey represents irreligion British Is Turkey; Ehalifate, the Ehalifato and unfortunately and in their remarks statesmen have been wont to be rather flippant about Turkey, without any regard to the impression which their remarks might create in the breasts of the 100,000,000 Muslims within Empire. l81the British Representing educated people", in religion our faith. of In-The But there himself as one of a "large who "appreciated that "the British and influential the sterling section of Muslime",

in England, he accepted

qualities

of the British both

people - being freedom loving no sinister intentions

and politics,

could entertain

regarding reminiscent

" - Ute language and sentiments

bare are strikingly editorials in

Land Of The, Phmraoha and his early was, he wrote, a danger, for

the AT-OR.

"a number of our co-religonists " His answer Muslim

who possessed neither was to provide Imperial .a

our knowledge nor our understanding. link between the British

sympathetic.

and their

ubjecte=

determined to do 'my bit' I, although an avowed Egyptian Nationalist, _, in the highest interests I had lived for forty of those amongst whom through the Hence I determined to aid. my co-religionists, years ... Indian Muslim Soldiers' Widows and Orphans War fund and the potential 18' the British of munificence people. Stressingthe inadequacy of pensions available to Indian war widows, and

the difficulties ,

in obtaining

owing to "illiteracy-and even'these

the

181. ibid.

182. ibid.

:.

501.

natural unrolled governors

diffidence his plan

of Muslim women to approach the British to remedy this situation and recoi ile

official",, thereby the

he

and the ISualim governed;

We ask for the modest sum of 10,000. This is a very small sum for auch a momentous undertaking and for so great and rich an Empire, but it will be sufficient, the sufferings of not only to alleviate the most destitute widows and orphans of Indian Nuelim soldiers, but will also do service as a tribute rescuing them from starvation, to the valour of those who set duty to the Empire above religion, and who declined to lend either voice or ear to the seductive blandishments of the German seducer. The support of this fund will prove to the 2: uslime of India that it is enough that the blood of their husbands, eons, and brothers in have (sic) been mingled with the blood of the cons of Britain to liberty to restore their joint to smaller nationalities; effort band Empire from the ruthless of the British preserve the integrity to prove that the solidarity of the spoiler; of the Empire is no tangible thing, chimera, but a real, and that the Indian Muslim is Empire an enduring link in the indestruotibie chain of the British 183 whose proud boast is one King-Emperor, one People, and one Flag. This masterly of his old mixture of emotions slogans, and causes, ending up with most emotional

loyalist

but avoiding his that

any repudiation

of the causes ambiguity;

he had embraced since but it should again

1912, leaves be'considered

own position that

in`eniginatio

to us may seem discordant He was a puLliciat and pole-

elements mioist, for

were not necessarily not a systematic that to hie thinker.

so to him. Yet, things it

must be said, men.

he bad a genius ctn effort be of

statements that

might be all British

to all his

`. Chue, there

no doubt

readers, "to restore

words about the joint to smaller little

British"and"

Indian- Euslima

liberty

nationalities" Belgium' or the

would have meant the struggle perhaps Serbia, - but certainly

to liberate not

'gallant

to liberate

coloured

people in

183. ibid,

p. 350o

502.

colonies

of the Western Powers. q, , coloured with little peoples

Yet it

should

be recalled

that

to Dune

Mohamed Ali a mere visitor

were emall nationalities. there

Had he been might have been among

knowledge of the British

room hero for the British

a genuine nisunderstanding, for forty years, he understood blacks

but an one who bad lived only too well that utterly

the concept foreign

of independence to them.

and freedom for

was by and large

The techniques standard

he used to raise

money for

I. M. S. W.O. W.F. were the a charity advertising; advertising concert; writing was found

ones of charitable, persona

fund raisers their

- organizing patronage= Of these,

approaching letters

of eminence for for

to and articles the least

the press.

to be by far circulars approached,

satisfactory, individuals

to private at least

the distribution of 10,000 nor was 184 Of the-eminent better. people much Mong these wan the Earl of Cromer,,

some responded.

who apparently

bore no grudge for, the many hard things few years. Through Crot*r'$

Duse had written good offices# the

of him over the previous

editor
this

of The Spectator agreed to publish

letter he summarised the political that the people Euslim

a letter
objects

from Duse.

185

In

the Fund (i. e. to prove of were neither as well hostile to

to the Wuslim world Islam nor unmindful out its charitable

of Britain

of Indian purpose*

war sacrifices), Strachey

as setting accepted

186

Editor

of MLe Stectator_

184. ibid,

p. 349. in The th January 1938, p. 7. 1915. p"507.

185. "Leaves",

166. The Spectator,

16th October

503.
the political and it point, admitting "le owe such to our gallant to all Muslim soldiers,

would be a source of deep regret Army if the public here failed

who know and understand appreciation by

our Indian helping

to chow its

the families

of the ta3. len. "187 included the great opera singer, in Chief); however, Adelina Patti;

I. M*S. W.O. W.F. patrons the Duchess of Earlborough Cabinet, apart from Asquith.

(who was Patroness Ira. Asquith,

and the entire favourably.

responded

Others were found among the ranks Lord Lamington impressive the hostile eador, list,

including Turcophilee, of the British 188 But notwithstanding thin fairly and Aubrey Uerbert. many others rofuned their patronaga, ' 'In-gay at least one through

advice

of the Foreign to Sir

Office.

1915, the French Ambas-

Paul Cambon, wrote

Edward Grey;

a Son Excellence le L'Amassadeur }e France serait reconnaissant Seoretaire d'Etat des Affairen Etrangores de lui fournir quelgtus Society, reneignements our L'Islamic qui a son siege a Londres 158 Fleet Street, at qui lui a demands son patronage pour uns des qui dolt avoir lieu a la fin de Join au profit representation fa illes des soldats Musulsans victimes de la presente guerre. Los efforts l'organiaation de cute seance, Dute qui poursuit Mohammed(sio), deja recu leapgrobation d'apres. ce dernier, aurient l9 Sa Majeote le Roi at de Sa Majeste la Reine Alezndr. de

187, ibid.

0. 188. For eminent I. M.S. W. W.F. 'e patrons, 1st January 1938, p. 11.

see "Leaves",

in The Comet.

189. M. Paul Cambonto Sir Edward Grey, 5th ?ay 1915, F. O. 371/2469/5541.

504.
In fact, but it the claim that the Fund had received that Dua Mohamed Ali in this claim, Royal patronage was unduly wan untrue, rather a

seems possible

optimistic

than downright final refusal

dishonest

as he taight

not have received

from Buckingham Palace at the time of writing

to the French

Ambassador. It should be remembered that monarchy for that its with coloured his intense belief in the sympathy found it This

of the British hard to accept appears Foreign

subjects,

he probably

the King and Queen Mother would refuse from the Privy

to help. to the

to be borne out by a letter Office;

Purse Office

Duse Mohammed'(sic) wrote on April 19th, asking for their Majesty's Patronage for an entertainment under the auspices of the Islamic I Society in aid of the widows and orphans of Indian Muslims. told him on 21st April that the King could not grant his patronage to this entertainment, sympathised although his Majesty sincerely On the 28th April he object he had in view. with the excellent wrote and asked the King to subscribe towards the expenses of the I told hin he must apply through the India Office. entertainment, and But if in this this letter it could be used to argue his naivety rather

than dishonesty Office.

case,

also worsened his already had already described

bad name at the Foreign him in letters

The Foreign

Office

to Cambon, and

Lord Stamfordham at the Privy Purse Office, of shady as "a Pan-Islamist 191 Now the Privy Purse Office informed the Foreign office antecedents".

190. F. Ponenby, Privy Purse Office, 1915, P. O. 371/2489/62276.

to Sir

A. licolson,

F. O., 17th I'ay A. ficolson to

191. See Sir E. Grey to M. Paul Cambon, 14th K. 1915 & Sir ay Lord Stamfordham, 14th May 1915, F"O. 371/2489/5541.

505.
"There approval ie no truth I learn in his that statement that His ! ajesty refused has given his

... ...

Queen Alexandria "192

her patronage

and

also declined Financially,

to subscribe.

I J!. S. W.O. W.F. was a failure, available are those released of the. target,

despite

its

modest target. officers,

The only figures but since

by the Fund or its there for

these fell

so short

is no reason to doubt to the Funds A first 1915" This

them, at least India agent,

in respect

of money forwarded

distribution

Rajah )uhammad Ali of 0100 was said

Muhammad, of Mahmudabad, Oudh.

instalment

to havo been, sent on 22nd October six months endeavour. on 29th January, Further 7th April, that,

was a meagre harvest

indeed for

suns of 14th April as the Rajah

C75, 200, X125 and 4C150. were sent and 9th June 1916 respectively. of N`ahmudabadsaid{ 193

This was so little

if all the sufferers the money which each would were relieved ... of receive would be an unpleasant reflection upon the generosity the British people, and would impreeu Indiana with the fact that for the cause of Great Britain have been very their sacrifices 194 by the British poorly appreciated public. There remarks have considerable role in Indian League, 'of political political. significance life at that in view of the time. A leading the following

Rajaii', a prominent

member of the liuslim

which he was to be President

192. Ponsonby-toNicoleon,

17th May 1915 - see note 190 above. are given in world's Work, $eptc ber

193. Details of these remittances 1916, pp. 349-350.

194. See Supplement to The Centlewoaan,

15th July

1916, n. p.

506.
year, he was fully in support of the Lucknow Pact, =the Hindu-Muslin in the League's 1916 session;

rapprochement

of 1916, arguing

The interests of the country are paramount. - We need not tarry to The fact is argue whether we are Muslims first or Indians first. we are both, and to us the question of precedence has no meaning. The League has inculcated in the Muslims a spirit for of sacrifice 195 their for their religion. country as much as The Rajah was clearly funds. preeented British If no accidental choice it for distributor of I. 4. S. vi. O. W.F. 't. had been

the fund had succeeded, public

could,

in view of the way it to show a it failed

to the British change of heart it if could

by Dust,

have been thought and since

on the Turkish be used to stir it

question;

financially, Politically, final surely total

up Muslim discontent

in India. What the

not charitably,

was bound to be fruitful.

sum disbursed amounted to can-only be'guessed at, but it must r.; have been little in the There were some windfalls over 2,000. , British Diplomatic and

summer of 1916, as a consequence of Buse" soliciting Consular officials and private Brazil, individuals and 306.5.6.

in the New World - 96.2.2. from the British of 1,879.4.1. community in had been

came from Sao Paulo, 196 Rio de Janeiro, received, according

By 18th September,

a total

in the Islamic

to a list of subscribers published and subscriptions 197 Review. The Fund was about to close down in April 1917, from the proceeds Bazar in Chicago and l98 to the Rajah of N. ahmudabad. of an Allied

when L210 was received a final cheque for

420 was sent

195. Rn'Gopal',

op. cit.,

p. 131.. p. 350.

`Work, 'September 1916, 196. World''s

197. Islamic Review, October 1916, pp. 475-80, gives full details of I. M,S. W.O. 'W. receipts F. up to the 18th September 1916, including individual donors.

all

198. nom, July 1917. p. 35.

507.
Unfortunately, Zuni wan honestly

it

is

not

possible

to assume that

the

administered. which,

The contention as early

here was over the theatrical as April plan, 1915, Duee Mohamed All Scotland

entertainment was planning

from at leant of

on behalf

the Fund.

Of this

Yard reported;

he announced a matinee at the New Theatre on the 6th July 1915, but. it was announced a few days before this date that the performance was postponed. Through the sale of Tickets, Dune Mohamed is stated to have the sum of 500, but as he could give no proof that any collected to the Indian part of this money was ever sent for distribution Soldiers society, Widows and Orphans, the Islamic of which Dr. raj Id to do with hin, and is President, refused to have anything further by the in fact his ap; eal for the funds were entirely unauthorised In consequence Duse Mohamed and one Mushir H. Kidwai, society. Indian Barrister, society and, in a seceded from the original an dated June 1915 issued from their office at 156 Fleet Street, pamphlet L. C. it not forth objects of the Society and purported to represent is stated to have The new organisation the real Islamic Society. virtual possession of the Woking Mosque and Mr. Kidwai is actually 'oking. l99 residing at Thia account, fact lese than fair to Dime Mohamed Ali that as we shall within see, was in the Islamic

a consequence of disputed from the start wo may believe

had been raging

Society If

of the I. M. S. W.O. W.P. project. Dues Mohamed Ali, the dispute began an a split supporting because ability

between Indians the idea", whilst

and Egyptians, "the majority

the Egyptians of the Indians

"wholeheartedly

were in opposition nor the executive it

they possessed neither to originate

4

the necessary

imagination words,
4..: '

the ocheme. "200

In other

seems the Egyptians

199. Supt.

P. Quinn,

Special

Branch,

New Scotland

Yard,

op. cit.

200. "Leaves",

in The Core t.

8th January

1938, p"7.

508. the scheme because it opposed it had been thought for up by an Egyptian, But, he says,

supported

and a

most of the Indians minority

the same reason. the President Secretary, but for

of the Indiana,

including 201 and its

of the Society, Kidwai, supported

Prince hing.

Abdul Karim of Sachchin, The opposition minority.

was led by Abdul Majid, initially

the time being was in a his fire on the waste of in view of the to convince the

Abdul )ajid

concentrated

money entailed Islamic Society the India Society's on this Office

by expensive slender point,

advertisements, funds.

especially failed

But having

we are told

by Duse that.

Abdul Majid approached investigated.

and asked that

the Fluid be officially

The outcome was, Duse says; Inspector detective one morning, a few weeks later, arrived a ... I accorded brusquely demanded to examine the books of the Fund. and him every facility and having requested me to supply him with an The following order to the Bank for checking purposes, he departed. morning he returned and secured names of donators from the counterfoils in my receipt books which I also supplied. Some three weeks to congratulate elapsed and one Saturday morning the Inspector arrived on my careful conduct of the Fund and my courtesy to him personally. me I told him I had nothing to hide and was only too delighted that an investigation 'Well, I don't think had been made. He said: official be troubled with my presence again. 202 you will

Prince 201. Prince Abdul Karim of Sachchin was brother of the then reigning of Sachchip Nawab, "-ed. at Oxford and .the Inner Temple and also in France. Still at this time a young man, he had lived in the West but "did not allow the good qualities of ... since his childhood, (his) own race and religion to be effaced by the influence of Western July 1917, p. 15. culture. " see TOI, 202. "Leaves",
: 4 '. ' -z

in The Comet

8th January,

1938, pp. 7 & 19.

509"
Abdul 1. ajid of ruth was still-actively hostile. conduct He sent a letter of the Fund; to the Editor

complaining

about Dusea

The Editor wrote asking ne to call to discuss urgent business. On he told me of the letter my arrival me of and he in turn inforred that he had called up Scotland Yard to enquire whether they had They assured him that their received any complaints about me. investigation had been quite satisfactory; but he wanted to inform 'a certain Indian of the letter me poraonal1 and warn andagainst 2u3 Barrister'. By itself,, tion Duce Mohamed Ali's defense of his record in the administrapartioan. is that There the charity auto-

of I. M. S. W.O. W.F. would be interesting no smoke without fire,

but terely

in certainly

and what is clear miamanaged.

show at the New Theatre biography, typically

was sadly

Duo Mohamed Ali's states that it

confused it

over chronology,

was plannod 1915, intended a later 1915

in 1916,204 but in fact when the requests to take place date for

must have been planned as early Royal patronage,

as April

were made for

and was originally report gives

at the and of June 1915,205 show, 7th July said

The Police

the intended

1915, and as late "A patine

as Ootober

Duse'a letter arranged he alleges cancelled

in the _neotator

in aid of the Fund is being 206 but In his autobiography, that the show was last'ninutes the blame between

to take place that

at the end of next month. " an all star`caet,

he bad gathered minute

at the last

(which

of the several

actual

he does not say) owing to very

poor bookings.

He divided

203. ibid, 204. ibid,

p. 19. 15th January 1938, P-7-

205. See notes

189 and 190 above. 16th October 1915, p. 507.

206. The Sveotetor,

510. the British matinees,

public, ras neither

"which,

having

been treated

to a surfeit

of charity

generous who insisted

nor willing

to do good",

and the management reputation the prominent "207

of the New Theatre,

on cancellation and we could support,

because "the not well expect

of the house must be maintained, artists, Their who were giving attitude But little stand against their

to play

to empty stalls.

seems not unreasonable. more than misjudgement Dune Mohamed Ali,, if of the public rood. eeems to really

we except

his misuse of the King's To begin with, members within have unearthed the tatter of

and Queen Alexandria's no crininal the Islamic any real

names to the French Ambassador. against him. Hostile

charge was ever brought Society, and police

investigation, dishonesty. of Truth.

would surely next, Truth there is

evidence

of financial' of the editor

of the involvement exposing fraudulent fraud,

made a speciality

in particular was active in 1915-1916 in exposing and 208, Nothing would be more likely than that charities* war

207. "Leaves", in The Covet, 15th January 1938, p. 7., and AOR, July 1920, pp. 6-7, according to which the stars engaged for the show were pare, "Mr. Martin Harvey, Use do Silva, Lewis Waller, Phyllis Violet Vanbrugh, and Elsie Janie". Sir Charles Wyndham, then declined to "assure any strenuous work" but and infirm, elderly the financial of the matinee and thank agreed to'"announce result for their help on behalf of the fund. " the patrons and artiste 208. See, for e. g., "War Charity Scandals", ibid, p. 601' ' "Wanted, Charity Control", 1916, p. 356. ibid, 5th April
'' 'f

in Troth, 12th July 1916, let '. 1916, pp. 351-2i arch

511. Abdul Majid would have taken his sures of war charity its assistant editor, frauds Truth's

complaints

there

indeed, -

expoby to a

were more or lean officially being called

recognised as a witness 209

C. S. Paternoster,

1916 Government Committee of Enquiry as was likely, natter been approached, it

on War Charities. would most certainly scandal.

Bad Truth, the

have followed

up and published for fraud

any resulting

But no exposure

of Dusel

Mohamed Ali in Truth.

in the management of I. H. S. W.O. W.F. ever appeared was I. M.: . W.0. W.p. listed in the report of the 1916 or fraudulent

Neither

Committee on War Charities war charity. Thus, it 210

an an example of an ill-managed

would seem that

the smear in the 1916 Scotland Although his claim that

Yard report not mentioning to be the

to 'give amounted Abdul ?ajid principal ters as its figure

a dog a bad name and hang him'. informant, of the Islamic 211 the Yard did Society, accept

and implied unfair. Society It

the Dueo supporcertain of

were rogues.

This was grossly of the Islamic gives but this Prince

is not entirely

who the principal the Fund l X. R. Kidwai

officeru

were at

the beginning and later and

Duoe Mohamed Ali as Secretary,

Abdul Karim as President over twenty years dates

was written tendency

and we must remember his notorious events of his earlier life.

then to confuse

Even coy it

is hard to imagine who among the

209. P. P. 1916 vi 210. ibid, passim.

425, Cmd.8287r p"3.

211. See note 199 above.

512. Muslim community would have followed in his administration. after stated
of the

Dus

Mohamed Ali

had he been dishonest In March 1916,

Yet in fact Abdul Majid,

he was well

supported. committee

the split

with

the ennaging as: Prince

of the Fund were

in a press
Islamic

advertisement
Rev.

Abdul Karim Khan, President

The Mosque, the Islamic Woking;

Society;

Maulxi'

Sadr-ud-Din, of

Shaikh

H. H. Kidwai,

barrister

and Secretary

Society;

Dr.

Ismail

l urtado;

Dr. A. Z. Abushady (Duce I;ohamed Ali's standing);

called

Egjptian and President

friend
of

of some years

M.T. Kaderbhoy,

barrister

a Bombay Society of the Fund. 212

Anjumane-zai-ul-Islam; group anti-Indian.

and Duse Mohamed, hone At least four

sec.

Nor was this

were evidently

Indians,

only

two (including,

Duse) certainly a former

Egyptians, Secretary have of

and Dr. Murtado uncertain

in origin.

Kaderbhoy,

the London branch of the All-India supported orphans. a body devoted Also

Muslim League, would hardly of Indian in India crisis the rest

to the swindling the support

Muslim widows and of the Rajah of the Fund underwent of his time in member of

one must recall continued of being after

t: ahmudabad, which in 1915. Britain, Instead

the internal for

an outcast,,

Duse Mohared Ali in London.

remained

a respected

and influential

Muslim circles

212,

The Gentlewoman gave conThe Gentlewoman, 4th March 1916, p. viii. to the Funs= for example, support siderable on 11th March 1916, p. 257, it-published Duse Mohamed Ali and the Duchess of Marlphotographs of (the Fund's Buse as "Mr. Duse Mohamed, borough, described patroness) and by a very energetic the Hon. Secretary of the Fund, who is supported committee,,... eager to do all a man of very great accomplishments, " that is in his power to help his co-religionists.

513"
Exactly the Central at what tire Islamic Society the Dust supporters is not certain. the name Islamic began to call It themselves in 1916

would seem that Society,

there were two societies and Prince tion.

using

Abdul ? aid's

Abdul Karim Khan's.

There is no evidence is best understood occur within pressure

of any reconciliaas a personal groups. clash,

Perhaps the whole conflict quarrels that will

one of those

The group many

which bocame known by 1917 as the Central of the old names associated tical orgunisations held that with

Islamic

Society

attracted social

the Islamic

religious, in since

and poliThus, at a

Duse had been active Cecil

1912.

conversazione O'Donnell,

at the Motel field

on. 20th January

1916, Frank Hugh of saterialism) 213

Arthur

(described

as a representative

and the Japanese poet, In January 1917 we find

and contributor

to the ATOR, Go Komai, were precent. 214 Itarmaduke Pickthall addressing the :3ociety. was Easter of Ceremonies, was held

This meeting, at the hotel

at which Duse Mohamed Ali Cecil on 6th January

1917, and was in honour of the Prophet more members and for Zhaikh subat

Muhammad's birthday. soriptiona, 158 Fleet long list

An appeal was made for

which were to. be sent "to, the Uon. Sec., Street. Thus, the Central that Islamic

H. H. IKidvai,

society

can be added to the through Duce

of organisations office.
a. ~

functioned

administratively

Mohamed Ali's

213. - Islamic 'Review, of "Al-Qidwai", 214. A OR, January

February 1916, pp. 77-9. ' i. e., M. H. Kidwai. 917, p. 19.

The report

was from the pen

514.
By 1917 the Central spread of Muslims of all an Indian Britain Muslin Islamic nations. descent, Society Ito seems to have attracted Presidency Prince a wide

passed to H. H. Ispahani, Abdul Karim Khan left to Duse Mohamed Ali,

an important measure that

of Persian

after

on 3rd February
was, his as will

1917.215
be shown

This was important

in the following It Islamic the is

as Ispahani figure of in

chapter,

growing

business credit to in

interests. Central him with

a good enough circles of

Duse Mohamed Ali's was prepared plans. not only

society execution

Ispahani business interests the Arabi Duse. services world.

entrust

important with business parts of

Ispahani's in it India

family

were wealthy but also

merchants in

and London been in no doubt

many other in

He had, rebellion,

seems, which

Alexandria

1882 and witnessed sympathy of honour of the with for impor-

Pasha's

gave him particular him a certificate Vice-President

The Madras to Muslim

Government education,

had awarded

he was a former

tant

Bengal branch

of the All-India

Muslim League, and became Hon. Secretary With his friend for political connections to Islamic

of the London branch and commercial have made. Society's for Arabia;

216 of the League. he was a useful

success, In February

Duse Mohamed Ali the Central

1918, in addition Vice-Presidents, for ESyrpt; for

to Ispahani, Professor

offers

were: -

Abdul r. ajid

Belsha, for Hon. Secretary, 'said

Duse Mohamed Ali, and the Viscount

Tahya John Parkinson, France and Belgium;

Scotland; Kidwai;

de Potier

'Assistant

Secretary,

Bey (the-"el"Bgkray! Syed Ehsan el Bakry

215. ibid, 216. ibid,

February

1917, p. 40. p. 38.

'February"11917,

515.
to have been among the in 1914); treasurer, the managing Mlle. "undesirable" M. Ishaq; committee, Hadija Eanim; Egyptian auditor, )me. 158 Fleet of is, Street London; Duse's

visitors

at

Eabibullah

Lovegrove (that

members of wife of

Duse Mohamed All

Beatrice); Sudan; Khwaja

H. Dannumah of

Tunis;

M. D. Suleiman All Khan

Kamal ud-Din;

Zaharuddin;

: ahebzada

Wajid

of Keapur; based support Islamic London; political interlocked with

Abdul 4ayum Yalik. and its solid

217

The impression with

is that,

with

its

widely

connection

Woking Mosque, the Central and social society in

Society

became the leading

Muslim religious it was not also, it is only Islamic

which is not to say that use to its members. with

in an informal too clear societies that

way, of it

In fact

and overlapped

the other

and causes of

which Duse was involved, of his political

and must be considered life. 218

as a major part

the context

217" ibid,

February

1918, p. 11.

218. Among the signposts that the Central Islamic Society was in practice indicated was the presence not co, non-political as its constitution of Hindus at its meetings in 1920, perhaps the year of maximum HinduMuslim political history, with the entire accord in 20th century-Indian nation aroused by the Amritsar racsacre of 1919, and Gandhi putting Thus at the 1920 his entire weight behind the Khilafat movement. C. I. S. meeting in honour of the Prophet's birthdayk there were a number Hindus resent, Sir S. P. Sinha (later of of whom the most eminent was Lord Sinha), Indian delegate to the Peace Conference; see The bear East, 3rd January 1920, p. 5. In fact, was in conflict when Britain Empire in the British with the Caliph, no Sunni Muslim organisation Thus, even during the Great War, the Central could be non-political. for example, Islamic 0ociety could not avoid, a political posture; President Prince Abdul Karim, in his farewell of speech as retiring' the C. I. S. said; "Among problems raised by the war were those affecting the Khalifato, and he trusted these would be dealt with in a way that but would also enable would not only have regard to Moslem feeling, Islam to be again a power of light and leading in the world. " See ? Near feget, 9th January 1917, p"342.

516.
This but view it chapter may at times that what have seemed far removed from Pan--Africanism, and world was to become

should embraced the

be remembered the whole third world, of

Duse Mohamed Ali's in the which mid-twentieth

politics century

known as

an area

he saw as having

fundamentally

the came problems his efforts Africans for

and oppressors. Islam, Turkey,

To him,

there

was no division and his

between for

Egypt or F: uslim descent.

India,

efforts

and people

of African

And in fact, working

at the same time to create formal

as he was pursuing Pan-Afro-Asian have developed and issuing sion

those causes,

he was also

organisations far

in London.

Although

few of these seem to a committee

beyond the most elementary of aims, yet

stage of electing

a statement

they have significance people, living in Britain.

as an expresbut hailing

of the aspirations parts

of coloured

from all

of the world.

They precede the better

known post-Great Progress Union, 219

war Pan-African by six years,

movements in Britain, and can surely

such as the African in a general necessary

be regarded it

sense as precursors to say that the conand

of those movements . nection others,

However,

is also

between the pre-1914

movements, organised

by Duse Mohamed Ali loosest-kind. Their

and the poet 1918 movements, was. ofthe scarcely overlapped, Pan-African. and the later

leadership

movements, unlike

the earlier

ones, were purely

219. For the origins of "the A. P. U., Movements. of the Pan-African 1968, p. 353,. n. 6s University, 1900-1948, unpub. in Britain, pp.t62-4.

J. A. Langley, West African Aspects "oee 1900-45 o unpub. Ph. D. the sib , Edinburgh . _. Esedebe, Movements P. O. and "Paan_African 1968, London University, Ph. D. thesis,

517.
The first
African African Tirn Society of the the the

of the Pan-Afro-Asian
and Orient Review, Its Its lacked

movements was a projection

the Oriental, Occidental in

of the
and the November

called

(O. O. A. S. ). review.

inauguration ten aims and

was announced objects since any other

1912 issue detail what

made up in there appears

elaborate to be

society

in

substance,

no record aims

of

O. O. A. S. ever were; and r,aintain people.

transacting

business.

These

and objects

i. To establish and Occidental

friendly

relations

between

all

Oriental

(sic) To encourage educationalism ii. the same to all backward peoples.

and to afford

facilities

for

To popularise iii. ideas and principles of modern hygiene and sanitaby the conditions tion, life; to improve necessitated of progressive conditions of life among those who are at present removed from the influences life. of modern sanitation of healthy and ideals iv. To encourage the study, of and to extend the knowledge literature, both philosophy, religion, science,. and. social Orient and Occident. Oriental in the

Oriental Arts and crafts, to encourage Oriental v. To foster and Comindustries; to safeguard the commercial interests of Oriental to revive and encourage lost and neglected munities and subject races: of the East by arts and crafts
Organising the products of systems of publicity regarding for commercial the East, including the holding of exhibitions bureaus of informaand educational purposes, and establishing tion for advising travellers and merchants, artisans, artists, students. (a)

(b) Establishing in. the various states and districts advisors.. for improving friendly between the business intercourse and trade peoples, and by generally of fair promoting principles between the commerce of the East and the West. (c) Arranging business between the trade introductions and of the East and West, and manufacturers, and artisans merchants acting as agents for the same wherever necessary.

tours, and to exchange visits vi. To organise holiday and educational between the students of the East and West. To attend to the welfare of students and travellers under the care of the society, and to look after the interests of students coming to Europe.

518.

To arrange lectures vii. and to publish books, pamphlets and leaflets dealing with the social, industrial, and humanitarian aspects of life, in order to realise the ideals of peace, large mindedness, and
highest friendship; thereby overcoming contentions, all needless by which the 'differences the spirit of tolerance and inculcating for the improveof the narrow-minded are removed, and power obtained of the depressed classes, ment of the conditions and for the general to animals of kindness encouragement and human beings. To give earnest to the political viii. attention needs of the Orient, before the peoples of the and to place with care. and consideration West, the requirements from and demands that are consistently raised time to time, the progress thereby both politiaiding of the Orient cally, economically, and socially. ix. To safeguard the interests of Oriental races, and subject the aggression of militant caste, peoples, all and to abolish colour, among the various communities. and other prejudices against class,

the peoples of the Orient x. To inspire and of Europe with principles idealism, of right-appreciation, so that progress and of humanitarian towards ONENESS in all that is peace and intelligence may producing, take place. 220

Despite

its

tedious verbiage

wordiness,

which in its

omnium gatherum tone anticipates Negro Improvement Associais more than hot air.
clauses i., vii., then most and a

the fabulous tion, this

', of ?arcus- Gaiwey'a Garvey's

of to it

Universal

document (like
with, large hark

prononcementa)
- particularly the to Universal hold forth

To begin x.

sections in tone

- clearly

back

Races Congress, hopes of the

recent kind lines force.

and exciting of, international would then

event,

seeming,

sanguine U. R. C.

and inter-racial have seemed to

understanding. within

To work

along

be working

a gathering

world-wide

220. TOR,

November 1912, p. 182.

519.
Duse Mohamed Ali
the O. O. A. B. under v., with its

was later

to attempt

to realise
Thus, the

some of the aims of

far fetched

different three activities. of

auspices.. sub clauses, In information, agent to link is point

apparently in he did

clause his years ductions

a blueprint of fact,

many ways for, in the trade next introfew

later

business

open up a bureau and act but black

arrange - not, the

business

and

as a business in an attempt 221

however, merchants the

quite

as envisaged of 1913, aims of West

by O. O. A. S., Africa arrange with

and farmers in the

Americans. on "countries In connection

Through and peoples with"the., with of

ATOR, he did, with

lectures 222

associated

our. paper".

Ottoman the

Committee of

and the

AngloHe

Ottoman. Society, did concern

he ys with in

associated the welfare

publication

pamphlets. especially 223

himself.,

Oriental , lodgings

and African, for several.

African,

students

London,

providing

Indeed,

the closer appear.

the examination, Its concern ,

the less crackpot fors Oriental crafts

the O. O. A. S. looks less odd,,

aims and objects

221. See Chapter VI. 222. BOR,

Morocco, We are making arrangements to supply_, Lectures on Egypt,, India, , Nigeria, Turkey,, Tripoli,, Persia, Sierra Leone, Gold Coasts upon -and peoples the-. aims of our: paper. " countries and`; associated with,

March 1913,, p. iv,

carries

the notice,

"Our Lecture

Department.

Omanhene of Anamabu,. studying 223. e. g. Claud Annim, brother-in-law of the. { Other lodgers were commerce. in. 1916-17 - see ATOR, July 1917,, p. l2; in Lagos - personal information L. B.. -Agueto, the first )Iualin,. barriater, L. B.. Aguato, Lagoe, 28th March. 1967;,,.,; T. A., Doherty of from, Alhajji , Lagos - personal information from Chief T. A. Doherty, Lagos, 2nd

Apr il

1967.4

520.

when one considers Indian Nationalism

the enormous importance in the inter-war towards era,

of the Swadeshi movement in and of many subsequent Its interest efforts in the welfare of an

by emergent nations of Indian Indian and African

economic autarchy. in London looks

students hostel

back to the creation

run students

224 in London, and forward

to the West African

Students political conference

Union of the post-Great War period - both being of considerable 225 Indeed, `in 1913 Dues Mohamed Ali attended a significance. organised by the Anti-Slavery the question and Aborigines Protection Society hostel

in London to consider in London, to "shelter" Finally,

of creating

them from "harmful"

students an African 226 influences. though whether will

the O. O.A. S. had interesting

officers, It

it

ever had rank and file that being Africa

members seems dubious. in its

have been noticed all its talk

was not even mentioned

aims and objects, But of its

of East and West, Orient

and Occident.

nine officers, W.F. Hutchison The other

four were Africans and Rotimi

Duse Mobamed (Vice-President), another, James C. Smith,

Dr. Sapara, a West Indian.

Alade -and

224. Arun Coomer Bhose, "Indian Nationalist in the United States Agitation the Arrival of America and Canada till of liar Dayal, in 1911", Journal of Indian History, vol. 43, part 1, no. 127,1965, pp. 236-7, contains Indian information on the independent and Nationalist controlled hostel in London, India House, and its part in inspiring students' the creation of a United India House among the Indian students and immigrants in Vancouver, B. C., in 1910. The Indian student movement in Britain in the early 20th century does not seem yet to have that it surely deserves. received,., thescholarly attention

225" See James S. Coleman,, Nigerias 1958, pp. 204-7.

226. See Journal of the Royal African

Backmund
Society,

to Nationalism,
Vol. XIII,

London
pp. 425-431"

no. XLVIII,

521. Dr. W. Macregor Reid, Charles Rosher, Duse Mohamed Ali's

officers

were,

future

enemy, secretary,

$yed Abdul Najid, and G. W. Catchlove, obsession with

who was the Society's 227 Thus, for of Africa, African all

organising its

who was treasurer.

apparent

the Orient officer

to the exclusion

the O. A. A. S. had only and West Indian

one Oriental officers.

and was dominated

by its

The O. O. A. S., Justice

had no real

successor

till

1914, when the League of But in the interval there as

of the Afro Asian and abortive

Nations

wan created.

were two small

organisations for

which ought to be mentioned, organisation name, for in London. a Society of Coloured

they show the growing

desire

an Afro-Asian

One was a scheme, of which little for Spreading Knowledge'of

in known save its

the Capabilities

of Civilization

People. international well

This was proposed society with

by Dr. J. Kunst, Cerman, who envisaged -a headquarters it in London. Dust Mohamed Ali and ask those The other a, racially

an thought

enough of this to write

idea to publicise to. him with

irk his review 228

interested also

any suggestions.

scheme, non-exclusive coloured

announced. in and supported Club. This

by the ATQR, was for related,

Five Continents

obviously

to the difficulties

people in London found in getting , hotels and clubs,,, and is reminiscent

access to facilities

such as restaurants,

the scheme proposed at the Universal of

227. AMOR, November 1912, p. 182. ibid,, May 1913, P"330" '. . r.

228.

522. Races Congress dinner As for

in 1911.229 the inspiration for that group came

the League of Justice,

from F. R. O'Donnell; The for the the O'Donnell was most anxious to establit house a London clearing African He held with me that much of and Oriental affairs. done to coloured peoples by English officials injustice was Consequently result of ignorance rather than viciousness.

229.

The germ of the idea for this H. Seod's "The Need club was in William In this, Seed Unity", for Inter-Racial ATOR, November 1912, pp. 154-6. (a is "In'London, I believe opportunity white man) wrote; a great Here"are belonging being lost. to the some thousands of students 'coloured' I can say From personal knowledge or non-European races. that many of them come but rarely in contact side of with the better London landlady, European city. in a great life Naturally the average them as markedly though she be, does not impress worthy creature 'superior', institutions and in the Inns of Court and other educational In the case of East Indian they form communities unto themselves. induce retired to make come reasons students political officials is not enough. but that is all, at sociability, attempt and it certainly by any What is wanted is a Universal Races Club, free from domination kind: of clique, official of all races or otherwise, where students

and where may meet for social intercourse and for free discussion, do so. Europeans who are willing to-associate on equal terms may freely literature Such a club should have ... all important and on racial There should be a, weekly 'parliament', and perhaps general subjects ... . dinner at which distinguished a periodical non-European visitors .. 9 to 'coloured' also public men who have performed some signal service and A subscription or subject races, might be invited. " of 2 guineas was foundation envisaged and the initial should be undertaken not by the See ibid, students themselves but by unspecified philanthropists. It is easy to see how with these rather ambiguous views, pp. 155-6. Seed could later be a proponent of a whites only Turcophil society. Bia. motives. were as much to provide. a carefully edited contact with British life have wished. Indian^'official-could' as any Colonial'or at But, Duse. Mohamed'Ali and his readers., reacted enthusiastically first A OR, December-January 1913, p. 196. A public meeting --see was hoped for, in conjunction with the O. O. A. S., at which a definite statement about the Club was to be made, but this never took place. Races Congress proposals for an For details of the 1911 Universal inter-racial club, see "Leaves", in The Comet, 2nd October 1937, pp"19-20.

523.
bureau at the seat of the British Empire from whence reports a central of bureaucratic misrule could be disseminated, and which would serve the useful purpose of enlightenment, relief. would bring political
To this end he aided me considerably with the League of Justice, The O'Donnell which was formed by C. F. Ryder of Leeds, and myself. delivered the inaugural on the address and wrote several articles League's vital Times in the weekly edition necessity of the African Orient Review. 230 and

This gives career. brilliant Indian with

a new dimension

to the end of F. H. O'Donnell's Irish

long political M.P. in the generation of

- Long before,

when he was a leading

Nationalist to the first life,

era of Parnell, Nationaliets. 231

he had been an adviser Now, at the end of his He deserves

he connected for if this

himself in the

organised

Pan-Afro-Asianism.

a mention

annals

of, Pan-Africanism. William's

One wonders what his attitude, London Pan-African Conference

any, had Surely,

been to Sylvester had he lived African

in 1900.

a few. yeare longer,

he would. have welcomed the. post 1918 PanCongresses in Paris, London he

organisations As for

in London and Pan-African C. F. Ityder,

and Brussels. was a-merchant --

he remains a largely with

unknown figures movements.

from Leeds, and=associated

the Turcophil

The League of Justice

was first-announced-in

the ATOR on 24th Maroh

230,

Duse Mohamed Ali, 1920, p. 6.

"Frank

Hugh O'Donnell,

of

O'Donnell",

AOR, March

231.

Cambridge ibid,. Seal, NationalieD, The Emergence of Indian andAnil, 1968, p. 258; F. H. O'Donnell, ParliamentaA History of the Irish Party, Vol. II, Parnell London 1910, pp. 428-31; C. C. O'Brien, and Oxford 1957, pp. 22-3. his Party, `-

524.
1914, and gave its objects as; races
of

(1) To Secure for

the coloured
democracies

throughout
Asia,

at the bands of the and South Africa.

Europe,

the world
America,

justice
Australasia

(2) To limit the growing bureaucracy so as to ensure due"consideration for native laws, customs and methods of administration. (3) While recognising that racial distinctions are not necessarily in themselves an evil, between races, like equality and that equality between individuals, to will probably be reserved for the millenium, Preach always and everywhere the doctrine of Freedom, Fair Play and Good Fellowahip. 232 These objects show a notable decline moderate. of rhetoric since the early days of "Fair

1912, and were essentially Play" clause. was fixed is even more revealing A large

Perhaps the use of the phrase

here than the cap-in-hand hoped for,

tone of the first since to say, the subscription open to all

membership was evidently

at a minimum-,of sixpence

and was, needless

races.

233
inaugural meeting, held. at Caxton Hall on 26th March 1914 The audience Egypt,

The League's jointly. with

the Sphinx Society, people Africa.

seems to have been a success. from Britain, Japan, China, India,

was large, the United "called

and included Statesand

In the course of his address, heart to unite

O'Donnell for the

upon ail

Britons

who had the Empire-at treatment. for, all

purpoee; of obtaining races within,

equitable

subjects

and protected

thee pale of the British

Empire" .

an impecably-conservative -

232. ATOR, 24thMarch 233. ibid.

1914, p. 2.

525.
formulation of the League's objects, ccept. but a mood that DuseeMohamed Ali, of

as we have seen, could existing friends

himself

The meeting was a re-assembly different banner, Field. fora

and allies

under a slightly

motion was proposed by Professor

H. Leon and Arthur

This resolved;

That having regard to the constantly increasing aggression of the lighter races of mankind on those of darker hue, and taking into have facilities the fact that increased educational consideration the mental attitude altered of Asia, Australia, and economic aspirations
-ii is hereby resolved America and Africa, be that a League of Justice forthwith formed to defend the rights peoples, of Native and liberties committee and that its scope and objects as not out by a provisional 234 be formally adopted.

This was language persona; and on his Africans

to appeal

to Dune Mohamed Ali's on the merits for

other,,

more militant, for the League, of

he spoke briefly, own peculiar

of and necessity

advantages

knowing the desires to help. be well ,

of millions

and Asians that

who the League was designed his claim and that to leadership there should

Presumably he understood against by him,

was determined all

should

from the beginning

be no coup aired it

as in the Ottoman Committee. with Blunt telegrams and letters

To complete

the, occasion,

was blessed Wilfred Scaven

of sympathy from Aubrey Herbert, regarded

(who could be justly

Englishmen)

and the Sphinx Societies despite to

as the doyen of anti-Imperialist 235 of Paris and Geneva. its promicing start, seems to have As

The League of Justice, lived for only*a few months,

be nipped in

the bud by the war.

234. ibid, 235. ibid.

pp. 26-7.

526.
the ATOR was in potential outbreak was not the effect at its official organ, on which the review's collapse it relied cessation too. to contact on the Even if because this of

supporters

home and abroad, entailed the

of war probably the case, cloud It it is it

League's

would of

have been under suspicion

a grave hanging

disadvantage over

deepening friends. But it briefly 1914,

official

Duse Mohamed Ali by a worsening the direction in

and his climate. which in

was a premature nevertheless Insight entitled

growth,

blighted to into note this

interesting is given "The

tended. by O'Donnell, "236 those their in In this

by an ATOR article Justice of the Afro

April

League of that the that

Asian

Nations. with

he explained and Asian

League

was particularly lost or

concerned still were

African freedom. Africa North

nations that

had recently on this most recent

retained even worse right North too

He noted in Asia

intrusions the

freedom years in the if ) Egypt light

than

had in and (It is worth

extended of this

across African

Africa.

speculating, aotivities, the line Sanussi. of they of

pro-occupation in ... to the

and his

Turcophil funds for great link";

O'Donnell and Turkey nations, accustomed covetousness nations British in

was implicated seen as ought study also at

collecting centre of

were (and) to

that

ancient were "...

be their quarters

connecting the insidious in

close "

perfidy particular point,

European Eastern to to away

and greed. general

Re called

on India

and the not only

to use London but to observe

as a natural dangerous

focal

opinion,

enemies.

dditiopilly,.

236. ibid,

7th April

1914, pp. 53-4.

527.
feeling that Egypt and Turkey were at the heart the other of things, here) he too, . like of

Duce (and one wonders which influenced Egyptian and Turkish freedom to a world

related

defence racist

wide struggle-against

Imperialism= All who desire to restore the liberty of oppressed races, to combine the forces which are now lost through divided counsels, and to reject the insolent of 'the Colour Line' will find pretence and mendacity in the League of Juxtice. 237 welcome and support
This of in article the London was later Sphinx specifically Society, endorsed by E. S. Disouky, desire to the secretary sympathy a long other subjected

who added the League,

"we all which

show this obtain with all all

a practical

way by joining career, aimed as well at

we hope will union

and successful political people. support "far review at least bodies "238 for

as strong justice

co-operative for certain its

promoting the also

or for for

On 19th the League, most join

May 1914 though sanguine the to the

ATOR begged claiming

readers its Evory initial

further reception to the

that "

exceeded was told Iwelve

our to

expectation. esaa duty,

subscriber to

League

and furthermore still insisting

persuade on the only

friends of

do the

same. public, evils,

Though which

good heartednesa awaiting

British on Imperial'

was still

apparently was also

enlightenment

militant

language

used - "The war against

'oppression

must be waged-at

the seat of the-British

Empire and the war must be waged NOW.

A year hence may be too late. "239

237. ibid, 238. ibid,

p. 54... , l2th`hay 914, p. 188.

239. ibid,

19th May 1914, p. 202.

528. was the last of the

Whether readers League of Justice at least

heeded this

call

or not,

this

mention

in the ATOR. till

However, the League of Justice

survived,

in aspiration,

1919, when the C. I. D. noted; by Duse League of the idea will be 240 between

A new (sic) league has for some time been in contemplation 'The Mohamed of the Central Islamic Society, to be called Justice for Africa and Asia'. Arthur Field has taken up It now, and they intend to start a Committee to run it. composed of the same elements as the Anglo-Ottoman Society. This further Turcophil illustrates the continuity circles of interest in London. of Duo* Mohamed Ali the Great War.

and personnel

and Pan-Afro-Asian little

There is precious in formal for Pan-African

evidence

being

involved

organisations

during

His support

the National

Association

of Loyal here.

Negroeo, According

noted in the previous to Khalil 29ahmud, in 1917 an asaociawas the Such with it is not and help.

chapter,

would be an exception with

he was associated tion first

the Union of Students students

of African which,

Descent,

of west Indian of its kind

and West African

Mahmud says, of W.A. S. U. 241

in London and as such a precursor the U. D. A. D. was as natural With African students'-living students notice looked

an association Egyptian surprising

with

as his

relationship house,

students. that

in his

the West African 1917 gives

to him for

advice

The ATOR of February

of the formation

of a Union of

240. C. I. D. report in the United

to the tactiv ties of Eta . With reference Kingdom - 17th May, 1919, F. O. 371/3717/78495to 2nd ed. of In The Land Of The Pharaohs,

Mahmud, introduction 241. Khalil London 1968, p. xvii.

529.
African weresSecretary, Students President, in England. Its officers, of Sierra elected on 23rd December 1916,

E. S. Beoku-Bette

Leone, son of C. W. Betts; Assistant-Secretary, C. Awoonor Renner of Sierra of Aquapine

K. A. Keisah of Winnebah, Gold Coast; Financial Secretary,

T. Mensah-Annau of Accra; Lone and Cape Coast Castle; 242 (Akwapim? ), Gold Coast. between this at that will time,

Treasurer,

S. Edduh Attakora

One is bound to wonder what the relationship of African Descent was, since It in

body and the Union of Students there that can hardly despite its

have been room for title,

two such bodies. Students at

be noticed

the Union of African

England seems to have been a Freetown least with since as far as its organisers

Creole and Gold Coast body, Perhaps it which it is later

were concerned. Descent, If this

merged pre-dated,

the Union of Students its origins

of African

probably

were back in 1916. the Dost technical of African helped its

so, Khalil

Mahmud would

be wrong in only

sense in regarding Descent as the first the Union of African via

the more broadly of its Students kind in

based Union of Students Britain. by permitting compared it gines

DuseeMohamed Ali it to conduct with

in England and

correspondence

158 Fleet

Street,

favourably Society

the 1913 efforts an African

of the Anti-Slavery Students hostel

and Aboriand welfare

Protection

to create

organisation

in London;

We students in London have formed pleased to note that the--. lare -African years Some for social intercourse. well known London ago a a union. There ras a public meeting society attempted a similar enterprise.

242. ATOR, February

1917, p. 36.

530.
6 tea was subsequently given heralded by a flourish of trumpets. to a number of West Africans the terrace the douse of Commons on of but beyond this nothing happened. and there was much speech-making, The students have now taken up the matter themselves, which is as it but also We not only wish them well in this enterprise should be. intercourse between the darker sons of the hope that the resultant Empire may be productive of brotherly unity fraught with the greatest243 that gave them birth. good to themselves and to the various countries The implicit achieve Pan-African message here is clear for themselves, enough - if acting Africans were to

anything for

they must do it

together. also played

Turning a part

the moment away from London,, !)use Mohamed All stages into of the Garvey movement in Harlem. in his attempt to organise

in the early

In 1917, in Harlem a triumphed,

serious charges "

Garvey was running black

largely were

opposition

body called
through raised

the New York Association.

a letter they received character of in the 1919, from

His opponents
Duce, "in which

against was used rovement. to help Hall for

Garvey's at 244

and his

leadership

was discredited. the break

The letter up of the from the

a meeting Later,

Association, Duse }ohamed visit

and led'to Ali to ignored Britain

a request by booking

Garvey Albert

him organise mama meetings

a forthcoming on 13th

or 14th

November,

and Caxton

Hall

for

a meeting

on 18th.

245

It

is clear,

therefore,

that

just

as his

243. ibid.

March 1917, p. 36.

U Black t1oses. The Story of Marcus Carney and theniver_244. E. D. Cronon. Madison 1955. pp. 42-3" e_, Nezro Imvrovement Association, 245. See postscript to Duse Mohamed Ali to J. E. Bruce, 12th September 1919 18th July 1919, mee. 268, Bruce Papers, Garvey to Duse Mohamed Ali, and Schomburg Collection, New York City Public Library.

531.
engagement in the Turcophil quarrels activities. and splits, and xslamophil worlds had been followed by

the name was the case with of Garvey's

some of his Pan-African rise to fame, as E. D. about

Whether he was jealous 246 or whether

Cronon suggests, Garvey,

he truly

had good cause to complain his treatment

cannot yet be resolved; Taylor,

but unlike

of Abdul P"ajid public

or John Eldred writings,

he never abused or villified him.

Garvey in his

though he did criticise that split

The letter as part on with Tires

the New York Association that 1912.

in 1917 must be seen was carrying

of an extensive black Americans

correspondence from at least its

Duse Mohamed Ali The running

of the African must But also unletters

Orient and

Review, with a fair

American

agents and contributors,

inevitably

have entailed infer

amount of such correspondence. body of other of this

one may reasonably connected with

a considerable a small

correspondence remains in his

the review; black

fraction

to the veteran Collection preserved

journalist

John E. Bruce,

preserved Library.

in the Schomburg Even what in of the corresto Bruce of as cirThe whole charges

in the Harlem branch here is, in its turn,

of blew York, Public evidently

only a fraction his letter

pondence between the two men. 12th September 1919 with cumstances will tone of this'letter by Bruce of neglect, allow", "I

Thus, -he begins

have been writing implies

to you as regularly other letters. against

which clearly personal, in their

is highly of late,

being a defense friendship.

Duse says;

246, Cronon,

op. cit.,

p. 43.

532.
I have written In fact, I to you quite frequently of late. ... have replied to all queries raised by you, in addition to which I have sent Mr. H. A. Johnson with a letter to you and of introduction I also wrote you about him by post.

Once before you accused me of neglect, and I then told you that I am not built that way. My great I am too loyal trouble to is that find to me, my friends and I rarely any who, like yourself. are loyal for me to grasp your friendship in both which makes it more necessary hands.

the letter

ends in an even more personal

vein; that it we might have to no good is a very great fight this chew the cud being impatient
At

I do not know what I can say further except pity that I am younger than you are so that little matter out, but as it stands I shall I hear from you again, is it is (sic) until with one's friends although they try us.

I note that you end up your remarkable letter with respect. to know that I still any rate it is something retain your respect 'pull Now, just else I might have lost. whatever up your socks'

and get a big quill fattening please do

You remind me of a petulant to one of your years. who has an girl tiff lover to inflict unjustifiable with her devoted and tries a has been making upon him because a chap in the next street quarrel Now I want to know what Go'dam chap there is round eyes at her. the corner have to come up your making eyes at you, because I shall shortly street with two clubs, pistol and I shall a revolver and expect you to stand by with the one cup of coffee.

quart of ink, if your from the tail of your in your back yard ... not upset me again in

pen fountain thanksgiving and write me this manner,

has run dry, and 4-good turkey which is now and a decent letter, as it is highly unbecoming

Having delivered myself of an effusion which I hope is quite suited to the case, I trust you will sit in the shade of the old three times apple tree in your back garden and read this letter carefully, and then ask-Mrs. Bruce to use the slipper on you for daring to write to me in this strain. 247 Duce signed sane himself "With love and kisses, Your very own unchanged. " despite any No

an would write

euch a letter

to another

who was not,

London, to J. L. Bruce, 105 Kosciusko 158 Fleet Street, 247" Duse Mohamed Ali, Brooklyn, Street, N. Y., 12th September 1919, mes. 268, Bruce Papers, Schomburg Collection.

533.
quarrel, references political Ali his close personal friend. this Not only does the letter contain or

to others,

but clearly Indeed,

can have been no more business

correspondence.

one is bound to wonder if his period

Dues Mohamed

had known John E. Bruce during

in America in the eighteen-

nineties. It
lines tiona small life of

is clear

that

during

the Great War Duse Mohamed Ali

could the be used war.

was keeping
organiea-

commgnication, at

open which the end of

by more formal he played that

and activities part in in the in

Yet

a comparatively sprang to

full-blooded the aftermath tension only

Pan-African of in that

organisations war; with this

Britain of great in

is,. straigd

as 1919 was race riots

a year

racial not Yon., is true of Great

Britain, centres but riots which British the also

anti-coloured

and incidents Barry, itself. faring levels the Newport, 248 It

provincial

such as Cardiff, in the East End. of the

Liverpool, London sea-

and Glasgow, that these these places,

mainly

involved

coloured

populations during the of

had built manpower war,

up to unprecedented requirements. With

War, due to

collapse

the

shipping Arabs

boom after.

these

men - West. Indiana, almost the impossible scarcity

Lascaro, to get of fobs.

Somalia, work, yet

Adeni were

and West Africans by their far white. removed

found-it -

blamed of

fellow from

seamen-for the murky

Duse was,

course,

of dockland; world. -,

at about that

time he was living

in the leafy,

substantial

and middle

class

..

`y$

!ra

'Sid

248. See Kenneth Little, Michael P. Banton,

London 1945, pp. 56-60, N'earoee in Britain, The Coloured Quarter, London 1955, pp-33-5.

and

534.
district of St. John's 249 Wood. But he cannot have been indifferent "inflamed the passions of the emphato

these events hooligan sised attacks to his

which, "

as The Times put it, 250 Contemporary by discharged 251

classes.

accounts soldiers,

in the British in leading

press

the role

played men;

white

mobs in

on black native

T. Swellibua

was alive sinister

and well

and had returned outrages

slums. on black

A particularly

aspect

of these

was attacks

were respectably

with white women, even when they men "associating" 253 252 he As the husband of an Englishwomen, married.

249. His address from Alhajji

in 1920 vas 6 St. James Park, L. B. Agusto, Lagos. Police

St.

Johns Wood - information for Negroes",

250. See "Black and White at Liverpool. The Times, 11th June 1919, p. 9. 251. See "Race Rioting
252.

Protection

at Cardiff",

ibid,

13th June 1919, p. 9.

See "Limehouse Riot Trial", ibid, let July 1919, p. 4, in which the is reported "If there was one thing more than prosecution as saying; that the white seamen resented it was black associating aflora another in feud between blacks and whites white women, and the resulting with the London has attained as to require all such serious proportions In force in the East-End the peace. " to. preserve of the police Cardiff, the mob singled black men and white out houses in=which being an elderly together, victims women were living one. of-their See ibid. Somali: Alhajji, to a British woman. respectably married from Belmont 13th June 1919, p. 9. At the%end of 1918, black soldiers by Liverpool, Hospital, from, war wounds, were attacked recovering by white in wheelchairs the streets men being pushed through whites, Telebeing particularly for attack see African women singled out -

rR aDh, December 1918, ' Pp"94-5" -

is known about Mrs. Beatrioe', Mohamedtexoept that she was white 253" Little Duse Mohamed Ali'loft. her. behind. when he went to America and-British. from- Alhajji in-1921, and, the separation, was , permanent. _' Information Agusto.

535.
must have wondered if
A partial upsurge interests the United of

he and his
for

wife

were safe fron

lack of engagement is that

abuse or even violence.

in the post-war his to action to

explanation

this in

Pan-African were leading

activities

Britain to -

to some extent and ultimately political

him elsewhere Increasingly, correct in Partly, the tactic following these

West kfrica from

States. action

he was turning to fight chapter. were

economic this will

as the

Imperialism But also created One of a very "pass" ancestry.

and racism personality

be discussed here. of

was a factor never Archer, Indian made it

new groups Street of fact, his circle.

by men who had these light was J. R. skinned but From West

been part councillor so light a point

the

158 Fleet

and former skinned of honour that, not

rayor in to

Battersea, he could African

as white, 254

hide

254, See "Men of the Month", "A Colored Mayor In London", The Crisis, January 1914, p. 120, in which J. R. Archer is reported as saying; I do not wish to deny the fact, "Of course, I am a man of color. But why should though many an Englishman is darker in appearance. that be any bar to my filling the office and "Men of of mayor? ";

This "The Mayor of Battersea", March 1914, p. 225. the Month", ibid, his mother a that Archer's father tells was a Negro from Barbados, Irishwoman. in studying for first Liverpool After false starts in politics then the bar, he became involved as an ardent medicine He earned John Burns. Labour Party leader, of the early supporter he was clearly In Battersea his living politics as a photographer. finance, the works, valuation, and successful, on. assiduous sitting He baths committees, health, the last chairman. of which as and on board of Guardians, a school manager and was a member of the local charities, of various of a group of school chairman a trustee managers, Irish the United because of his mother's a member of and, nationality, To The Crisis he feared League. he declared no man and brooked no . to. belong. because of therace1o: insults which he was privileged

536.
the very fact of his political career, it is evident that J. H. Archer -

and here his appearance was probably

accepted Indian influence remarked Street in in Britain than

a key factor
had ever 255

- was far
been. the

more deeply
Another West

i Mohamed Ali Duse

this in here

new era post-war that

was F. E. 11. Hercules; London Pan-Africanism West Indians certainly not

indeed,

West Indian may be 158 Fleet Street, evidence.

was strong, were not

and it in

although were

unknown

circles,

they Indiers, to

prominent. British

At 158 Fleet were far these more in

West Africans, This is not

Egyptians

and even

say that but

he had any antagonism that there

towards

West Indians, between part.

or they them.

to him, But also

merely

seems to have been distance and antagonisms played their

personal

differences

To begin with,
and highly persona

Due's
grata in

old opponent John Eldred

these new circles. His

Taylor
African

was prominent
Telegravh, in

abeyance since like an official

1915, re-appeared journal

in December 1918, and acted

as something

to these movements, in the same way as the ATOR the Anglo-Ottoman re-opened review Society, and the League of Duce Mohamed Ali's

had to the Ottoman Committee, Justice. Indeed, Taylor had

old wounds during had collapsed Taylor's

hour of need in 1915, when his suspicion loudly from the security

and he was under grave African Telegraph specifically was disowned

authorities.

pro-British

in 1914-1915;

in December 1914 it

Progress Union - see the 255. Hercules was a founder member of the African 1919,-'p. 111, and'w8 in'favour=of AfricanTelegravh, ' Jaary-February p. 113. West'Indian Federation ='cee, ibid,

537.
any connection with Dus;

Times and Orient Review. We have no connection We with the African Mr. Duse Mohamed, has registered himself that the Editor understand We have not heard of the journal being pubsubject. as a Turkish lished the 18th August. 256 since

This was kicking

forgotten. hardly have It

an when he was down, and not likely

especially of the full to any best African that into

to be forgiven
readers,

or

implied,

who can

been aware

circumstances, than of been his forced

Duee had wilfully this position by

embraced the

enemy nationality, of these the time

rather and place both

mischance Despite

birth. at the African Street, a substantial Mrs. Beatrice role members is Progress

old dinner

scores, at the

men were present Eastern It this is worth was. Hotel, noting

Union's London, gathering

inaugural on 18th of the

Great

Liverpool what

December coloured other

1918.257 community

Not counting

Mohamed and the usually assigned

ladies

(who seem to political

have had the there

supernumary were forty

to women in Whether

movements)

and guests unclear. Chairman;

present. The principal Robert

Duse Mohamed Ali at inauguration

was a member or guest were, J. H. Archer, Financial that

officers

Broadhurst, Assistant

Secretary; Secretary.

K. F. Tandoh, It is

Secretary; only

and F. E. M. Hercules,

significant

one of the other

men there

could

be particularly

associated

with

Duse'a

256. ibid,

'December-1914, -p. 28. ithe-.-principai. -guests, 1919, pp. 111-2. `. toasts

257. There, is-afu11 account of this-dinner, January-February and speakers in ibid,

538.
circle, and that was T. A. Doherty, then lodging visitors with him. Among the more Mills from the Jackson and admirers the pioneer (later

eminent men present

were the west African

T. Hutton

Gold Coast and T. B. Jackson of the radical and his paper were, in the coming year, British guests

Lagos Weekly Record. supporters

to be ardent included

of John Eldred editor Sir

Taylor.

A. Cartwright, Rev. John Harris and Aborigines

of West Africa,

and the very

influential

John Harris),

secretary

of the Anti-Slavery been attacked

Protection in the

Society, ATOR. his

a man who had at times John Eldred Taylor

by Duse Mohamed Ali

was singled

out by being among those who spoke, of the Race". Other speakers between imperialism, law

theme being

"The Soldiers

and Sailors

included

T. H. Jackson,

who discoursed

on the connections

race and social student. at this

darwinism,

and F. Xlontacute-Thompson, invited,

a West African

Thus, although dinner. It will

Dust was by no means among old friends his Egyptian 258 friends had either

be noted that

not been invited in the A. P. U., formed ablock

or at least

were not there. certainly,

Had they been involved Society, have

they would almost

as in the Islamic

which would have supported him and guaranteed him a certain S9 2, Their absence helps-to"explainhis involvement consequence. very limited

258. ibid. 259. It"wuld`be'unwise to argue fromm'`the absence of the young Egyptian in. purely, student in Londn that they were totally uniinteieted . mwenBut the years`1918-1923 Pin-African were`pirticularly grop. tons ones for Lgyp-tian nationalists, struggle own national and their for these young men. have been an overwhelming priority would

539"
the A. P. U. was of so little in his autobiography.
is nothing to suggest any close connection between Duse Mohamed

importance

to him that

it

received

no mention-

There

Ali

and the A. P. O. from after hand, there to the A. P. U.

its

inaugural indication

dinner that

till

the middle Taylor

of 1921. was

On the other very close

is every

John Eldred

Such A. P. U. 'leaders
had speeches closeness in Londons did the

as F. E. M. Hercules
and articles not prevent of published the

and
in

G. Montacute the African

Thompson frequently Telegraph. Pan-African 260 This

emergence of Afri-

of another

movement

Society

Peoples

can Origian
leading light.

(8. P. A. O. ) of which John Eldred

Possibly the

Taylor

seems to have been the

the A. P. U.; certainly

S. P. A. O. pro-dated

it

was in existence-1y
in origin.

December 1918, and would therefore

261 Relations between the

be at

least
evidently

contemporary

two bodies

were

260.

"The African Telegraph, African ee F. E. M. Hercules, and Rationalism", "Women and the A4-Creation December 1918, p. 84; of Africa" and "The Federation January-February 1919, pp-113 ibid, of the West Indies", "Africa & 118-9; ibid, }:arch 1919, pp. 127-8; and Reconstruction", An "The Native Situation", ibid, April 1919, pp. 168-9; "Wanted: Policy", ibid, Enlightened p. 210; also G. )iontacute Thompson, ibid, 1919, pp. 162-4. April

December 1918, p. 66 gives the first 261. ibid, of a series of S. P. A. 0. S. O. S. ", but neither manifestoes under the sub-heading "The African here nor elsewhere in the African Telev, rarh are the details of its foundation since-the and organisation. same issue of the African Telegrath, pp. 89--90, carries on the A. P. U., then a brand an article it may be inferred that the $. P. A. Oo roughly coincided new organisation, with the A. P. U. 's foundation.

540.
close
as to in

and friendly;

the African

Telegraph
reported

gave as much prominence

at length the

to A. P. U.

S. P. A. O. activities. 6Field in

Thus it Westminster

A. P. U. 's role perennial

a conference

on 22nd May 1919 on that

topic,
by the over

"A Hostel
Committee Victor

for
for

Africans
Welfare Buxton, its

in London. "
of Africans in

This

conference
a body

was organised
that which present was presided perhaps in the of

Europe,

by Sir

with tone.

John Harris Colonial and Sir

as secretary, big-wigs Sydney were Olivier,

sufficiently shape of Sir

indicated

Hugh and Lady Clifford J. R. Archer, the A. P. U., for and in

ex-Governor Thompson Dove, were

Jamaica. there usual from

Hercules addition

and F. Fred

74ontacute

and Francis of

showing Africa

their

propensity

being

around

when natters

moment to

west

Were being considered. approval only put it that it that

The A. Y. U. contingent to what, it

expressed

its

strong

dis-

had been invited

had :supposed, was a discussion, on. As John Harris and

to find

a scheme had already decided

been decided

the scheme was already of a Hostel Society

on, and was but a confirmation at by the Anti-Slavery In fact, by Sir

continuation gines

scheme arrived

and Aboriall the

Protection

in the 1913 Reception. " a vague motion

1913 meeting "That

had done was to approve and growing resident

Harry H. Johnston

the large

number of natives in London for country.

of Africa educational

who are British purposes calls for

subjects

temporarily

some friendly

recognition

in this

"263.

262. For details 263. Journal

of. this

conference,.

see ibid,

May-June 1919, pp. 211-2. No. XLVIII1 July 1913, p. 426.

of the Royal African

Society,

Vo1. XII,

541.
There was a great African present student hostel contract question, between the 1913 and 1919 meetings both in respect At the former to the African meeting, on the

spokesmen

and the tone they adopted. present,

Duse Mohamed Ali and

was not only Charles

but backed up by James. C. Smith, words, the 158 Fleet Street

W.F. utchison circle

Rosher;

in other

was present Their of ... ' it

in some force

and acted as spokesmen for and compliant;

the African

point, of. view.

tone was respectful the. resolution_was said that

the nearest

they came to criticism in supporting

in a. few words of Due's, himself prefer visiting

who "..,

much as he should to give

to see an African England for

University, every

would be vine possible noises. fault"

the African

education

encouragement. " though Hutchison of the British, himself the bitter

W.F. Hutchison did permit

and James C. Smith made loyal ;. Ir 11 himself to say a fev words on the "one and that "The, African milk arriving, comin

lack

of sympathy, desert.

London felt pared with racial streets jibed'at

in a great

"264

Thisgie

and water

remark of J. R. Archer, Africans a public If 'nigger

made in the tenser

British

atmosphere

of 1919, that or enter "265

"could

not walk about in the being insulted and

of the capital as'a 'nigger'.

place without talk'

was absent striking

in 1913, Duce omission,

Mohamed,Aii"and'his

friende'vere'absent

1919 in -'a 1j VC, .

264. For buse lohmed Ali's the 1913 conference, p. 427; see ibid, remarks at for. James, C. Smith's,, ibid, for W.F. ibid,, p. 428; remarks, _IIutchison's ,, ICosher's, itid, ' for Charles pp"429-30; p. 431. ' 265. African Telegraph, )ay-June 1919, p. 211.

542.
indicating the that either they had lost interest in this topic, in or that now

new A. P. U. seemed the than the

obvious

voice

of African 1913, the

opintoa A. P. II. 's

London.

Far more militant

ATOR men in

spokesman

F. Montacute should it

Thompson demanded that representation

if

the Hostel-scheme

went ahead, there

be equal African

on the Board of Management, and that were not under the Board's outright rejection tutelage

should be laid

down that 266

the ; inmates was for

or guardianship. preferring and fairer It it

J. R. Archer

of the scheme, better

an African opinion

War Memorial, ito"teach 267 of Africans.

the British

people"a

would seem that

the S. P. A. O. was never as active 268

as the d. PiU.; Taylor's 269

held meetings

at Hyde Park-Corner, tlner to Lord )1.

under John Eldred and

signature Above all. in British

protested

about conditions information in about

in the. Went Indies. the flogging

the S. P. A. O. collected 'lest Africa. 270

of Africans amalgamated

Eventually

the summer of 1919'it

266. ibid, 267. ibid,

pp. 211-2. p. 211.

eb

April 1919, p. 203. for a mention of an S. P. A. 0. Hyde Park 268. See ibid, in so doing, the S. P. A. 0. showed that it on race riots; meeting - the really trend of events only-too spectacular understood-the well in Cardiff race riots and Liverpool were yet to come. 269. ibid. July August 1919, pp. 265-6" v. Taylor, in TheTimeA, 8th November 1919,

270. See account p"? t

,;

of Fitzpatrick

543.
With this the A. P. U. to form not old dinner, the Society have stuck This at the time, Holborn Eldred of African long, buss Peoples and the (S. A. P. ), though

name does to its

seem to title. held jointly

A. P. V. eventually was absent'from July 1919, of the shows take

reverted the

Mohamed Ali

inaugural

restaurant Taylor

on 18th

which A: P. U. that

was arranged 271

by John

and E. P. Bruyning

However,. the

Duse'e-old in'the

friend

Frans

Dove was present, and Orient Taylor. (It

which Review

some-of August

principals

African peace wife 272 "11

Times with

verof in of that

1912 later

made their

may be noted'' some

passing'that-Silas. John Eldred'Taylor's representatives this, National

Aove and his companies). were there

were

substantial

investors'in Telegraph reported and

The African parts" J. of

from

British

Africa, the South

although Native

was probably Congress of which

an exaggeration, was certainly

Gumede of

African to at one of

present,

and a toast took

was drunk the chair that

the delegation the the

he-was

a member.

J. R. Archer to The*Times sufferings

S. A. P. inaugural objects of-the

dinner, Union

and according

"said

gras to make known the

and degradation

of their

brethren

in other

parts

of the British

Empire. "

273

Telerraah, July-August 271. See-African S. A. P. inaugural dinner. -

1919, pp. 269-71,

for

details

of the

Dove 50,10/For example, Silas Dove `had 400, and his wife Lilieth 272. Corporationsee allotpreference shares in the'African-Co-operative shares in African 5th-27th May 1915o Corporation, Co-operative ment of . B: T. 3i/22703/139272/Il. John Eldred, Taiylor! $ career as a company . , is discussed in the following chapter. promoter
273. Time The _, July 19th, 1919, p: lie' s,'

544.
There can be no doubt that of-Taylor practice British the Zaria climax In this and the 3. P. A. 0.; to systematically West Africa. floggings career, this policy was adopted under the influence of 1918 it bad been Taylor's brutality in back to

from the-end expose all

instances

of official

As we have seen, this , of 1912. Indeed,

crusade

can be traced

he was building Fitzpatrick Nigerian

up to the dramatic

of his

the sensational libel

case of November 1919. Resident Fitzpatrick, for the public

he was sued for

by Northern

who the African flogging

Teletzravh

had reported

in 1918 as responsible lout

of women in 1914.274 " Though Taylor

the case and crushing

274.

See African Telepranh, December 1918, p. 105; this written article, under the pseudonym "fanzu", was taken from the Gold Coast reader. It was only one of several issue articles on the same theme in this Telerranh, of racist of, the African which also contained an exposure (pp. 94-5); invalid Liverpool in on coloured a attacks soldiers Nigerian Lugard to comment on a-rumour that a Northern challenge-to for D. C. had been shot by an educated African who he had had flogged Leonean his hat (pp. 79-80); not raising a Sierra a petition-from (p. 76); his mistreatment Pastor Lokoja by officials about and an at by Judge W.H. Stoker, Lugard's judicial K. C. attacking. system article "Sir Frederick Lugard's a retrogade and concluding contribute proposals distinctly lower average for the judicial step, system of __strikingA. Nigerias. from the " (pp. 71-2) Stoker the amalgamated had resigned Nigerian 'reforms' Southern bench in 1914 in disgust at Lugard's The Administration 1900 to 1960, see I. F. Nicolson, of Nigeria London 1969, p. 204.

This-issue of the Afr ican Tele raptl was to set the pace- for , . to harp on the issues in-1919, succeeding which were to continue Lugard and the Nigerian judicial system. connected themes of flogging, Stoker was so inveterate system an enemy of Lugard! s judicial . that he. appeared as an expert witness called by, the defence in the He stated that Fitzpatrick case, making some most damaging points. Lugard had never given precise inatruotions, to stop floggings, and in his opinion, that though "No woman ought to be stripped and flogged,
he could not say that stripping .0 to the law as it now applied to the The 'rimes, 8th November 1919, p"7. of women was contrary and flogging " Native Courts of Nigeria. see

545,
damages of 400 plus
clear which brought that the flogging the

costa

were awarded to. Fitzpatrick,

place, and gave

the trial
platform

made it
from jury

had taken

a perfect

to attack in

entire that

Lugardian "The jury are

judicial of

system. that if

Indeed, flogging

the of

a rider

opinion

women is still

practised officials,

steps

should

be taken

to put a stop to it.

"

Lugard and other cross-examination under the Native

brought that

in as witnesses,

had to admit under and legal to humanity

not only Court

such floggings but also that

were possible

system,

they were repugnant

to prevent officer and scandalous, and that it was: the duty of a political 275 Taylor was the hero of the hour, npt only in West Africa but them. also among considerable sections of the British press too. 276 The intense than

enmity

between him and Ruse 14ohamedAll, is nowhere better that although as a resident

illustrated

by the fact totally

of London Duse must have been moral victory, mentioning he Taylor as

aware of the Fitzpatrick about it in his 277

caso and-Taylor'a autobiography, only

remained silent, a dishonest

and Orient

business-man..
Review in 1920.

Nor was the, case mentioned

in the Africa

275. See The Times, 7th November 1919, p. 4; ibid, 11th November 1919, p,. 7.

ibid,

8th November 1919, p. 7; to John

from British 276. There are long quotations newspapers aympathetic Eldred Taylor in The Crisis, June 1920, pp. 96-7. 277. "Leaves", in The Cornet, 30th October 1937. p. 7.

546.
Indeed,, it would be true Taylor to say that in Pan-African circles in London

in 1919, John Eldred concern for race riots

African for this

was the

an of the year. an in Britain,

He showed as much to the vicious in Africa. The

the fate of that

of the black year, as for

subject brothers

the fate

of his

Telegraph in the

Vigorously

attacked edited

these

outrages,

and was co=ended The Crisia, 278

W.N. B. Du Bois

N. A. A. C. P.

journal

which was, of course, race riots national of that limelight, period

much concerned

with

the even more vicious Taylor stepped into

American an interrace. is most

year. if only

Thus, John Eldred for a brief time,

as a defender

of his

Though his doubtful glory

that

as a race leader

was short

he died in 1924 - it -

if

Duse Mohamed Ali Taylor

ever at any one moment enjoyed did in 1919. Of course it

auch fame and be remembered

lasting

as John Eldred
Duae's career

should

as a propagandist

and organiser

was far

longer,

from at least by one of his Mention Mohamed Ali's Pan-African keenly

1909 until bitterest

his

death

in 1945, but in 1919 he wan eclipsed Pan-African striking circles. omission in Duse

enemies within

of Du Bois leads life

us to another

in 1919 - his

absence from the first

Du Bois organised

Congress in Paris as any other non-white

in February. Pan-Africanict peoples

As we have seen, he was as in the burning question of

interested

favourable

terms for

from the post-war a-small

peace settlement. effort his to such absence

To have made the journey an experienced was his

to Paris

would have-been One obvious

traveller for

as himself. Du Bois,

reason for great

antipathy
. Y,

an antipathy

which that

but touchy

276. See The Crieia,

January

1920, p. 143.

547.
man was unlikely
Africanism

to forgive.
represented than John

Moreover,
in Paris,

the new wave of London PanJ. B. Archer the representing It in the would that be

was well

A. P. U. and none other impossible even if, Taylor African Mandate, to as is imagine unlikely,

Eldred

Taylor

d. P. A. O. to was, Paris for Paris

Duse travelling he was invited.

harmoniously As it at the

company, and the

even Archer Congress; the

seem to have Telegraph (which

been at

cross-purposes criticised

subsequently included

Archer

putting by the

A. P. U. 'a

a manifeato'laboured

over

A. P. U. Managing

Committee) before
singly

to a committee

of the Congress, 279 Perhaps

by Blaise

in confidence, this manifesto

in

rather

than

the full
radical

open session.
document,

was an embarrashis role of watchdog

smothered

Diagne,

for

the French Government. Not till 1921, when there

play policy

were changes in the leadership

role in it. The changes have approved in the in

of the A. P. U.,
leadership

did

Duse Mohamed Ali a change to bring in

a major which These

brought helped

he can only changes

and may have sierra Leone

about.

were reported

Weekly News

as follows;

At a general meeting of the African Progress Union held in London on Wednesday July 20th, plans for, the-re-organisation of the society were discussed,: and the broad lines along which it is hoped its proceed were laid down. active development will R. BroadAmong those present were: - Dr. J. Alcindor, Chairman; " J. A. Barbour James, Treasurer; Duse !*ohamed-Ali hurst, Secretary; Dr. Oja S. Cann; Messrs. 3. A. IIughes and G. I. Gilkes; and'Aldred James D. Boyle and W.E. S. Callender. Oligabarbe-(sic);

This Teleirarh, 279, African Y. arch 1919, pp. 142-3. full the S. P. A. O. memorandum to the Congress.

account

also

prints

in

548.
The African Progress Union was founded in 1918 to promote the Having social and economic welfare of the Africans of the world. to the countless dangers of infancy, presented a vigorous resistance it now arrives prove an era of at what it is hoped on all sides will unexampled usefulness. J. R. Councillor Ruch to the regret of the members of the Union, London)-recently the chairArcher, Ex-Mayor of Battersea, resigned to A letter of thanks and appreciation manship. were forwarded Councillor Archer. to in Dr. Alcindor, With a new chair accessions and several body, among whom may be counted Duse Mohamed Ali of the controlling Review, Orient the Africa that freshness of outlook and organising and the success of the work it has which alone can guarantee ability is assured. undertaken Already plans have been made for a widened scope of activity. by every visitor that the It must have been realised from Africa is one of the most formidable housing difficulty he has to contend in London. The Committee proposes to solve the with on his arrival by organising for their Hostel problem for themselves an African accommodation. The Committee intends to keep its social work in the proper The main business in this perspective. of life economic age is work, of one's labour one does not necessarily and by this mean the barter of man to the of the energies power for wages, but the harnessing and multiplication of a civilised of the necessities production existence. Those The task of Africa in the next generation is industry. do have the welfare heart can hardly of that great who continent at by all than encourage better practical means the economic selffor the The Committee foresee dependence of the peoples of Africa. Society in this field. of usefulness a future for increased A largely is anticipated, membership arrangements In the meanin their Are being prepared. own localities enrolment time intending in England are requested members who are not resident to the Hon. Secretary to write ... The Committee desires it to be known that the Union is in no the membership recruited sense a local affair, and indeed expects from West and South Africa, to form the the Vest Indies and America, backbone of the association.

The idea is that honorary or life outside of members, resident by the England will always be able to enjoy the privileges afforded England, and at other times, perorganisation central when visiting haps, enjoy them vicariously through their sons and relatives who A feature of the Commay be there for the purposes of education. plans is the benevolent guardianship mittee's which they hope to exercise over the hundreds of African students who go to England 280 each year.

280. Sierra

Leone Weekly News, 3rd September 1921, p. 11.

549.
This is a fascinating but leaves document, unsaid. both for what it says and for formal what it tribute is paid with be

implies

To begin with, reason, for

although

to J. R. Archer, urgent noticed, although personal

no pressing affairs,

such as illness his resignation.

or pre-occupation Nor, it will

is given

does he seem to have been present no complete list of attenders if there.

at the 20th July surely is there

meeting;

is given, Neither

the ex-chairman any word of John Of course, impresBroadhurst

would have been mentioned, Eldred Taylor,

F. E. M. Hercules

or P. Montacute

Thompson.

some of these men may have been out of the country, sion is of an almost clean

but the overall only

sweep of the 1918-1919 leadership, This impression is strongly

remaining

from December 19l3.

reinforced

by the particular, from the Archer that

welcome given

to Dust Mohamed All,

whose remoteness In saying outlook

regime in the A. P. U. has been demonstrated. and Duse alone could bring a fresh

men such as Alcindor to guarantee leaders

necessary

success are written

of the work undertaken, off as useless. history

by implication it is in as one only

the previous effect

Likewise, up to that

dismissive

to refer with

to the Union's

point having

of dangerous begun with

infancy,

a new era of mature fruitfulness

the new leaders. we can see an equally question that it strong about turn. It is true that

In policy the African but equally

Hostel true

was carried

over from the old issue

leadership,

was a ,much older atherl visitors it

than the A. P. U. and cannot

be regarded '52 its difficulties century. ' of life

property. for African

emerged from the' fundamental to Britain in the early twentieth

As we have seen, Duse Mohamed Ali

had been very much concerned

550.
with 1911, this issue in one form or other since the Universal an inter-racial his willingness in Races Congress club to in of London.

when the the

abortive

proposal

was made for advertised young

Through

ATOR he had successfully and supervision and lodgings of the for

provide The first

accommodation hospitality real precursor

coloured, fairly

people

London. as the

he provided W.A. S. U. hostel, movement. of the as it

could which

be regarded ultimate

was the in could

conclusion "benevolent due to on

of-. the African guardianship". his influence

Hostel as a role

The inclusion proposed hostel

July well

1921 of

be partly undertaken

and example,

was a role

he had already

a considerable

scale. 'Dusian'
rather

But much more clearly

policy with of economic action,

was the new inclination

than the political old

towards a
associated This

Pan-Africanism A. P. U. leadership.

Du Bois'

Pan-African

Congresses had,

and the

'economic'

Pan-Africanism

as shown in scale at

the for the

last

chapter,

been preached Indeed, reincline Although come form of the

by Duse I1ohamed All disappearance appearance black of of. his the

on an increasing African in Teleganh January

some years.. end of

1919 and the to line.

review and visitors

1920,. may well towards

have helped

residents

to London Brussels

an 'economic' Pan-African felt results hopes

1921 was the of the London

year black

of

the visitors

and London

Congresses, t hat at of this that,

and residents day, and produced

may have meagre

Pan-Africanism the for peace the

had had its of the

since

settlement man in

1919 had disappointed post-war world.

minimum Again,

a new role lack of

black

'despite

the

positive saying 'I

evidence told

to prove this,

it

is

easy to imagine some people-to

Dust Mohamed Ali embrace his economic

you so',

and persuading

551.
nostrums, Pan-African of derived gospel ultimately according the in end of the from Booker T. Washington, And, in since place the as the of the

to W. E. B. Du Bois. 1910, Marcus Garvey

foundation most his any of the men,

the A. P. U. at star

had arisen however

spectacular demogogic London

Pan-African supported with

firmament; U. N. I. A. might

different

and massively

have been from of

Pan-African

groups,

their yet

small

membership was preaching, from

professional in an arresting T.

intellectuals way, 'economic'

and businessmen, Pan-Africanism

he too

derived

ultimately

Booker

Washington,

but probably

via

Duse Mohamed Ali. may well have thought

If

1919 was John Eldred that 1921 would be his,

Taylor's for not

year,

Buse Mohamed Ali only

had the organised

Pan-African

movement in Britain to leave for

begun to turn States

his

way, but in July of a business 281 America*

1921 he was about

the United

in pursuit and black

plan of Garveyite

grandiosity

to link

West Africa

Nevertheless,
the A. P. U. in

it

would be untrue
of

to take the change in leadership

a total the break with session of its the of other Du Bois the

of
Pan-

1921 as an indication Alcindor on 27th Dr. the

African

Congresses. Congress including also were

chaired August

opening and most Robert

London

Pan-African members, Indeed,

1921, -and they

leading there.

Ojo Olaribigbe, Archerites (if

Broadhurst

were

may be so called),

J. K. Archer

himself evidence pointed

chairing of their their

one session, continuing

and John Eldred Pan-African

Taylor

speaking. however,

(This

activity,

makes more the previous

absence from the A. P. U. re-organisation

meeting

281.

Duce Mohamed Ali's detail in Chapters

with Marcus Garvey relations IV and VII of this thesis.

are

discussed

in more

552.
) month. Furthermore, Duse Mohamed Ali'a old friend and colleague, W.F.

Hutchison
tenor,

and his

former
of

lodgers
Lagos, hand,

Roland Hayes, the famous American Negro

were participants Duse hiaself for in the 1921 London absent. United True, States, Congresses a journey With with actor, Panconspira-

and L. B. Agusto 282 On the time that he could all,

Congress.

other

was again in the

he may be that but at one supposes all melted, had, trip after

have

been en route implacability have

or even towards for

had his easily

the a little at long

Du Bois while least

postponed

which this Britain,

been under ended his

consideration forty

since year success, Turcophil, Nationalist, to

1919.

to America in which docker,

more than with

connection

he had been, down-and-out,

varying historian, Egyptian

journalist,

playwright, Africanist tor, his

Pan-Islamist, agitator,

and Pan-Afro-Asianist, and guide the imperial in

businessman footsteps beat, to

counsellor capital. these

and friend Though roles,

so many who followed his success

we may consider

as at

qualified,

any of

wo may be amazed by his in America him to active to to recruit its role old bosom. in the

versatility members for Perhaps

and persistence. the A. P. U., its which

Perhaps

he hoped

had so recently and former as a hopeless

taken leaders

he considered Pan-African

leaders Congress

1921 London

reversion

errors.

On these points some day further return to Britain

he has left evidence

us no guidance will resolve

and one may only Certainly

hope that to

them.

he intended

when his American

business

was concluded;

but as the

282. Langley, op. cit., of these various

pp-97 and 100-104, participants.

gives

details

of the contributions

553.
next chapter in Britain will show, fortune was to make this inposeible. His life

was over.

Despite

the possession at others, to an extent are, far less

of detailed it is

information that,

at some points,

and

some indications of evidence points political they a full

in

obvious

as the survival

and recovery

is

fortuitous,

the foregoing story

pages may be, at many

clearly

than the full

of Duse Mohamed Ali's Still political

is lacking,

activities record

in London between 1912 and 1921. of African,

those years. this

less

are activity

Asian and Pan-Afro-Asian

Euch of activitynust Thus, it would the minutiae

London during

which through

is

regretable informal sequence his

as so much of personal of contacts.

have been expressed be invaluable Dust !Mohamed Ali

to have

a good

personal friends, light.

correspondence but only the

between most of that

and any of has actiin Harlem Castle,

political come to is

fragmentary

correspondence political a box-room or or letters

as yet vities or

The student by the to pieces thought in desk or

Duse Mohamed dli's mouldering chest in in Cairo

tantalised falling in

Chicago,

an old in

Cape Coast

disintegrating letters enemy. Further,

a disused comrade,

Lahore,

Calcutta

Bombay, from

may be an old

to an old

equally

interesting,

our

picture

of

his

activities

may be distorted

by the

dis-

tribution

of the evidence. and discussion to the India and they

Thus,

this

chapter

contains

a preponderance because these the War Office and each and

of information were of interest the Foreign

of his Office,

Islamic

activities,

the Home Office, to inform

Office,

took steps

themselves

554.
other alone about him. judgement, Even so, they made Some amazing errors such as M. I. 5. 's belief that in fact, in let

the ATOR was still published

business

at the end of 1914 and into Likewise, Scotland

1915, being

by the Anglo-' "It is not although

Ottoman Society. definitely this should

Yard in 1916 stated obtaining

known how he is at present not have been too difficult unaware of police on the other to his

means of support", 283 It

to discover* interest,

was not as if

he was blissfully The Colonial

and must not be alerted. to have taken an interest activities

to visit his

Office,

hand, seems only and business

in hin in relation
they suspected but

journalistic
for agitation, or

( which
West political

as a cover not to

when he wished perhaps known,

Africa)284 circle in With

have cared,

about

London. such the caveats study in of mind, nevertheless in some general relation 1921. to points the of value and it

emerge from Oriental gives

Duse Mohamed Ali in London into these from

African with*

political a fascinating all

scene insight

1912 to

To begin

the

internal This the

cross-currents,

development milieu, totally For

and above quarrels fulfilling

conflicts

of

groups. from with

was a quarrelsome of never of false dawns.

stemming, aims, of

we may suppose, being confronted

frustration

a 'series

283.

See M. I. 5. report and Supt. on Duse Mohamed, F. O. 371/2355/15047, Tara, Branch, P. Quinn, Special New Scotland on Duse Mohamed, report F. U. 371/3728/114805.

284. See C. O. 554/23/36403

and C"0.554/40/21897.

555..
Duse himself, of his review, these false dawns were the foundation Anglo-Ottoman and various Society, revivals

the Ottoman Committee, Society,

I. M. S. W.O. w. F., in the

the Central

Islamic

the League of Justice, with its

and acceptance against

A. F. U. in 1921. he quarrelled
up by the seem like movement,

His autobiography, also

hopes

invective

those who not swept

"failures"

with,

marks the failures.

of each of they these fall

To the historian,
neither pattern of

surging failure. especially

departures, into in the

do the the

Instead, the

minority an

minority

movement He who would but

exile,

fighting the events of

against of this

overwhelmingly chapter nobodies match of as the should another

strong comic

enemy. or squalid the

dismiss

unimportant undignified

squabbles and

a group

of

remember group of

equally

'ridiculous' that had taken

shouting place

over

excitable

foreigners

in London a few years

and Menshevikn, the partly had; key the to rich Pan-Africanists, for they the the were with

previously
hindsight Pan-Islamists

the a great etc. reasons impasse,

'absurd'
event in in

quarrel
world

between the Bolsheviks

history. 285 Thus

London

fought

among themselves and }ensheviks the "correct" to this,

same sociological in an apparent

as the and thus important.

Bolsheviks to find

situation of these

seemed desperately personality, pages sinks

In relation and sheer

crop in

human eccentrcity into insignificance.

bloody-mindedness

revealed

One of the most valuable

points

to emerge from the study

of Duse

the 1903 Russian 285. For information ocial Democratic Workers Party on Vol. I, London 1960, Congress, see E. H. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, pp. 26-37

556.
Mohamed Ali's political point life for between 1912 and 1921 is movements, some primarily of the subject that London in those or social, of the

years was a focal but all British century

religious peoples

in some sense political, Empire. earlier The origins in the pioneer 286

coloured

of such movements may be found a good half Indian movements in London, and the activities societies provided student a model for hostel the

of Dadabhai Naorodji. Africans to follow.

The Indian

The creation student

of an Indian hostel=

foreshadowed were

and suggested

an African

in both cases the motives from racial hostility.

freedom from official The Islamic a rallying

of

supervision

and protection

Society, point for

which was in origins Egyptian

Through

an Indian

Muslim body,

provided

and other
it

Muslims and indeed a wide range

was given

anti-Imperialists. of later between

a man such as Duse Mohamed Ali winning other friends bodies. rgyptian, not (and making Indeed, the

opportunities which could

leadership

and of to

enemies) overlap and situation, in

be translated the Islamic, is

personnel Pan-African

Turcophil,

Pan-Afro-Asian total. In this

societies

remarkable,

even if

286.

founded Probably Society, the earliest such body was the London Indian in 1865 by Dadabhai Naorodji, contained no less than four future which Indian Presidents National Congress and both formulated of the Indian It was, Press on Indian issues. the British grievances and corrected Association, however, in 1866 by the London East India soon superceded While in its thing to a genuine early years this was the nearest Indian body in existence, the I. N. C. not yet having been national it admitted Indian British created, civilians and army officers, retired body in their hands denouncing became a conservative and ultimately 'Babu' In this the problems of politicians. sense it anticipated the London Turcophil in which, as we have seen, movement in 1913-14, Indians there was a fear among the British members, of "seditious" For details Society and others. of the London Indian and the London East Indian Seal, The Emergence of Indian Association, see Anil Nationalism, pp. 246-9"

557.
Duee Mohamed All being being involved in most in stands every their offices out as more than of these any other movements, headquarters. bureaucratic, between It are the is fully various striking man in such circles Street not to

aspect

and 158 Fleet This is

case3

organisational represented Contact and informal. bodies that and his Leon,

say that leadership clearly

he and his

centralised groups though was how the from H. U.

and organisation. piecemeal, personal even in

same names re-occur politics; Ispahani Damoglou thus and his

apparently Khwaja

totally

remote

Duse Mohamed All wife, his "Professor" name must cranky founded were

wife,

Kamal ud-Din,

Syed Echan El Bakry Turkish itself the origin) the

and Dre d*C. all appear

(who from

have been of group calling

as members of a strange, College of Chromatics, Its

International of the science

in

May 1916 "in at

interests. Terrace,

of colour".

meetings

normally

1 Albany

Regents

Park,

287

but on at least The topics

one occasion discussed at

took place at Duse Mohamed Ali'a these meetings less such topics as "National

house. Flags that

288

and National these political

Colours"

are of far -

interest

than the evidence circumstances. for not only of this

associates

met socially

under other meeting

Woking Vosque, too, British

may be noted as a natural African Muslims,

place

and Asian but also

There is evidence

in a photograph on the steps

of Duse, the Imam of the Mosque and Chief

use had in fact,

Oluva of Lagos
according to

of the tlosque in 1920.289

287. See ATOR, October

288. ibid, November

1917, pp. 79-81.

p. 93"

1917,

289. AOR, July

1920, p. 30.

558.
Chief T. A. Doherty, for Chief arranged the hiring of a furnished Oluwa's his part house in West son and E. T. Scott in both the Eleko activity
his is

Kensington

Oluwa, Herbert practical

Macaulay, way played

in 1920, and so in this controversy

London at but though

and the National

that time. the

Congress of British
the

West Africa

in
house; no 290

Members of conversation

M. C. B. V. A. visited was often political,

him at there

no doubt

reason to assign
mainly Dr. on the

him more than a limited,

of practical that for the but there Muslim

informal

and advisory.

role,

level

secondary could

matters

Euch as accommodation. advance in Lagos Mosque of

Sapara,

having

decided

be no real

without while in

modern London

education in 1913,

community, to Nigeria

visited forty

Woking copies

and brought

back

Khwaja Kamal ud-Din's

It seems a likely

journal
that

the Islamic

Review for
would

distribution
have been Dr.

in

Lagos.

291

guess

Duse Mohamed Ali

Sapara'e

oceans of introduction from Arabia,

as English

at Woking. Egypt,
net to

In June 1919, a congregation China, Sudan and Weat Africa,

at Woking

of Muslime as well
By

"Persia,
converts,

'Iraq,
celebrate

Eid-ul-Fitr

Mosque.

unanimous resolution, Conference and pointing may deprive Minor, at Paris

they sent a telegram protesting serious strongly

to the President

of the Peace of Turkey which

at the Allied

treatment

out "the Turkey

consequences involved

in any decision Thrace, parts

of her sovereignty the Sultan of his

at. Constantinople, suzerainty over other

and Asia of the

and deprive

290.

Information

from Chief from Alhujji

T. A. -Doherty, L. B. Agusto,

Lagos. Lagos.

291. Information

559.
Turkish tion Empire. " Among others, M. H. Ispahnni 292 spoke urging the congrega-

to adopt

and send this

protest.

No doubt between

such

interactions political

proliferated. movements topic

The cross-fertilisation and Pan-Africanism remains, largely in the early

Asian

and Islamic century of is

twentieth but the study

a major movements

which

unexplored,

these

in the London milieu Another

pendent ments),

reveals

a fascinating

corner chapter

of this is,

field.

theme which emerges from this

centre locus of of

London as an inderelated Had the visitors, delegations, But the moveAfrican then and plans presence Dr.

and continuous not merely the

Pan-, Afrioaniam occasional

(and other

Congresses. transitory

and Asian this activity

population would visitor, black there

of London have

been merely.

been restricted African

to visiting Hostel

to help of long

the term

such as the residents, were

scheme.

such certainly

as Ruse Mohamed Ali, equivalents visitors,

J. R. Archer0 Ali

Alcindor, Indiana), Francis to

(and plus

such as Amir such

among the Taylor or

regularly

recurring Dove, for allowed the

as John Eldred term the

and Frederick

more stable of

and long

organisations imperial look it

be undertaken in the London interests

both -

purpose rather

representing occasional in

subject

peoples after

on a continuing of the

than

basis,

and to Indeed,

Afro-Asian

community

Britain.

is evident decade in

that

1912-1921 will

increasingly

be seen as a most important Sociological black distinctions community

the history

of the black est Indian

man in Britain.

between Asian and Afro-. look suspect in the light

in the modern British history of interaction

of this

and co-operation

292. Islamc"Review,

June 1919, pp. 242-3.

560.
fifty in its or sixty years ago! The evidence than ever in takes of the London picture as a Pan-African of in with of early centre

own right

makes clearer

twentieth to being States, thought totally

century

Pan-Africanism in

as polycentric London

organisation its place centre that in these the

addition the United

heterogeneous West Africa, and activity; separate, but

ideology.

and the always

West Indies remembering,

as a leading however,

Pan-African foci were not

interdependant

and inter-acting,

same way as on a

local

scale If unity

were the'organioations and diversity

century of

and personalities within

is

within

London itself.

are the framework

which to understand
this more apparent quarrels In the than

early in the

twentieth framework

Pan Africanism, Even the rarely simply

nowhere most

ideology. were

personal

among the allied area pushed

London of

Pan-Africanists

personal.

Turcophil

and Pan-Islamic

movements,

Duse Mohamed Ali

was not

out of the Ottoman Committee solely

of the basic run princip( at stake

because of his
the Muslims of

personality,
Coamittee in their

but because
should be a or

as to whether non-European

movement for

b_Y (among others)

own cause, 'do-gooders', the change towards of most of of

them by an exclusive was beat for in

and patronising their the

clique

British In 1921,

who knew what leadership 'economic' the

beneficiaries. reflect

and policy Pan Africanism, as the the from

A. P. U. seem to the

a leaning involvement 1921 London

though old

subsequent in the

new as well blurs

A. P. U. leaders here. Rather 1921,

Pan-African ? obamed personal that

Conference Ali's

lines the

more certainly, though certainly too. ' up wealth his via

Dust

distance

A. P. U. till ideological

having view

grounds,

had a considerable first

content

Africans-should

concentrate

on building

Pan-African

561.

economic enterprises with the typical

Finally, sciously All it

could

be regarded distaste
of all

as a species for
the

of racial political
movements,

oyndicalism, action.
that contenth". men, though self-educated,

syndicalist
should they of

orthodox
London

be said subscribed comparatively

or not,

to the

doctrine

of

the

"talented

were movements

well-off fortunes is significant movements basis of

and well and were that in those to not

educated largely the

no doubt

many members had precarious But it

i as was Duse Mohamed All. the most radical world-wide would bring with of the

A. P. U. - clearly in 1921

Pan-African on the their of of

London

- could

envisage in life

expansion them or the spread

whose wealth And this

and position was

relatives Garveyism, poor black of black black

London.

contemporary but in

so much as an organisation in the New world and even in to base was a

as a dream, remote at parts that

among masses of Africa. they

people the

In defence had no large The typical

London

Pan-Africanists, on which he existed,

Britain a local

time

constituency worker, where

mass movement. notoriously of

seaman -a of with just the

difficult their working

category lives.

of

workers It is class racial

to organise

on account however, during of that and

conditions relative the-Great

instructive, in Britain

the after

build

up of

a black

working

war, in

and the

consequent notice Telegraph. and this of

persecution plight, this

1919,

some Pan-Africanists John that Eldred tries Taylor the rule.

London

took

their But

particularly was the true exception of Duce black . and by

and his In

African general,

is

particularly to lead of

Mohamed All, ,masses the press at

the long

London range;

Pan-Africanista and through if in

sought their

the overseas loyal petitions press)

tactics run

campaigns

(even

an African

and controlled

562.
implication
putting

accepted

what Duse Mohamed All

"before the throne of

had in 1912, approvingly

Caesar".

called.

grievances

CHAPTER VI

BUSINESS AND PAN-AF RICANISM 1

fr,

rS

563.
Although remarkable already in a middle the aged man in nine of into 1912, -Duse Mohamed Ali Not only of the crusading showed editor, he also, precepts own fortune must have

energy

following

years. a plethora practice

and tireless-organiser on an increasing that in scale,

and supporter tried to put

movements, economic

he was advocating. the process. attractions; with surest Having

He may also known real

have wished privation, would at

to make his times, wealth

had its

and its those path to

acquisition of

have

been by no means which he believed

incompatible to be the Though his

doctrines power

economic for

self-help, the neither "darker"

and freedom were to yield

peoples. wealth,

business

activities

personal

nor enrichment interest of black that

and power for

the "darker" a broader

peoples,

yet

they have great movement on

as taking

place within similar

economic-cum-political

people with

aims. topic,

Thus, they help

to throw light

comparatively The starting

neglected point for

the economic aspect of his

of Pan-Africanism. career was was his

the burgeoning African

business

running first

the ATOR. experience

Indeed,

Times and Orient liability

Review Ltd.,

of setting

up a limited

and his first company, and run by coloured it,;. quite, conof

experience men. sciously, journalism.

of an economic enterprise beginning this

created,

controlled within

From the very

company carried enterprise was "to with

the seeds of further One of its official

business objects

beyond the field establish

a ,bank or banks security or without to and to

and make advances to customers make advances and allowances security

and others

or without with

to customers

and otjjers

and upon auch terms as the Company may approve and generally

564.
act as banker for bank had occurred so this customers and others. "1 The idea of an African years controlled 2

to James Africanus novel

Beale Morton thirty

previously, who

was not an entirely

idea to West Africans in African interest

of the sort

were Duse Mohamed Ali's Nevertheless, cially Bette it

colleagues this

Times and Orient

Review Ltd.

seems that Egyptian

in banking

came from the commermen as C. W. stated;

inexperienced and Fred.

rather

than from,

such business

Dove, for

in January

1917 an ATOR editorial

It is a well-known fact among prominent West Africans that as long of a Native a scheme for the establishment ago as 1912 we outlined Bank which would meet the growing need of purely native merchants This idea grew out of native trade stagnation, resulting and traders. from a banking monopoly which did not always operate in the best by reason of its nature, interests but rather, of native enterprise, tended to strengthen the hands of the European trader. at the expense the native. 3 of 1912 was in fact West Africa, Nigeria, sole a year when banking in Nigeria, matters were much in discussion in

especially

because of the collapse Bank of British

of the Bank of as the

leaving

the Government favoured The African by this events=

West Africa

Bank, in the field.

business ,. -

in Lagos was community

understandably-worried

1.

Times and Orient Memorandum and Articles African of Association-of Review Ltd.,, 26th August 1912# article 3(J), BT 31/20888/123943/1C. Fyfe, A History of Sierra Leone, Oxford 1962, p. 437; also the has had the benefit of conversation writer with Mr. Fyfe, who is to bring out a biography of Horton. shortly ATOR,; mid-January
"_u.

2.

3.

1917, 'p. 4.
..

_.; -.
f3KJ

565.
hostile West Africa behaviour was on the part of the Bank of British Wanted: Banks in a pamphlet in Lagos and entitled: published alleged Traders West Africa: for British of Lagos an Appeal from the Native This stated that the Bank of to the Financiers of Great Britain. 'rates British West Africa charged of interest which were excessively in business 'intolerance high .., exorbitant' and displayed even ... The immediate cause of the pamphlet seems tohave beenmatters'. the amalgamation of the Bank of Nigeria with its older and more sucIts writers that the Bank of Nigeria cessful competitor. asserted 'had produced an immediate in the rates of the Bank of reduction that the had 'financed British-West Africa', natives', and insisted They 'consternation'. of the two banks had produced amalgamation 'the crying Nigeria in the present that need of Southern concluded for is for banking facilities of the country of development stage the establishment two or three banks. 4 of

There is no reason years went by. As matters any banking almost

to believe

that

such sentiments

grew less

strong

as the

befell,

some years West Africa

elapsed

before

Duse Mohamed All

attempted

scheme for

in practice. work introduced especially

But he soon found that, him to the economic hopes Africa;

unavoidably,

his'editorial of-his readers,

and difficulties

those-in'Weat

Times and Orient From 1912, when I started the African of publication I was periodically the farmers importuned Review, to assist and to'purchse traders and market of the Cold Coast and Nigeria supplies as a result to the had accorded their products of the ssistcnnce-I 5 Sierra'Leone. farmers of

In the two years grew steadily.

following An evolution

the ATOR'a foundation, towards actual

his

business

interests commerce

participation

in black

4.

See W.T. Newlyn and D. C. RowA,Money and Banking

Africa, African Study of Territories, the Monetary and Banking Oxford 1954, p. 119.

in British
of Eight

Tropical
British

Systems

5.

"Leaves",

omet, 22nd January in The-`C_

1938, p. 7.

566.
6

was shown by section dental and African

five Society,

of the aims and objects published

of the-Oriental,

Occi-

in November 1912.6 until

But he does not with

appear to have actually the review's his

become a trader at that this

March 1914, coinciding

re-organisation as yet

time.

Though he now began to practise to journalism. The first

economic gospel,

was ancillary

ATOR announced a Buying Department, weekly readers with what goods they required. modest scale, into a full

which would supply-overseas Although private buying for the time being clients only, this

was to be on a very

supplying scale

future

expansion, was hoped for acting for overseas

and shipping

service, by May this was

merchants.? called

The Buying Department the African and Oriental

formalised Bureau;

1914 into still

an organisation

an ATOR satellite. How profitable euch activity about was, is doubtful. the bad faith In reminiscence, cua-

Duae Mohamed Ali. complained tomers, and protested that

of many West African for his

he, had only charged nominally

services;

I ... opened a purchasing Bureau in connexion with my publication, -, I filled charging a nominal 2j per cent on all transactions. (sic) indents demanding a deposit of twenty-five several percent Only in very the balance to be paid on delivery. with all orders, did I ever receive, the"remaining perseventy-five exceptional 'cases cent although I always conceded the seven or eight per cent I secured for complete cash. paymente made by-me in London-8 from suppliers
d ;.. .

6. 7. 8.

ATOR, November 1912, p. 182, quoted in Chapter ibid, 24th March 1912 , p. 2. in The C_ t.
L .. w.

V. p. 517.

"Leaves",

22nd January

1938, p. 7.

567.
But this coloured struggle was written by the fact to put his twenty-five that years or so after the event, and was,

by the time of writing practice.

he bad abandoned the By 1936 he was in a the Bureau had traded of his auto-

economic plan into seeking

self-justifying, rather lees

scapegoat selflessly

mood.

In fact,

than he would have had the reader In fact, that the Bureau purchased

biography clients

suppose. on condition plus

goods for

overseas order for

orders

were accompanied by a postal

two shillings, Sion of five estimate.

to cover costs and-carriage, a remittance and a commis9 to Without further details, it is impossible per cent. profitability. 1917, it included But'we may note that an advertisement its when the BOR for the Bureau, These after 10

the Bureau's in January

re-appeared still offering

substantially continued until

the same terms-to the review again

customers.

advertisments October lication

ceased publication

1918, and, though they did in January 1920, that into a fully

not re-appear

when the ATOR began pubtrading had By

was because Duse Xohamed Ali's fledged limited liability

developed meanwhile

company. Department)

1917 the Bureau (sometimes was offering to "buy for

referred

to as the ATOR Trading andSOrientals"anything with

Africans

from a box of pins advertisements for

to a motor car" shirts, caps,

and the ATOR's pages, were littered cigarettes, fountain pens, -rubber

stamps, dominoes,

cutlery brand

and shaving

requisites.

Since these were offered

under "own brand"

(such as the "Orient" names

pan), -,they must have been ordered

from the

9. 10.

ATOR, 19th May 1914, p. 195. ibid. January 1917, p. i.

568.
manufacturer in some quantity, with sales expected on a commensurate scale. It would be fascinating

Second hand cars and lorries

were also for

on offer.

to know who were the customers role Africa, of the African 11 entrepeneur

these lorries,

in view of the important in West

in developing

motor transport

but they remain unknown. Trading strike Department was taking a further by who come -

By August 1917 the review's step forward. warning readers Not only did of possible it

a note of racial

solidarity

European swindlers but who-are really Department

"unknown persons exploiters

in the guise

of benefactors, the Trading

in disguise"

whose bona fides same time it subscribers

would be glad

to check;

but at the to /LO

offered

help with

the acute wartime traders.

shipping

problems,

who were produce

Those interested that 12

were to be informed were considering This is a tantaliswas looking that to

about negotiations sending ingly black steamers

under way with to West Africa

American firma, to collect if Dis' produce.

limited

piece

of information;. for this aid, Line.

Mohamed Ali be said

American firma Garvey's

then.. it'"could

he was antito connect than,

cipatine

Black Star producer with

More certainly,

the desire

the West African through

the American market directly characteristic

rather

European middle as will

men, was a major

of Pan-African,

business- efforts,
,e

be shown by, numerou other. examples.

11.

in British For the African role in the development of motor transport West Africa, of Lagos 1880-1914, see A. G. Hopkins, An Economic History London University, Ph. D. thesis, 1964, PP-365-73, and E. K. Hawkins, Road Transport in Nigeria, London 1958, Pp. 40-50. Hawkins, however, does not consider the industry. before 1945. ATOR, mid-August
to

12.

1917, pp. 59-60.

569.
Possibly buyers, holds selling mail order goods to overseas, especially living West African, between the It In in West for a safe may

the key to how Duse Mohamed All, made his in August 1914 and re-appearance this mail order business planning

ATOR collapse well be that

in January that

1917. time.

survived-during major business

September 1914 he was probably Africa, conduct Calabar. for in that all

expansion Secretary

month he applied the British

to the Colonial colonies

to visit

West African

from Gambia to putting

This application

was vague as to precise wish to "solicit

objectives, support

emphasis on a patriotic of West Africa to obtain already for

and loyal

from the natives a wish

the Prince

of Wales Fund" though he did mention conditions". 13 intended so it

"a first-hand ceased publication, journey

view of local

As his magazine had to undertake could the a

he can have hardly for

expense of this survey Office, of trading already

the sake of journalism, was what he-had in mind.

be that

prospects hostile loyal

But the Colonial was the

to him because of the ATOR's activities, effusion It

unimpressed reasons for

by his

did not even ask him to clarify and that-as his review

his request. of sedition or Africa

decided

was "a notorious supporter of the probable

disseminator 'Pan-Ethiopian' that

and. lies" for

and he was""A strong it

the Africans up discontent".

he is going

out to stir

movement", 14 Safe conduct

was "highly

was refused. Elder 15

In case he might

even so be foolhardy

enough to attempt--the Office if

journey,

Dempster was asked to inform

the Colonial

and when he sailed.

13" 14.
15.

Dues Mohamed All 554/23/36403.

to Be of S. Harcourt,

22nd September 1914, C. O.

See minutes in C. O. 554/23/36403.

C. O. to Elder Dempster, 26th September 1914, ibid.

570.
Security Africa plans were made for The Colonial As the real object his reception wrote to all should he arrive in British Governors; character, West

Secretary

the West African

I have asked Messrs. F. D. & Co. to let me know if & when Dune Mohamed I will inform England, that he has left As soon as I learn sails. first Colony at which the steamer will the Governor of the British be made to keep a watch on his touch in order that arrangements may If he arrives but does not land in a colony, conduct. movements and Colony, the Governor British landed he leaves for another if having or Colony should inform the Governor of the second of his of the first 16 & destination. departure

of his visit

may be of an undesirable

But,

discouraged

by the refusal interest

of safe conduct, in his affairs this

or worried

and pre-occupied of 1914, he

by increasing never attempted as the first long delays, part of his

police

at the close

the trip.

Despite of such, All

outcome, his

plan is significant after

of a series in 1920. business

which were to come to fruition, travel

these subsequent

schemes were explicitly

activities. close links of both sympathy and trading From that Street communities date, if in the not

By January business British earlier, Office for with

1917, he had forged

one of the most important of British February family

African

Empire - that till at least

West Africa. 1918,158 firm, Fleet

acted

as London Produce

a West African

the British

and African

16.

letter to Governors of Draft of S. of S. Harcourt, confidential Gambia, Sierra Leone, Gold Coast and to Governor-Genera. l of Nigeria, 2nd October 1914, ibid.

571.
Supply years
3ekondi,

Co.

17

This

firma, founded by W.T. Duncan at Cape Coast Castle over the yeaas.
Novo. By 1917 the

many

previously,
Azim,

had prospered
Lome and Porto

It

had expanded to Accra,

most dynamic member of

the family

was S. W. Duncan, the oldest the business to Lagos. 18

of the founder's By January branches still 20

cone, who in 1915

had extended firm's Ibadan, Lalupon illustrates general cular,

1917, Lagos was-the had been set up in branches in Agege and expansion in

head office. Abeokuta,

Elsewhere

in Nigeria

Oshogbo and Kano19 . later

plus numerous agencies an important point,

were to be added. in relation

This wartime traders

to West African trading for efforts

and to Duse Mohamed Ali's namely that the war, after

best African adjustment for

in parti-

the loss

of enemy markets, But and wealtht

was a time of expanding

aspirations

African

produce exporters. of expansion

at the same time as-offering it alao, through to ship the wartime their that unduly

mouth-watering shipping crisis;

visions

made, it'moat markets. for

difficult-for businessof

traders

produce to remaining

Many African the-allocation

men were convinced chipping, resourcee

the Imperial-regulations favoured

the big European firms

and discriminated

17.

for British Produce Supply Company, and African See advertisement inside front cover of ATOR, mid-January 1917. Merchants and farmers, It February 1918. This advertisement until was repeated every month the company as exporting lists coconuts, cocoa, palm-kernels, palm-oil, provisions, piassava, mahogany, gum, and maize= and as importing tools and haberdashery. hardware, cotton goods, silks, Allister ! acmillan, The Red-Book of West Africa, London 1920, p. 109. Supply Company, inside .-

18. 19.

for British-and African-Produce Advertisement front cover of ATOR, mid-January X1917. Red Book of West Africa, p. 109.

20.

572.
against discontent popular" the smaller African concerns. In Nigeria, the spokesman for the

so aroused was none other among the African their traders,

than S. W. Duncan, who became "extremely and made a number of trips Office, 21 the press, to London politi-

to advocate cians,

cause to the Colonial

British

and anyone else who would listen. of the allocation

In November 1916 he even had tonnage aired in The Times. debate on

his criticisms and about the sale

of shipping

the same time was quoted at large of enemy property the grievances in Nigeria. of African

in a Parliamentary letter interests

In this business

to The Times S. W* in Nigeria and

Duncan aired British

West Africa

in general;,

firms have for years past dominated a combine of seven British ... Colonies. the trade of the West African This combine was nominally formed for the purpose of regulating The combine extended the price to be paid to the natives for produce. by an arrangement under which'it its operations secured 50 per cent. space, at all the Coast Ports, of the sole line of of the available to West Africa. The only competition steamers trading which they of consisting was the German organization were too proud to fight German merchants supplied by 51'German steamers. ..
Since ment with the war the combine at Lagos, Nigeria, the sole steamship to company trading have made an arrangeNigeria by which

they have secured 60 per cent, of the cargo space for themselves with 20 per cents to the Niger Company, The London and Kano Trading Company, leaving 20 per cent. for all the native and the Tin Areas of Nigeria, that they are in a merchants, with'the result and other British to fix what prices they like for produce, as no one outside position the combine has the slightest chance of shipping any considerable of produce. quantity

21.

London 1960, M. Perham, Lu! ard. The Years of Authority, ibid; also see 600-601, xbich. quotes characteristic=Lugardian, of Sam. ridicule pp. Duncan. Rather less typically, Lugard seems to have quite liked headed by Dujoan, Duncan, and following interview with a delegation an dinner. invited him to an official he had made a. butt of-him, at which

573.
There is no desire on the part of the combine to 'live and let Out of a total tonnage of 12,000 live', as the following will show. tons exported from. Nigeria in the month of Iay by the steamers Karina, Burutu, hlmina, withernsea, over 400 tons was and hboe, only a little In June out of 9,000 tons only to the native shippers. allocated This equally applies to 350 tons was granted to native shippers. Nigeria at In fact, other British, merchants outside. the combine. a private estate of the seven combine firms present is apparently firm operates as if they owned it. 22 and the steamship One can sense the frustration felt by Sam. Duncan. expanding finding via his that his firm On the one hand he, within Nigeria, but

was in the course of successfully on the other quantities combine. he was presumably of produce overseas he was clearly -Though far better.

he could

only tarket

substantial in the he might

over-mighty quite well

competitors in business,

doing

have been doing tactics position

Hence recourse -a trip

to the already

traditional the

of middle and solicit

class

West Africans 23 during It

to London to publicise likely that Duncan was in

support.

is very this

touch with Duse'a, role

Duse Mohamed Ali as a contact class

1916 visit visitors

to London, in view of in. town, and his fame

man among black as editor

among middle

West Africans

of the ATOR.

They seem-to have

seen eye to eye on both business between the two, in 1920. as is made clear Thiel proclaimed

and politics, by his eulogy

and on the connections S. 'W. Duncan in the AOR of and African years Produce Supply of the

that that

the British "within

Company had. been so, successful

three

the value

22.

Lugard noted with The Times. 7th November 1916, p. 9. see Perham, op. cit., use, of this letter, in Parliament;

distaste p. 601.

the

23.

to London would in the pre-war eraofprotest trips A classic example Forests Bill be. those of the Gold Coast A. t. P. 3, over'the1911 - see Histtory of Ghana, pp. 366 & 368-70. Kimble, A Political

574.
profits assets almost equalled the original capital, while the value of the

of the Company was even larger

and also of "more warmly supported for

than the sum with

Duncan's past

which the business

struggles 24

was started", on behalf

and present from the

consideration

native

shippers"

Government.

Thus it important for into

seems that landmark

Duce Mohamed Ali's in the development

connection of hie

with

S. W. Duncan marked an career. As agent imported 1914

business

the British West Africa

and African the sort-of to export himself

Produce Supply Company, which not only goods Dus had been despatching chief tropical since

but also-aimed

most of West Africa's with the trade

products, basic'sources

he. was associating of wealth

in West Africa's rubber,

her palm-oil, -

palm-kernels, of his for

cocoa,

logwoods etc.

However, the high point African that

career

in London working,; with: 'west It was as agent for circles, M. H. Ispahani. Indian

produce was not as agent and ally

Sam'Duncan.

friend

in London Muslim and Turcophil

Ispahani mercantile

was a man of wide business-experience, family of Persian firm origin,

-coming from a leading

branch of his director

family's firm

who as far back as 1895 had opened a 25 BY July 1915 he had become a in Calcutta. Jules Karpeles and Co. 26 At that

of a City

of merchants,

24. 25.

AOFt, January

19200, p. 45. (profile of R. H. Ispahani), in

See "A Prominent London Merchant" ATOR, February 1917, p. 38.

26.

See register directors of Jules Karpelee and Co., 6th July 1915, of He gras-, BT 31/20964/124672/21. in 1920, though only still a director then still on the board one of the other three 1915 directors waa December 1920. see BT 31/20964/124672/30,31st

575.
time, in reward for "services rendered to the Company by various
though All of the not other controlling directors

Contracts
in to

introduced" the company's

he was given ordinary

a substantial shares. 27

holding appear

have been British, Ispahani "coloured" figure. attention hin came into

and there the firm. it

was one other 28 Thus this clear that

Indian could Inpahani Director,

shareholder hardly

at the time a

be considered dominant

company, yet By February

is

became its

1917 he was tianaging

had "now turned

his

to the West and to Africa",, on the coast", by guidance of operations; 29

and Duce Mohamed Ali

was recommending his

to "our friends to Iepahani field

At the same time he was proving

worth difficult

in what wan# to the Indian,

a new and perhaps

Early in 1917, the firm of Jules Karpales (sic) approached me regarding I introduced to cocoa supplies. one Gold Coast trader who contracted He, obtained an advance credit together supply a shipment "of cocoa. to the Boston firm secured the cocoa and shipped it direct with bags; had ordered the product from Karpales (sic): which London shortly This man visited I took him to the firm after. and he. was threatened with a5rgest unless he paid the advance and the He paid. cost of the bags.

27.

Ispahani was given 1,000 ll ordinary paid, shares, considered as fully 6th July to the company; see BT-31/20964/124672/229 for his services 1915. The other Indian shareholder was C. H. M. Rustomjee, merchant, of Calwho held 700 41 ordinary of`share cutta, shares - see certificate of Jules Karpeles and Co., 13th January 1914, BT 31/20964/ allotments 124672/16. ATOR, February "Leaves", 1917, p. 30. 1938, p. 7.

28.

29. 30.

in The Comet, 22nd January

576.
Theoretically if sly Gold Coaster, to Duse Mohamed Ali since the should have commended this the enterprising and a persuaded as their

he had by-passed States!

London middle-man would be to expect troubles Dust

exported utopian arpeles

direct dedication

United

But that More seriously,

to principles.

such

and Company to safeguard to liest Africa

their "to of

interests secure

by sending

own representative flow far political of sheer this choice

a reliable partiality, calculation Probably visit appoint Togoland into the all

produce

connexion". of

was made out how much out can only

religious

how much out

sympathy, friendship formal the

of business

and how much out were elements. West Africa agents for as their Karpeles -, produce

be guessed.

Karpeles' agent in

request end of Leone,

to

Duce Mohamed Alitto He was to Gold Coast,

came at

1917.31 Liberia,

Gambia,

Sierra that

and Nigeria32 West African

which market

suggests

Ispahani scale.

planned

a break

on a large

By now, of course, and truly of his tied

Dus had the albatross neck in addition

of enemy alien Office

status

well

around his

to Colonial

disapproval As in 1914, feeling natives, that though

past record Office

as an agitator

in West African to his "real"

affairs. motives,

the Colonial

was suspicious'as for

he would become a centre having nothing definite

the complaints him. 33.

of dissatisfied light of"his

against

'In'the

connection

31.
32. 33"

Jules Karpele8 dcCo. to Duse Mohamed Ali, 554/40/21897.

Duse Mohamed Ali ibid, minute 2,6th to 6. of S. Long, "3rd'May Hay 1918 and minute

21st December 1917, C. O.

1918,0.0.554/40/21897: May 1918. -

3,7th

577.
with, Sam'Duncan, whose opinion African fears co=erce he fully of the hindrances it is It clear that to the growth-of the Colonial seriously native Office's that

shared, unfounded. role

were not entirely

cannot-be Karpeles in

doubted

Duse Mohamed All. saw his more than mere personal merchants that to by-pass

aq agent for in fact -

in terms of something

advantage combine". be, given

terms of aiding-African by the, Colonial Office

"the

He was informed to him for

no assistance policy, it

could

the reason that, "... within the smallest

on grounds possible "34

of public limits

is desired

to restrict

the number. of persons was despite

travelling

to and from ixest tfrica. of-the Home Office considerable

This refusal half-way Office

the willingness

to meet him delay the Home that he as a for

over travel had refused

documents. to provide

Though after

hin with

a Passport,

on the grounds re-register

unknown to -the Egyptian was Turkish enemy alien, 'it

Government and must therefore to grant

had been willing Britain again.

him a permit

to leave

West Africa Office

and to re-enter

the same time the Home *3ut, at

warned him; there,, might be. some difficultiesaboutmylanding Colonies and also to re-embark from the said I have finished business. 35 my when in-any of=the ... Colonies for England Office to

For this-reason for sa permit

Duce-Mohamed Ali

had felt.

the need to, ask. the Colonial Colonies-and

to 1and in and re-embark

from the west African

34. 35.

S. of S. Long to Duse Mohamed Ali, See Buse Mohamed Ali This letter explains of, travel documents,

11th May 1918, C. O. 554/40/21897.

to S. of S. Long,., 3rd ! ay 191E:, C. O. 554/40/21897. his dealings to date with the H. O. over the question from 21st December 1917 to that time. extending

578.
advise the Governors 36 and a further with ties postponement did of his visit to point, of his intending visit,, to prevent him "encountering

any difficulties".

The upshot was a refusal West Africa;

but his connection

Karpeles

not end ,at this

perhaps because of the other Instead of Duse Mohamed Ali relative It

close himself,

between himself

and Ispahani. and-pupil, the

in 1918 his

ex-lodger

Omanhene of Anamabu'i on the Gold Coast. 37

Claud Ennin became'Karpeles' to assume that

representative this was on

seems reasonable Although

Due/eta recommendation, ments to expand his prepared blished with

at the same time Duse'was making arrangetrading activities, yet he was still as one which was estawould deal equitably

own produce

to commend Ispahani's

firm

to his readers Ennin's agency),

the Gold Coast (through on bueineee'proposal's, situation

genuine

as soon as the shipping to break through opportunities an improvement During attempt for

to extend to Nigeria and was preparing 38 8arpelee and Co. bad failed permitted. bottleneck that was also restricting

the shipping African

allocation.

produce exporters

in Nigeria,

lbut was envisaging

in the situation that

withtheapproaohing Buse Mohamed Ali

end, of .the war. was associated with the

the sane period Karpeles

of Jules

and Co. to break into other

the west African

market,

he was also

busy with

several

schemes of a commercial

or financial

36. 37. 38.

ibid. See-"To-Day", ibid. ATOR, September,. -1918,.. p. 25.,.

579.
nature.
a writer

The first
and journalist,

of these was a link

and his together growing with directo'

between his
interests his for Gold

earlier

activities

as
This the

as a businessman. Coast colleague in

was a project

to produce,

ATOR, W.F. Hutchison,

a business

West Africa

to be called

the West African reason for unyielding to provide had already Meanwhile, Director the United

Directory

and Year Book. West Africa His agents

This project

was an added, to the had failed the Directory January 1918.39

his wish to visit Colonial him with Office.

in 1918, as he explained on the coast, he said,

the necessary

information

and consequently of issue for of lot

been delayed he had already in another States.

from its. planned date been soliciting

support field

his

West African community in

and most significant In October

the black --

1917 he had written

to R. R. Bioton, booker evidently as

T. Washington's a continuation

successor of an earlier

as principal

of Tuskegee Institute,

exchange of letters;

When you realise that the lest Afric n Directory is being published realise for the first time you will the impossibility of my sending I however take pleasure in sending you a circular you a copy of it. to be, which explains what it is all about and the size it is likely together with the number of copies of our first which we edition, feel certain be sold. 40 will It seems hardly likely that Moton, an influential man but no particular. black -,

friend

of. Duse,,Mohamed Ali's,

! YM1

would have been the only

American to be

39. 40.

Diis`e Mohamed All

to 3, of S. Long, 3rd Yay 1918, C. O. 554/40/21097.

Duae Mohamed All to R. R. Yloton, 24th October 1917,. R. R. Moton Papers,. General Correspondence, 1917, Tuskegee Institute' Archives.

580. This that The

approached. Directory aspiring

scrap of evidence

is an important

indication

was planned as a link of the world's black

between two of the most commercially communities - the produce traders and business and farmers 41 class. from

of West Africa

and the black

American professional IV of this thesis, this

As we have seen in Chapter Duse Mohamed Alf which poverty and ignorance

was a conjunction of his

came to expect and then other

the redemption

race from first

forme of oppression. which

Unfortunately, would reveal banker,

this

scheme to produce a commercial. handbook, trader and farrier of fliest Africa

the African

to the black was eo that The only by

businessman and professional by continuing official

man in the United obstruction was hopelessly of his

States, travelling,

long delayed the time it

appeared in 192142 it

out of date.

41.

in the For a short survey of the growth of Negro business enterprise States, States, United in tited Frazier, The 1= see E. Franklin in New for Negro business ed., New York, 1957, pp. 387-413; revised York City up to 1920, see Seth M. Scheiner, Negro r'"ecca. A History of 1865-. 1920, New York 1965, pp. 69-72, and the Negro in New York City St. Clair Drake and Horace for Negro business 74-81; in Chicago, see Black Metropolis, R. Cayton, for a monograph New York 1945, passim; States, the United throughout study of the growth of Negro business The Negro as Ca A Study of Banking, j see Abram L. Harris, yitaliet. It is Business Among American 1936, passim. Negroes, Philadelphia, historitha. Nsuccess, perhaps a commentary on the aapirat; ons; rather', that the eminent Negro in business of the American speaking, cally to black, American historian John Hope Franklin, in his From Slavery Freedom. A History Nettroes, 2nd-ed., and enlarged, of American revised New York 1964, gives this treatment. theme only the most cursory Directory Duse Mohamed Ali and W.F. Hutchison, West African eds., Year Book, London 1921; to in hence be referred this work will notes as WADYB. and foot-

42.

581. for 1920-21, than 1917. A. Macmillan's much interesting inforvation as a practical in 1920, as

edition, collected

that later

contained It

almost

no commercial

compares most unfavourably

handbook with which contains well

Red Book of West Africa. and curious information

published

about African

as . uropean business X's editors

in British

West Africa. defects,

The West African and offered the work with

Directo

were aware of its introduction;

a moat apologetic

difficulty considerable our West we are at length placing -After Afric; in Directory and Year Book in the hands of our readers and advertisers. . This publication has given us an extraordinary amount of trouble by reason of the fact to cc pile that we were breaking new ground, the of this many of our agents did not realise and in consequence kind of information This, we required. entailed a huge of course, correspondence and as the numerous particulars came from a great found after distance, these had been lost that we often some months, in the post and we were then compelled to demand duplicates.

We have, however, at last succeeded in producing the Directory, we trust that the trading communities in Europe, Africa and and lend their support to the only publication America will of its kind in existence. is, not, as perfect-as We know the Directory it might be, but it is to improve it each year in the interests our intention of our readers. Now that the, publioation has appeared our agents will arrive at a fuller of our desires, realisation we hope, enable us and will to mproveupon the present1issue. 43 annually Since Duse, Mohamed Ali improved editions left Britain for good in 1921, the matter But one can, hardlyas-. far of subsequent suppose that would and

was-.not put to. the test.

the subscribers,

some of whom .had been :solicited. further support, in view-of

back as-1917, evident

have cared. to. offer acknowledged

the , Dire ctor9's

deficiencies.

43.

ibid,

n. p.
ti

582. Nevertheless, in its purpose, though both in itself interest. in West

clearly

a commercial Directoryfacing

failure

and It

the West African

is of considerable produce traders

shows awareness of the problems Africa at the height

African

of the Great war, even if-it

can have been of little 1921. The sections

use to those on Sierra shipping

interesting crisis Coast for the on-the cocoa crop

same traders

in the changed conditions-of

Leone and the Gold Coast both contain shortage.

section cocoa

references

to the wartime and-most

shipping of Gold

44
in

The section
the book45

on the Gold Coast - the longest

- enumerates in the effects total total of of the

industry:

Though by 26 per

1917 the yet the

production price

had increased had declined year.

cent., _an

obtained less United 46 than

the

by 700,869,. bright point of

average

10 per rise

cent. in

previous

The only almost we can at the

had been the

States Behind farmers

purchases-to these figures

one third see the economic future

the. season's felt together American implying

total by the with market. these

exports. Gold,

frustration trend, in the

-Coast

and traders possible content It printed with

the

emergence of a The Directory

seemingly was not ties. proven

brighter merely a polemical

statistically blast from

wartime'difficulold friend, the

the

pen of

Duse's against

and seasoned Development of

campaigner Committee.

J. E. Casely .-This lands

Hayford,.

the-Empire threatening-' Hayford)

Resources. the integrity

body was accusedof issue to Casely

West African

(a sacred

44. 45. 46.

ibid, ibid, ibid,

pp. 90,161 pp. 129-313. p. 154.

& 180. The total length of the work was 253 pp.

583.
through tion their plan to. pay off Britaln'a war debt by the systematic exploita-

by capitalist 47 This

concessionaires article would Its

of Africa's-agricultural stand as a good measure of

and-mineral the Directory.; dodo in a

resources. of interest

now to historians, Empire

polemics-were Development the Directory's

as dead as the Committee tone

1921, bogey

by when the to be feared.,

Resources

was no longer abrasive

In general

was less

than that"of granting in Sierra.

Cacely Hayford's

contribution. failure,

Thus though mentioning of Lever's concession

the

in 1913, and subsequent Leone, it fox'ebore

to make any adverse information about

at 7onnibanni 48 comments on that epieode. business com-

In terms of biographical munity in west Africa

the African particularly

the West Africa with

Directory--in

disappointing It contains any

especially-by only light, five

comparison

the Red Book of West Africa. and of these of West Africa the only at that

potted

biographies, history

one which throws

on the-economic

time ia. of not an

47.

See J. E. Casely fayford, pp: 184488.

"The West African

Land 4uestion",

ibid.

48.

Of the demise of the Yonnibanni concession, ibid, all that p. 94. had to say was; "In 1915 ... machinery was removed the Directory in attractto tie. Gold, Coast,, as the owners had ,not been suocessful , labour and transport. ir , labour ,, .in overcoming the difficulties or -of

"

584.
African but a white man, J. M. Stuart-Young. for later Stuart-Young, years, 49 Yet this was not as anomolous to play a part of the

as may at first

appear,

who was destined

in Duse Mohamed Ali's forces firms small that

was in no way a representative African white, traders. that

were cramping and crushing were exclusively African, breed, trying-to

Though the big the

in West Africa ones were totally

is not to say that

and in fact the =all exist import-and

the African if

Stuart-Young independent

was an example white trader. mergers

of what already He was a palm-oil and near-monopoly

tS

was a dying ruffian,

in the era of combines, export trade.

But

in West African
in common with man with

As such he
beyond liking this,

shared"a

predicament

trader. not

he seems'to

have beena

a genuine,

unprejudiced,

for

Africans

and belief

in

their

capacities,

unusual

among European comown efforts a romantic from with

mercial

personnel

in West Africa. but remarkably indifference man.

He had emerged by his he was nevertheless

the Manchester

slums,

none of the callous typical producing self-made

to, others

and success worship, of the as well-as commercial ambitions, romantic

He had literary

extraordinary

numbers -of volumes, of now almost

unreadable

49.

Biographical information
e. + ITnwsn Rn4

r .

for further ibid, 252-253; sketch of J. M. Stuart-Young, pp. on Stuart-Young works Iii The Coaster see his autobiographical ffinn A,. All A111.. f%,
n *-16,4....... i... -4_1 i, . 4 Del.. nni

Trader Nan of the Niger River, -and`The Iniquitous Coaster. Beine the Home'; ' London, 1917 Second Volume of 'The 'Coaster ` The other' at, Joseph Sumanah biographies in the WADYB werelof"Sierra-Leonean potted Farim Bonar, ' p. 248; a- Teme from Freetown of George "Bund"I3eareh, who bad become an Assistant-Supervisor.. of. <Native'. Courts. -in Nigeria, the. Cold The -Fion. -Awame-Sri'-II, Axuna-andIme: ber-of p. 249; 'Fis-6f Coast=L gialativeConcil, : Dawson of; a"Alfred pp: 249-25dj`--and. `=Jame (uittah, Races Gold Coast, who had been a member of the Universal Congrgss 1911, pp. 250-252. -of

585"
novels tastes, further him ae; one of the best known and most interesting in West personalities Africa. Born at Manchester 1881, he migrated on the 3rd (arch to the coast before 21; trained in Liberia Coast; and on the Ivory the Niger for the first time in 1905; visited founded his business in 1909; factor at Cnitsha in the trading and is now a potent and life Nigeria. political He attributes of his beloved his success to personal hard work, but-especially to a solid belief in the potentialities to each member of his staff of the negro - to affording derivable from an individual every possible advantage in the interest progress and development This policy of the business. has brought the house to such a stage that Mr. Stuart-Young will soon have to drop the reins and hand over to a limited company, his work as a being now fully pioneer and founder accomplished. hr. Stuart-Young has well earned the title of 'The West ... Kipling', African the great poet of Empire having sponsored his disciples book in 1908, 'The Seductive Coast' ... t The business motto of, his house has always been=-'The cheapest obtainable compatible with sound value and excellent quality', and the'native name conferred ten years ago (0 Dazi on Mr. Stuart-Young the quality Aku) confirms description, for it means 'the trade of this repairer and composer' to the communal advantage the - he arranges trade of his district. Mr. Stuart-Young has fought his battle against very long odds, 'against firms with a hundred times his capital, and It is not at all he has won. improbable that a prolongation of the war and the consequent - shortage. of; tonnage will smash most of the 'opposition' junior but Mr. Stuart-Young on the Niger; steadily (three that thirty-seven. protests forty, hence: ) will gx even' yearn, not be too old for him to take up the cudgels again for a new start. Such optimism, typically British, deserves its crown of success. 51 and verse, which link were between mang of taken the them on west seriously two men. African themes. 50 His literary a

by Buse" 41ohaned Ali, The We st African

were no doubt described

Directory

50.

A Cunflrt f ?Kernels. `Stories; " Studies and ! Sketches,, African` CO st; yLondon l909; '' Chits 'from West Africa. London 1923-

There are no less than 21 volumes of poetic and other literary works by Start. -Young' lis ted' in ` the British"Museum Catalogue of Printed Books, in addition to'the ' Some of'these 2'atobigraphicl'volumes. themes, drawing on Stuart-Young's are on West African experience of life there - e. g. -Yerely a`Nekresss A-,W African Story, `London 1904;
fron th West ' mainly e ' Stories and Sketches,

51.

DYAD pp. 252-3. WA Stuart-Young from trading in seems to have retired 1919, for in his article "Some Reminiscences of Nigeria", Chamber's Journal, 7th ser., vol. 14, August 1924, p. 586, he speaks of 1908-19 as "my own trade-period there".

586.
This Fassage, with its surface optimism and undercurrent of the small
rivals. Stuart-Young It

doubt about the produce trading

future,

conveys graphically
firm of with faced

the struggle
with giant

and import-export that "won" that is for at the time

is

interesting

to to have -

see

writing, bigger to of to

although firms, re-start firm yet

waA supposed 'if

his is, if the

fight

he was prepared, business career

necessary the it

forced prediction this

his

from

bottom. is left last

his

becoming by its

a limited success off of

company,

unclear ditch longer. arranging for

whether attempt

was dictated more capital about his

or by a desperate the his big firms a little

to raise

to hold

The remarks trade to "the

encouragement advantage" people

employees be genuine

and his enough, erect a

communal liked

seem to of

he, was well

enough

by the

Onitsha'for

them to

statue details

to his memory after

his death. first

52

We may"only'guess with him, but it

the exact is said that

of Duse Mohamed Ali's

meeting

Stuart-Young-, was travelling Colonies

in Europe and the other Thus it

British that

West African they met in year. remains "

between 1919 and 1923.3 as 1919;

is possible

London as early Before to discusa,

they certainly=met-in Directory

Lagos the following and Tear+Bookq it

leaving the light

the West African it throws

on Duce Mohamed Ali's

business'connections

52,

Information this statue

Whether from Fir. Ukpabi Aaika, Ibadan, 8th March 1967. does not know. War the writer survived the Nigerian Civil

53.

See letter from H. E. Wilkinson Cole in The Comet, 25th March 1935, p. l, that Stuartdiscussed the sad state of. affairs which sympathetically life. Toung was in by that time, and reminisced about his earlier

587.
the United of States. a full-page Co., Inc., of in, the . its interesting, Importing In addition

with

The evidence advertisement of

here for

is the

slender Great

but

consisting and Exporting to giving it with Great that

Southern 54

105 Kosciusko it had to

Street, offer struck

Brooklyn. and the a loudly

details

goods

tropical

produce note

was interested the slogan

advertisement racial unity in

pan-Negro

"Why not Importing

commerce? "

But what

makes the is

Southern its address

and Exporting to that

Company even more interesting to which in 1919 Duse Mohamed

was identical

Ali

was addressing
in September

correspondence

to J. F. Bruce.
that

In a letter
extremely

written

to

Bruce about

1919 Duse confided (one of his worries to having Bruce's Southern his

he had "been being in There

worried

many things" and also

no doubt received

the

West African a Mr. Headley, doubt and that his as

Directory) with that Bruce,

referred

London

whom he had discussed this too, was the Great

company. Importing creating African

can be little Company, links

and Exporting commercial in

was trying American

hand at

between

own black Bruce's Ali's have

community

and the

West Africa. of such of

Headley,

emissary, correspondence

had been allowed as was of

to make copies to Bruce's

Duse Mohamed This the may well

interest with

company. but

been commercial specify. 55

correspondence

West Africans,

letter

does not

54. 55.

WADYI3,p. 214. See Duse Mohamed Ali to J. E. Bruce, 12th September 19199 J. E. ruoe Papers, wchomburg Collection, New York Public Library.

588.
Before looking at Duse Mohamed Ali'a
produce case trader, let rather in

more fully

fledged
of It for

efforts
his

to

become a tropical schemes, in this

us examine than

another

wartime

financial

commercial. a loan

has been seen the not of Ottoman political

how he may have Government terms, raising Politically, at this time, its

been involved eve of the

a scheme to raise War. In financial in the-early

on the sequel

Great

though months of British

was a plan

he proposed from in the

1918 for'

a 12,000,000 this that

war loan fits

population his belief, Western

West Africa. in must, the in ATOR their

clearly coloured

with of

advocated Powers the

subjects possible

the

own self. -interest,

make every

sacrifice

to aid

war-effort

The scheme was addressed

but a copy, was, pent to the

to Bonar Law, the Chancellor

Jecretaryt *alter. Long,

of the Exchequer,
and, it waa at

Colonial

the Colonial Chancellor

Office

trat

the. catter

aas considered.

His proposal

to the

of the Exchequer said;

is not Your recent the war revenue that speech makes it quite obvious It seems keeping demands upon the Treasury. pace with the increasing the financial Colonies have to me that resources of the West African tapped. Sir Frederick Lugard obtained 3,000,000 not been seriously from Nigeria and the last vote of the Gold Coast Colony, which in some I had the honour to influence, slight measure amounted to 170,000.

Now, I estimate that there are at least 10,000,000 Native adults including in West Africa the Government officials,, who., , etc., -clerks, contribute from-41 to 10 to War Bonds, which should: yield at could. To, reach these, people, =I would suggest that the,. least; 412,000,000. Bank,, the Bank of British, Colonial West Africa end -Meyers. - t$wanzy, Bros., the Niger Co., the African.. Association-,, and-Kussell; anti Filler, _ instalCo. should be approached with a view to receiving war Loan by rents; The Banks would deal with the general body of the Natives and the firms with their Native employees, adopting the same system of instalments as obtained in the case of the white employees of these firms, and these Native employees would canvass among the Native customers of these firms to the same end.

589.
I believe that it would be possible from this source to raise 6,000,000 - 8,000,000 within six months of the introduction of the scheme and a further 4C6,000,000 to 48,000,000 before the expiration , twelve months of the operation of the first of the loan.
for this purpose or no printing except, would be required forma, which should be as simple as the usual application of course, of the business possible, as the major portion could be done through firms, the Banks, and the before mentioned as they both come into than the -West African section of the population contact with a larger Pont Offices. I an sending a copy of this letter to the Zeoretary of State for Bank, the Bank of British West Africa, the Colonies, the Colonial Seeare. Niger Co., the African Russell Swanzy, -i1iller, Asroclation, that both the banks and the West conviction and Co. with the settled firms African trading, in an undertaking would co-operate which is both praiseworthy and necessary. Tires and Orient Review' The columns of the 'African would also be placed at the disposal of the Government in order to influence a dar, Loan. 56. Native West African Little

As a practical this was-feaeiblet

plan

(even it" the to cost

Vtarget was curely of the non-official

highly

over-optimistic) to

at- least,

institutions eleven

his plan had been circulated which original copies letter being sent replies out,

thought. he was able

Iithin

days of the Secretary

to send the Colonial

of favourable

from both the west African

Banks, and from

'-_.

wP

56.

muse Mohamed Ali to Chancellor of Exchequer Bonar Law, 5th .arch 1918, It is, of course, possible in view of= the timing C. O. 554/40/11271. this letter that it was rrerely intended to soften the C. 0. 'a of But withto West Africa. and acooth the way for his visit attitude this, that such he was entirely serious in feeling out discounting to the Allied war effort were in the long terra political contributions interest of Vest Africa.

590.
the-African-Association of the banks, African and H. W.B. Russell and Company. 57 The attitude *est

who may be presumed to have had a cautious realities, was particularly friendly.

view of

financial

The Colonial which- , we think in. " The Bank

Bank answered "if

the Chancellor for

takes up your suggestion, be very glad to fall

a good one, - we .shall', of British=West than the Colonial Africa,, official was. in full 'reaction. Africa,

our part,

'much more experienced recently plan,

in the ways of the Coast established itself in West

Banlc, which had only accord with Duse's

but pessimistic

about the likely

We quite'agree with your view you express with regard to endeavouring for War Bonds in West Africa. We believe that to get subscriptions if the case were properly advertised, a great amount of money could We have already put this view before the War be obtained there. Savings, Committee, but we are sorry to say that our-suggestion was , received. not enthusiastically
The response ful efforts of the Colonial Office to Dus Mohamed Ali's On the basis careful that to and thought-

was a particularly with a doubtful

mean one. past"

he was "a take false

pushing

person

who was attempting

credit

"for . some of the success

if encouraged
rS

in raising
as the

war contributions
financial adviser

in W. Africa"
of the S. of Be

and who would,

"pose

in W. African

matters",

58

he was curtly

informed

that

the matter

was'being

57.

Bank to Duse flohamed Al!, 7th Karch 1918, and African See Colonial 6th larch 1918, enclosed in Dose to Dupe Mohamed All, Association Mohamed Ali to S. of S. Long, 8th March 1918; and Bank of British West Africa to Duse Mohamed All, 11th March, 1918,.., enclosed. in DuceS. Ntong, 16th March 1918, in which was also Mohamed All to of letter to Duse k"ohamed Ali from. H. W.B. Russell,. &, Co., ' nov enclosed a, for this entire frn the'C. O. file; see correspondence, missing C. O. 554/40/11271. ibid, minute of 13th Parch 1918, on the basis the C. O. acted. of which

58.

591.
attended that British it to already. objected 59 But at the same time the Colonial Office, showing

not to the plan but to the man, wrote asking "their

to the Bank of market for they were issued "60

West Africa

views as to the possible West Africa, it

Exchequer Bonds and similar to the natives

securities-in

under a system of payment by instalments.

The West African

penchant activities scope. Oriental motto In for in action

War Loan scheme wan-an example of Dune l: ohamed Ali's

on the grand far scale. By comparison, but they from in his his were the trading growing in and

1917-1918

were

more modest, a step

September

1918, he took Agency

onward

modest

African the not

Bureau

and Buying

by announcing

review, which

under would

"ONE FOR ALL AND ALL FOR ONE", a new organisation

only

supply

overseas into

customers

with

British

and American. goods, The_

but would disis

step forward claimed

the world

of tropical

produce trading. effort64

any possible for

damage torlspahdni'S. all comers".

by stating

"there

enough in Africa

The announcement continued;

to deal with native whether produce, we have .. * made arrangements from Asia or Africa, `ade on a large'scale. are opening extensive be used as a clearing house for Oriental which will and premises African We want tobacco, oils, commodities. cotton, gum, 'rubber, tin, hides, gold, cocoa, copra, and every kind of raw material grain, the Orient. to send us on a from Africa We want our readers and large, scale required, of every kind of. commodity, with price 'samples on the question keeping 'of fluctuation from time to time. us posted We want these samples at once, and we want them large.

59. 60.

C. U. to. Duse Mohamed Ali, See draft

20th M rch,. 1918,. draftcopy,

-C.

O. 554/40/11271.

of C. O. to Bank of. 1ri tiah, k'est"; Africa,

'"20th' 14irch -1918, ibid.

592.
If consignments Orient Exchange', are sent to 'The Africa-and 158 Fleet Street, we shall get you the best possible market price, deducting office of 5 per cent. -to pay-the a commission necessary

We will also arrange advances against bills and expenses. of lading, but you must first senden your, camples in order that. ue"may know the quality of the produce with which we are to deal. Some time-ago we told our readers that-they must 'make money if they intended to retain their We repeat this place in the sun'. 61 injunction.
same time goods the from announcement Europe firms. appeals the also emphasised give project that in the'matter a fairer of deal on a iniqui-

At the ordering than tide tous fire

Exchange'would 'the whole

customers

most European of rhetorical

Indeed, to race

was launched to the

solidarity which, trade.

and hostility it was alleged,

burdens imposed

and "fraudulent on the overseas

expenses" coloured

European

In' `flay '1919, ' Duce Mohamed Ali's into

existing

trading

interests

were con-

limited liability company, the Africa and Orient'Trade verted a 62 His chief partner in this enterprise Exchange Ltd. was a man'called Charles "Shipper Mead, variously described as British or Indian'by "Engineer nationality, and

of, Bombay in. the Empire of"Iniia", by occupation. ,

and Contractor", times during as 94 Road,

or merchant the life

Meade address was, at different nominally lasted till

the company (which of London 'd. 1 (not

1923) given and 16 Callers

Dean Street,

a respectable

address)

61. 62.

ATOit, September 1918, pp. 25-6. This company's certificate of-- incorporation. was, iseued 2nd-June 1919 31/24684/155688; its Memrandum,a d Articles see`i3T of Association on "29th Play 1919, see -BT 31/24684 155688 2.
4

593.
Mount Road, Madras.
man, but if the

63

It

is not clear
only

whether

he was an Indian
apart from

or a white
Duce

former

he was the

non-European,

Mohamed Ali,. Together

Street

who was to be either a lire. Katherine

simply

a director

of or investor

in the company. As 158 Fleet

the company's

64

with

Lewis,

whose address
woman",

was given

and occupation

as "married

Mead signed

original

Memorandum and Articles

of Association. directors

65

In due coursep during Augustus a 66

1920, the company acquired

two other

the Hon. Arthur -

1, 63 Montagu Square, -W. and Claud Ronald Anson (presumably Anson of relative of A. A. Anson) of Itchell Manor, Croudall, Hertfordshire.

63.

in Mead signed the company's initial statement of nominal capital aturo, which is struck out in-the document - see place of =Fuse's si In this document to is described as "Engineer BT. 31/24684/155688/2. In a contract Contractor". betvepn Head and Duse Mohamed Ali and
on the. tone hand and the termed "Shipper Head. -is In 31/24604/155688/8. of 22 July 1919, he is is given as his address

Africa Trade Exchange on the other and, Orient of Bombay in the -=pire see BT of India; Directors Respecting the company's Particulars "shipper" the Dean Ste described simply as and usual see BT 31/24684/155688/6. residence;

...

In the Register of Directors submitted on behalf of the company on 18th November 1921, he is simply described as "merchant" and the see BT 31/24684/ adras address is given as his usual residence; , 155688/12. It is clear from the documents in BT 31/24684/155688 were British, directors as were the other investors. See BT 31/24684/155688/2. Resolution in clause (c) of a Srecial Their names are first mentioned . 4th June 158'F1eetStreet, general. meeting, passed at. an_extraordinary 1920 and confirmed on 218 t June 1920; se BT 31/24684/155688/10.
Their. addresgee and Shares--, given in Summary of S re Ca ital are -.-* , their of the' Company,, 31st' December 1920; _BT,31/24684/155688/11; 1921, BT Directorsof'18th-November ir. Rerister'of resignation'-is the Ansons' The last 31/24684/155688/12. of these documents gives other occupations as "none".

64.

that

the other

65. 66.

594.
Which of the original known, pair"of-directors but'they were each shares inveigled credited these on 31st two into the 1920

-company is with shares 2,750

not

December

one shilling

preference to Arthur

and a block

of 5 preference 67 Perhaps

- eighty-three

and eighty-two

to Claud.

we may surmise-that

their

purpose was to give decidedly close

bogus tone and real shady, as we shall see.

cash to a company which was'already Their directorships The first ended by-'the

of 1921. is any record of their

transaction

of the company of which there founders,

was the purchase from its pre-existing trading

F: ead and Dune Mohamed Ali,

arrangements.

In the words of the agreement;

Import and General have for many years past carried the 'Vendorsl on Egypt, Burma and' Siam respectively busineds" with Africa, India, and have established connections with Owners, Producers and Growers there and hold Powers of Attorney over 'Concessions' and have offers Raw Materials supplies of Produce, of large and regular etc. and have been asked by the owners of Lands and-Concessions and Farms

to organise for dealing In this there

Shipping, 'Trading Agencies and arrangements 68 their property with ... which West African since

generally

is an echo of the approaches

producers 1912 to

and traders

are-said'to their

have made to Duse Mohamed Ali export produce. and in return However, "for their

help them market 'charitable' not a

it, was a business "connections",

agreement,

.,,. .", _

67,

the Africa`; and', Orient List of'shareholders of "' 31st December 1920, BT 31/24604/155608/11.

Trade Exchange Ltd.,

68.

'AI, I. and CHARMS An Agreement made DUST"1"`, oI1A1.7; D BFTWFFt1d ... ... ? AD ... 'J of the one art and the` AFRICA & ORIENT TRADE EXCHANG-ri LIMITED of the other cart 11th July 1919, BT 31 24684 155688 8. ....

r ..

595.
"Powers of Attorney" plus all the ordinary and "offers" shares the two men were to be paid .1,000 69 of the company, options evidence in tropical etc. and agreements of the extent produce they sold to of

Details their

of the concessions, valuable

company provide

and nature

Dune Mohamed Ali's puncture. The list

activities

trading

up to this and Orient

of agreements was as follows;

bought by the African

Trade Exchange Ltd.

Six 1. Sara Esian Timber Co. Commercial St. Seccondee, G. C. C. 99 years concessions for gold, timber and manganese properties. Lease. Copy of agreement in office, with particulars. 9a Gloucester. Rd., 2.: S. D. Williams, Gold, rubber and. kola nut concession Freetown, Sierra in the healthiest Leone. spot on

in area. Also Palm oil estate 20 sq. miles the Coast. and mahogany bought from the aortgagors, which he has just and for plantationr He wants this L12,000 before the war. which the Germans offered 2,000 acres in area. 100,000 palm oil trees, good sum for it. Has discovered entrance. seed which has been a ttew oil river Institute by the_. Imperial. Seed consists in. F1917. of. analysed 807, yielding Residue could be made 48-60'io oil. coat 20 kernel into cakes etc. oil ...

3., Chief Office Hyah', C/o C. Micah, The Bank, Azim, G. C. C. Two for sale. 2,000 fathoms gold concessions and a cocoa plantation Wants 100 for option., square. Bensu, Lower Wassaw, G. C. C. Secretary to Para4. R. David ! iota, desirous of placing to three sub-chiefs count Chief, and Attorney Offers the richest their concessions on the huropean market.
of these, shipping gold and mahogany uahagany. to Mr. Mohamed, and is at present

5. J. E. Ashong, Ganda St., Dixcove, G. C. C. Mahogany property Price 3,500 cash and 2,000. standing. trees, 400 figured, with :06,500 shares for timber and-agricultural rights.
6. Produce Co. Lome, Togoland. Appointed IM. r. sole. agent for -Europe .to deal with produce matters. United Mohamed their

69.

ibid.

596.
7. H. D. Ackumey, -Lome, Togoland. -Shipping 1ahogany.

8. Fred. Pentsil Amerah, G. C. Gainey House, Commercial Rd., Winnebah, G. C. C. Wants documentary credit for an advance F. O. H. offers 3, miles timber land and 1 sq. mile oil land as security. 9. Essah cocoa on and palm and does III0 Chief of Eudoe via Appam, G. C. C. Wishes to supply consignment if we will supply bags 500. Lias enough cocoa these easily, kernels on his own and peoples land to fill not wish to deal. with Europeans here.

C/o Bannerman, St. Sdmunds, James Town, Accra., 10, Sam Forster, Wishes to be appointed agent for firm, offers cash and house pro1,200 tons per as security also cocoa plantation perty yielding season. Victoria T. F'ashola, Princes Bridge 3t., Rd., Lagos, S. P. N. ii. Also has large Wishes to send on consignment stores produce etc. if deposit or will as security and land which he wishes to sell as, agent. appointed 12. Kvabeng Produce Co., 136 Selbourne Ave., the members are farmers. to ship cocoa, all Accra, G. C. C. rant

13. A. 0. Cnimole, Jebu Remo Nigeria. house.

Ijekun harket, Offin Shayamu, via Produce to ship, offers security

Ikorudu, of farm and

Last Brook 5t., Freetown 14. MacCormack Bros., jute, cane, camwood, kernels, rattan, palm oil,

Cowhorns, S. Leone. to ship. fibre

15. Oshilaja Bros., 68 Gt., Bridge St., Lagos, S. P. N. Hides and general produce to ship, wants in exchange manufactured goods. 16. A. B. Sule, Ake Abeokuta, ginger,, will, sell P. O. B. S. P. Nigeria. General produce and Cotton, cotton

Omar Sariskousy, Box 346, Alexandria, f onions, rags and bones. seeds,

Egypt.

& Co., 5-6 Bamrung muang Rd., Bangkok, Siam. Nakirhoda A. mirbhai Tobacco, fine cut,. large quantities which Mr.. D. M. Ali, is empowered to dispose of in the U. Kingdom.
S. M. Bahadur, and antimony. M. A. Gamali, produce to export, 1455 tichambawima, goods and cotton Zanzibar, to import. K. Africa. Native 87 Torphanchang Ronsi, Bangkok, Siam. Siam rice

597.
Tropical Products Co., Kingston, Jamaica, 70 honey. cocoa, annatto, pimento, coffee, It will be noted It that the greater if part of this list that
rather merchant, trade such for

. W.I.

Ginger,

is concerned all

with

west Africa.
African the that years latter

seems likely,
came from rather with

not certain,

the West
Mead, since

connections

Dune Mohamed Ali than African

than whilst

was an Indian

we know seven since clauses Duse

Duse had been concerned and had been especially 1918. Whereas his

west African in seeking

nearly

active name is is up, not in

connections in

September four, six

specifically mentioned clause at

mentioned all. in firm of

and sixteen, name even a tobacco nine racial solidarity

Mead's turns

Indeed, the

Mohamed Ali's context When in specifically of in race of

sixteen,

unexpected in a spirit Siam.

sale a Gold reason

agreement Coast for his

with

an Indian essah III

trading gives the

clause

chief, offer

Eudoe, of

we see a glimpse

and hostility commerce at this

to whites time. from other coming the

among some Africans

engaged

international Another point Coast

which

emerges with

agreements territories

is

the in

importance Duse's trailing creaGold

of

the

Gold

compared with

African second the period

business far tion Coast

affairs, It Africa

Nigeria that

and Sierra leading Ltd* his

Leone

behind. of the

is

evident and Orient

in

up to the

Trade in

Exchange to

he had found fortune

the

the

most

promising

area

which

seek

and to network. of the

establish This was,

a thriving of course,

African no were

controlled capricious

international choice.

trading Regardless

70.

`ibid,

attched

schedule

of concessions.

590.
question point of the real value of his various now), offers and concessions'(a its palm

perhaps gold,

beyond calculation timber

the Gold Coast with

products, export

and above all

cocoa,

had the most flourishing The Cold Coast farmer and the

trade

of any British totally element for

West African

territory.

cocoa industry, most valuable starting point

the creation in the colony's

the African of exports,

was the most obvious controlled exporting system.

the creation

of an African Coast timber

Nigeria offering to

In addition,
were firmly cocoa industry

sbstantial'Cold
in African hands.

and palm product

of

resources
with of rather its future than

was a land exciting look back of by the

potential,

and'paln"products Only Sierra

possibilities on the past

expansion. forward for visit to

Leone seeped

the

future. business Africa in

The unattractiveness plans 1920, is indicated

sierra fact

Leone as a field that not during bother his to

grandiose to liest

)use Voliamed Ali

did

even

call

there., But grandiose business

This its,

plans,
the

even if

tinged

with
Trade its

idealism,
Exchange

need
Ltd. shares never

substantial had. were, Almost

capital. half

Africa shares,

and Orient and half

ordinary 1920,

preference other 1/-

by 31st

December

issued

for

considerations and 25,000 in cash,

than

cash. _share, of a

By the, same date, had been issued

750 G5 preference subject to payment

shares wholly

ordinary

and a full

5,000,

calls

had been received, 71

this

presumably any,

representing benefits

the bulk

of the from the

company's cash assets.

What, if

had accrued

71.

See Sumrr of Share Capital 24684/155688/11.

and :,hares,

31st December 1920, BT 31/

599.
concessions is alarming held and agreements to at discover 158 Fleet borrowing directors. that acquired from the founders is not, known. -General on It

on June 4th lifted

1920 an Extraordinary, virtually all restrictions

Meeting the

Street powers,

directors' life

and made Duse,

Mead and the Ansons was. added to the

permanent

Furthermore r

a , new article

company'. s articles

of associations,

No director be disqualified by-his from contracting shall office .... Purchaser as Vendor, with the Company either nor shall or otherwise, into by or on behalf or arrangement-entered of the any such contract Company in which any Director is in any way interested., to be liable be, avoided nor shall any Director so contracting or being so interested be liable to account to the Company for any profit by any realised

or arranged by reason such contract or of the fiduciary office, relation The only restrictions interests on Directors

holding of such Director thereby disclosed ... they must disclose

that

were that

their Even

and would have no vote

might "at

where they were interested

be suspended or relaxed contract,

parties.
to

theme restrictions and either or of to transaction the milk interests the generally

any time respect

any extent

or in

of any particular General the Meeting. door

arrangement irrespective directors

by the of its

Company in investors, their these

"7

In Short, for This the

was opened

company in before

own private changes the

interests.

may explain to

why only

shortly

company made arrangements

raise "its all

an initial undertaking, its other

5,000 and all

and an eventual its stock

total

of 20,000 goodwill its

by a mortgage on

in 'trade

and book debts and uncalled

Ay

property

present

and future

including

capital.

"73

72. 73.

Se. BT 31/24684/155688%10. See, Particulars 2468471556W/9. of a Series o . Debentures-..., 17th May 1920, BT 31/

600. The destiny

of this

company was clearly of the Negro Race. It

speedy insolvency maintained

'rather a-

than

the economic salvation nominal existence until

at least

the end of 1921, but from 1922 (i. e. after none of the legally Office; obligatory

Dune returns on 74 of

Mohamed Ali information

had left

the country)

were made to the Companies Register was struck suspicions it off the register

consequently,

17th August 1923 it Despite ducted, of racial inevitable

and compulsorily this

dissolved.

about the way in which reveals

company was conand practice

and the yawning gulf economic advance,

between the theory Orient-Trade of fraud

the Africa-and

Exchange Ltdo canrather that than of Panattempted evidence that

not be dismissed Africanism. any serious

as an episode

in the history lack

To begin with, role in

despite

of evidence

it-ever negative

Went African as inconclusive. even if

produce trading, If evidence

yet this

must be considered

were to be uncovered

the company made serious, to trade, "then a revised, Secondly,

with era the

unsuccessful

or even incompetent

efforts

more favourable terms its

of Garvey,

picture

would be necessary. is
of

in comparative
business activities

rather

shady nature

of a piece
roughly the Taylor*, same 75

other

Pan-Africanists

such men as Marcus -

', Tote-Anse, V.

and John Eldred

74.

For these steps in the company's ET' 21/24684/155688.

Unfrtunately

final

decline

and fall

in 1922-3,

see

75.

there is as yet no'detailed i6nogiaph'tudy or even business As yet the best account on Garvey's article activities. is`that busitobe found in t. D. - Cronon's Black Moses. '''Tate-4nsa1e is the subject "Economic Aspects of ness career of A. G. Hopkins, Movements in Nigeria Political 1, JAE, vii, and the Gold Coast", 1966. John Eldred Taylor's business has yet to be given the career his role in the creation attention-it undoubtedly-deserves; of the TOR can be read in Chapter IV of this thesis, his creation of the African Telegraph in Chapter V. and an outline of his role as a company in this investor later promoter chapter. and magnet for the West African

601.

All
It

these men-were at one time

would is be naive necessary resources, lead to to suppose

or another
only

connected with
undertook explanation. financial Pan-African

Duse Mohamed Ali.

such enterprises, Big ideas,

that

rogues

so it slender do not

to suggest

an alternative fron

and no backing cuts" only

orthodox

institutions, inclined

"short

among black,

businessmen.

The climax began in July incidents

of Duse Mohamed Ali's 1920 with his visit

business

life

in the period

1912-1921 The He reported

to Nigeria

and the Gold Coast. own right.

of the journey

have an interest as the political

in their life

in the AOR such natters racial boats discrimination In-those days.

of Lagos, and the petty suffered on Elder Dempster of

that It

coloured-passengers is well

to remember that on leaving

the first his

experience for

an educated and influential wau likely, On his first to be some insult

West' African fron

country

Europe

a steward noted;

or white

fellow

passenger.

day out Duse- ohamed All

doctors four young coloured fresh from college to the returning Coast to start a career, one with an English wife, who seems to the impertinent. curiosl. ty of some of the young Government excite the deck with an air which borders who strut officials on the ludiTea is, duly served; but the, waiters, crous. aq polite, although . , about the coloured not enthusiastic of the human freight. section Petty were that people racial racially condition with incidents segregated of affairs, ciultiplied at dinner. because as the voyage progressed. that not he "did associate Given this Passengers not with atmosphere, hind

Dus averred I would in rather

whom I could
.i

have nothing

common. "77

76. 77.

AOR; September'1920, ibid.

p. 13.

602.
he was astonished The most wife unpleasant when one morning incident dentist though a white man bade hit "good-Morning". at Accra, same table when the as Dr. white J. C. 78

came after refused to sit

calling at the wife.

of a mulatto of Lagos,

Vaughan

he too

had a white

The dentist

maladroitly

explained that

that

"his

wife

had no objection with

to dining "? g

with

...

(Dose) but comments

his wife

objected

to dine

natives:

Duse's general

on Elder

Dempster's

service

were

bitter

and characteristic;

the company possessing, as it does, the monopoly of ixest African be little there will likelihood traffic, of improvement steamship there is competition be competition and not a which will until or even amalgamation. arrangement working the Native As may be imagined, traveller suffers most by this in He is relegated table inadequate to an uncomfortable service. to the state-rooms the dining-room, on the lower deck, even when he is higber berths are available, up, and is generally made to feel by the in"the way by the company's servants and most particularly forgetting the latter that the bread they go to the passengers, Coast to earn can only be obtained by Native goodwill. The swank of your cheap European clerk and his three-stair-back for a And this making every allowance appalling. wife is really importance to which the poor dears, even in their newly-acquired little, flights to; of iragination, wildest never hoped to attain they realise the great harm they are doing to themselves or their BO country

Poor Duse Mohaaed -Ali: exciting destiny, venture

Even on this he'hoped,

trip,

in which he was engaged in an change test Africa's instantly

which would,

radically figure

he was pursued by the egregious in the above extract. It

of T. Swellibus,.

recognisable

is useless

to accuse him of being

78. 79. 80.

ibid. ibid, , ibid. December 1920, p. 53. September 1920,. pp. 14-5.4

603.
over-sendtive
of white on other situation monopoly

here;
to too

circumstances
coloured they of the 81

had given
His

him an unflattering
remarks have their of the If

perception
significance

behaviour levels in vital

people. show his the

for parts to

hyper-awareness economy. it

monopoly shipping far worse

Ixest African traveller,

the

was galling

African

was something

for

the African

exporter. visit to West tifrica in 1920 ultimately eight years grew from from west

Duse Mohamed Ali's the complaints

African help farmers them;

he had received
and traders.

over the previcus

Nor was it the first

effort

he had made to

The universal farmers complaint among West African was and traders inability to obtain facilities from the their alleged adequate Bank then operating in West Africa. individual I had several interviews Bank, with the officials of the Colonial then negotiating in the direction with Barclay's of amalgawhich was to secure information the from me regarding and was anxious mation, . I told banking business in nest Africa. of extended possibilities them banking competition in the interests of was vitally. necessary effort branches Native to establish and, if the Bank would be prepared I would use such influence in West Africa, as I possessed to induce traders to give their Native business to the Colonial and farmers Bank. After the then manager used my information numerous interviews to be a chief with a man from the Gold Coast who claimed and arranged for the business capable of obtaining considerable and, therefore, his connexions. Bank through

`A branch was duly opened and a working arrangement was arranged bank and-the Colonial=... between the existing 'As this working arrangement was quite contrary to our' original I decided-to'make an'effort in'another direction which understanding; would be -in the, ,best interests of. 'the West -African., 'Native traders and producers. _.__ ._... ._
1

81.

For an account of a virtual of the achievement monopoly of shipping West Africa to British by Elder Dempster, An Economic see Hopkins, History for an account of Legos 188801914, of the same pp. 321-33; in British to 1924, see A. McPhee, The Economic Revolution process London 1926, pp. 95-8. West Africa,

604.
In view of the fact that America was the greatest consumer of Cocoa, I got in touch with, an American Bank which signified its I could secure intention to set up branches in ixest Africa provided 32 deposits foundation for subsequent business. guaranteed asa

This account the beginning August 1912. for a Native

sumcarises

a, process

lasting

several

years.

As was shown at him from

of the chapter; Even his Bank into

-West-African,

banking

interested

sanguine practice,

temperament did

not put the 1912 scheme be saw the traders

and we may suppose that substitute. If

Colonial

Bank as a more practical felt that

West African

and farmers

the Bank of British Bank, 83 did

West Africa,

from 1912 to 1917

the sole British

needs, then it

West African
made sense to

not or would not meet their

if only from another

encourage

competition,

European controlled cussions contained and a puff with

bank.

One can probably Bank back into of its activities

date Duse N: ohamed Ali's the January

dis-

the Colonial

1916, for

1917 ATO 1837,

a long account
yj

in the -West Indies in West Africa;

since

for

the Colonial

Bank's

new venture

82.
83.

"Leaves",

in Tho`Comet, ' 29th January

1938, p. 7.

'1n'l912""theBank

West Africa the Bank of Nigeria of-British absorbed years struggle several op. cit., pp. 225-32; after see Hopkins, Colonial Africa; Newlyn and Rowan; " Money and Banking' in British p. 119, For in Lagos to this hostility cites an example of African event. Bank's activities in West Africa, the start of the Colonial see Banking System, London 1966, ibid, p. 119, C. Y.. Brown, The Nigerian '23; dnd`A-` 1 crcillan; Red Book of West Africa, P. p. 302.

84:

A OR; January1917, pp: 9=10 ' `For another account of the growth Bnk see Pacai11an, op. cit., of the Colonial pp. 302-3. _,

; :s'' 11f

`! " `,

'J

R..:

-wa..,

'- : r,,

..

iii.,

,..

'_..

--

'*'

605.
It is an axiom that trade cannot thrive without hetilthy-competition. West Africa has now been favoured with a competing Bank, which promises to deal equitably with all clients regardless of colour or We strongly Bank to our readers, condition. recommend the Colonial be dealing with a Bank which who-need have no fear that they will will be absorbed in a similar manner to that of the Bank of Nigeria. The Colonial Bank is a count concern. It hds come to West Africa Hence all West Africans to stay. who are anxicus for the material to its support, for in"supwelfare of the Motherland should rally the Bank they will at the same time assist in ameliorating, porting that had become well-nigh trade conditions intolerabloP5 How long it clear. expatriate in 1918. Africans to believe took to become disillusioned to advertise firms with the Colonial Bank is not

:{w It. continued, West African

in the AT

one of the very few the review's disappearance

to do so -. until

But by 1920, he kid. givenup. hope from that, quarter. West , . iound. little in the.. Colonial Hank; "They continued satisfaction that , they were discriminated
concerned 86 with

against
the

and regarded
dominance

the British

Danks as chiefly trading houses*"

maintaining

or expatriate

It Africa

is that

ironic its

for

the hopes depending there

on the Colonial

Bank in West of that romantic

extension

in 1917 was a consequence having bought control.

arch-imperialist, actively ideas

Lord Beaverbrook, affairs,

For a time he for his

dir' ected the 3ank's O '"imperial

seeing

it `' as `an apt vehicle "87

economic-development

Jnity. and

'hj,ise Mohamed Ali

85. 86.
87.

Jn-ury 1917

p. 4 op. cit.,

.. 119. p.

.L

;i s< .

Newlyn and'Xowan,

Tom I)riberg, Beaverbrook. London A study in Power and Frustration, it-, p. = responsible 1956,, 'that 'Beaverbrook' makes ' clear was perponailly &r'th within` Colonial Bank seeking the Empire but outside expansion its traditional field In a curious in the West Indies. of operations way his outlook at this seems to have been not so very different period from Duse Mohamed Ali's for both of them seeking unity and strength "their" But a more detailed knowledge people via economic development. Bank in the era of Beaverbrook of the operations of the Colonial British West Africa, control, into and expansion awaits a definitive biography himself. of Beaverbrook

606.
explained article his view of the Beaverbrook published in New York in 1928; era in the Colonial Zank in an

Lord Beaverbrook decided that West Africa would be an excellent ... field'for He carried into consultation exploitation. certain"West Africans in London. And upon their assurances who were resident that the Bank would receive native support, treatprovided liberal local branches ment was accorded the Native trader, were immediately ... In`the meantime the noble Lord who had enset up in west Africa. gineered an amalgamation between the Colonial Bank and Barclay's of London had, as far ae' our information difference goes, some slight of opinion with his co-directors in the resignation which resulted .. # The Policy of Lord Beaverbrook. by the retiring as outlined ... ... Chairman was then gradually The Bank arrived reversed. at a "working Africa and the last state arraigeet"'with"the'Bank of British-West of the Native was worse than the first, "' 'The Colonial'Bnk' which was heralded the Savior ... withheld as its promised assistance West Africa told its and the Bank of British seceding Native' clients 'friends' who returned" for aid to go to their Bank. Thus the Fest African of the Colonial trader found himself and the"deep blue sea, betweeri'the`devil and he saw no other hope Foreign Capital or to be dependent upon, or than that of interesting of a hostile hope for, ' the 'goodwill' Combine. 88 Though not correct role sale in ali"ita details Beaverbrook resigned his active

in the bank because f accepting to Barclay's did not take place

Government office till some years

in 19179 and the that resignation89 -

after,

88.

See A In the same article ca,, New,York, June. 1928, p. 12. he desthe operations "of the Bank of British West' Africa cribed in the pre-1917 terms - "after. its, absorption period, in most. unfavourable of an earlier known a'a*'the Bank enterprise of Nigeria -a Bank proposed and financed (it) by-the Natives, (sic) mainly not. only held up English Credits granted 'to the Native but also, for the most part, obstructed any on the part of producers to transact any business on their effort This caused the Native to cast about for some rival own account. Banking organization in the herculean which would be of some assistance they were having with the Combine and the Bank. " struggle . See Driberg, ' op. cit. , p. 71. -` The Colonial Bank sold out to Barclay's (D., C. & 0. ) in 1926 see Newlyn and Rowan, op. cit., p. 75. -

89.

607.
this useful for with own role both this the further evidence it gives of of the Colonial article in which Bank's on its he figured Proand

-is

consultation author's largely bably then

West Africans. throws doubt

The silence on his

this

autobiography, for

as a consultant

and a channel Be that in as it British

consulting the Colonial

others. Bank raised

exaggerated.

may,

disappointed

many hopes

West Africa.

When Duse Mohamed Ali in 1920, he turned his autobiography, 90 stay in Lagos.

looked

to America Negro bank.

for

a banking

alternative in his

to an American it was disclosed

Though not revealed

by the Lagos Weekly Record during the Record either did not know or at This was a

Unfortunately,

least crystal

did not disclose clear

the name of the bank in question. economic action

example of the type of racial had been working in the United towards States,

which Duse Now

Mohamed Ali his contacts

in the previous

few years.

and West Africa, exciting

must have seemed of West African

about

to bear fruit, basic off

through

a really

conjunction

controlled Arriving

economic resources Lagos on Friday

and American Negro money and know-how. 16th July 1920, his landing was delayed 91

by immigration His fare alone,

officials, without

and made subject other

to the payment of a 30 deposits had probably cost

expenses of the journey, were not large.

him over 50,92

and his resources

This may, have been

90. 91. 92.

Lagoa Weekly Record.

24th July

1920, p. 6.

See AOR, December 1920, p. 53" September 1920, p. 14, states ibid, to Lagos was then over 50. that the price of a cabin: passage

608.
to discourage However, lieu. Ikeja;

an attempt his

him from the This 93 him.

landing

at-all service

rather relented

than

to restrain to

behaviour. a bond in

immigration was executed

and agreed citizen, reception Dr.

accept Orisadipe that

by a respected the enthusiastic

Obasa of

a foretaste

of

Lagos

was to give

Once safely him with witness, its

ashore,

on 16th July

1920, African

Lagos distinguished said one eye...

welcome.

"The whole Muhammedancommunity"

'"thronged

to the wharves to welcome )r.

Duse Mohamed Ali

one of-the'zealousldefenders He was presented all other the chiefs fulsome there

of colouredrights'throughout

the world. " by

and then with

an address of welcome, "signed

and rulers tributes

of the Province",, -and including remarks;

among many

the following

Our pleasure is twofold - in the first place, because you are a faith that is so dear to our hearts, and in worthy brother in'the the second place (and by far the most important! ) because you are a worthy member and groat representative of the great race to which

93.

Dr. Obasa was an interesting figure in more ways and significant than one. - , Together, with his wife" he ws- one-' f, the earliest' pioneers in Nigeria. It may be noted that his wife was of motor transport the wealthiest -i-the daughter of possibly of late C. 19-Lagosian mer. from him financed the pioneer chants, R. O. Blaize, and her inheritance the Obasa's: ran in Lagos' between' 1913, nd 1918", Obus service-which. See losses. when the service was terminated because of continuing An Economic History of=Lagos 11920, Eotiklns,; pp. 372-3, which makes it clear that high capital in the requirements were a major factor bound -to,,ultimate :failure of this undertiikingfone is -therefore speculate that Obasa was privy to the purpose of Duse Mohamed Ali's visit - and-'sai it as=heralding changes4which-would guard Lagos entredue to lack of capital. Dr. Obasa was also peneurs against failure one of the pioneer Nigerian members of the National Congress of British West Africa, being present at a preliminary meeting called by-Dr. -&. A. Savage in, Ligos as earlys 1915, and-being elected,treasurer African-Conference'in of the-Lagos Committee of`the-West March 1919 - see 'Langley, Wes+c nFAsDects_of _e PanAfrican Movements 1900-1945, pp. 263-4.

609.
The saintly we have the honour to belong. work which you have done in the interests of our common faith, efforts and thenoble which you have put forth, in and out of season, for the upliftment and the

welfare of our common race, have been so well known in these parts that your name has become a household word among us at a time when we most need your friendship and your love. Not surprisingly, Lagos; All day Saturday and Sunday I was inundated with visitors. I could have realised, had I-not visited Lagos, how greatly not possibly my small efforts on behalf of West Africa had been appreciated, especially unheralded. as'I'arrived On the Sunday afternoon I was invited to speak at the Mosque erected by the late Shitta Bey of Lagos, where I'was accorded a most This was followed by a banquet at Shitta enthusiastic reception. Boylecompound on Thursday July 22nd,. at which there were many (J. M. StuartChristiane friend, present, and where my very good ... Young), very kindly came- to say a few words in praise of my work' for Africa, the other eulogists being A. Folerin, barrister-at-law. Dr. R. Akiwande Savage.

Duse Mohamed Ali

was delighted

with

his

reception

in

M:A. Elegba. The very Reverend Patriarch Campbell. Professor A. Deniga. Bisiriyu Ade Kumuney. Ellis St. John Nicol. I was really overwhelmed by these tributes Savage toasted him at this banquet for his

... work for Nigeria" to

"unselfish

would "never which "African

be forgotten"; -particularly unity; said that

Patriarch significant,

Campbell proposed a toast as this was an occasion

brotherhood";

of )uslim-Christian Zaria_, floggings,

and "Professor" "to" the activities present-day

Deniga,

referring

back to the

of such men as Mr. Duse to publicity, world. "94 whenever such

1obamed was due the,, Negro'a abuses were lightly indulged

claim

in by the official

94.

AOR, December 1920, pp. 53-4, for Ddse's own reaarka`on'his reception. September 1920, pp. 22-3, for eye-witness Use ibid, account by StuartYoung of the wharfaide reception,, the banquet and speeches.

610.
These eulogists the most politically bell and "Professor" were'not conscious merely figures Lagoa worthies, but included time. some of Both Campof

in Lagos at that at'the whilst

Deniga had been delegates West Africa95 is usually

Accra meeting

the'National already

Congress of British in thii'theais,

Savage, who has with being one of

appeared

credited

the originators figures

of the N. C. B. W.A. id e. African

in the independent place

Campbell was one of the leading 96 church movements among the Torubas. significant phenomenua of "Ethibpianiam",

These take their

in the highly

which has been established

African as one of' the precursors ofboth' 97 Campbell also was one of the leading Natinalisut and Pan-Africanism. 98 a'Carveyite group in Lagos shortly organisers`of after Dusels visit. This was not a group of prominent it is true that there wen close Lagoa African, linke commercial though men, church

between"the

independent

among the Yrubas and the spread of Africa movement 99

Nigeri. Only Stuart-Young, ' who although popular

cocoa farming in
among Africans was

95.

Their names are included in the liat of delegates given by A. Macmillan in,, hi. Red_Book of West Africa p. 140. .Adsoye Deniga -was also the ;. Leaders Past scan The Lagoa 1915,
of author Nigerian Who's Who for 1934, and Present, Lagos, 1934, and finny and other works.

96,

Bee J. B., Webster, The Af, . can Churches among the Yoruba, Oxford 1964, : of Campbell's pp. 94,111,114-5,127.147-9,155 and 160 for details leader. career as a religious

97.
98.,

See G. Shepperson, "Ethiopianiam 1.19539~ pp. 9-18. __F .

and African

Nationalism",
p. 141. " and 172.

Phylon, XIV,

Background'-to Nationalism, See J.. Coleman,. Nigeria. . ! 'pp. 110J, 113-4.119-20,1`62-3 Uebeter, p. cit., 99.5ee,

611.

not

persona of at

grata produce Shitta

in

the

European and the compound, a ,sign

community, import-export though of

was a fully business.

fledged

represen-

tative banquet

trading Bey's

Thus the

gratifying in his

to Diise Mohamed Ali's banking mission.

self-esteem, The praise past rather first

was not he received than to

really

progress to his

was in

relation present. of

crusading Meanwhile, that the

journalistic since the banquet

his in

business the history body it of

was "the

time

Lagos in

Christian

men and women to

have met a representative celebrate celebration any event", on July

Muslims to

bond of brotherhood Christian-Muslim ... to

was "proposed in

have an annual of my visit,

22nd,

commemoration

be called

e Mohamed Days "lam ' Dus .

Other events dinner visit that

in Dune Mohamed Ali-'s'first' Indian on 26th.?

few days in Lagos included on 21st July, with a period this and a in.

given by. 4est to ObaEleko great event in as well

employees of the railway. As his. visit coincided

Lagos history,

the Elsko controveray,:.

was a-' the

political poverty

as a. social

occasion..

His. Arepor. t of what he, saw-.- was so pleasing

and decay-of -the

Oba's affin

and court

to the

master=mind. of the Hleko t campaign, . Herbert -Macaulay, that be, included 101 Likewise Dune critiit as an appendix to an anti-Government pamphlet. cised the filthy, unpaved and insanitary state of the African districts

}r

m4`4

100. AOit, : December "1920, k.. . -b, 4 the Morl- bligation 101. See Herbert Macaulay, Justitia-Fiat: of the British', Government to-the House of , Ring Dooemo"of Lao London 1921,.. pp. 76-8. .. ,,

612.

on Lagoa Island, of' the official but was careful

-contracting

them with

the impressive He }blamed this --

and orderly

appearance

and European quarter. to absolve

on the -Government, andin have

the current Governor, Sir Hugh Clifford, 102 But though no doubt this dabbling to put the odium on Lugard. , Lagos politics cemented his endeared him to-many. Lagosians friendship with` Herbert it must, for

example,

Macaulay - yet-. it the necessary

ryas a diversion guaranteed deposits finger on

from the practical for

business

of-. securing

the, American Negro bank.

- The Lagos Weekly Record put ita mission;

the unspoken query hanging

over his

It is understood Mr. Duse Mohamed will that most some of the printhere We think in town to discuss businessmen the situation. cipal herezand is a large field sufficient with a Negrot. banking business in doing ought not to find any difficulty capital at its disposal business. 0c on h ees uc quite a respectable urge. African businessmen towards it. of local attitude

Exactly

who were the African

businessmen

with

whom he consulted there,

in Lagoa J. W. Vaughan,

is not known, with Whose father history;

the presumable- exception figure

of his host

was an interesting

in nineteenth to Liberia, 104

century

Nigerian

an American Negro who emigrated ' career

and then Nigeria, J. W. Vaughan105

where he made a successful

as a shopkeeper.

102. AOR, December 1920, 103. Author's emphasis.

pp. 55-56" See laws Weedy Record, 24th July 1920, p. 6. pp. ...: p. 108=

104. See A. Macmillan, 49-51,, nd, -112.`=

op. cit.,

p. 108;

and J. B. debater,

op. cit., : e& op. cit.,

105. For information on J. W. Vaughan, see A. Zacmillan, , Webster; - op. cit., p. 131. and

613.
had inherited stores, his father's business in 1893, running only. native two Lagos hardware trader 106 who ... ' can tether, he

and was said

in- 1920 to be "the

compete with was a leading likely

the European firma supporter

in the hardware Baptist

trade. "

of the. Native

Church movement. plan.

He was

to have had a natural Serious consultations

sympathy for

Duse's

with-, Lagos African

businessmen,

however,

awaited

the Conclusion success..

of a journey-up-country, of- deposits there. for 1o7

to Ibadan,

which was a resounding

Guarantees

upwards of 30,000"' were obtained As the centre of a -cocoa growing in

from the farmers, and, traders. of growing importance, area -

Ibadan was. clearly interest, if his ,

one of the key. centres plan was. to succeed.

which he' would; have to: attract No difficulties Resident

Captain Rose, were put-in-his path by the redoubtable l08 local cocoa farmers and traders met him at Ibadan. _Leading

Ibadan,. station, among them being the traders Salami Agbaje, and Akinat 399 the. ATQR'a old supporter, Obieesan, leading organiser of the pelu movement among Ibadan cocoa farmers and admirer of l arcua co-operative. 1.10 Obieesan"noted with pleasure on Duse's arrival Garvey. that his T, y,

106. Macmillan,
ai LY it"3:::

op. cit.,,
'

p. 108..

107. "Leaves", in The Comet. 29th January 1938, p. 7.

108. ibid. i05. 22nd January 1938, p. 20. Collection, University of Ibadan Library, then of Department

Obisesan"Diarieg, Africana entry for 29th July 1920.

110. Information f *Hiatry;

from, Dr. J. B. Webster and Dr. R. Gavin, University of Ibadan, February 1967.

614.
"colour is like that of ours-... briefly there is not little difference with-him*""' who

between him and ourselves It is notable that

here and we had nice accepted

conversations

he was readily

by such West Africans.

although

shrawd, were lese

cosmopolitan

than the "been-to'e"

he-bad hitherto

known in London. His few days in Ibadan were packed with compound, the first carefully techniques according taking place immediately of his meetings after in Salami Agbaje'a He

his arrival.

played upon the emotions at the disposal to Obiaesan, of his

hearers,

using the oratorical meeting, , in brief, what

of an old

trouper.

At the first of his one'all life

"he gave us the history a very unfortunate

was the fate with

parents trade that

present

sympathised This gives emotions of hearing At a

him, he brought

plan and Banking plan also. "112 he cleverly worked up his

the definite before

impression

listeners'

coming to his main point. bereavementslon the

One can imagine intensely

the' effect

of his family meeting

family-minded

Torubas.

the next day;: -,

Mr.. Mohamed trade' and'. Banking were the two, subjects dealt, with. the meeting to a close in his speech mentioned the before bringing ill and cruel= treatme nt' he had undergone in England, how he was boycotted by the European inhabitants of London, he mentioned that hewasat, one" time hard-up badly. - he. was "necessitated. -to. weep on--this occasion and all the members of the meeting sympathised with him greatly. 113 I. -L ,, '-Irv... I . ,.

111. Objeesan Diaries. 112. ibid.

_`, 1,

entry

for

29th July

1920.
i` rgz. r...

-"",

Yz F "In'

113. ibid,

} entry

for

30th' July ,1920.

"i"'

''

se

615.
This emotional his guarantees, approach was so successful money was subscribed Aboriginal that in addition to obtaining expenses; C25 214

to meet his personal

from the Ibadan Native After

the interior

Society

Ibadan, - by Captain
to 0yo, where visit

Ross's

and C5 from & -private he went further permission,

with the Alafin. of the

family. into
He was

he had an audience by "Chief Sowemino, at Ibadan" African

accompanied Christians, The Alafin meet, beyond

on this

Balogun

Abeokuta

who was then was the highest

residing

and who acted dignitary

as interpreter. that he was to his off journey this

traditional

and he was duly Oyo into the

impressed. Northern 115

He had intended

to continue

Provinces.

But he was beaded that

from

by official Muslim

temporising, trousers, journalist, middle-class,

and one may surmise English,

a black-skinned as a seditionist, with the hated to in Kano.

who wore

spoke

had a reputation connected

was a crusading coact African

and who was closely would than

have been even more unacceptable missionaries, or legal counsel

Northern

Nigerian

officialdom

So far seemingly turn for

Duse Mohamed Ali's successful.

visit

to Nigeria return

had been enjoyable

and

But on his He called

to Lagos, matters meeting with The seemingly affecting. their

took a serious

the worse.

a public

the hope of adding friendly Lagos men

to the guarantees proved fickle,

collected

at bbadan.

when it

came to a matter

-own pockets;

114. ibid,

entries

for

2nd and -3rd: Augur t 1920. ":

115. For this journey from Ibadan to Oyo, and his frustrated intention to enter the Northern Provinces, in The Comet, 22nd see "Leaves", January 1938, p. 20.

616. This meeting was largely attended, by the most prominent traders in Lagos as well as by a few influential These professional men. professional calculated men, who were never guilty of any effort to advance the interests of their countrymen, informed those present that, already there were two Banks in Nigeria and these were quite adequate to any business Lagos Native merchants or traders were likely Naturally the to need. the interested parties followed lead of their misleaders. ll1 To make matters lost, his project worse, an attack of malaria followed. Lagos having been

was probably

already": wrecked. of the -British

Although

the Gold Coast colonies, centre,

was the most economically Lagos was easily and it

developed

West African commercial African

the largest

and most thriving

single

would probably

be, safe to say had the, biggest of this community, into

business

community.

With the hostility likely

the American Negro and it is not,

bank was hardly therefore,

to translate that

plans

action,

surprising,

no suche bank came to British being

West Africa. characterie-

Nevertheless, tics, he still

persistence

one_of<Duee Mohamed Alits returning

canvassed

the Gold Coast before

to Britain. who were

Perhaps he had exaggerated probably-the, richest

hopes of the Cold Coast cocoa fa: mersl in British West Africa.

farmers

His hopes may baue who in January 1920

been heightened had written

by his

colleague,

W.F. iiutchison, in his native.

of the cocoa farmers .

country;

The farmers are notoriously accumulating' wealth and think no more of In the absence 1000 than they did of 50 thirty years_ago.. tto-day , investment, burying 'the money for, safe,: of, banks and opportunities is the obvious universal Hardly a generation method of accumulation. has elapsed since cash trade began to take the place of barter. But The Gold Coast people are infants in the use of currency. they will grow in economic knowledge as they increase in financial

7i.

'. :-Z"

.i

116. ibid,

29th January

1938, p"7"

617. moment-comes strength and business skill, and when- the propitious into for the people to take the capitalisation of their industries hoards that the funds will their own hands, it is from the farmers' be provided. The financial education of the farmer is one of the tasks that are laid upon the educated heaviest and most responsible the soil. 117 eons of In the event, Lagosians, whether the Gold Coast cocoa farmers deposits than the proved more receptive lie though to the value of 445,000 had they been called there upon

and guaranteed

all"tiiie

would have been forthcoming is another matter.

to produce. it evidence niques It

Ibadan,

Unfortur*tely,

is no detailed and what tech-

of who. Du3e Mohamed Ali

met, where he travelled,

of persuasion msy'well
-for in

he used in the Gold. Coast. s his efforts there-were

up into to .

be that
Accra,

more perfunctory
scheme,

than in
of in This

he was swept

a new business Britain

gargantuan

' dimensions, as the

' which- on return salvation the

he was to the

; resent world.

Messianic-terms

of Africans

throughout

/ Inter-Colonial was a newly minted company, to-readers of the AOR'with a nice

Corporation.

119

It

was announced

combination

bf appeals

to race patriotism

and to, cupidity; West Corporation, Limited, of Accra, British 'The 'Inter-Colonial has started business. This in a limited Africa, company founded ... " five million for Africans by. Africans with' a nominal capital, iof dollars divided into -El ordinary pounds - roughly twenty million in which every 'Native of Africa, and, is the corporation shares, . . in Africa, the United States of the West Indies, resident whether his or=her or-the South American, Hepublica;. shouldtinvest -America! . money.

tone of 117. AO Januaryt"1920, p9,17. In defence of the optimistic it should be noted that at the time of publicaIutchison's article, tion- the tpost-war boom=in West African'<produce. sales and prices was in progress. still 118. "Leaves", in The Comet 29th January 1938, p. 13. 119. ibis, pp. 7 & 13.

618.
During

Review has been in existence the eight we years this have never advocated in or out of these schemes either any wild-cat Our readers pages. and we now for the first are aware of this, time recommend a sound scheme which is calculated to enrich every African investor the corporation who by supporting also be will duty. These are days of combines and synperforming a patriotic ... dicates to squeeze the African out of among the Europeans who intend to his birthright, and it is up to us to show that we do not intend become commercial We must show the world or industrial slaves. that we are indeed awake, and that a period put to must be at length the exploitation of Africa which has been proceeding on the Continent for upwards of 300 years. 120

This was followed of the threat

by further

appeals

to African powerful

solidarity,

and portrayal strong" endeavour. " as

from the "financially of African

and politically and Native

combines to the "fabric It simply

agriculture

would be unwise to dismiss a cynical swindle,

the Inter-Colonial

Corporation

or on the other face value. leyel this

hand to take Ruse Mohamed Ali's He was well aware that He

Pan-Africans capitalising admitted interests

rhetoric

at purely

at such an astronomical in his autobiography that

was a propaganda gesture. give the exploiting "

was done "to

a few uncomfortable

days of speculative "my object ...

reflection. was to place

But also the stock population. of "121

he claimed. a more solid within the reach

purpose

of a large in, this

section doubtful

of the literate enterprise

West African were all

His fellow

directors

residents class: -

the Cold Coast, Alfred Lincoln

and members, of the business Cudjoe, of Accra,

and professional

General Merchant and Planter;

Ferdinand

120. AOR, December 1920, p. 61. 121. "Leaves", in The Comet, 29th January . 1938, p. 13.

619.
Christian Lokkos Accra, Auctioneer and Appraiser; Paul Bruce, Ebenezer Accra, Joseph Thompson, Trader; Nathaniel Djimapo and

Abeohe-Frans, Accra, Inglis, Farmer; Accra,

Accra,

barrister; Duncan

Charles Trader

and Malam Kadiri secretaries,

and Commander of

Hausass

The company's

W. Addo-Blankaon What is of Dus certain

and Robert is that

Sankey-Nettey,

were likewise Corporation penchant,

Gold Coasters. shows two aspects

122

the Inter-Colonial life; his

Mohamed Ali's

business for

as seen in the 12,000,000 scale; for and secondly his Pan-African on thin of the resources.

West African a flair ideas. ice, for

War Loan plan, using his

schemes on a colossal enterprises as publicity propensity that

business

To these could be added a reckless since needless to say there

to skate the founders

is no evidence

Inter-Colonial Nor was there, financial small

Corporation

themselves

had remotely

adequate

capital

one must suppose,

the slightest aid.

likelihood

that

any orthodox

institution

would come to their investors entrusted.

Whether any number of savings to the corporation,

West African

their

persuaded by Duse Mohamed Ali's The only hope for one, was to pull attemptedthousands off

exhortations,

is not known. Corporation-and it-was a slender

the Inter-Colonial

some spectacular

business

coup.

This was indeed to supply

Iuse trohamed Ali .

went to tlew Toed and arranged 123 That is,

of tons of cocoa, there.

the company was in quest

122. Directors ment for 123. "Leaves", in detail

and secretaries of the corporation the company in the WADYB, p. xiv. in The Comet. 29th January in the following chapter.

are listed this

in an advertisebe discussed

1938, p. 16;

will

620.

of that

mythical

commercial

grail

of the times,

a direct It

trade

between the sent months a visa from

West African

producer

and the American aarket. States in 1921.

was this

that

Duse Mohamed Ali his journey

to the United while

But for

several

was delayed

he hung about that

in London awaiting there

the American Consulate. than the bureaucratic Turkish nationality

He believed

was more to this

delay

slowness and continuing - which still

complications

caused by his

made him technically authorities,

an enemy alien. him with a

But now it permit

was not the British and re-enter

who had issued that

to leave

the country,

were suspected

of underhand

behaviour; I ... applied to the American Consul-General for a visa ... The Consul-General communicated with Washington from whence Official permission was granted me through the London Consulate to visit But when I called some weeks later, I was informed by America. that he had received no news, whatever. the Consul-General I called each week fora period of some four months only to 'No news yet! ' be told, I Being of the opinion that there was come conspiracy afoot, corresponwrote a member of Congress with whom I had considerable him to make enquiries dence, requesting visa at the State about my Department. In due course this gentleman sent me an Official copy of permission to enter the United States which had been sent the ConsulGeneral three months previously. The following day, after the receipt'of the communication from Washington, I called at the Consulate and enquired of the ConsulGeneral whether he had heard from Washington. He rather curtly answered 'No: ' I then produced my letter ... Even then there the delays Brothers; were further delays, some petty, others serious. Behind

in issuing

his visa,

Dus Mohamed Ali

saw the hand of Lever

621.

I subsequently discovered had contacted the Consulthat Sir W-LGeneral and was responsible for the obstructive This gentledelay. to in West Africa, knew that my visit man, with his large interests 124 America might conceivably upset his monopoly of West African produce. Clearly,
American motive from for being acting acting aggainst from Lever But

auch allegations
in an official in the

should
capacity,

be looked
could

at very carefully.
have had any official

No

way alleged. interests. though vastly equipped business

What Duse was intending, One could their interests capital crush understand

was far some ner-

American Brothers, its

vousness than kind,

were more pam-products and resources would-be evidence of rival other every by

cocoa. Levers

with

greater to

was eminently lees dubious,

any such Lacking

conventional,

mentode.

than Duse's allegations, only that After giant, creation of his hatred

it

would be wise to treat expatriate firms,

this

episode as proof Lovers, and belief

of the big

above all

they would stoop all,

to any trick

to crush

potential

African a real

competition. not illusory

1920 was the year the Niger

in which

Lever Brothezn

absorbed

Company and was set on the final Company in 1929"

road to the fear

of the United

Africa

An understandable

of monopoly in the aggressive background

hands of Lever Brothers accusations. 125

must be seen as the

to Duse Mohamed Ali's

124. ibid,

pp. 13 and 16.

125. For details of these Lever Bros. mergers, see J. liars, "Extra Terrienterprise", in M. Perham, `'ed., Minina. Commerce and Finance in torial London 1948, pp. 60-63, which also speaks of the "aggressive" Nigeria, trading policy of the Lever Bros. -Niger Co. merger of 1920 towards smaller rivals.

622. in 1921 Aule Mohamed

during the booming

Whatever impediments
Ali set of for the United

may have been in his

States, where

path,

he was to dwell

nineteen-twenties. prevented his return

This was not his original to Britain. original It

intention,

but events life, America central

was a major change in his of only visiting

even so far

as the limited The British 'as, despite then.

intention

was concerned. to his actions,

Empire and London were no longer all his criticisms of British

Imperialism,

they had been-until chapter, there

In other

ways, as will his

be seen in the next in America be the outlook. after

was ccrntinuity. another attempt

Throughout to market

ten years

made one after United States, But before 1921, it

West African earlier

produce in political

and preserved

a good deal. of his life

moving on to examine his to enlarge, To begin

in the United to, his first to note

Staten

remains

on the background with, it is

phase of busithat he was

ness activities.

interesting

by no means the only Africa period circuit,. 1912-1921. rival

Pan-Africanist

in what may be called himself with business

the London-wiest affairs in the associate in his

who was concerning Notice

must also

be taken of his Taylor.

one-time

and later life

and enemy, John Eldred Taylor

At what point

John Eldred

became consciously

a Pan-Africanist

as yet -cannot

be dated,

though he was clearly Telegraph.

one such by the end of 1918, on the, evidence already been a businessman

of the African

He had,, however,

more, particularly and in these fields continuing until

a company 'promoter pre-dating

considerably

his :activities -mid of Duse.,IMohamedAli, ethose : for. "many years; 1924. was investigating the natural

his death in London-in 1905, John-Eldred`Taylor

As early'as

623.
fibres that in

growing the Bengal in

the

Sierra industry it

Leone Protectorate, might be rivalled. of

and optimistically 126 the This need to Taylor as "one

hoping

jute that of

had political develop seems, of the the as a few

implications economic

showed an awareness the interior of the

resources to

country. in Freetown

consequence,

have gained

a reputation

of our countrymen" Sierra

who would do anything 127 Leone Protectorate. His first later

to help really

the natives ambitious

of the Project,

launched a few years Industries Africa's the fish Ltd.,

in 1908, was Sierra

Leone Deep "OeaFishing-

a company to exploit resources,

and market by modern methods West up-to-date trawlers and curing of atockfish,

deep sea fish 128 locally.

using

When one considers

the important

place

126. See Sierra Leone Weekly News, 16th September 1905; I am indebted to dr. C. Fyfe, Reader in African ? History in the University of Edinburgh, for this and other references from the Sierra Leonean press to J. E. Taylor's business career. Taylor's interest in jute is also mentioned in the SL Government Gazette, 17th ? 'arch 1905. 127. SL Weekly News, 5th May 1906. 128. Registration of this company in London was proposed on 26th August 1908; Taylor was named as the firm's see BT 31/18354/99352/1; in an advertisement in the 5L Weekly News, 31st managing director, October 1908. The other original directors of the company were two Englishmen, Charles L. Watchurat of Lewisham, London S. E., and J. O. Turnbull London S. W.; and three Sierra Leonean39 of Upper Tooting, the Hon. J. H. Thomas, Samuel F. Owens and Simeon Josephus Coker, all Of these three by far the most interesting of Freetown. and important Council was J. R. Thomas, who was not only a member of the Legislative from 1907-1912 and from 1915, and Mayor of Freetown eight times between 1905 and 1915, but also was successful, in business, being Fyfe as "a fine example" of the self-made regarded by Christopher Creole magnate. His age - he was 62 in 1908 - wealth and offices made him a figure of immense respectability, which must have been one of the major inducements to Freetown people to invest in the company. 81 of. them. had subscribed shares nominally worth L617 by 7th January 1909, Thomas himself subscribing shares worth no less than 100, a large sum in Freetown in those days see BT 31/18354/ 99352/10. For other details of Thomas' life, see Fyfe, A History o S Red Book of West a`ne, Pp-535-6 and 617, and Macmillan, Africa, p. 269.

624.
imported from the North Atlantic, it can be seen that Actually, fish resources in the diet his of many parts of British

West Africa, plausibility. considerable

scheme had at least and marketing scale

an immediate of West Africa's themselves British ' Taylor ever

the exploitation on a large

by West Africans day, and former of stockfish. John Eldred

has proved an intractable West Africa is still

problem even to this large however, should intended quantities

importing

This begs the question, seriously eaten, attract that, intended that fish

of whether

be caught and cured and marketed and. to create a bogus company which would himself, There is no doubt "fishy"129 as he another.

or whether he rather the savings

of the unwary and enrich was to remark,

as Duse Mohamed Ali fishery

there was something

about his floated

company - or rather

one should

say companies,

a whole string

of them, bewilderingly'

mergizig one into

One would have to tread beginning the Volta with River the Sierra

a complox path to unravel Leone Deep Sea Fishing

his manipulationso, Company of 1908; through

Coconut and Produce Company, which he ceased to be manager Trawling and Trading Company, the first in 1913; itself there of

of in 1913; his ventures

the West African to be registered variety

in London, which was liquidated of successors. In Freetown years

and on to a bewildering was the Eyatunde Trust for the complicated talking

Company, which in later

acted as a mechanism Taylor companies -

share transfers about Taylor

between the different are further

though in

Companies there

difficulties

129. "Leaves",

in She Comet, 30th October

1937, p"7.

625.
s sometimes he chose to remain behind emerging as a director other companies were: at a late date. the scenes for As far Fisheries a time, only openly his a

as can be traced, and Industries Company; Ltd.,

West African Trading

successor tiously lasting pulated Colonial British there

to the West African named African till

and Trawling

the portenin 1915 and mani-

Co-operative Taylor's finances

Corporation, death;

registered

John Eldred

and three

companies that

the complicated

of the African St. Cuthbert's

Co-operative Syndicate Taylor

Corporation; Ltd., and the

Business and Finance Union African Company.

Ltd.,

13CHad

John Eldred

had his

way,

would have been at least General Keeting

one other

name to add to this Fisheries Industries

string. and Industries Ltd., but

An Extraordinary Ltd. decided

of West African

in 1916 to change its

name to African, to this

the Board of Trade refused

to agree, either

or to an alternative,

Fisheries 130. For West, African Ltd. see BT 31/18354 and Industries 99352; West African Trading and Trawling Company Ltd., BT 31%/ Colonial 20739/122645; Business and, Finance Ltd., W31/20915/ St. Cuthbert'a 124198; Syndicate Ltd., BT 31/21097/125895 and the, African Co-operatige Corporation Ltd., 13T31/22703/139272. For the unregistered British Company of 1 Lombard Union African Court, E. C. and the Freetown registered. Eyatunde Trust Company, both of which played their role; in the curious: share manipulations . that"characterized the African, Co-operative, Corporation; see, for Corporain the African Co-operative e. g., details'of shareholdings tion in BT 31/22703/139272/34. Even this does not exhaust the list of John Eldred Taylor Companies, for the SL Weekly News of 17th r". 1913 announced his resignation from the Volta River Coconut ay and Produce Co. Ltd.

626.
African least'in Transport its and Industries Ltd. 131 , The African African TelegraDh, which at Corporation, 132

1918-1919 days was run by'the

Co-operative

seems to have been one of the few positive-fruits which we may be certain, apart from private

of these companies of and his various

gain by Taylor

General Meetings of West African Fisheries 131. See Extraordinary and Industries Ltd., held at,. 118-22 Holborn, 7th March 1916 and 7th and ' BT 31/18354/99352/36; 26th September 1917, DT' 31/18354/99352/34 and Registrar, Companies Regissee John Eldred Taylor, to Assistant also Somerset House, 30th May 1918, which pleads; "as we Office, tration have complied with all other provisions of the Companies Acts, and and transport as we are at the moment engaged upon the importation

Palm Kernels to the country required of Palm Oil, and other Foodstuffs by the Ministry that the Board of Trade of ' Food, we trust urgently to change the name of the Company to 'African our request will grant Transport depicts to the mind of our and Industries', which clearly West Africa. the work upon which we are engaged. " numerous. Clients_in iee DT' 31/18354/99352. It would be perhaps wise to suspend judgement to in this letter, referred on the, which also mentioned _trading liest AfricanI As with Duse Chiefs. concessions with agreements Mohamed Ali's Africa Trade Exchange Ltd., of a and Orient evidence than merely to speculate to trade rather real attempt would compel a Such evidence Companies. re-evaluation more favourable of the Taylor , trading is in the African Corporation's Co-operative' of as there

balance sheets, underlines the impression that the volume f, trade involved The laat'balance was extremely small. sheet submitted to the Registrar of Companies, that of 31st December 1918, itemised 3,368.15. for produce trading under capital and*liabilitica - compare with for directors See BT 31/22703/ 2,641.12.8. fees and,. expenses. 139272/27. Co-operative Corporation, 132. The African as publisher Telegraph, was cited as defendant in the Fitzpatrick The 1919; 7th November 1919, p. 4. see Times, of the African case in November

:1

627. (who seem to have been chiefly

him against in criticism highly of his

associates,
used first

British).
business terms,

133

The paper was

Thus its

to defend issue the

conduct. the

"explained", West African

tendentious and Trading

relationship

between Fisheries Business knights

Trawling the

Company,

west African and Colonial as financial who had put their

and Industries, and Finance in shining Ltd. armour,

African

Co-operative

Corporation

The latter coming to

two were represented the rescue of those

money in the earlier them to the African permission. a full Africa 134

companies, Co-operative

this

excusing

the transfer without

of shares from

Corporation

the shareholders' Telegraph published

Again,

in February

1915 the African Taylor 135 attacking

page letter who regarded

from John Eldred him as ewindler. Taylor

enemies in West

The John Eldred and Orient their

companies shared with a marked propensity

Duse Mohamed Ali's to make it

Africa

Trade Exchange Ltd. to prosper

easy for

directors

at the shareholders' Here the African By its articles

expense.

Share pushing Corporation the company agreeing to

was handsomely rewarded. would serve, as an. eaample. could pay a commission

Co-operative

of association,

of 50 per cent.

to anyone subscribing,

133. Careful- study, of the sources- cited in note 130 (above shows that''the-' directors only'-'one of these"companies to have a majority of African Ltd. at any, time was, Sierra Leone Deep Sea Fishing and Industries 134. African' Teleariph, 14th November 1914, `p. 8. 1915, p. 61.; .
C1. ` i . S, f,.. . `t1 La., w-1' :. i i. t . {. M a`. _" .. 4 "c -:. '

135. ibid, ``: 25th'February.

. ._'. 3 .i . tee. {"9 ', "--` Vt-

ro

" .i

"wi"i,

", rt

e`

..

tzS

`. r

'. .

628. '

subscribe,

procuring

or agreeing

to procure

shares. '

This

commission was ' and' was to 136 Further-'

to be paid on the nominal value consist of either cash or shares Co-operative raised

of the shares considered

so subscribed, paid.

as fully like

more, the African

Corporation,

the Africa thereby

Orient and providing' A syndicate

on cocoa, by the John African

Trade Exchange Ltd., what was no doubt

of Birmingham

a substantial'mortgage, in short supply,

otherwise

ready cash.
as mortgagees acquired

businessmen

were persuaded in the

to act Gold

palm-oil

and coconut

properties from travelled directors, in 137 all.

Coast,

Co-operative Eldred Taylor

Corporation probably

Colonial in

Business person

and Finance.

to Birmingham these short bargain, fees

to make these mortgage run the since agreements, Brummios (no doubt

incautious which thought because netted that of

men fellow 05,500 they this

and to 'No doubt a great ofr cash)

negotiate in, the 'business in

had concluded newt acquisition

1917 the

and 'expenses

of the eight accountant into their

directors at whose

totalled buaines

L2,641.12.8. address did

Ns. E: Leonard Jones, were'formally f-583.7.3.

the

the mortgagees 'well,

inducted --

new directorships,

notably

receiving

136.

See, Memorandum and Articles of the African of Association Corporation Ltd. 8th February 1915, BT 31/22703/139272/3, 3,11,13,22 clauses and 23.

Co-operative ' especially

137. The property being mortgaged consisted of leases of and agreements to Gold Coast cocoa plantations relating other lands, which had, and it, happened, been acquired from another Taylor company, Colonial as . Eiusineas and Finance Ltd. For full details of these mortgage trans31/22703/139272/20, dated 15th December 1916 and BT see-BT actions, of 17th* February' 1917;, " for details 31/22703/139272/22 of the- role' 'of , the Birmingham mortgagees s directors, see-, BT 31/22703/139272/16 11th December 1915 and special resolution of the ACC Ltd* passed at Extraordinary General Iceetings held on 10th and 31st January 1917 at 105 Colmore Row, Birninghari BT 31/22703/139272/21.

629.
considerably more than John Eldred Taylor's own 300.1. 4.138 ijut"in

the long run any wild ment.. Eldred

the

hopes among the mortgagees

were doomed to disappointsubsequent-to in the natter'

to say that from

In l925, Taylor's

when the company was being death, "the

liquidated

John of

person who was most active

the mortgagees on his wrote fare

mortgage the

and himself time nor the

one of

he had to

neither;

money to spend

Birmingham

London for
B. Leonard

the affairs
Jpnee.

of the Company. "1

9,.

This -"person"

was presumably

An ability prided themselves

to gull-Birmingbam-businessmen, on bard-headedneza,, and plausibility,

who traditionally

have'

is perhaps a tribute But unless

to John Eldred

Taylor. 'syshrewdnese that he >did this

one chose to believe on,,his connection country with

out of revenge for , Imperialism, it -

the wrongs inflicted has-little direct that

and race. by British Pan-Afrioanism. practice expertise. "deals"-in solidity Taylor's, Africaniete.

What it

does illustratesis substitute--for, commercial

speculation . and real

and-sharp.;. commercial

were a very. inadequate when it came to solid. rooms.:

capital,

advance as opposed to paper shortage of capital and

smoke-filled rather _Duse

Unfortunately,

than speculation 2johamed Ali's

were a common,denominator undertaken a general

..

John 81dred ofby Panprinciple:

-., ..

and other ,businesses adduce, from: this

Perhaps we might

138. See the ACCLtd. statement of balance, 227031139272/26.

318t December 1917, BT 31/

of Joint
rt ri

139, See. Samuel, flughee, for, executora; of. J. E. Taylor, to, Registrar' -. Stock Companies, 30th September 1925, BT 31/22703/139272.
.. _+, ,y ,: 5'tl. . L .: " `fir + `,' ..,. 1,.. C' a "c' i i., k. i 4' .,:,: F..

630.
that Fan-African, or Pan-Africanists', business'activitiee apparent strongly financial tended and

towards

sharp-practice, folly, dishonesty

mutual recriminations, and dismal of their the options

commercial inherent

bad-faith,

insolvency. progenitors,

not because of any but because cir-'-" garbles=and Duse 1ohamed of large (given very

on the part them only Insofar

cumstancea permitted unjustified All risks.,

of desperate

as the aim of some - notably of , the economic circumstances on a modest and viable

was the transformation -

numbers of-Africans, limited capital

operations

scale

) would not suffice. etc. and parcel

Inasmuch as a gospel of a gospel

of self-

enrichment it

was preached as part likely-that. for

of race enrichment, would abstain presented them-

was hardly

the leaders lining their

of such busineases own pockets that'

from the opportunities selves, via the

path "of , company flotation that in practical

and directorships. and ideological-terms

One is bound . alike-the a.i' in this world

to draw'the'conclusion PenAfricanists' Nevertheless, judgement.

business . there

dreams were doomed from the start* is a considerable before, element of-. hindsight after

The period, just

during-, and just

the First

War had.. someseneouraging Pan-African as well tycoon.

features

from the point it is clear

of view of the would-be that British farmers West Africa, rather than

To begin with, tropical

as providing

produce,.. grown by African

the western investors also had a classof. potential expatriate=planters, "... 'rte. y`_ .. of mainly in the coastal regions, and, consisting educated Africans-livinglawyers, doctors, clerks in Government and commercial-, employ, -lesser in the Gold Coast and to a. . enriched extent merchants,., Southern =.. .. This

auctioneers. Nigeria

etc. , plus

a growing

body of farmers

by the cocoa industry.

631.
is not to say that class to support there here was a sufficiently the more gigantic wealthy-and numerous investment of the time, expectations. era by-the records but

commercial ;fantasies enough to excite investor cf this

at least Light

were numbers and wealth on the ilest, African

is thrown

of John Eldred Fisheries

in January

Taylor 'a African

Co-operative first
to

Corporation, return
the

and West African

and Industries.
1909140 were alloted in listed

The latter'a
92, subscribers In the

of share allotments
10% shares, who

company's their value

together have

1234 shares. as half

theory, nominal

applications was payable

should on

brought

2303.10.0.,

application, capital offered surprising dubious step. (the

the rest,

on allotment.

Against

the company's nominal shares immediately It, is hardly

of, 10,000, for

or even against this this

the 7,800 10/-

subscription, that ultimately

was a meagre response. and other . Taylor

companies sought more next

money outside All but

West Africa.

But this

was not the immediate were sierra

one of the first being

92, share subscribers No less

Leoneana

exception

from the Gold Coast). this

than 81 were residents

of Freetown..

In, hort,

community long past its

of the Freetown Creoles, a . fiwas 141 Only four men felt golden days of prosperity. the response

140. See BT; 31/18354/99352/10,7th.

January

1909.,

141. For the decline of the Creoles in business in the early C. 20, see C. Fyte, "trade was A History of Sierra Leone, pp. 613-4, which concludes; but the Colony's inhabitants booming, revenue coning in as never before, found themselves growing steadily of recovering poorert .without-prospect , .commercial, Creoledom. A Study. their prosperity",, andrArthur .T..; Porter, , Development . Society, London 1963, pp. 114-5. For of'the of Freetown the decline of the Creole in-Ahe professions service and the, -Government 61-3. 'same period, 614-6, and Forter, Fyfo, pp. atthe, see pp.

632.
able to subscribe for 50 or more shares. Simeon Christopher (50 shares) of These were Coker (100 the Hon. John 3ilvanus probably But forty Sumner 1909 a the Henry

Thomas (200 shares); Alexander G. G. Cole people Juxon later Smith

shares); Cole,

and George the A_,

Geor gius

to be a backer for only five

(100 shares). By the

subscribed

shares

or under.

better Africa.

harvest 142.

of investors

was garnered

in other

parts

of British

West

Between 30th July and, 28th August 1909,2,761 to 109 more subscribers -3

more 10/16 time against

shares were allotted in Sierra only four

in the Cold Coast, This

Leone and 90 in Nigeria, of the Sierra

of whom 65 were in Lagos.

Leoneans subscribed

even 20 or more shares

no less than 56 of the Nigerians; wealth of the African single communities

an apt commentary on the comparative in Freetown and Lagos at that time. ` Dove recalling

The largest (200 shares, that Silas

subscriber

was a Freetown man, the lawyer a further 25), but it

Silas

his wife

subscribing

is worth

Dove practised

extensively

in Nigeria,

where he must have made

much of his fortune, was invariably Herbert'

fact

documents a few years his address in similar 143 included Other notable subscribers given as Onitsha. and within and Dr. Oguntola
Saroi of Nigeria

Macaulay (100 shares)

be noted with (or that at the least

Sapara (15 shares).

seem to have hopes about

In

it--may

had more money future)

to speculate

more expansive

the

142, See '13T '31/18354/99352/17, for all, details and of 'share subscriptions in the company between 30th July 1909 and 28th August 1909. allotments 143. For e. g., see BT 31/22703/139272/l1, of shares etc. in allotments African Co-operative between 5th and 27th May 1915. Corporation

633.
than their Freetown kinsmen. 144 Even so, insufficient the for money being invested the by aim

West Africans of buying

was clearly trawlers

quite

a company with the Colony, the

steam

and supplying places 145

Freetown, along the

Sierra with allotBusiness of hard

Leone Protectorate, fresh, ments dried of this and

and other cured fish.

'West African notices

Coast of share

Thereafter,, feature

the such

company increasingly Ltd. l46 and assume the investment.

names as Colonial slight

and Finance rather than

appearance

of financial

genuine

But the glaring Industries'

omission

from the lists is

of West African

Fisheries

and

West African

investors,

the lack

of any substantial

number

from the Gold Coast, palm-oil and rubber, of sections

whose cocoa production, was already of .its almost

supplemented

by palm-kernels, transforming

a wonder of the world, This omission

the wealth the African

population.

was remedied by support 311

Co-operative

Corporation,

which obtained

considerable attracted

from the Gold Coast.

Between 5th and 27th June 1915, it

144. This bears out A. G. Hopkins belief that the period leading up to the for outbreak of the Great-War arasone "of-prosperity and opportunity businessmen of Lagos, despite a tendency there too to the African look back on the 1870's and 1880! s-as a golden age. See Hopkins, An Economic History of Lagos, Chapter 6, esp. pp. 439-40.
145. See Prospectus of Sierra Leone Deep Sea Fishing and Industries Ltd.,

BT 31/18354/99352/5.
146. e. g., see BT 31/18354/99352/43, Shares in Peet African Fisheries (the successor to SLDSFI Ltd. ) Industries between 31st allotted December 1917 and 31st December 1918. and

634.
share subscribers147
and the remainder-in

- 128 in the Gold Coast,

Sierra Leone. Whether

161 in Nigeria,
because tho"Sierra

10 in Britain
Leoneans

were feeling Germany (the bitten twice

the effects country's

of the loss largest pre-war to their

of their

palm product

market

in

customer) fellow It

or whether they were "once schemes, their's that the

including no less these,

shy" in relation

countryman's is noticeable
'natives' descent,

was the most 'inconsiderable

Cold Coast subscribers,

contribution.
predominantly

who were a Sierra

though included

some whose names suggest than the Ofori tion, farmers, chants, 65 subscribers merchant brothersthese plus -tailora, George of of

Leone Creole

100 or more 10/-

preference influential

shares., produce 500 shares.

Two of traders,

Owoo of. Accra

and the

Larteh Coast

and Mongoase, investors of

subscribed

By occupathemselves traders, as mer-

Gold

included other

19 who described - clerks, taster the

a- fair

spread

occupations a station between of-the

tcarpentera, they

chiefs,

and An, auctioneer. areas of the

Geographically, interior. mentioning and the Accra,

were distributed ports

new cocoa the allotment.

old. trading Pram Pram,

coaat,,

document Aburi, Castle,

Asurgah,

Tinkong,

Adawsoo, Saltpond,

Palkroo, Cape Coast

New and Old Mongoase,

ISawam, Christiansborg,

Okoroase, '. Koforidua,. 'By comparison Corporation,

sae . 1r >:...

Larteh,

"Quittah,

Akropong,

Apinsu, and Awunage. Co-operative subscribers. included

the Nigerian

investors

in the African . far

though-more
"

numerous,, -included for

fewer substantial though these

Only 20- of them subscribed

100 or more shares,

147. For all details 22703/139272/11.

of these allotments

and holding

of shares,

see BT 31/

635.
the largest Sapele; single subscriber, for Chief Sagay and family, of Akukpe town, Unlike of Wright, the

who subscribed

no less

than 1,000 10/contained

shares.

Gold Coast subscribers, Sierra

the Nigerians of Sierra Williams, 148

a high

proportion

Leoneans or persons Jackson,

Leonean descent Cole, Pratt,

names like -

George, Daniels, Cline

Johnson,

Sawyerr,. Leigh, the largest

for

and Macarthy"predominate.
were shares, Silas and Lilieth most

Of these Sierra
who between Bishop thus

Leoneans,

investors 450 10/for

Dove, eminent is

them subscribed

and the

James Johnson, that the

who subscribed Sierra Leonean a,

100 shares.

The impression fortune in Nigeria

confirmed period

who sought-his wealthier Bishop support

was by. this the is

by and large in it

and more optimistic Johnson's from-the interest most in

man than the-company

stay-at-home a token that

Freetown. attracted members of figure,

respectable, in Lagos.

respected

and influential a controversial

the African

community

Though always

James Johnson was a was noted for

an who was never touched of, bis conduct.:

by personal gia

scandal,

and

the austerity

biographer'

establishes

148. The possession" of such names did not, betoken course, invariably -of Sierra Leonean descent - J. K. YCoker, for, example, a, a pure -was Yoruba - but a "list in which such nasses predominate of this-period Creole or Creole can reasonably be presumed to reflect predominantly It would-be intereiting descended persona. to know if-Ahis comtheir"lese-rrosperous munity in Nigeria sent remittancesito relatives in Freetown on any scale.

636.
him as a man with to know if 149 the

a Pan-African his

outlook, in

and it

would be fascinating Corporation

the approp-

he regarded

L50 sunk

Afrii can Co-operative But 'sunk' is

as an investment riate word for

or as a Fan-African any investment in this

gesture. company.

Despite

a considerable

response from the West African paid), capital the money brought of x30,000,150

investor

(assuming far short

that

calls

were fully nominal

in was clearly

of the initial

and as in the earlier

case the gap was "filled" the record of these

there

on paper by shady manipulations.

companies in selling in British shares to

Nevertheless,
West African for

two

investors

shows that in African

was a market

West Africa

investment

companies.

Indeed,

since

the concept

and the response pan-African, *est African

transcended

political

boundaries, in better

they could with

loosely

be called of British

though they would fit regionalism.

the concept

149. E. A. Ayandele, Holy Johnson, London 1970, p. 42, states that Johnson . institutional saw the Sierra Leone Native Pastorate as "the first 308, draws attention of Pan-Africanism"; process. in, the evolution _ -p. , in the first Pan-African to Johnson's participation Conference, London 1900;. And pp. 375-6, points out'that although Johnson's vision died with him, yet Kwame unity via Christianity of Pan-African Nkrumah's. concept of a "monolithic. can and unity for Africa" . -state seen "essentially be dream",
as "Holy that and movement, still a revivification Johnson's soul is, with marching on. " of James Johnson's to the Pan-African respect

Thie. noainal. 150. See, BT: 31/22703/139272/2.. . shares'and-1,000,000 50,000 -10/- preferred
i..... rya .rj f.. R' . .v

into capital, xas., divided 1/- deferred shares.

:.

vr

637.
A look territories at of the general trend of economic during light with colonies the events period in of his the three major

British career the the Cold British

West Africa throws Coast, further

Duse Mohamed Ali's hopes and his

London business failures. successful '1n of

on both the

to begin

most spectacularly in produce exports prior

West African

to the Great War, cocoa grown by African

economy. at 1,613,000 of the war, In 1911, f. o. b.; these figures Gold Coast cocoa the

farmers

transforned
39,700 before

the national
tons, the valued outbreak

exports last to

totalled year

by 1913,

complete 50,600 tons

had risen ahead

and 2,489,000.151 such as palm products, world's biggest

Cocoa production wild rubber

was leaping

of other

produce,

and lumber,

and in 152

1911 the

colony

became the

exporter

of cocoa beans.

Indeed,

just

as Luse Mohamed Ali this

was becomwas

ing interested

in West African

produce marketing, Im* rovemente

the Accra-Pakro greatly

key industry

the -verge., of further on

the coming into operation;

expansion.
in 1911 of

in transport,
sector of

notably
the railway,

tapping,

the, pioneer

Akwapim cocoa

areas

helped

movement

of-'the

crop to"the
fanuers. farmer, in

coast
that

and, stimulated

the already
optimistic

expansive
outlook

hopes of the
of the Gold Coast

area. eve of the

The generally , Great War is

on the

shown by the. greatly

increased

Po11y,,Hi11, Migrant 151. See,., '1963. PP. 176-7.

152.

Cocoa Farmers of Southern

Ghanc Cambridge .... ...

Structural See R. Szereezerski, Changes in the Economy of Ghana A Historical London 1965, p. 67, and Rwamina D. Dickson, 1891-1911, Geography of Ghana, Cambridge 1969, pp. 167-8.

638. 153 154 industry capital demanded expanding employed at the cen-

output takes

of cocoa i=ediately from fifteen Naturally, this years

gfter

the"war,

for

the cocoa tree

usually

to reach maturity.

expanding

cocoa faxmiag

capital. beginning tury,

As Miss Hill of the industry,

has shown, the initial

in Akwapim, at the and of the nineteenth communities' own rather than expatriate system,

came from the farming 155 could By an extension raise fresh

sources. farmer times, class scale.

of the traditional for either

"pledging"

a hard

capital

expansion

or to ward off

and recourse

was frequently

bad for

such purposes to an indigenous on a considerable that 'unhelpful'

of creditor-farmers Thus there

sometimes financiers who were evidence

would seem to be no real

153.

The Gold Coast exported no less than 176,000 tons of cocoa in 1919. compared with 91,000 tons in 1917 and a mere 66,000 tons in 1918, between the 1918 and 1919 figures though some of the differential for by farmers is accounted holding back their crops due to the low in the former year. ' " Bee Polly The Gold Coast Cocoa Hill, prices Survey, A Preliminary Forger. London 1956, p. 109.

154. Polly
155.

Hill,

M grant

Cocoa Ferrera,

p. 181.

Cocoa Hill, The Gold Coast Cocoa Farmer, Polly 58-71,, and ltirrant pp. pp. 166 and 183-6. For the role Farmers, of wild rubber collection by Gold Coast in the accumulation later invested sales of capital and The Rubber Trade of farmer e. in cocoa farms, see'Raymond Dummett,

InnovaAfrican Century: the Gold Coast and Asante in the Nineteenth XII, 1, Journal of African History, tion and ?arket Responsiveness", 1971, pp. 95-6, and Peter C. Garlick, "The Development of Kwahu BusiHistory, in Ghana since 1874", Journal of African ness Enterprise VIII, 3 1967, pp. 468-70.

""av

-7.

t'-r

a fe

c.

i-u.: '.

...

639.
European irrelevant when it there banks to were any hindrance its financing. the marketing to cocoa production was firmly outside at the least as they, were in country, as early by refusing control but largely only here

The expatriate of the crop

came to were signs

of apprehension to a sharp depended but the world the

among farmers decline in cocoa quality

as 1908, to control sell. 156

when many responded The price was a major farmers' shippers, of cocoa problem

prices

partly

on its

- and quality entity were the

even

more on that and

mysterious there with

beyond

the

control,

market;, farmer

though

some African world market

substantially

was connected

through
expatriate

the expatriate
firm, the

buying
farmer

firm.

157

In hin transactiono
cocoa trader would

with

the

or middleman

commonly-be

required,

to give

some form of security. severe problems

158
F

Here the indigenous

_.

financing

system did-not-c; uffice. The war created Till

for

the Gold Coact-cocoa steady,.

farmer. added by

November 1916 prices

held reasonably

but then slumped;

to which in. February 50 per cent. the following.

1917 the British

Government cut cocoa imports

In these circumstances, year- many, farmers

farms were abandoned, and in nany" not attractive The United-States enough 'to market was

found prices theircrop.

them ,to even harvest persuade

156.

The Gold

Coast

Cocoa Farmer,

pp. 104-5.

157. This was, in many cases an ultimate rather than immediate connection since Gold Coast cocoa traders, though greatly overshadowed by in: exporting,, expatriates, nevertheless often acted as middlemen between, the expatriate firm and 'the" farmer. . 158. Z'he--Gld-Coaet'Ccoa Fa: ' 60. p.

640.
only a partial
-quality cocoa of

relief

for

these troubles,
the this, American plus the

for

in 1918, becauoe of the poor

prohibited Gold of Coast war

some shipments, 159 All

Government shipping

importa.

difficulties

those

years,

demonstrates
to

that

they were far

his plans than

less
the

propitious
years

times for
bad been.

Dusel
Imme-

tlohamed Ali

attempt

pre-war

diately trip all, grip

after

the war there

was a boom, but the delay

in Duze Mohamed Ali's moment of was in the The Inter-

to yiest Africa

made him miss what was the most propitious the Gold Coast in 1920 the country into 1921-22.160

and when he reached of a disastrous Corporation

slump which cntinued could hardly

Colonial As for

have been launched that

at a worse time. collected in the com-

the "guaranteed" year,

deposits

Duse Mohamed Ali reflect the farming prop rather left with

Gold Coast in that munity's tion that desperate` savings

they surely

and trading

search for up in this

a financial way.

than a solid'intenthe impression and the Cold in the supposed

to tie

One is for -a

the American Negro bank was looking

depositors sad hiatus

Coasters racial

were in search of easy bank loans of black

common economic interest Turning

Americans there

and West Africans. is a similar outline

from the Cold' Coaet to Nigeria The years

in which

to be discerned.
growing opportunity,

im ediately
the African

prior

to the war were a time ofcommunity shared; the

business

159.

ibid,.

60-1 -pp.

and 108-9. '

.44

effects 'on'the 160. For the post-First' World War' boo nd slump and: -its" . pp. 61 and 109-10, and D. Kimble, Gold,, Coast cocoa industry,., see.. ibid, , history A Political of Ghana, p. 49-50. . .,. .. t. gis .e ..

641.
war years were a time of confusion post-war boom followed with by a severe and difficulty; and there was a brief the African than his moment

slump in 1920-21 which hit capital resources, far

businessman,

his much smaller

harder

big European competitors, for Duse Mohamed Ali. To look in general a little

and likewise

came at the most inopportune

more closely

at the pre-war and expansion for

period

first,

this

was

a time of good prices

Nigerian

produce exports. of the cocoa-

In 1913 the price of palm kernels 161 trade; while in the immediate growing industry was beginning

was the highest pre-war years

in the history Nigeria's rather nascent

to produce thousands farmers

than hundreds

of tons per annum and, more importantly, expanded planting immediately after

were engaged in the

large scale production in really was to result which '62 The leading and most successful the war. pioneers

of cocoa farming Agege planters*

the were that interesting group of proto-nationalists, 163 Leaders of independent African churches, ardent champions

161. Hopkins,

op. cit.,

p. 388.

162. For figures of the growth of Nigerian cocoa exports from the quin"Production 1892-6 to the quinquenium 1917-21, see R. Scott, quenium for External Trade", in M. Perham, ed., The dative Economies of Nigeria, London 1946, p. 250.
163. African Churches among the Yoruba. See Webster, and pp. 110,113-4, For information into the interior 119-20. on the spread of cocoa farming "Christianity the Rise of Cocoasee S. S. Berry, of Yorubaland, and Society Growing in Ibadan and Ondo", Journal of of the Historical IV, 3, December 1968, pp. 439-51. the major Nigeria, Unfortunately R. Galleti, to date, cocoa farmer academic study of the Nigerian K. D. S. Baldwin and I. O. Dina, Niger an Cocoa'Fa ers', ' Ari 'Fconomie Cocoa Farming Families, Survey of'Yoruba London 1956, is in no sense cocoa over the Growth of Nigerian work, and skates a historical' 621 pp. (not its farming from 1938 in p. 1 of its till start massive counting appendices) of text.

'

642,
of African as having doctrines anticipated and critics constituted and plans of European civilisation, a potentially as Duse brought receptive such men can be regarded audience for such economic they had already were

- which to an extent In Lagos, African

and were practising. steps

entrepeneurs

making the initial industry. agency for

in the development

of Tdigeria'a things

motor transport held the sole of 126,000, scale. the

By 1914, W.A. Dawodu, who among other Ford cars, was reputed

to have an annual

turnover

though no doubt

few Nigerian

businessmen

were operating

on this

Other Lagoa me, such as. the merchant n, opportunities for expansion

J. H. Doherty, created

were seizing

into-the-interior

by the railway, had branches Kano and 164

which by 1911 stretched at Abookuta, Duala in Despite Ibadan,

from Iddo to Kano. Ikirun,

By 1914 Doherty

Epe, Ibaru,

Oshogbo, Warri,

Zaria,

the Cameroons, in addition the tendency for

to his headquarters

in Lagoa.

some, sections

of the Lagos community to look age of Africans that since in business, the total A. G. value of

back on an earlier Hopkins, trade

time as the golden

the economic historian

of Lagos, asserts considerably

in African

hands bad increased

the supposed golden rela-

days of the eighteen-seventies tive to European trade The First it

and eighties,

may have declined Nigerian in other

though as a percentage 165 slightly. and exporters colonies

World War hit hit those

prodce'farmers British

in -

the same way as it

West African

164. For information Economic history 165. ibid, pp. 439-40.

on W.A. Dawodu and - J. H. 'Doherty-, '-see IIopkins, of Large, pp. 371-2 end 395 respectively.

An

643.
through kernel Dempster Shipping Africa, the trade) in loss of the German market of of the (above the all serious to the leaving than all 166 palmElder hitherto. West

and the even tighter rose

elimination control at

Woermann line, shipping war for

West African outbreak hampered of

rates and the

steeply

British

shipping in this

bottleneck thesis, the shipping trading

exports. business

As has already of in

been ' seen' earlier Nigeria favour African considered of the big

the

African bottleneck

community

that

was being the

manipulated much smaller planter

European

firms the

and against merchant

merchant.

Nevertheloss,

African

and

seems

in some cases to have continued one of the most successful of prosperity his personal Although period after fortune Nigerian 1916.

to thrive

Webster states -

that

J. K. Coker, peak

of the Agege planters,

only reached' his to donate 167

Even in 1916 he was able funds and fai of his

0757 from

to the central businessmen

church.

ers benefitted

from the brief part 168 of

of boom in ixest African

produce

in 1919 and the earlier impression.

1920, the slump of 1920-21 had a much more profound

166.

As an"example bottleneck of the effects of the shipping 100,000 tons of palm-kernels were held over in British 'des-N. A. Cox-George, in the years 1915-6 alone; ports Development' in 'West Africa, ' The ' Sierra 'Leone Exrerience, 1961, -p. 174.

about on trade, West African Finance and London

167. Webster,

op. cit.,

p. 172.

boom and slump, 168. For a general survey and statistics of the-post-war Vol. II Commonwealth Affairs, Sir W.K. Hancock, Survey of British see Problems of Economic Development 1918-1939, Part 2, London 1942, pp-338-40.

644.
Many of the more eminent individual fortunes were ruined or at least

crippled. wealthy

Thus S. H. Pearse, enough to invest

who at the outbreak

of the war bad been not only these 169

10,000

in War Bonds, had to sell

bonds but his hotel

as well

J. K. Cofer was "almost

general. being agents the in never the recovered . aftermath big

his busimas. and to totally. reconstruct 170 The African ruined". merchant community in
its position as independent restricted 171 At the turn direction Niger to produce the role exporters, of

increasingly firms.

middlemen disasters,

for., the

European years in

same time of the of

as these

immediate

poet-war firms

saw a further in of the the

screw monopoly till

by the and monopsony. then the

largest In 1919,

European the unit,. In the

Nigeria

two chief

competitors to year form that

Company, and Eastern

biggest Ltd. bought

amalgamated

the African greatest

Trade

Corporation

the, following Niger

or bugbears, and attempted, too.

-Lever but

Brothers, to and buy

Company for Trade

8,500,000 Corporation

failed, African

the African

and Eastern

Even the

169. Hopkins, 170. Webster,

op. cit., op. cit.,

pp. 435-7. p. 162.

171. Hancock,, op. cit., p. 210, states that by, 1937 98 per cents of Nigeria's H. Perham, cocoa_exports. were in the hands, of 13,1uropean firm.
Finance' in Nipp r'ia, of the and p. 120, " tells ed. 9-Fining. -Commerce t. o a mere Nigerian independent relegati, on, of the previously exporter Nigerian defaulting trader on of one u1i status, and middleman 3ed in the post-war debts of 20,000 slump.

_.:

.. _

645.

Eastern, issued

the weaker' capital

of these two great

combines,

was launched

with

an

of 6,000,000.172 a ruthlessly

In the following trading for policy

decade these against

pianta'

were to follow African

aggressive

u mall " firms,

or European.

The implications

Duse Mohamed Ali'e'efforts a mere paper tiger of the

are obvious; business

t1 e- Inter-Colonialnot remotely

Corporation,

vorld: - could

compare with

even the weaker of the two

two combines-of

the nineteen-twenties. surely

But the emergence of these be related-to Duse Mohamed Ali's

combines in 1919-1920 should admission, that of"psychological To turn

the Inter-Colonial" warfare from Nigeria against

Corporation the "exploiting Leone,

was in some measure a ruse interests". need not detain and grandiose and' disruption, inflation us long attenfrom and

to Sierra-

(xich

as i)ua Mohamed Ali tions there),

never directed is again

his more specific one of difficulty The impact

the story

the outbreak the worsening trade

of the war onwards.

of wartime

of the terms of trade -against by, the almost uninterrupted

the-colony decline

in import-export in` Post Office Savings the

are-shown

Bank deposits
r. .

from 1914 to 1920.173

As Germany was overwhelmingly

172. For-the post-war mergers in the big Nigerian trading firma, see M. Commerce and Finance in Niperie', ' pp. 60-63, and Perham, ed: '; ?iininp. Hancock, op. cit., For a most discrete pp. 207-8. account of these Vol. I, pp. mergers, see Charles Wilson, The History of Unilever, 250-3 and 304-5. 173" For wartime inflation, see "Cox-George, 'op. cit. , p. 1851' for wartime worsening of the terms of trade, see ibid, p. 175; for the decline 1914-1920, see ibid, in P. O. Savings Bank deposits p. 191.

646.
largest outbreak almost the crisis in 1917, all customer of the for the country most 's biggest serious steeply till 1916. export effect in item, on its 1914, As for palm-kernels, economy. the Indeed,

war had the prices

produce

declined

and for the at

palm-kernels shipping point

1913 level (which only Leone,

was not reflects 774 ships compared

regained that of with

wartime its worst or

throughout 1,526,640 1,989

West Africa), total of tonnage 2,931,085

entered tonnage

cleared in 1913.174

Sierra

ships

Having briefly tories

looked

at the three forDuae let

main British

Weat African into

terri-

and at the prospects

Mohamed Ali us now look at

breaking

the produce of the to there

exporting viability introduce

business -in 1912-21, of his proposed

the question

west African

aar Loan and of his attempt West Africa. It is true that

an American

Negro bank into willing

were wealthy war Bords, little

West Africans

and able to put substantial

sums into seems

as the example of :j. H. Fearse of Ingos chows; overall for he seriously over-estimated

but there

doubt that

the amount of of British dest,. had a total

money, available Africa.

such a purpose among the peoples

BY-31st R, arch 1920, the Bank of British . on deposit Bank, its and in current only rival, account,

West Africa while

of 11,800,000

on 31st December in the same cateby the

1919 the Colonial gories. 175,

had 8,508,544

Only. a proportion .

of these sums was money. placed

174. For tYie effect. ' of the war on produce, exports Pp. 171-r3.175. See ? acwillan, Red Book of '; ost Africa,

and shipping,

see ibid.

pp. 299 and 303.

647.

African available

community, only

and

they

represented previously. depositors

a very Thus,

large in

increase the

an the Bank of

sums British

a few years 4,410

1910,

West Africa British Office

had only

and 41,074,793 there

on deposit were also

throughout Lost hoarded bank. British 176

West Africa. Savings Banks in

As well

as bank deposits, colonies, suspicious for

the different who were figure

and cash privately of any kind savings of in

by those Without

many West Africans venturing

a hypothetical

African

West Africa represents

dar Loan, lesser

in the middle a most optimistic

though no doubt

of the Groat War, one can only target for Duse/ Mohamed Ali's
scheme could

say that

01290009000

West African
a

a well-organized

have raised

sum. Finally, to, consider the background of of expandieg the Negro to the Negro - iksnking banking in 1920, in the -scheme; United it

is

true

that 177,.

1920 was a- tine But the largest

Negro banks

States* Savings

the

Solvent become

Bank and Trust

Company] of

Memphis,

Tennessee,,

had just

the first,

bank to have $1,000,000 egro tine, 'it did

on deposit. for

banks at this

have a_penchant

Like ninny -Negro 178 hazardous schemes;

176. Polly Hill has remarked on the aversion to banks of Akwapim cocoa Cocoa Fanners, farers. even.in much more recent` tapes - see VIr-ant p. 185.
177. Negro Banking, For the story of American see A Study of flanking and Negro as Capitalist. Philadelphia, 1936, passim; Arnett Nearoes, Journal XIV, in Banking", of Negro History, E. Frazier, The ilero in 201; and Franklin ed.,, New York 1957, pp. 391-96. revised 2t Abram L. Iiarris, Business among Ar*rican"The Negro G. Lindsay, 1929, pp. 1561, January the United States,

178. Lindsay

op. cit. ;' p. 185`; '. '..

648.
but clearly to the lack neither compete this with nor the of any other established the American with American Negro Bank in Banks. this or did Negro 1920 had the Indeed, period source not of share! was

resources one of their wealth At their

West African Negro

great

weaknesses

Banks of industry certainly

of any solid defect highest resources' the peak of

connection Bank of of British

any major Lest Africa the

success,

in

1926,

American financial

Banks bad would that West

combined not racial Africa, The fate Africa the in have

only

%13,00. 'x, 000.179 for

This by their

weakness to feel

been adequately

compensated destined could

tendency in

co-operation any of

was their

role. have led

Indeed,

British

auch sentiments the Bank of would fate of

only

them into Bank of incautious

deep waters. British foray West if not

Nigeria,

absorbed awaited

by the any

1912,

have

probably ruin

even worse

outright

and collapse.

Overall,
business

then,

the auguries
in the eat period African

were not propitious

1912-1921, situation, efforts that though especially far from

for
there

Duse Mohamed Ali's

was enough in the years

activities in the

encouragement 1912-1913 Additionally, and simple, political an asset but

and 1919-1920 it but end. insofar must rather His as it in

to make his be remembered saw his

totally

irrational. pure and was odds, is true

he was never life

an entrepeneur

business

as a means to a social and powerful against race all It

vision

of a wealthy,

united his

made him continue the hard

struggle

a liability

assessing

realities

of business.

179. See Broadua Mitchell, review in Journal of Negro History,

C. ita The Negro of A. L. Harris, --as XXII, 1, January 1937, p"97.

t,

649.
that grandiose social success and political as an entrepeneur, his business notions are not incompatible of than Cecil the with Rhodes shows. most ruthlessly dreams

spectacular

as the along

career other social

But Rhodes never practical lines,

conducted while his

larger

and wilder

and political

remained dreams. attitude to business

The moral would seem to be that and PanAfricanism It in this

Dust Mohamed Ali's but this

was based on an illusion;

is to use hindsight. he had set himself

was to be a decade before respect.

he abandoned the course

CHAPTER VII

IN AMERICA 1921-1931

650.
1 Dune Mohamed Ali War One Britain reason to believe migration. left the uncertain, depressed world of post-World There is trip, for every not a thousands for Fleet apart

some time in the second half that his visit was intended

of 1921.1

as a business

His purpose was to negotiate to be supplied*by

American contracts

of tons of cocoa, the time being Street, 2

the Inter-Colonial his

Corporation; at'158

he continued

to maintain remained

old headquarters in London. '

and his -wife' also

behind

Yet quite

from the particular it Is not difficult

circumstances to understand

that

kept him from returning the United approach States

, to London, of the

why he found speculative

States

twenties life

more congenial could

to his highly

to commercial in the nineteen-

than Britain

ever have been. it was 'still individual

The United possible,

twenties faith

was a=place- in-which

to- have"unlimited himself': ' ` It was

in the' powers'iof

the, astute

to ' enrich'

a, period

when, ` notoriously,: and conservative

speculation institutions

ran amok, encouraged, by the moat of American capitalism, Mhen

respectable

1.

This -is) a` good "'exuiple of his defective mesory, as on more than one he in the- nineteen-thirties occasion writing-- in Nigeria and, forties referred, to- having gone` to, America. in- 1920 -- e. g: ''in his obituary of Comet', =6th Augus t 1940, p. 4. -Two Marcus Garvey >in, The__ other `pieces of, evidence prove that, he , 1921;: firstly, he, was did, not-; leave till the African', Progross'-Union' in Lordon" present=at ra'generall,. meetings of 20th :July -1921 - see -S, L. t Weekly =News, 3rd'. September -1921; "-, :1 A-4seoondly; on': St. Louis, Mo., tin an interview the St. Louis Clarion, with in America; in October 1923, he referred to his two years effort Britain thathe4left thisAwould acoordzcompletely"with"therthesis , 19th time after-Jly`1921:. See St. Louis Clarion, for'Anericassome -I October 1923, R. R. Moton Papers, General Correspondence 1923, Tuskeges Institute-Archives: ` 'r "". .,. See "Leaves", Private in The Comet. 29th January from Alh& ji 1938, pp. 16 and 17.

2. 3.

information

L. B. Aguoto of Lagoa.

651.
in the business this context, with field anything could happen and probably would. 4 In to be had

Duse Mohamed Ali's West African

schemes, all

of which continued cocoa, existed! far at least

concerned the merit

produce,

in particular that actually

of relating

to something

In the context from being at all -

of American nineteen-twenties bizarre, After

speculative

optimism,

they must have seemed normal and plausible, a. few years .in the United "dead" to his-former States life

not least

to himself.

he seems to have become, at least in London; Aldridge, in March'1923, daughter John

figuratively,,

E. Brace received black actor,,

a letter

from. Amanda Ira . if

of the great death of

then in London, asking before announcing these it

news, of Duse Mohamed Ali's 5 Possibly

was accurate, deception Ali's

to his wife. for

a degree

waiinvolved,

intimates,

_in in his. last

reports,

at least

one of Dues Mohamed believed that

years

in London, L. B. Agusto, terms. 6

Duse and his wife, were.,,not on ,the closest arrived An Nigeria,

-

Certainly

when Ruse Mohaaed but

in,
-:

he, was accompanied., not by. Beatrioe -1931,

-

4.

Ibsinesa'almosphire For a diacuseion of the feverishly in optimistic the United States in the 1920's, see J. K. Galbraith, The Great Crash Penguin ed. 'London 1961, pp': 30=50 ` J. E Bruce writing to' Carter G. Woodson, 2nd August 1922 said that he had "almost persuaded (Duse) `to 'remain 'in this countryhe atnd I both `realise 'that Europe as is 'finished' England. " See Ac. 3579, Addition 1 to Box 5, especially Carter G: Woodson' Papers. "I am indebted to' Dr. -K.'J. `:King- for' this and the item in note 18 below. See Amanda Ira Aldridge to John E. Bruce, 7th March 1923, Bruce Papers, mss. 19949 Schomburg Collection, New York Public Library. Private information from Alheoi L. B. Agusto.

5. 6.

652. by an American woman called for a number of years.? life

Gertrude For whatever

La Page, who lived reason, left Beatrice Britain.

with-him

in Lagos

Mohamed seems to

have passed out of his His new life

deals, intervals broadcasting, but

when he finally

in America was not to be fully

between he turned bursts his of intense

taken up with
business activity,

buainese
and journalism,

alternated in which

attention

to black

nationalism, on African

cultural

nationalism

and popular

lecturing

history disasters, for

and culture.

At times,

particularly

after

various like living

business on his wits ' Thus the -

he must have been reduced early life experiences

to something

which'his'

'had given

him ample training.

decade of his coasting strenuous gently

between the ages of 55 and 65, a time when many men are towards peaceful' ' retirement', period in his life. 'but mut' have been as

downhill

s auy other

He never seems to have-settled to have led a peripatetic' Boston, Washington, Detroit,

down" in 'one place life" that included St. Louis,

in the United'States, auch places

tew York, as

Chicago,

Tuskegee. and in i1ew York. -was-his cocoa negotiations. Despite

His first. the obstruction, bad placed help

-interest

which he , or,. wrongly believed, the American Consul , ^rightly in, his path to frustrate his visit, to, America,. he. rEoeived: In an, intervievi :, with the., at. ; Louis Clarion in

this-'source. -. from ,

October,, 1923, he-stated;.:

7.

Dues MohamedAli's connection the following chapter.

with

Gertrude

La rage is discussed

in

653"
(West this The Consul General the importance in London, realising of letters African States trade to the United produce) supplied me with in America industrial to such important of introduction associations Chamber of Commerce, the New York Chamber of States as the United $ (sic). Association. Importers Importers Commerce and the American and

Such aid could United-States attorney fellow

hardly

have been denied business

to any businessman travelling trip. He also, took powers of to his leaving

to the

on, a bona-fide

from his directors 9

own company, and prior arrived from West Africa

London two of his London office

to take over his

in his. absence.

be identified One, of these tuen can fairly confidently 10 but no evidence , bas appeared to Joseph Nathaniel Abeohe-Evans, as , dbeohe-Evans was to playa the other... key role in the ensuing identify
events. ,,

Unfortunately, tions in Nex. York,,,

it .

is not known with, xhom; Duse undertook According to his autobiography,

his

negotia-

he succeasfully-

secured a contract

for. the supply

of ten thousand ; tons of cocoa to unStates". But having sent copies

named "cocoa interests

in the United

g. 90-, 10. 1'

3t:, Loujs

Clarion,

19th October

1923"

" "'

` "` ``

"Leaves"; sin T }e Cmet. 29th Janury'i938

'p 16. '

s ibid; ="p.17, `decribes one of `these tio t-"men `n "impecunious lawyer"; Corporations directors in the list published of the Inter-Colonial the =WWADTB, xiv, 'Abeohe-Evans is' the 'only- lawyer. ' p. -in

ot"the&e negotitine 11. The'oz 1y'preaentEsource `for the'detail and is "Leaves", in The Comet, 29th January 1938, their conclusion pp. 16-17.

654.
of this contract to his colleagues in London and the Gold Coast, could he received in

three days, later either ling,

i. e. before -

the contracts

have been received

London or Accra -a his powers of attorney. stranded

cable

from the, two directors. explanation mighty

in London cancelHe own

Pleas for

were ignored. On. his

was left admission,

in New York and looking laughing

foolish.

he became "the mockingly

stock, of Wall Street", him. with

people who knew Only revealed

of the affair

greeting

"Row's cocoa to-day? " was any explanation

when he returned to him.

to West Africa that

a decade later

Then.,be was told business.

Abeohe-Evans, had obtained with,

a- loan from a

London Bank. "doing

on the coast"

however, a condition;

that-, r contract -.was cancelled with; the added. inducement on condition . that, a. client to such cancellation,,, of the Bank could be . fount who . eliminated. Company, always provided, ;. was entirely would tf inance the noted that tells. ., this account of his conceals almost as much as it

12

Not. only are the American fear. of a libel, This,

"cocoa interests" he, discretely

anonymous ,, but also, veiled, the identity In -

no doubt through

action,,

of the, London bank.

however,

is, not difficult

to unveil..

1921-1922 there, were only two Londonn_banks in business the Bank, of British West. Africa . and, the. Colonial Bank.

in West Africa ", "

zinc e the" Colonial 13

Bank. had gone out of business, . he had little bet little reason, to fear therefore,

twelve a libel that

years. before, his account, was published, action from that quarter. There can West

doubt,

he,, regarded

the hank, of British_

12.w 13.

ibid,, . i,:.........

p. 17. J.
.,....

..s

....

it R

.w..

(,.

over in 1925'; see Charles The' Colonial* Bank was taken London 1966, p. 23. The Bgnkina System in Nigeria,

V. Brown,

655.
Africa as reaponsible about the rift for instigating Abeohe-Evans' treachery. Whether or

his story

in the Inter-Colonial to either suspicion

it

Corporation or contradict

is believed it

no - and there in the light

the story proved

is no evidence of the general

to them, That the

confirm

as yet that
this is

among African
that

businessmen
he believed

BBWA was hostile to be true.

can be accepted story report was not that

entire

a mere fabrication in the Rev;,

by an Associated' Ala. of p 27th

17egro Press July 1927; `

appeared

Birmingham

Shortly after the war, Duse, Mohammed(sic) Ali the Egyptian editor, historian a and traveller, came to America and sought to establish hugo: concern among American Negroes whose business would' be to deal in the products of West Africa. At that time, Duse Mohammed(sic) in the to act for the. richest planters exhibited: 'powers of attorney It is not known whether Mr. Ali ha ever forsaken his region. to employ the money and the talent of efforts which were calculated the colored business man of America. For a long time, he did not 14 meet with success. Here is another Pan-African, confirmation that he saw his business grower with `plans as essentially American man,vas to' 'ia'- '

- linking

the West African

the black

business' world: be fitted

- But exactly

how the black

American-business projected business

'into` the Inter-Colonial

Corporation's" a black
that

operations

"'Slthough not clear;

New York in 1921,

"tYiere' was certainly'

and although in some in

community' in
John E. is proble-

community, .

notably . it

Bruce, < were, -,interested,

importing

maticFl

whether any were operating

'onuscale

West - African ^Y

produce,

that

would permit

them to

14.

The Reporter, 27th ` 'July' 1927; '-see pondence, 1927, Tuekegee Institute

'`-Notn papers, ' General" Corres*R: -R: '"``` Archives: ;

656. 15

handle ten thousand On a personal "my London office practically the floor within

tons of cocoa, level, this

worth woll

over one million

dollars.

collapse

in his fortunes

was disastrous;

was closed,

stranded

so was my publication and I found myself 16 in America. But since picking himself up from habit, yet we need not be surprised another Oriental large scale that

had become a lifelong he was promoting

two years

'west African In

produce company, the American African the interval, tances. his host, that he was not without

Trading

Company Inc.

the help

of old friends

and old acquainwho acted as

The surviving contains

correspondence

of John E. Bruce,

a number of references touch

to him, which makes it and` that otters

clear regarded For

the two men were in close

in 1922-23,

Bruce as the appropriate example, wife a letter

man to approach for Mass.,

information

about him.

from Cambridge, mentions that

dated 21st June 1922, to Bruce's from "Duse Ali

Florence,

a letter

had been received

Effendi see Aus',

Mohamed".

Assuming that

as a ratter his regards,

of course Mrs. Bruce would 17 In December 1921, which on the to find

Bruce asked her to give

cannot have been long after eminent black historian,

Duse's arrival,

Bruce took him to call

Carter

G. Woodson, but was disappointed

15.

The average see P. Hill, "Leaves",

value per ton f. o. b. of Gold Coast cocoa in 1921 was 36; The Gold Coast Cocoa Farmer. Appendix E, p. 132. 1938, p. 17. Y

16. 17.

in The Comet. ' 29th January

For other mentions of mss. 1953, Bruce Papers, Schomburg Collection. Duse Mohamed Ali in Bruce's correspondence a t, about this time, see Bruce to George E. Sherloeh, 18th January 1922, mac. 1936 Bruce Papers; Bruce to bfrs. 'Bruce, 22nd June `1922, ' nso. 1954 Bruce Papers; William H., Wilkes to Brace, '1922 ?, mss. 1922, Bruce Papers.

657.
Woodson away.
There a historian,

18
still author those of in the black community who remembered Taking him as advantage

were the

In The Land Of The Pharaohs.

of this

reputations,. -be turned

the clock

back thirty.

years

or so and. under-

lecture tour throughout the lestern took "an extensive and Southern 19. States". iri the early twenties, ' Khalil. Zahmud recounts his lecturing
r

as follows;
In 1921-22 he lectured in New York and Washington and paid widely ... At to Boston under the, of his host John B. Bruce. a visit auspicgs Negro Academy Congress in Washington he lectured the American on the States for a-Chair in United of. Negro_Histoiy educational necessity institutions. Old 'Africa Later in New York he spoke on the topic doubtThere can-be-little and Low$ at the., A. I. B. Zion Church. . ": in his African the Negro's interest that Duse- influenced growing in the decade of, the twentioo*20 cultural-heritage

It

is interesting

to. note his activities The only

within placehis

euch

_highly

significant-

black cally

American institutions. mentions him visiting

autobiography'specifi21 This was a pilgrimage Alao,, as seen-'in before =

is Tuskegee Institute.

to the life-work . the previous with

of. the revered

Booker T. >Washington..

chapter,

he had been in correspondence

some years

Washington's,

successor" at, Tuskegee, {:Rt.R,, Moton. 7 good { offices, to visit..

.. -.. 4. C- +: }. e: m

Through, John E. Bruce's i'riendly

. i2

rYoton'sent
-,

DuserMohamed-Ali

Yeneral invitation 8. . _
7i _ i-_a ,,...

Tuskegee,?;
. W.t, >,. b. r, ": w.,

i_But hei, received-. a .rather .:

i,. n ... rr. e -_.

't; # j; rr'x. *im

y"

e;. "5+ ^4k4i . _

`,: 4, y' .

i 3.,;

M: "4

_f

_wa.

.a .F z rw

,..

8"

18".

19. 20. 21. 22.

Druoetto-lioodson,, 25th-January. 1922, - Aeceesionx3579. Fox 5,;. koodson. Papers. t" Y. of rLeaves! qiin,. 2he--Cgmet 29th January ' 1938, p. 17... , , See. introduction "Leaves"; in"The to, In `The Land =Of-The Phara ohs,; t
,s'$i"t OZ V-0 to CL'a 'L'el .L ar':. -C4d vy E' d oJ

Addition,. ,'
can",

5:,to;.

"- . .,..,.
_ f^r

2nd:; ed. , p. xxiv.

'-wr

;. {:

Con! t,,. 9th: October. 1937, p. 18. z; 'Vhv. Jq'cRt5

a. R.;, Bioton 4o Mohamed.Ali, v31st March. 1922;, R. R.. Moton Papers, JDuse Archives. General Correspondence 1922, Tuskegee Institute

658.
cantankerous reply; Moton,
kind letter of March 31st which I

Icy dear Major

find

I am in receipt of your very it impossible to interpret.

I shall be only too happy to come to Tuskegee and speak before be mutually your people there if we can arrange a date which will but in any event, even if I should plan a Southern satisfactory, tour and I included Tuskegee in the itinerary, arrangesome financial ment would have to be arrived at between us in that connection. I shall be delighted to hear from you again and learn your views. ", 23 With every good and perfect wish...
It is evident from this that to Duse would for only appear as a professional But Noton is annotated was not in "no reply

lecturer, unduly Moton's

and expected eager to

be paid

his

services. answer of

see him at probably

Tuskegee. for the

Duse's instruction

own hand,

a secretary,

unless

he writes

again". personally. point

Moton may, of course, He was a far

have disliked

or suspected figure, from

Duse Mohamed All the conventional

more respectable 24

of view,

than the Egyptian.

More particularly,

23. , 24.

Duse Mohamed Ali, Tuskegee Institute, pondenoe 1922.

hex York City, 230 West 136th Street, to R. R. Moton, 4th April 1922, R. R. Kloton Papers, General Correa-

It is not, ' of course, necessary to-take- at-face value all the#hard'. "' things said about Moton by Du Bois=in The Crisis in, the early-nineteen do not friends, twenties - e. g. "may we not advise our Inter-racial like Robert t! oton" - The fill your committees with 'pussy footers' Crisis-, May 1921, p. 7. For a judicious recent assessment of Moton, see -Kenneth J. King, The American Background of the Phelps-Stokes.,,. - 324-5., Conmissions# pp. "averwhich. points out that; -! 'Tba-temptation-to; schools of'thought, between the Tuskegee and Atlanta enmity simplify-the between Garveyiam and Tuakegeeism obscured the*fact that Du Bois or was a close personal friend of ? oton, and_.Carvey,. one of the staunchest Moton. was 'in, hearty accord with admirers. of the. Tuskegee Spirit. ... had, told} Di ois, in. 1921. that he would the Pan-African movement' ,. and, , to be glad to be put down as a member., Nor had Moton any objection by pointing lecturer. " Dr. King continues having Du Bois as visiting by the out that Moton had to operate on two levels well illustrated Du Bois to Tuskegee Institute before inviting fact that shortly in November 1928, he had been asked by Thomas Jesse Jones to help in winning the Sultan of Zanzibar to an anti-Du Bois position!

659.
Duae had by this and was acting co-operation. Tuskegee discussed these invitation, presently. time thrown in for his the lot with his ex-employee Marcus Garvey,

as spokesman On the

UNIA in of his

attempting reply of there the is

to gain

Moton's the will that be

identical

date

to Moton about UNIA. clear This evidence to for

he mailed Suffice annoyed Ifoton,

him on behalf to say now,

approaches to

and that despite

he was not Garvey's for high

prepared regard

have the founder about come In

anything of

do with 25

Garveyism,

Tuskegee.

Yet despite appearance there is 19th

these at

reasons Tuskegee,

Moton being enough say-so

lukewarm this of did

Duse Mohamed Ali's about, a letter for will his and for to this

strangely than the

more evidence February 1923,

"Leaves". support "you to 1922 happy

Mbton dated African

soliciting

?ioton'a

American that

Oriental this

Trading matter have the

Company, with taken it

Duse remarked; my visit April

remember "26

I discussed visit must

you during place

Tuskegee. and )`. arch

This

thus

between

1923.

As Duse recalled

visit,

was an entirely

one; I spent eight most enjoyable days at that Institution. and inspiriting I saw all there was to see. Useful trades including scientific farming were being taught, and the academic angle was not neglected.

25.

for Philosoohv Marcus Garvey, of 1arcus Garvey or Africa and Opinions by E. U. the Africans, introduction 2nd ed., with comp. A. J. Garvey, Esnien-Udom, London 1967, pp. xiii-zv and Part It p. 41.

26.

Duse Mohamed Ali, for, American African Oriental. Trading Company Inc., Chicago, Ill.! 3202 Cottage'Grove'Avenue, to'R. R., Noton, Tuskegee Institute, R. R. }oton Papers, ' General Correspondence, 1923.

660.
The only criticism I had to otter was the speed employed in every department. Both boys and girls were up before sunrise and I observed a. frantic rush from one class-room to another which conI marvelled that these students could carry tinued until nightfall. away all they learned. I was not alone a visitor, but also a helper; a poor one no doubt. Civilisation lectured and origins, each night of my stay on 'African -I 27 I believed was greatly History' which appreciated. By April Marcus Garvey's from his
themselves contracts, attitude side,

192228 Duae Mohamed Ali Universal hostility

this

had become a leading -a

functionary rapid

of

Negro Improvement Association towards Garvey.

Firstly, was no doubt on the

change

earlier
for

Certain
with the enough

reasons suggest
collapse to retract of his his cocoa earlier Garvey's and

about-face.

Duse Mohamed Ali and to find a place

glad

UNIA bandwagon. experience

From Marcus in both

Dusle Mohamed Ali and whatever shared,

was a man of wide the personal

journalism

business, been, shipped they

differences extent, the

between

them may have Both stress woron

to a considerable Booker activity. attitude T.

same outlook. put a great

the

memory of economic

Washingtons

both

Pan-African towards such

Duse Mohamed Ali to Garvey by the

may have pro-UNIA to

been swayed attitudes of many

a more friendly

West African

connections

as Patriarch

Campbell,

was,

like

in Lugoe, dismissive

of Garvey'a

political

pretensions,

but enthusiastic H. Ferris,

3'; ''-:..

about the Blck'`Star'Line.

1C7:`. `i 2y 4 " * .. #"r"": Y. a .; y_r-.?

John E: Bruce and ` illiam

:.... '` + '_ ... L ;..

too.

27. 28.

"Leaves",

"in The Comet. 9th October

1937. p. 18.

etby' Dne, to, Aioton on" The evidence -for `this *dating i the ;letter , , R. Ploton *Papera, 'General. behalt `of "the -UPII"; 4th April"1922` pee'i: Correspondence, `1922: ' See J. Ayo. Langley, "Garveyism October 1969, pp. 159-60. and African Nationalism", , 11,2,

29.

661.
may have-'worked-for a Garvey-Duce MohamedAli rapproachement. of the records account of the UNIA, it is imposIn

With the loss and dispersal sibleto give an exact

and detailed

of his role

in the UNIA. Affairs

the recollection department-for. its press--organ,

of Mra. Amy Jaques Garvey, movement and contributed Lthe approximately from the'years difficulties in 1923. imprisonment conviction.

he headed an African articles

to the #Negro-World', This period its the the was

1922-24.30

co-terminous leader's

with, -the growing

of the UNIA: following Duae Mohamed All in. Febrt It ry 1925,1 would, had left

conviction-for*fraud to Carvey's

movement prior, failure

unfair However, Cronon anyone

following not be

-of- hie appeal

to regard

against

perhaps,
weather charge

Duse as having tust

been something be defended around to

of a fair the

Garveyite. by to

Duae A: ohamed kit'. that"in later years

against_

levelled

he went referring

London running

down Garvey forcer, to London

who would

listen, In with

hinTslightingly never

as his returned

messenger-boy. after verdict; his-period

fact,

Duae Mohamed All

the, U11IA, 'and, - as will career, was a aympsthetic,

be shown, ' his, retrospective, though-not uncritical one..

on Garvey's

30'.

Infraition.

`from` ! rs.

`. J. G&rvey

-t=the'

writer'

of this

thesis.

inprisonme 1t -of-! "iarcus Garvey, see Richard` ILurts '31. ' `Forkthe, trial and October "The Life and Resurrection !'arcua Garvey", Raceq 9,1, of k: ... . 1967; ' p: 2220: _ ...,. .
aA_

32.

'bee " Cronon, ', B1rk Mosea. p. 43. Though Cronon writes of Garvey being is, a `communication 'to the tr'eated`af 'Duee', 'his'sI ur& so er'employing Dula left 'of 'State `dated '6th April"1921', " i. e. be ecretary London.

662.
GLrvey's immense talents as a prophet to the massesxere not shared

by hua MohamedAli. by Garvey - in particular,

But in other

ways Duse had assets

not then equalled and-friends through he

the enormous range of contacts races" across the world, London magazines. first

had made among "the darker Land Of The Pharaohs

In The

and then his

Compared with

Garvey,. he. was perhaps a more, seeming man, and seems to have vrespectable been used to approach conservative black American leaders on behalf of, the UNIA. Institute, Evidence survives though without 1922; of his success. so approaching In: _his R. R. Moton of Tuskegee style, he wrote

best Victorian

to Moton in April

My Dear Major Moton,

' ouggeation, is requesting Carver, you to conat my tribute thq month of to be held during a paper at the Convention to 'yourself, importance August, among those eminent of like gentlemen to say the movement and who have something relevant who are outside branch' in , America in partiin regard `to the Race`at large and 'that Until to fix a the names are all be impossible in it will cular. to meet your day in August, but no doubt the date 'can be'arrranged convenience. ' -If for ay- reason you have, enjageme nt s' in August which would the possibility preclude of your coming to New York for the Convention, you might prepare I would suggest-that in 'any case, which' paper, your I think, that it would be in the however, could be read by another. highest interest of yourself you so ably represent, and the Institution if you could find it consistent to be present. 33 with your convenience Mr: -'Marcus

But Noton found this or inclination,

invitation

inconsistent

with

either

his

convenience so

and endorsed Dusee'a letter Egyptian .

"no reply".

Not put off 20th;

eaaily, _,the,, persistent

sent a further

note 'on'Juno

My 'Dear Major :Aoton, ;. ,. .. .. I think-'you ,have :overlooked my letter-jof iApril- 4th' in which I _,::: ,, Negro Improvement requested *you .to' contribute paper. to ;th& Universal a ,, Association's Convention if you found it impossible to be present.

33.

R. R. Moton Papers,

General

Correspondence,

1922.

663.
I shall be very glad if you will because the papers to be read at the book form and time is passing. 34 in let cue know your decision Convention are to be printed

This

second entreaty-brought sedretary;

a frosty,

unhelpful

and misleading

answer

from Moton'

Nkr Dear Sir. *' in the the Institute Your letter of June 20th which reached *"Dr. Moton is "being held for his attention on his return of absence In the meantime I am writing to advise to the school. you, that we date of 4th April our files from you under in '"ay letter do not locate Negro Dr. Hoton to prepare for the Universal a paper requesting Association's 35 Convention. Improvement The British reply! hand, "too Colonial The Tuskegee late now" Office file itself copy of could this hardly letter with of have drafted is endorsed, a more starchy again in roton's

no doubt like its any

written principal white

much satisfaction a Negro college

and relief. receiving a afford

To be fair substantial to be overtly Garvey,

to T:oton, part of

money from with in black white

"benefactors", 36 least of

he could all if,

not like

identified were regarded

radicals, liberal

they

circles anti-white

as anti-white. reputation

Indeed, a liability

Duse himself

probably

considered

Garvey's

34. 35"
36.

ibid. ibid.
See Keni eth t. King, "The Americii Bbk iourid to the-, Phelxa=Stokes l oton to pursue, Commissions, citedjn 24.. above, <. the need on note. . for oton that A. But , Dr. -bingealso mikes it. an ambiguous policy.. ,--.. ,< aclear, invitation * to, iisympathetic to Garvey, and -cites , his ;, totally was snot; y Tuabegee and address the sgtudents Garvey; and. Kra* Garvey-to,. visit ; there in,, November 1923; .s ee; op. cit. pp. 326-7k: .. .

664.
to the moven ent. It 37 effectiveness as a

would be unwise to assess Dus Mohamed Alife

on the work basis of one failure. UNIA's African

UNIA executive light Africa, of his

No details Affairs very

bave come to department. real friends, In who career,

as head of in

the

especially

West Africa,

he had numerous at critical

had been prepared and who honoured

to help him for

him materially his journalistic

stages-in-hin on their behalf.

crusades

Though British with

West African

Garveyites

were only

rather-tenuously

connected

the IINIA organisation38

- which at best

was not the most efficiently an Important role as a

body - yet Duse Mohamed Ali run link man. His work for

may have played

the UNIA may perhaps help to explain the Nero -where; it World, turning

the phenoup in such number

menum of copies unlikely places

of the UNIA journal, as Northern Nigeria, is,

was read"by

a small

of "foreign"

natives39

that -

by such people as the Sierra clerks lists, who had supported

Leonean,

Gold Coast and Southern by the ATOR. from its former Its

Nigerian

and been helped appeal

old subscription

backed up by a personal a viable basis for

editor,

would have provided

the distri-

37. 38. 39.

This is discussed See Langley,

further

below.. Aspects of the Pan-African t4overents, pp. 125-132.

West African

For Governor Sir Hugh Clifford's of,,, the circulation official: -aaaessment . , Clifford, 130-31. ibid, the Negro-World in Nigeria in 1921-22, pp. of -see-. in the North, found that from his. officials on the basis of information in Kano, Munshi and Illorin, on a very the Negro World had a circulation not indigenous class of native, shall scale,. among "a very limited to the Northern Provinces".

665. .
bution of the Negro world in, many parts States, Duse Kohamed Ali of Africa. could well Turning from Africa

to the United importance

have had a symbolic wider

to the UNIA, as African

born,

and as one who had a far Few Garveyites

knowledge of the world had his connections-with

than most Garveyites.

would have Nationalism.

and knowledge of, Pan-Islamism

and Indian

Mrs, Garvey remembers him as usually wearing his Fez as a protection 40 There is no doubt that he was perfectly against discrimination. scious that an exotic appearance, identifying In his a black novel-about

con-

man. aa DL, a black the racial struggle in

American, in Ai erica

could

give protection. ,

in the nineteen-twenties, and October

Ere Roosevelt

Came, serialised

Lagos between February explain the effects

1934,41 he has a black marks to his

American character face;

of adding

pseudo-tribal

I was African, in, this me a lot of respect country. and an States Negro; that got me a lot of help in wasn't a United out-of-the-way places with my messed up American language and all 42 I changed my--named to, Alamazoo that. ',. ... _. , it got African

the Garvey-movement, with, its. usage -of uniforms, regalia and exotic . , `1 Egyptian Muslim would, have had an obvious appeal. dress , , a,: Fez"xearing Within

40.

Information from )rs. A. J. "'Garvey. 'For"another; e'xipls of "a 'Fez=' ' African' in the-U. S. A., 'se" the photograph `of MohammedJama, wearing student at Tvskegee Institute, : October 19151--"''' first'-East'African in King, -op. cit. ,'p. 2. The '-firat`inatalment= this'novel appeared in The Coact. 24th' of, February 1934 pp"10-l2, `and'"it 'ran` weekly until the' final' instalment on 13z, October 1934, pp. ll-12'a dx'17: ibid,i'r 29th=5eptember'1934, ; '., .
r, .. ' .j.: 4Yi"' . 'i i.

41.

42. 43.

-p"13"
.'a.: ap ....

k,

,.,

'i

t.

."

See Cronn op cit

, "pp.62-4, '68'and

photographs

opposite

pp. 110 and 111.

666.
One wonders whether, like the character Arabic# in in his novel, to impress Duse Mohamed-Ali, people. No doubt a

sometimes spoke a little his attendance few Arabic Belief much black raciat.

order

at Mosque in London had given

him co=and

of at least

phrases used in Muslim prayers in separation opinion of. white-and with

and devotions. which led Garvey to outrage extreme mite between Dusee

black,

by fraternising was a point leader.

the Klan and other disagreement was able

organiaations, and-his with

the

of potential

Mohamed Ali

But perhaps Dus

to equate Garvey's years in

race separatism
London, namely

an idea he -had been propagating

of the a black Negro American World inI922 in run

in h13 last
state on this in

creation in the

ex-GeraanF relating indeed. -

Maat Africa. the Negro-State

He wrote idea-to

theme,

conditions

obtaining

the New world

surveying

the entire

vorld"race

scene;

In the month of June I briefly. the question discussed of the necessity in East Vegro government German -colonies for an entirely in the late Negro : Improvement In view of the approach Africa.,... the Universal of , . I deal more, fully Association's it oppartunea-to convention -consider with the question,... especially--in viec. of the Eon.. Marcus Garvey's in regard interview to his recent careful: with .the .'imperial statement I am not_ sure that the,, League ..of Nations, or the wizard! =. at Atlanta.. _. . forming the League,. really desire to help the Negro 'in governments . . .

to blame the direction The Negro -himself, is largely of findependenoe. -is his duty-, to agitate for this.,. and--keep that constitutionally -It agitation, alive. -"--" It -is useless, to say that the.; llew, World -Negroes in Africa; have ,no habitation that the climate is -bad..and_.the _'savages' . senseless .arguments-of are worse- than-the, climate, and all the 'other.. -: likethese despite
to note that' character.. a , ''It'Se, curious , the the 'advanced I-,:Negro, frequently.: complains advantages!,, _of'which. European has been able to,. bear. these Imaginary ills =has ,succeeded -and. in 'savage' and of enriching at the. expense of: the so-called -himself . Africa.; c"A " -..,c .: i r:. -r. w: ,. V- :., t& -. ., _. ., , ..K

Fortunately there is a growing.. body of. opinion :among patriotic =.. ..... Negroes in favor '_of African repatriation, and; -this being the, case it.,, , is high, time that the.. case :should, be,. stated for -the", benefit ;of lthe. ,, _ . to League., of Tations towhom it should be known. that 1egroes -. tha , -. . number, of two millions,. both-from : :United States. of America. and: - .. . -the

667.
from the British colonial possessions in the West Indies and South fought America, as well as from the French colonies and protectorates, in the late war. The Jews also fought in on behalf of the Allies
The Jews thron h Great Britain's the late mandate in Palestine war. (to) have been given a home the continent the Negroes ... of ... that they have every reason to expect Africa is their homeland, and to return they'shall be given a home as and when they might desire Negroes in the New It might be advanced that the 'advanced' there. (, to World are contented the conditions, sic) and are more likely with as are accorded such political and economic advantages appreciate benefits them in the West rather than those negative which they Eu-opean governments the hands of the various who might receive at the several African protecting peoples are ... ..

In rebuttal it would be as well to inform the this hypothesis of South League of Nations that in the British West Indies and British America the condition of the Negro ... is becoming worse as years in the wages of laborers there is a continued reduction advance. .., Politically life. on plantations and in the lower walks of industrial they have no voice whatever in the management of the affairs of the majority which they form, and those who have migrated to such countries as the'Republics of Guatemala and Honduras do not receive any consideration at the hands of these South American Republics ... The British Ministers in these Republics have stated that they are not accredited the interests to protect the interests of Negroes, but to represent ... difference There is a considerable of Englishmen and white colonials. in between the treatment meted out to Negroes in the French colonies flag ... the West Indies, that ... under the British and The Negro under French rule in the New World is for the, most France with adequate representation of at the-seat part a citizen"of On the other hand the Negroes under the French government in Paris. Crown, although their loyalty the-British ... remains unquestioned, that they so justly have not received that high consideration ... deserve. ' In the United States of America the Negroes have also in spite of a citizenship disadvantages 'labored under considerable in the Southern States :.: They that is nearly valueless: especially . (sic) they then desire sin the have-&' right to settle and as when ... land of, their forefathers, in view of the fact that they, have and fought as well as the Negroes of the West Indies in the interests of they 'self-detemination', the 'rights and of small nationalities!, out of'any calculation are, of the opinion that they should not be left ob3ects the apportioning of the lands of their which'haa for'its it is the duty of the people in Africa. - In these circumstances League of Nations to see "to it that the Negroes shall have a settlewhere a government ment in the late German colony of East Africa Negroes from the United States could be formed comprising intellectual Vest Indies. This government might also of America, and the British of the educated East Indians who at present form a large contain some part 'of-the trading community in British East Africa and who' have But it must be understood in that portion of Africa. vested interests disposed to help the the League might be sympathetically that whilst

668.
Negro to a settlement in his homeland, 'the Negroes must be prepared to manifest their and insistent. wants in a manner at once unequivocal God helps those that help themselves. Such governments could be under the protection of the South African Union, which at 1resent holds the mandate for the late German East African Colony (sic). It might be alleged that the Negroes are incapable We beg to point of adequately carrying on a government ... the disadvantages out that notwithstanding under which the Republics have labored, they have both carried on a comof Hayti and Liberia Yoreover the contact paratively which the successful government. ... Negroes in the New World have had-with Western forms of government Republic since the foundation of the Haytian and that of Liberia brothers than were their enables them to be in a much better` condition, in the two countries who established and carried on the government named rabove. ;.,. . We feel therefore that there is no body of people who have deserved Government than the Negroes more at the hands of the Allied It should be borne in mind that of the New World and of Africa. the Negroes of the British Gold Coast Colony and Nigeria assisted in the late war, as well as those from Senegal under the French Government.... that some they have every right and because of this for them where they might of their own land may be reserved portion safely enjoy the, blessing of freedom which is the right of every member of the human family. 4e_ that the present -among Negroes unrest which -obtains -feel throughout the world and more particularly in the Now world might be very-largely by 'the establishment in remedied of a"government for Negroes in their Africa own political and economic interest.

for the acquisition their own, of a house 'which they' could'' call ,. because at the present time with the exception no body of Liberiag (sic) Negroes would be allowed the to immigrate to the land'of of forefathers in Africa hindwithout objectionable and pernicious Europeans who areinow rances. from'the occupying and administering the country,

It., is obvious that it is not in the nature of things that the . Negroes would immigrate (sic) from the New World to of majority but. it is. reasonable to suppose that those who'form the Africa, . industrial and intellectual groups ... would welcome an opportunity

The. demands, we make' are" not merely sentimental. ' -They are the c.r .: demands of justice trust that the League of Nations and we sincerely dangers`which'are"threatened"from the large will be aliveto'the ..,. body for intelof Negroes if they are not granted an adequate outlet 44 `''; ' lectual indtw trial=expansion. political and ..

44.

Ream World, 15th July dence, 1922.

1922 in R. R. JIoton Papers,

General

Correspon-

669.
Despite is its ponderous circumlocutions understanding and tiresome repetitions, political What is in
Review

'this

an important

document for

Duse YiobamedAli's

outlook,

more particularly evident

of the

as an active that little

member of the UNIA. article

Reviewor It is

immediately
the pages

is

in this

could not be-found

Africa and Orient to argue too

African

Times

and Orient 1920.

between-January,

1917 and December

dangerous

confidently=

fromrlimited"

evidence, -,bt it
when the latter

would seem that

London,

although

Duse
process

had influencedcGarvey did. not Having styles, world, change, was=the decline in.: their British of take place: to"a

was in degree

thee reverse

significant their fit

when Duse was. in if for not in

New York.

so much in

common in Ali

basic well

ideas,, enough

their-political into ,A the striking Review, for the Garveyite

Duse rohamed without however, absence in the really from

could.

a time stance.

significantly hib-"leaders

changing in'ttte-

his

African

Times and Orient name, laments

of any appeals"to influence of the

Queen Victoria's British Crown, up to

and appeals-to-the their supposed' higher

British, ideals. League

- own . "best "fair play"

interests", and the

- to- live British

monarchy'were despiteh

now replaced typical, 'Dusian'

by the warning

Nations

aa,, the-fount

of-justice;

of the trouble he kept'"toTthe: Further, Africans

that"might-follow: traditional

iftNegro

grievances loyal, if

were not redressed, indignant, petition.

45

spiritofthe: the part

the acknowledged

plyed; by British"and,

French-West'return of

in the Great War, yet his that-had

emphasis was a traditional such deep. roots

the ex11es',. one of the sort, ,

in black-American,

45.

of. " the final

chap tor-of

In T }e; Land Of, The' Pharaohs. -

km

670.
history.
tiie. often

But one is bound to recall

resented and rejected the

that
idea

African
of Africa's

intellectuals

of the

need of an Afro-

American leadership reaction. 46, that that

class

Kobina :;ekyi -

being, that

a notable

example of this

Sekyi would no doubt have felt ex-German East Africa

those uho were under the African mandate, guardian or for of an

impression, that matter

was a-South

the Union of South Africa there, of. fact

of

was a suitable their

Afro-American Indeed,
highly Africa, tion,

regime

were unfit

to load

African poorly

brethren. with the

on

these, errors ,
informed. between

and judgement

contrast

standard

Duse Mohamed Aliss Was this in haste

journalistic lapse

writing of

1912 and, 1920. article, .n reflect with his that African

a momentary to

concentradeadline, by July 1922,

due, to writing. perhaps, out

meet an, editorial was already

or does, it becoming,

Duce Mohamed tili affairs?. with Africa

of_touch

Although, during his

as will ten years

be ahown, in the

he by, no means, lost United African Africans, States, leaders, ras in, America, equivalent.

contacts not

he. would

have, had such enjoyed , in

good opportunities -Though in.

there

to meet with ran

he had

London.; friends that

heMacsooiated he never of

and wrote of

to, his,, old Street,

-Africa,

an, American,

158 Fleet,

unique,

rendezvous

leaders

of the, r"darker

races"yfromnthree;

continents. r.

Such contacts _,o t

were

to, not_-, be-,found, within Taking ,,, -..

the UNIA.,in, New,York. Garvey' a. colourful

into. account

personality,

ari the great

' p`.168. A' much earlier, 'Lgley;, "Garveyim and AfricsnhNationaliam", 46: "-, by an African tutelage of Afro-American example of the rejection leader is the break made by James W. Dwane from the South African Ethiopian Church in 1900 on the grounds of its domination by the African )Iethodis, t Episcopal Church - see B. G. M. Sundkler, Bantu `Pro heti in South Africa, 2nd-,ed.; 'London. 1961, pp. 41-2.

671.

importance'of Mohamed Ali's richly p to

his

movement,

one would with him in

expect his

to find

much. about-Due To a work people, no mention for for this Garvey so ought

association

autobiography. famous there is

anecdoted,

more particularly a splendid Fron subject.

concerning Yet Life. in

have presented in It in

whatever is easily

of Garvey guessed. resident' fact that`

Leaves would a British

An Active

The reason the extreme

have been colony

foolhardy in the

a foreign the time

nineteen-thirties

to advertise. was by that to the

he was a former

Carveyite.

Duse Mohamod Ali, to be deported back

an old States, almost in in his the

mn who'could or total Lagos

have had no wish Egypt, Even in The Comet, "though Review a land the 47

United.

even worse'to stranger. magazine

in which obituary of

he would Garvey of

have been "an which he published for for the Garvey the

he made no mention refer to

working

nineteen-twentied; "Times and Orient

he did in

Garvey's'working days before

African

the= safely

distant

Great hr,

and 'before- the UNIA existed. there is'a partial

-, compensation for=this lack of what

Fortunately,

could ,have' been a superb source Duce Mohamed'Ali's C_, }''-'InTthis novel

of information racial

on Garvey and the-. UNIA, in struggle, Ire Roosevelt names

of the American

work,

Garvey appears,

thinly

fictionalised,

under-the

of Napoleon"Hatbry, cologne DeilWoode.

as does Du Bois, under-the=parodied But 'whereas in the-case to

name ofz Dr. Reginald . Bioode, Ruse R- .: w . , '

of Du Bois/De

Mohamed Ali... had :ho-personal portrait-cannot`-give

reminiscences ' into

on, and . his ,hostile -call,. robin

any' deep insight

Du Bois!

the Pl.A. A. C. P. .

47.

The Comet,,, 6th August 1940,,, p,.4-,.

nr +IaFU sr...

r. n.

y 1

_"

, C

1. l

2ify

r_

672.
the reverse
the reader

is
of

true
: )use's

for

Garvey.

Napoleon Hatbry
a Harlem to his the

is first
-a

introduced
scene

to

novel

haranging

audience African

Duse must Refer-

have witnessed ences to Africa

on the in his

need to return speech divide

Motherland.

hearers,

some finding

them a

cause for the novel

witticism. refers

48

Although

this

first

introduction

of Iiatbry

into

to him as "a very elsewhere the novel

sable and by no means prepossessing shows real understanding of the reasons

demogogue", yet for

Garvey! s popularity

among the masses;

Napoleon iiatbry but endeavouring to evolve a was not only dreaming 'ell black', for he had successplan which would at least make Africa ' It is indeed the slogan - 'Africa for the Africans: fully selected in the average Afro-American true that denied having lost anything 'and that Dr. Reginald Dologne De %oode, the special Africa, champion for the political tooth and nail of the educated group, was fighting Prior to recognition of the American and social people of colour ... the real the advent of Hatbry, black of America had no champion.

As. a rule

Afro-American

leaders,

bosses to do their selected and employed by the white political mainly being allowed bidding the secret to enter or caucuses conclaves without It therefore these hireling that followed of the dominant group. 'Leaders', whether preachers or laymen, were for the most part, using. their people as pawns in the political game of the whites.

of mixed blood, who were

were

The circumstances of leaders of. attendant upon the selection was to be found. in the fact mixed blood by the white politicians that the whites always discredited the rental of the capabilities Rightly they believed that the admixture simon-pure black. or wrongly, blood was an unfailing. index to a high criterion of of 'superior' fact that Beside this conclusion was the outstanding mentality. did in a large measure procure educational the mulattoes or near-whites in pre-emancipation days which were denied the blacks. advantages Not a few independent or philanthropic-minded and slave planters in their offspring. owners were known to take a personal interest Others were granted special privileges in the: 'great, houses', received consideration preferential and were taught by their master-fathers And from which they sprung. to despise the black feminine-stock . in a division between the two coloured elements which this resulted is only now being healed by segregation which and inter-marriages

48.

"Ere Roosevelt

Came", in The Comet. 3rd 1: arch 1934, p. 10.

673.
are mainly due to economic' conditions. a mullato woman not only secures a thrill The black man when marrying but at the same time

-.

sis ter. _ The advent of Hatbry was, therefore, hailed by the blacks as a distinct Creator evidence of the intervention of an ever ratchful e

his vanity 'high yaller' satisfies when walking abroad with-a on his' And the 'high yeller' luxury, arm. who has become an expensive the black-man because he invariably marries provider proves a better than the male of her own complexion. The men of mixed blood, usually by courtesy, because, or what is termed a brown skin, marry a black, being a worker she will in building assist should he up his fortunes be industriously inclined. The Afro-American 'brown skin', it should be noted in passing, is far less haughty than her 'high yaller'

black leader who sent to the real Afro-American a real who, noses-like, forefathers.: ' would lead! then. back to the land bf their In the case of Dr. De Woods, the political forces believed that he. aimed- at' the 'attainmentand' political of: Afro -Ake ricanf social And inasmuch as he always saw white and thought equality. white, they::.. would ..., wear= him down on the one hand; ' -and" by` extending some alight show of social recognition on the other, effectively,

'i Thus; ""hic""*po'licy' reduce-, him. tb: a condition4'of' enslavement; -remained in the volume of wobbly and uncertain with a consequent diminution his following. This condition Hatbry's of affairs continued until because of his racial appearance, whose success was instantaneous ideas and the fire those ideas contained, which was absent in the mild The self educated academic propaganda of the much learned Doctor. Hatbry-aimed to build-an industrial group. - -Dr: "De'Wocde stressed they! intellectual', atkthe lexpense, of-the industrial. -"Ha'seemed although a unable-to understand that-"-Dootorsi"'Lawyers"and`-Preachers necessary, evil, i.were, mere-'p*rasites who, as a class, contributed nothing in the way: -of, group-advancement'orenrichment comparatively wai doomed-t64 that"a'race no material foundation and:. poasessing 4 extinction: ...,. bat Ruse Mohamed 'Ali "has to say-here
:' -f ._", `,

aboutDu"-Bois

is unfair

and .
'

biased:,
.

-It als

reflects
., L . ""s..:. f'

the old 1 Washing '6n-Dbis -BookerT. 44! :..3 11) x =T,., . '
,j%!

'quarrels#'in
at , Crisis

which

he -had, participated',

from

the `sidelines.

'

""A, glrice

in

the nine teen-twenties_'shows-r`fx.

that.. Du, Dois.: was neither .

bind `in his

politics,

subservient

to whites,

nor even opposed to the idea of building

a black

49.

ibid,

28th April

1934, p"10.

674.
economic base. approved at least contemporaneous African It is interesting to see that Du Bois and The Crisis, to form steamship Line. like '

two black with

American attempts

companies the

the much abused Black Star

These were; the Black Star

Steamship and Sawmill,. Company, chartered, under the easy-going located -,. laws, of Delaware, and with

Line itself, $1,000,000, of President

with

a' nominal' capital

in Philadelphia,

Dr. L. C. Jordan as -'

and Bishop-W. H. Heard as treasurer;

-, and-they Inter-Colonial which-in June 1920 had Board for Bankaa 'a -the

SteamshipiandiTrading

Company of New"York City, Interco also lonial'

purchased- theisteamship+' $16,720.33.50 mean r."to - Du-Bois

from, theAU. S. -Shipping Negro' Central

endorsed' a projected

break the. porer of xhite. 'oapital .

in, enalaving

and, exploiting

50.

See The Crisis, September 1920, p. 239, and September 1921, p. 227. These items both appeared in a regular feature on current black business developments, and must be weighed against Du Bois much better known attacks on' Garvey..

for a refutetion of Duae Mohamed=Ali! s idea that ;Du-:Boia 'was . . -: bland in his politics;. it ia'only=necessaryr, to ;refer-toi eCiisia' handling of the case '.of? -Dr. ' Sweet, =a.;N4gro doctor`in4`Detroit robust during"a one lwhite maneand wounded'-another who skilled mob : attack "on , of his house, ;,and , who was ultimately-with vNAACP hel p; e, acquitted November. 1925; pp. 7-8and 10; ; January=1926, see'The"Criaia,. murderrt-, pp. 125.9; . and :July .1926, -p. 114: b. But3this -= -case would, also `'tend^to Dwse Mohamedxli! saimpression ias'primarily"'"" thatDutBoia confirm the upper ;class iNegro rt. that Ztime. = t? This ?is' even concerned (with Francis *L".? Broderick'? - see tBroderick, conceded .!by "his. -biographer, in Time' of- Cis, W. F. B. DuBois -Negro'Leader: 'Stanford#-21958; Ir ix . ... ` -. f.? " ... t c. ...
: $"it 't ` . .,.. _ . R' '-4ra 'g 'N p. :. t i... .. -r "e ? '. : tt x_}.! :. .. , C=i.

N y

`r: `iw: noses=i'.. ? ia >-

iI: " - ,r .

`'E'7. t=a

,..

+c.

nt.

i"..

_.

`,.

...

,,

at

r`

Any

675.
darker world. "51 that
It 'Due readers

Nevertheless, Du Bois/"De
is evident

Dus6 Mohamed All

was surely

right figure

enough with:
Cam': and giving

in stating
the masses.

Woode" had never been a popular

that in all less the passage of from writing

Ere Roosevelt a novel, of the

quoted his

above,

was dropping a moretor

pretence "straight

Nigerian

explanation

reasons

for

Garvey's

charisma

among the blackmasses: that Duse had'a

- Despite

dogmatic

tendencies, of

this'passage certain

establishes of'black

perceptive

understanding

aspects

American history

and sociology. Garvey nor the Du Bois

American -predicament, of -

` Ultimately,
approach though'he

the novel'endreed
it)

neither-the
to the black

(as Duae"misrepresented ras, one should Rather, which note, he felt

careful that

to 'avoid Garvey needed

any imputations

fraud

againat`Garvey. undertook measures

was self-defeating, white help, yet

as be antagonised

simultaneously

51.

U. S. Negro Bank", The Crisis, August 1921, p. 122, "there is to-day which states, a strong movement in Harlem for a Negro Bank and a movement which is soon going to be successful. This Negro bank is eventually; into co ; operation and going, to,, bring , or sixty other'Negro banks

See "A Central

-,,

conoentrationthe resources of'fifty ... Y' : ~capital,; is going-ato` be sed` to' break` the; of. andaggregation. . in and exploiting the darker world power of white capital enslaving , 'bet the total, apprval These weresentiments. that would surely have of Dusle-Mohamed'Ali*hiii elf,, rand, help to, underline``that, . bard, and, fast di vidingyline -cannot q, dram between_pr' and' anti=lhiBois be ians' in~the nineteen=twenties. The Centrl; IIak; never; caae`into exsce, and ded-throughrout the New York ttt the, nineteen=twenties remained tardy in the `mtter; f, creating, or. supporting black Negroes banks. "See *Harry H. Pace, "The 'Business of' Banking Among Negroes", February 19??, in, T iej Crisis, Perhaps one may partly "kp"187. explain this by recalling the centre that New York was, after all, of. white: banking in, the United States, and the major New York banks were presumably able to` offer better terms to black customers than bank., any,, potential-black
e , '-' !p' rc ;,, , . a r , i x}A " }' a? k irr w 3. d'r'.

676.
xhitea,
fact that

his

business

activities

being a prime example.

pandering to whited

52
this _

In view of the
atgh t seem .

he had accused

Du Bois, of

inconsistent. passes as white

But the heroes of the novel and infiltrates graduate the Klan into of Harvard

are a mulatto, its highest 54

Smithson, leadership;

who 53

and Browne, a black

Law School, kind

who saves the black threat, rights law

community and the United. States internal practice, and external.

from every

of melodramatic not civil

however, method is . _Droxne's

but the organisation

moments acts 'as an air but independent

of an all-black airline, which at crucial 55orce. Lawyer Browne has &-close and friendly with a white liberal callec, Dr. Detritcher,

relationship

who ende up. as President The implications &cont'rolled' airforce

of the United

States. To. begin with, a black

of this is, if

are interesting. anything,

an even more .potent . line, and reflects

symbol of black a similar as it anticipated

power and capacity-. than a -black steamship kind of thinking. In a curious way, it

was semi-prophetic,

52.

"Ere Roosevelt Came",, Thew Comet., 21st 1934, p. 17, says of -July he "Hatbry's'?,, business crash; "notwithatanding'his many failures,. that . they regarded 'possessed such & ,magnetic hold; tupon his followers. to the cause _of Negro uplift a- martyr. who. had -been sacrificied -him-as had :for-flits the.: creation ultimate objective of ! an Independent -which to enjoy -African State where . Negroes-the. 'world=over. would be,. permitted Carried that, freedom-which was denied; them_under, Nordic domination. ". failed_to-raalise. that his alluraway by This eloquence,, his following , the co-operaing dream : could not be ;effectively.. accoapliahedwithout . . Nordics he ". 'had unremittingly vilified. ition n '.of.. , the very . : ..e' 4 , e2. i y lib' *. `
`-}. +. >ui"ai. . "t

53" 54. 55. '.

see ibid, -ibid, ibid.

l6th. June 1934, *p. ll. l934P-., p-l0-

t:m. rs: z ti-lo

rr4.

'l4th'APril,

4th August 1934, p. 11-12,18th August 1934, p. 11,8th '1934, 'p. ll, 'and-15th September,,1934,. pp. ll-13: ' 4, R.. -

September

677.

by a year or so the actual in the Italo-Ethiopian tli. was suggesting

lie via

exploits 56

of John Robinson and Colonel also clear the black

self-defence by force of

Julian Mohamed

War. that

But what'is future for

is that"Dune American would

and assertion; arms; and led

a better

certainly if

vigorous it

and independentwould be,

necessary,

' which

probably

not

by demagogues but by black towers. outright elements This-would racial

intellectuals

willing

to foresake

their

ivory

ultimately

lead,, he suggests

in his novel,

not-to

war, but to the isolation American society

aril defeat

of the most vicious possibility black. 5?

of

iii, white

and the ultimate

of healthy So
racial -

relationships

based on mutual
was-ultimately the American i-__

respect

between - hite-and
the

Duse Mohamed Ali harmony'within ,,ezv,

optimistic=about system, though:

possibility

for

underestimating', to white

the difficulties

and dangers,

cannot-. fairly .--,

be reproached '-

or for

preaching

accomo-

dation

prejudices.

56.

by P. D. Cummins, See Angelo Del Boca, The Ethiopian 1 35-1941, trans. War Chicago and' London'-1969, air p. 92, " which in a survey 'of the 'miniscule"there force in 1935-6 says; were two possessed by the Ethiopians the' few American Negro" pilot`s, " John' Robinson' of Chicago, - iho 'flex Ethiopian of planes that were airworthy, and Hubert Eustace Julian better"known Eagle": '" t They, became heroes' 'to' Harlem, the "Black as' for example, for their Robinson, of black Americana millions exploits front' the' moat prominent page was` one' of the ten `persona reeiving' in the in the leading display black newspaper the Chicago Defender 1933-38; ` ,80e' Caton' and' Drake; Black etro lis, p. 403. - On period og .. level, the symbolic note the use made of the idea of American Negro 'Great" 'War, ' W41lington `Bu elezi, ''in'SthAfrica air power by" after-the his followers He "told Americans that all were Negroes and that

from the brother Africans they would be coming soon to set free their When they in"aeroplanes. rule of the white man. They would arrive came,, ,! the Europeans ;would, be,, driven into, the". sea'. " -;. E. Roux, 'I. M '' Longer , than Rove, p. 140. R 57. "Ere Roosevelt Came", The Comet 13th October . 1934, p. 11.

678.
Yet although -.
-va far from being

it pie clear
a Garveyite,

frors the above that

his last verdict

in the-final
on Garvey,

estimate
on bearing

he
of

'the death

of his -former

employee,

pupil

and leader,,

was a generous

one;

living Perhaps no African, or dead, has made such an impression on the world at large and quickened the desire for racial self-reliance in the breasts. of Africans the world over, than and self-dependence . Marcus Garvey was employed in the London Office the dead leader. of 'The. African Times and Orient Review' for the.. greater part of a of observing Mr. year, when this writer possessed every opportunity Garvey at close quarters. During that period, while there was ample there was to rise above his fellows, evidence of his determination becoming a leader of his people. no suggestion of hie subsequently . (sic) - we were pleaHence, when we visited the United States in 1920 Organisation he surably surprised at the size of the International. had founded. It is to be deeply regretted that his dream of a perOrigin was not destined to panent" home. f-or the peoples of. African be realised, but the fact remains that he altered the economic and It was not the world over. consciousness of the-African political. within the compass of his endeavour to lead his people to the Promised Land of, polit ica and., economic freedom; -- but he has unquestionably . " their outlook as no previous leader seemed capable of accomaltered May his He-has passed on to joiri: the great majority. plishing. ": in Peace is our sincere wish. 58 soul rest Duse Mohamed Ali's pre-occupation. Pan-Africanrstyle Company Inc. the UNIA. of the, state. in those-days: '--Its but such evidence
t: .._..... . -,. i. -.,....

association

with

the UNIA was far

from a total of his next Oriental Trading"

By February

1923 he had become President ''the mericn' African

bueiness'venture,

(AAOTC), 'which-seems

to have` been totally

unconnected'withf regulations

This company was incorporated of Delaware --a

under the compliant

comaon, have''for-shaky

or'shady'cipanies' Neir'York that its City,

head office as exists of its

wasat44 bhiteha11r8treet; transactions

t ... t. .... -...

suggests

business
5 .....

'

. ' : ,*. ti.. m....,.... .... -t. wd.. _: _ ...

`,.:

...,....,

4.::............... .n.`,.

d+... _.

-. _ -...

.'"

58.

Obituary

for

Marcus Garvey,

Co_, The

17th August 1940, p. 4.

679.
was mainly In"fact, conducted this from the Chicago address of 3202-Cottage Grove Avenue. but 59

New York office J. Leighton Bertie

was run not bythe who held the title

company's Prosident,, of assistant of C. W. de Craft general

by=a`Captain manager*. 60 -

It

is known from the-recollections and writer, that

Johnson, of the,

the Ghanaian scholar nineteen-twenties-in gather-an-impressive cumetantial, includes. of course

Duse Kohamed Ali

spent a part

Chicago - where apparently library his of. Africana

he dwelt 61

long enough to-, There is cir-

around him.

evidence'of

time in Chicago in Ere Roosevelt

Came, which though

a sequence in a'blackThicago-speakeasy this, could"bermerely derived

and dance hall,

from hearsay,

accouhte. iweaenstional-crime company was -floated _-The. stock, ' offered yet-At will

novelettesvnd with

or conventional 62 nexapaperm. $3000000 common of -in. was a-heady start,

a 'nominal capital. 63t in $5 shares at. par. Though-this it was-comparatively

be noted that
4i

modest: compared with. the

--

59"

60.

61.

The earliest blown extant document demonstrating the existence of the AAOTC, from which the above information is taken, is Duse Mohamed All, for AAOTC Inc., to R. R. Yoton, 19th February 1923, in Moton Papers, General. Cerroupondonce. -1923. See Aline` and' Accgmglishments f'the 9'merican frica1 Orientl''Trdii Co.. Inc. $ 1923?, R. Moton Papers, ' General Correspondence; 1923. xinPR. I am'indebtedto Dr. J. A. Langley. for this, inforcitin which'he=, > . `from'-C?. ' de Craft`AJohnaon iriperson receivd .. Caine", in TheCvmt; 10th-March&-1934, -pp. i0-1l
ans of
j.
ua9 0, A. .A-g, 411,266.12 rt W i: v . t 14 A !, XI w un -o from "' wal MG. t: .id `1t S. Mr. .: porter. whenin

62. "Ere`Roosevelt
63. Aims Ac

the
tr

Aa
1'xt. r.? },
to

African
r: '1 .
c kFe .. ! CI ML , tl

Oriental
rite
of career u

Tradi
"' _ on
_... .w -. s+... -if4.

C.

MCL
K. 3 v4,
yry 8xm 4 x":

9i:
w

bet.

i. r thnf! "4 MM

erg'. , +i.

-. r -f

Sy

600.
ill-fated Inter-Colonial Corporation, Also, it and perhapo'represente should be noted that a-reltive although most

degree of business black

realism.

American business store

enterprises

of that, time were small parlour being structure. typical64

the barber's - yet the nineteencompanies claimed

shop, the grocery

or the beauty initial

ROTCwas not unique twenties on this assets'of The African poration. with the Black can provide kind of-scale.

in its

capital

The early

not a few examples of black The Inter-Colonial of a ship

American business

Steamship Corporation said to be worth

$130,192 and possession Steamship and Sawmill

$100,000. cor-

Company-was nominally interest

$1,000,000 a

Both these are of especial tar Line, and baying fairly

as being contemporaneous Pan-African implications -

obvious style

though that

is'not

to say that

the Pan-African

company was the norm time'.. ' Bings's race

in Negro company flotation State Bank of Chicago,

on the grand scale

at that

though certainly

as a symbol of black seen enterprise free

advancement, Pan-African

is. a good example of am ambitious 66 aims.

of any

64.

See Cayton and Drake, Aleck Metro orolis, p. 438" for tables of the ten though these figures most numerous types of Negro business in Chicago; are for 1938, there is no reason to believe that they were radically folin the previous decade. Beauty. parloure come first, different . , lowed: by groceries, barber. shops,, tailors, cleaners and pressers, reetaurants, undertakers, taverns, shoe repairers, coal. and wood dealers, dressmakers. This finding is broadly confirmed in the case of New and York too; A History of the Negro in New York City, see Scheiner, pp. 78-81. TheCrisis; September 239 and, September .1921, '"p. 227. ' "1920, p.

65, 66.

Cayton and Drake, op. cit., the rise and fall 464-8, relates of pp. Jesse Binga', who reise from porter;, 'to_ pro prie for of bank with . $1,465,266.62 in deposits, and whose business career and reputation holocaust like many another in America, by the financial was destroyed, of 1929-30.

681..

Duse Mohamed Ali eminent black Americans;

attempted

to attract

support

for

the

AAOTC from were others.

as I'oton

was approached,

so no doubt friendly

He was encouraged at Tuskegee

to approach

Moton. by his

surprisingly to the the

reception

a few months the need for

previously. an all out

Writing effort in

Tuskegee, Principal, of their

he stressed,

interests

race; for I am writing you for the purpose of soliciting your co-operation the. purpose of-baying some intensive effort put forward in the interest of the success of our Company. You will remember that I discussed

If

Dues had genuine

I- feel. certain; this matter. with you during to, Tuskegee. my visit . (sic) in thes. interst-, of race solidarity combine actively, you, will towards the objective Those who=would-interest we wish to obtain. themselves be. I therefore hope that in addition others must first friends to influenoing talcs at least one share, yourself you will, as 67 in my bona fides. a, proof of. your"confidence r, ' .. ' -cwt. .-e a

confidence

in Motors it

was misplaced. "no reply".

In his. usual

buss's way with

k *,rY'

letters,

l oton endorsed the appeal

4

We may

conclude

he was not favourably

impressed

by the company's

prospectus,

which Dune Mohamed Ali

'A.

had hopefully all optimism about

enclosed. in the usual manner of company prospecchief associates Its in

Thisdocument, tuses, provides

.' io

information

Duae Mohamed Ali's Pan-African

the AAOTC1, and projects are given thus;

an unmistakable

message.

objects

CO-OPERATION OBJECT,OF THIB,. COMPANY,, IS-TO, CEMENT., CO-0PERA THE MAINZ AND.FOSTERBETWEEII-THE NATIVE5.0F. WEST,. AF'RICA,AND THEIR. CO-PATRIOTS IN THE UNITED'STATES' OF: f:. r. -AMERICA.

67.
68.

Dse`Mohn ed Ali

Generid1 Correspondence, ` 1923'.

t' R. 1: Moton; 19th', Febr ix '

1923 ,'Moton' Papers, 14

Oriental Trading Co.

Aims and AccomiDliehments of the American African

682.
is to be used as a trading corporation organization and Negro planters partially a banking whereby-the and proposition, from the present jurisdiction of West Africa producers can be freed institutions, of the European banking and financial and oppression the advantageous and in doing so, secure to a better extent prices At the secured at the market of the consumers of their products. time the only people who are advancing these natives present money planting and the harvesting of their-crops, are the European -for`the banks and financial institutions, who in turn for this accomodation demand that such crops be sold through by them or people designated the natives them, allowing figure for their product, a purely nominal they-themeelves-make the enormous difference between the price while they allow the natives the merchandise commands and the price actually in the countries'where'it is consumed. This

The products in which this corporation deal, are the prinwill Palm-oil, hides, cipal exports of West Africa, namely: palm-ksrnelo, -cocoa copra, mahogany, dye woods,, ground-, nuts, rubber. and coffee. imports which the company will supply, to the The principal Prints and other cotton piece goods, crockery, natives are as follows: "hrdwaie salted}fish, enamel ware, cement, 'coriugated, -iro; tgasoline, flour, salted beef and pork, motor trucks, rice biscuits, automobiles and general 'e rchand is e. In other worda, Duae Mohimed'Aliie`plan and forcefully -not"even ras the old formnla, put. perhape now r

more-simply

than ever. -" The one major change was-that as, A clearing

Landon had- no role, Nothing jreara, could

in his business. plans.: -house, separatin, its Pan-African in- under-two-.message't

illustrate life,

'more clearly 'there.

hie , ttal

from" his''old

" To'emphasise

the prospectus

concluded;

It x111" b& seen` from' the- outline 'that -'this- co ipany has, outside of, ., ita purely' comE rcil, 'featurea which are, great in the Doeaibilities 'succeed, 'the, great spirit= of co-operativo: helps and of financial' `JOINING' HANDS-ACROSS`THE OF TFlE'. THOSE Am"D INS SEA NECROES' THIS" COUNTRY by this" unification'. OF WEST'A?RICA. t It"is of 'the, commercial lif e by-: ther.: egr& that it will- benpossible, to- bring about, theremanoipation ' hie orrrades and allow the Negro prodcere 'of- the world: to. actually of -,, govern ,their--own "products financial "lift. thewaelves .froi the P, and! ,oppression of European and"other'-banking +influences`. 3: ;It ia` the' idea
qi

663.
be assured of the company to use the commercial strength, which will the binding together through of the Negro race in the two continents, Negro to make this the emancipation corporation of the entire stone population.

Thus the AAOTC continued Mohamed Ali'a desire business

the ambiguous double ventures of his

appeal characteristic to the black -

of Duse man's

London period patriotism solidarity,

to get rich, But despite

and to his racial

and solidarity. the AAOTCwas not an' men named in

these appeals leading

to racial

all-black

company in its prospectus,

personnel.

There are five

the company's

of whom only

two were black Alfred Lincoln

Dusee!: ohamed Ali Cudjoe of Accra, Cudjbe, the Basle producers. in West it

and the Cold Coast merchant and planter, a former director of the ill-fated of that nursery link

Inter-Colonial

Corporation.

who was a product Mission, It

of Gold Coast entrepreneurs man with the West African bad great influence

was to be the firm's stressed it that

was also too;

Duse Mohamed Ali that a spirit

Africa

was claimed and create

"by establishing of trust country. "

him as president

would solidify

and friendliness Large claims

between those were'rade nt

Negroes of. West: Africa only for_what.

and of this

Cudjoe -could do for

the company, but even for `what he bad

already-done; You-'might say of this gentleman that he prcticall: y. knows'every native }colonies. 'producer in the -Gold : Coast - Colony adjacent planter and, yarid the original together' these `farmers to join` this 4,1 work -of banding} . been done . by Mr. " Cudjoe and it is only a organization=hasalready. % far :us Ito, accomplish this 'company, ' and these'-farmers will question join right. in; and; use'it theirlsales ' ` ? r. Cidjoe organization. as his his'aesciates'and" ? has'assuredus ,that he personally, as as'vell Ithis 1Corporation'is 'formed and farmer : friends , -. #will' -the. minute this aide, them assurances of some 'aseistance'and"I'cpitl'from shows -. in 'their do everything themselves become shareholders -'vend power to 69 promote -and: enlarge =this "eorporation:

69.

ibid:

684.

The claims

of company prospectuses

are not to. be taken at worst

too seriously; to lure and

they may represent deceive behalf business the unwary.

at beat as; rations, But it

an intention

would be unwise to dismiss West African

the claims interest

made on in doing

of Cudjoe as mere bubble-blowing. with America was real enopgh. feat

There are a number of examples African cocoa farmers through attempting their own

in the nineteen-twenties to export marketing informed their

of British

to the American market produce direct , 70 that organizations, and it is very likely about and in-touch white with. this. kind

Cudjoe was well

of sentiment. inferior billing general manager

The three

members of the company were given The already nentioned Bertie,

in the prospectus. in New Indian as well said -Yank,. -was Steamship

assistant, in.. cbarge

to have been "for

many years

of the,. West

Company of England".

e,,, was supposed to know went Africa of barter and trade.

the West , Indies as,

and, to have experience

70.

moves initiated by chiefs in the For e. g., in 1924-25, as a result of Eastern Province of the Gold Coast, the Gold Coast Farmers Association large began direct cocoa shipments to the U. S. on a sufficiently firms. reduce shipments through the usual British scale to seriously The cocoa. was, bought on crcdit;, atr25/per load -, about. 5/- more than the highest bidding'European"merchants: " 'But the-scheme offered'by broker misappropriated most of the collapsed when the Association's Over, 4300,000. was lost,. proceedings proceeds'and absconded. randjegal , continued till as late is 1937. See D: out'; of this fiasco arising`, Iiietorv Kimble, A Political of Ghana, PP. 51-2. The efforts Tete-Ansa. to market of,, Ithe Gold. Coast businessman, W..-, , in the'"U: S, 'are discussed subsequently West African produce direct in this chapter. Suffice to esy here that the remnant of the Gold by; June Coast, Farmers-Association, had_.joined forcesAwithTete-Ansa , IAli, who ,irrote in'Africa 192$'' according to Duce Mohamed nagazine, Producers Ltd., New York, June 1928, p. 6; "West African Co-operative harmoniously the all but defunct Gold Coast Farmers will work with inasmuch as )r. Krame Ayew, the organizer and President Association, has assumed a directorship of the Gold Coast Farmers Association, Co-operative Producers Ltd. " on the board of the West African

685.
The remaining and eon, general two white members of Senior the company were iiex Yorkers, Seager father was tobe and grain

John C. Seager manager of the

and Junior.

The elder

corporation,

and had been a shipping

agent

importer

in New York since

1868.

company's African

headquarters

His son was to be manager of 71. in Accra. presenting president itself-to

the'

In the autumn of 1923 the AAOTCwas still black American public. tactics But by this to include, it tire, its

the

had changed his publicity

using idea the that the 73

promotional
campaign. black black 5t.

would seem, a travelling

in St. Louis, in than to the the

In mid-October 'Louis newspaper progress

he was to be found 'The Clarion72 through -a

believer

man should

business-rather no means unknown

political black

demands citizens

to drum'upsupport.

', ' lie wasby

of

St.

Louis, ' since -het had delivered

a lecture

there

on Xo

21st 1923 onr race and-.: con-

"Egypt under7Tut-Lnkh-Amen" lineage cerning of "this celebrated

in which he bad expounded, "the king"

and explained,, "aany of the secrets 'ancient Egsrpt: "74

as'themysteries-ro! same-gis welli

The company

71.

Aims and Accomplishments Inca.

of the Anerioan

African

Oriental

Trading

72. `St. Louis Clarion, dence, 1923" ? 3.

19th Ootber-1923,

Moton-Papers, t-General`Corresponin an article Papers, in its issue

This was, at least alleged for March 1921, p. 220. Baltimore herald, dence, 1923.

by The Crisis,

74.

16th-I3ay`1923,

in`Moton

General

Correspon-

686.

had. since

opened an office

in St.

Louie at 209 North Jefferson by offering "every facility

4venue, and for The though

Lune had won the heart investigating nominal this capital (to) and

of the Clarion familiarize

ourselves

with-the

organisation". t600,000,

of the company had by now been raised

wao described

by Duse as a modest sum, chosez3 "so that to enable us to get on with capital would flow

the capital and

might be quickly_subsoribed show results" scale. - after

the business

xthich further as;

in on a massive done by the $150,000,000. annually,

He wasreported.

Germans in, iest, Africa

_"offering" before the Great War, "estimated"-at his company.

the trade

formerly

to those who would support

%498,000,.. to "coyer" securities worth 75 being offered. One is bvund: tq be, sceptical . though he may well. have had options leases . ,,

claimed to have with. him _e the %500,000 of-, preferred stock, about `hege securities,, properties.

e_tc. on West: Afrioan

Cudjoe, was said to have, already "trading pouts, and warehouses ... ._created ; for the sale of manufactured goods. and. the reception of the and storing raw materiale". Bertie, that will , Readers who kwere }wcrried as ,a -about the role ,.. of-the Erglishman,

in what was presented "a staff, of colored

race unity be, operating

organisation,

were re-assured Bertie who "he made on

....

help will

under Captain .

teach them the-business "76 Indeed, it

in or der that would seem that later,

they might. function"after. remarks of this sort

has retired. their mark,

for a few years

an Associated
t1.. F3 R. i it : a'3: f

Negro Press report77

4". q . ys

75"-

it. 'Loui Clarion,

19th October

1923.

t"r-

"n

77.

See The Reporter, Birmingham Ala., 21st August 19271 The EtiRle, Washington D. C., 19th August 1927; The Inrorrmer, Columbus b. C., 22nd_Auguet. 1927:. a alh'in' Moton' Papers, General Correspondence, 1927. 0

667.
W. Tete-Ansa's use white capacity In this man' "hands cocoa marketing and his with plans contrasted Tate-Ansass about 'the decision-to business practice.

American of black

staff

slighting

remarks

New Yorkers

Duse Mohamed Ali's would Louis his the appear

contrary

respect

Dua Mohamed Ali In his sea" aspect 3t. of

to have been more of a 'race he again stressed the

than

Tete-Ansa. the

interview,

across

company, black

stating-that

West -Africans, "their close blood

whose messenger relations". British sumer,

he was, -regarded He went over all the the

Americans-as, about the

the

old

ground

extortionate American but con-

middlemen and stressed

between that

West African West Africans

producer were not

and the savages

civilized

people,

with

civilized of his

appetites interview,

for it

Akerican

manufactures.

But despite the

the bullish`-tone difficulties

ended on a'note at more -in*the

which admitted

of the past and hinted

Fresent;

during my two (2) No great effort be devoid of disappointment and can in this country I have bad many disappointments. years of effort has But I have never'been discouraged because the word-failure from my vocabulary been eliminated this present month we mean to and hand--several contracts'"being already -entered- .get on"with" business-in into with important manufacturers in St. Louis as well as liew York. a "The sale of stock is going well but`we' cannot have too much, ' I feel certain that those have (sic) holding back have and assistance 78 done so because of lack of information. only In fact'; 'itJis'certain Though the details Duse' had sunk:: into U! V 'A 1 that and exact the AAOTC failed time its of that his to-attract sufficient support.

end are not known, by August 1927 the Associated business 79 efforts, Negro Press no loner referring to his

such obscurity pursuing

knew whether he was still business career-only

in the past, tenee.

78. 79.

St.

Louis

Clarion.

19th October

1923. as listed in note 77 above.

See Associated

Negro Press reports

688.

There would seem to have been an interval, of his earlier Ansa's During American this time, that business efforts in America, Co-operative there

then,

between the collapse involvement Inc., in W. Tete-

and his Producers,

'West African

in 1927-28. gives the

what information he turned to cultural

is of his activities Indeed,

impression earlier journalist. in a popular in general,

nationalism.

even in his and and

business 80

phase in 1921-23 he had used his A fez wearing Egyptian who could and politics lectures with

name as a historian lecture knowledgeably

manner about the history and who could spice his

of Egypt, personal

and Africaanecdotes of of

his many adventures a living

and travels,

was sure to be-able Furthermore,

to make some kind as in London, he

in the black his

American world.

found that by black of foreign cultural

Muslim religion Americans,

was an asset

to him, making him respected of the tiny minority

and white

and the welcometbrother

Muslims then living nationalism

in America. t+, As in London, Islam and-black his American years. culturalTnationa-

werelinter-related"themesof

The main scene of Dune Mohamed Ali's list early direct activities years in America was Detroit; of the Nation with its of Islam, formation. founder of Allah? accounts

Islamic-cum-black "and since-this

was' the scene 'of the he had any

one is

bound to wonder if

connection

Could he have perhaps even, been trader, , man. from he light

the mysterious

W.A. lard,

of the ; Nation' of ' Islam, The answer, yFard. : alas,.

the East and incarnation was surely not. All

must be'that. 'stress his

of Wallace,

iatrongly

60.

The St. Louis Clarion interview of,. 19th Octoberi. 923, opened with (Effendi, "We called upon Duse I(hamed4li, the Egyptian phrase; Publicist". historian and

the

689. Duse Mohamed Ali rejection

skin,

while

was definitely of all things '

dark, white

and ascribe

to card a

more intransigent with

than can ever be associated W.D. Fard's period of But

helped suitable stress on

Duse even at his most militant. in betroit"xas

a reasonable ordinary Nation of black Islam's for

Furthermore, Duce`left
his

activity
it to for remains inform the

1930-33,
speculation people early black cultural

while
that

America in 1931.81
in Detroit

activities `and develop

about growth.

Islam

a climate Islam's the which

The Nation nay relate in to Detroit,

of to

an Oriental of

origin

Americans82 activities also5;

Oriental will

stress be disof

Duso Mohamed Ali's presently.

cussed

One is between Drew Ali.

bound,

speculate activities perhaps

:on the

likelihood and of Detroit

connection some those black of Noble

Duse-Miohamed Ali's Noble Drew Ali,

in Detroit, the earliest in

modern by

merican

Muslim-"prophets", he insisted 'or'Moorisl 'activities

had established' that` black "83

a temple

1925--"'Furthermore, As iatics, some of 'Moors,

Americans Could he,

"must -call. -perhaps,

-themselves have. attended and

Americans. organised

the' ! ualim

'by Duse -Mohamed 'Ali and sense

in. Detroit, to

-been "icipreased

by Duse'a

-Egyptian

-origins

of belonging

a great

D. Fard's career in Detroit; 81. For details of W. see"E. t. Easien-Udom, Chicago 1962, Nationalism. Search for an Identity in America -Black -A The writer has had the great benefit pp. 43-5. of both correspondence Lasien-dom onthe question of the poswith-Professor and, discuesions between Du se Mohamed Ali and U. D'. Fard; `-_the ' identity sibility of an Mohamed: Ali could not. have been outcomq was agreement that. n., t. -Duceidea might W.D. Fard, exciting be. '" though the 82. 83. ssien-Udom, ibid;
41

Black ldationalism,

p. 262. Noble"Drew Ali.

`pp. 33-5; =outlines

the aareerlof

4p

090.
and ancient if black folk culture as well as religion? It . is, at, least, to bo doubted quite like

in Detroit

had.,ever. before

encountered-anythirg in Detroit %'uskegee trip

Duse Mohamed Ali: back to 'a visit after

Bisufirstjslamio, made there shortly

activity after. of 1922. his

can be traced i. e. durizg . "at the .

or shortly request after

the second, half

He went to Detroit

shortly of a group of Muslim Indiana to whom I had been introduced 84 No doubt these, men, none of whom he in New 'fork. " my arrival contacted, via the good offices of his Indian A: uslim

named, were originally friends in London.

Possibly Society

t"ualims knew about the Central Islamic , for in London and had heard about- Aule Mohamed-Ali's role in it, the Detroit Indian organise a Muslim Society with "85 which would be the means of

they asked him "to establishing

a=prayer-rooa neglected.

bad been sadly the lines

a. regular, pystem, of Weekly. prayers which . The, outcome was a ?! on uslim organisation Society,, looking after not only

of the London , Central, Islamic.. but also, the social life

the religious and seeking

of the Detroit

Muslim. community,

Acommittee.. of the support,, of..., non-Muslim sympathisers. " , management was formed, and Duse Mohamed Ali was elected President for two terms of office. office Aesumirg Central these were yearly, Islamic Society this until would have given at least 1925. him How We

in the Detroit

much of this

time he was resident

in Detroit

can only

be guessed. `intervals"

are told ,that ""lectures

and concerts

were -heldat

frequent

84. " "Leaves". 85. ibid

In

The Comet., 5th February 4938,, .:

P"7.

691.
and that Social, "many of the most important were very often entertained. :society, Civic members- of Detroit 86 In some ways, such activities " for him in Detroit leader and

must have been even more satisfying in London. doubt a useful There was far white Islamic Now he was the respected bridge less

than they had been and no

of a Muslim community,

between these Asian Muslims and American life. in Detroit type, than in London of coming across query his sympathisers bone fides at that as an date,

likelihood

men of the W.S.. Blunt leader.

who might , American

Nor would white objected to a-little

have normally. the Detroit

anti-British activities. Society

Empire propaganda among

Central

Islamic

:iociety's Islamic

Out of the Detroit cultural tentativsly. had the. largo group called

Central.

the American Asiatic

grew a more broadly based 87 This can be Association. the end of 1925,68 and and a better understandobtained. part Not " 89

dated as coming into objects

existenco%toxards relations

of "more amicable

ing between America and- the is general- than had previously -Orient: An organising, committee, part-Indian andr"other-Oriental as: organising groups", secretary.

American, -vas set up, with, Duce F. obamed;Ali .

86'0' ibid. 7. 88.

'=`-

._...

,z".

"ibid. '; } . ibid. -I-,This, tells-us broke up that the American' Asiatic Association after being in existence for "no ... longer than twelve months", and that? the, ">'break-up ' coincided" irit h` the death' of =Hoizdini in Detroit. ' Houdini died on 31st October 1926 - see Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1969 ed., Vol. 11, p. 752. All the following, , in, "Leaves",,, e details, of theLdmerican, Asiatic, me ;;; 5th: JFebruary 19389-P-7Association-arer. from

89.

692.
only the Mayor and r:ayorese
Minister in

of Detroit,
Washington

but also
and his

the Persian
wife'

Charge' d'Affaires
to act

and the' Egyptian

were induced

as' patrons. to establish as described

Clearly, itself

the American Asiatic as a highly respectable

Association organisation.

was able for Its

a time

activities, For example, talents;

by Duse Mohamed Ali,

sound entirely

innoccuous.

they gave Duse the opportunity

to revive

some of his old

theatrical

By way of introducing the Association I gathered to Detroit, a comdramatic talent two short pany of local and musical and produced Oriental. costume plays of my ovn interspersed with selected musical designed by myself numbers ... costumed within an Oriental setting by the scenic artists Theatre. and executed at the local We subsequently the voluntary obtained of informed services Oriental lecturers then resident, to the United States, or visiting discuss the religions to in addition and literature of the Orient Americans in the East and were capable such available who had resided of speaking authoritatively on politcal subjects or social an they them. understood

But within

a year Duse Mohamed Ali 'a- unfortunate themselves;

experiences

in the Ottoman

Committee in London repeated

jealousies arose with a number of factional squabbles among various Oriental groups over the question of control and, these factions were joined by some of the - ill-informed ambitious but aggressively American element, who were anxious to reduce me to a mere cypher, both practicable after I}had made the Organisation' and possible.
-Were these Unfortunately white in the "aggressively ambitious Ali sort 'American elements" white or black? either have been "~

Duse` )ob ned of ,the

dos not

'say.

They might to' his of

"sympathisers" London Ottoman

he had already, or,

oosto- encountered the factiousness

Committee;

on the analogy

of other

early

}:uslim

groups

in America,

90

black

people.

Be that

as it

90.

For details in Noble Drew Ali's of dissension movement, see Fasia nUdom, op. cit., between W.D. Fard's of the split p. 35; for details supporters and opponents in the Nation of Islam's early years in Detroit, see ibid. pp. 44-5"

693.
may, he'reaigned within his office early in November 1926= disagreements and after continued a few "vork

the Association "died

between the Indians death". '

and Americana, Theatrical:

months it provided

a most inglorious

and lecturing it

an escape from these unpleaeantnessea. rupture it with the'American with Asiatic

Indeed, Association

is"possible

to date his states-. that

because be' 91 This

coincided

the death of Houdini in which

"oriental

in Detroit. Houdini

had caused the management of the theatre

ing to engage Duse Mohamed Ali substitute less acta quarrelsome his-Detroit months of lecture of and his

had been appearfor a week

performance" his

as an emergency in the apparently

However, Detroit

he continued Central is

activities Society. but 92 they verge

Islamic not year in clear,

Exactly still of

when he severed existed in "a the

connections the following

later

when,

on the

leaving

for

series

engagements to be drawn to his there

Chicago" into in

he was first the west it or African may

approached

by Tete-Ansa93 worlds, not all his

and began

back life

produce. -trading be noted Cultural Order that fields. of Elks,

As a post-script social life to

Detroit,

was in

the

Islamic

Oriental Detroit

He was proud rising

have

been prominent Ruleri94

among the

to be an Exalted

But these years after spent in the Mid-West, for

the collapse

of the AAOTCwere not entirely and General Secretary

in 1926 he became the founder

9l. -: on 31st October _Houdini>died 92. "Leaves", in Comet, The

1926 -see

note 88 above.

5th February

1938, p. 7.

93"
94.

ibid.
ibid.

694.
of--a Inc. cultural 95 organisationin this New York was formed This called the America-Asia'Aiociation from the Detroit with

Most likely Asiatic

on the would

re-bound be'entirely

American

Association.,

consistent

his

lifelong

tenacity, Society

and with after

the precedent

of the formation

of the

Anglo-Ottoman It claimed

being driven as the Detroit

out of the Ottoman Committee. organisation, and announced

the same patrons its objeotas

the following'as

1 To acquaint the people of America with the literary, Artistic and Religious the viewpoint culture of the Orient of the and to present thinkers This will be done by outstanding and writers of the day: bulletins stage plays, means of lectures, association and a magazine published quarterly.

2 To give those who desire languages various Oriental

it

for first hand study an opportunity in America. -a much neglected field

of

3 To establish trade contacts by means of a Trade in the Orient Contacts Bureau, information be able to supply accurate which will trade connections. regarding markets and establish reliable 4 To secure Oriental fabrics and art goods of the highest grade true esthetic These things value for members and-others. will the work of authentic Oriental represent craftsmen and artistic 01 and (sic). 96

This is strongly dental and African

reminiscent Society It

in its

ails

and objects

to the Oriental

Occi-

way back in 1912. the world activities previously Nothing

which Duse Mohamed Ali had created in London r is perhaps a measure of temporary disillusion with style produce kind trading that modest business fourteen years

of Pan-African of the very were merely

limited the third

he had been operating objects of this

and fourth

association. who was

is known of its

membership,

save Duce Mohamed All. himself,

95.

See A

ca. Vol. I,

no. 1, New York,

1928, p. 2.

96.

ibid. 1..

695.
its General-Secretary;. Secretary", 97 ' arxd a woman called and who later Mary Forest; who was, its of Africa. "Art the

Field and abortive edited

became the Secretary

magazine published by Luse' Mohamed Ali

in New York in'June himself.

1928 by Tate-Arosa and Association seems doubtful though not of Duse

The America-Africa and it

Inc. 's projected that it

magazine is

shrouded in mystery, In generals, this

was ever published. a certain interest,

Association,

without

would seem to represent

the doldrums

Mohamed Ali's went with

career

in America,

from which he was extricated figures, -We Tate-Ansa.

by involve98 whilst

that-stormy

and controversial had-actually Tete-Ansa

Duse Mohamed Ali he was still studying

met Tete Ansa

a few years earlier

in London.

bad spent the years that having

1921-23 in London cocoa

commerce and banking,

before

been a successful

produce merchant who had had the good sense or good fortune to sell out 99 Nothing could have been in. 1919 and. so. escape the. 1920 cocoa. clump. more-natural visited account than that a Gold Coast man of his Baut unfortunately, with na Tete-Ansa interests should have wrote his

158 FleetStreet.., of. -his dealings

Dugs Mohamed Ali of retribution meeting again

in a spirit their first

the in America

two men, quarrelled in 1927"_ , _So_all Ansa: "floated, into

lessttha

year after

Dues had to say of their my London Office ... like

was that. Tetemeeting 100 many other adventurers. "

97. 98.

ibid. The only substantial work on Tete-Ansa is A. C. Hopkins, published Movements in Nigeria and the Gold "Economic Aspects of Political Vol-II, Coast 1918-1939", Journal of African History, no. 1,1966, Pp"133-152. ibid,,. p436,

99.

100. "Leaves", in

eh

5th February 1938, p. 7.

696.
But in about August to Detroit plans; it 1927. Tate-Ansa'sent an'"urgent letter" assistance bit, for from New York in his business

in which he sought might

Duse Mohamed Ali's

seem to be a case of the biter

using (i. e. the Duce) names of

with

the letterParamount appear-

was a company prospectus, Gold ances Coast a very Chiefs whom I

"some six

or seven

knew by repute document.

and was to all

informative

and convincing

" - The letter

flatteringly

said that African behalf.

these Chiefs, producers,

knowing of Duse Mohamed Ali's to solicit the first,

efforts

for

liest

.-

had asked Tete-Anna soon, followed

his assistance which,

on their to

second letter A urging

according

Duce, was "piteously and assistance 'Innocent

re to come to New York at. once as cry advice necessary to his success as he was a sort of

were vitally

(7) Abroad$. "101 by later resentment, there would eeem tobe whose
some

Though no doubt coloured a basis

experience sense, created the

truth of a
in

in this

account.
produce

Compared with. Duae Mohamed Ali,

marketing went back to 1912 in

west African was almost

Tote-4tisa. three.

a novice. African Bank

Between

1925 and 1930 Tete-Ansa Producers by Tete-Ansa Ltd. (1925);

companies

- beat

Co-operative

Industrial

and-Commercial

td., -(acquired .

1924 and

transferred Inc. 102 .

to-

igeria

1928);

and the West African

American Corporation;

in which. Duce, was involyed . in, 1930. -

in 1927-28,., and which, was. finally that Tetenaa was a man with .

incorporated; an ,idea..

There is no doubt , puts it;

As A. G. opkins ,;

101. ibid. 102. Hopkins', op. cit., p. 138.

697.
Tote-Ansa's reflected the needs of the time' in a own proposals ... to do. His originality way that previous lay schemes had failed in hie breadth ideas that had of vision, which enabled him to gather been looked at before from a very restricted Tote-Anse viewpoint. was not concerned simply with one aspect of the economy of one colony. He set out to encompass all trade. stages of the import and export The three companies he formed represented as the a bold attempt .. e liberator; it was the means by which traditional forms of great into modern commercial institueconomic operation could be translated tions; it was also the means by which the new feeling of racial unity could be harnessed and set to work on the problem of the Moreover, he looked beyond the economic development of Africa. confines towards the larger of one's own town, and even one country, concept of negro unity leaders which was the dream of the political

the 19201x. 203 of should surely

All lity.

this

be conceded to Tete-Ansa had been developing not sprung fully Street

except

the point

of origina-

Duse Mohamed Ali 1912, and his

substantially armed solely milieu,

the same ideas out of ,

since

ideas'had

head, but had emerged from the 158 Pleat such a strong was men -'a generation representation whom it advance:

in %hich there and businessinterested

Fest African of

nationalists

is wrong to suppse were niy'narrowly "As'for the attempt Corporation to translate

in constitutional into practice, Oriental

these ideas

the Inter-Colonial

of 1920 and the American in the field Coaster, before a cocoa '

African

Trading ' Company of"1923 Tete-Ans's efforts.

were clearly Indeed,

the earliest'of trader,

as aCold

a visitor and

at'158'Fleet'*treetfsome failed

time between 1919 and 1921,

he can have hardly have played must more natu'ra 1927?

their.

to be ;a warn of some of these precedents, which . his own efforts. that could be part in inspiring turn to Duse tiohamed' Ali for advice in

than that

he should of contact

An added point

between the two men was that

although

103. " ibid,

'p: 140:

693.
Tote-Anna was raised a Christian, 104 Muslim. Whether he had fully but on ist with March 1928 he concluded Muslin greeting at some point accepted a letter in hie, life be became a

Islam in 1927-28 is not-known, to Herbert 105 was at work

projects. he Tete-

Macaulay in Lagos

the Arabic Soon. after

"5alamalekum".

being appealed
West African in drumming of the organ cocoa

to by Tete Ansa, Duse Mobamed Ali

American Corporation, for Tete-Anna and associated in-West to

on behalf, He played was the

of

the

a part lynch-pin

up support Africa

Africa; be the for

magazine

which

was designed

Ansa publicity with American

in America; interests; organisation letters first;

he negotiated and he 'played for Africans he banked

cocoa contracts a part in with

Tete-Anea a To to ,

Tete-Ansa'in States. appeals

cultural take three Ali years January the

and social best African

the: United

up Tete-Ansa's Chief of

prominent Balogun.

Lagos figures, His friendship

Herbert-Aiacaulay, with the first-two

Oluwa and Chief went back

these

several

and has already 1928;

been noted.

Berbert -To

Macaulay

wrote -he

on 10th

Everything is now in order from New York where an agency to do business has been establ. ishedand newcompany,,,. the., American, West., Africa, a , Co-operative Producers, Inc., has been registered -with. a capital-Of , , $1,000,000. ,

Mr. Ansa invited me to co-operate with him on this buiness I am, doing so with the conviction, that you end -.Chie,f.,,Oluwawill., your utmost ;to assi. i this venture in every., t+ay, ' as it neans_ the the people 1he -Bank is also the country.. mote'salvation rof, _of coon as. Mx., Ansa., comes out.. to Africa, be established and =it as,
do, your, utmost,, to obtain wish that you shall for the, bank in order deposits that upon-its
i_--r6A s'

and do ultito

} of . such guarantees, there establishment

wc___

is

my

104. ibid,

p. 136.

Pacaulay, 105" W.' T'ete=Ansa, Broadway Central' Hotel, TewYork` City, to lerbert Lagos, let March 1928, ' Macaulay Papers, "III', 7,Goneral "Correspond enc at 1928 in Africana Collection, University of Ibadaa Library.

699.
be a guaranteed will I have written to other support at'Lagos. (sic) important Ibadan and Abeakuta to this persons at end. It is also necessary to conserve the palm-oil directly and indirectly in order that adequate under your control supplies may be forthcoming, inasmuch as'Lagos be receiving will cables and for required immediately credits quantities of your 106 upon receipt Hold yourself reply. ready to act with promptness and despatch.

The Bank referred had been acquired fdrred

to here was the Industrial by Tote-Anna

and Commercial Bank, which were transwith

in 1924, and whose operations in 1928, thereby first

by him from England to Nigeria consequences, The letter is interesting British Ali

becoming, African

disastrous bank. 107 It

West Africa's

controlled 108 as

to Chief to find

Balogun was in much the same vein. ttacaulay, who might be regarded nationalist,
that to

Herbert

the type of
involved salvation. since at in

'old-fashioned'
this economic

and merely
road to

'constitutional'

West African,

and beyond

race plans

In fact, least 1926,

Herbert

Macaulay

had been privy Chief board

to Tete-nsa's prominent

when he had with of the Nigerian

Oluwa and "other of West African

Nigerians"

become part

Co-operative

106. DuseeMohamed Ali, 1058 Dean Street, Brooklyn, New York City, to Herbert Macaulay, Lagos, 10th January 1928, flacaulay Papers, III, 7, General Correspondence, 1928.
107.3ee'Hopkins, p. 139, and-Newlyn -op. cit., and Rowan, Colonial-Africa, British which comments; pp-97-8, life the bank ran the whole gamut of those dangers banking ventures early are traditionally exposed. " "The company's books, for example, continue; were The debts due to'the bank, which chaotic state ... the traditions in such ventures) included prevailing the Managing Director, advancedto only and another, Money and Banking in its "during short and abuses to which Newlyn and Rowan found to be in a (in accordance with a substantial smaller, slightly

to the company under his 108. Duse Mohamed Ali,

Lagos, 1928.

control,

proved to be almost Brooklyn, to Chief

III, 7, January

wholly

irrecoverable.

"

1058 Dean Street,

All. Balogun,

12th January 1928, Macaulay Papers, Also see Duse to Chief Oluwa, 12th

Correspondence, General 1938, ibid.

700.
Producers Ltd. 109 Tete-Anaa, (another Oluwa and Macaulay example of London bad first met as long for West

back as 1920 in

London

as a rendezvous

Africane).
useful

110
for

Indeed,
picking

Tote-Anna

seems to have found

It

London a generally
there that he

place

up sympathisers.

was surely the

met those hurst (the

stalwart APU'a

Pan-Africanista first Son. to

and members of ant

APU, Robert James,

Broad-

Secretary)

J. A. Barbour in November

of'-whom

Tete-Ansa West African

had written

Herbert

Macaulay Ltd.;

1926 concerning

Co-operative

Producers

with me is that constant of yours - Mr. Robert associated admirer Broadhurst, of our Motherland who as we know him has the welfare Mr. Barbour-James true son of Africa, is another deeply at heart. in the Post Office his many years experience on the Gold service in our Coast as a Senior entitles him tobe coadjutor a serious 111 enterprise.

Barbour James bad been instrumental West Indian,, through to join H. Isaac Jeffers

in introducing of Spain,

Tete-Ansa Trinidad,

to another

of Port

a solicitor Spheres the work

whom he- hoped to "approach forces with us in order that

People in the west- Iz4ian our we may extend and carryon but also

of not only

developing

our economic advancement,

to ameliorate

109. See W. Tate-Anna, for West African Co-operative "Producers Ltd., to II19 5, Herbert Macaulay, Lagoa, 29th November 1926, `Maeaulay-Papers 1926. General Correspondence, 110. Information 1967. to writer from Chief T. A. Doherty, .. 11 ,... Lagos; 2nd April .I. Barbour M

For information 111. See note 109 above. about Broadhurst, and the APU, see Chapter VI of this thesis.

James

701.
the conditions of the African the -breadth Peoples generally. of Tete-Ansa's rather N112 There Is every, it was within

reason to admire an already

vision,

even if

established

tradition

than entirely his

original. of vision was -'

But part

of -Tete-Anea'a

tragedy

was that

breadth

beyond his resources, defects Despite prominent business muddle, that

or perhaps his

powers of detailed and colleague

organisation

hs, shared with letters early

his. exemplar

Duce Mobamed Ali. and Tete-Ansa to

the confident West Africans to start, confusion

sent by Duce Mohamed Ali in 1928, all

was by no means,-ready for The the Teteby a long ;

and the African

millenium= to. be inaugurated. and-dishonesty within

and perhaps bad faith 'and external letter

Ansa organisation, rambling let

opposition

to it , are revealed to Herbert

and apologetic

from: Tete-Anna

Macaulay dated

March '1928; Since the -arrival, ofet4r. Crabtree in England I ,have not had -the" to you, because I find pit , to 'centralize opportunity of writing -necessary America, and 'I , have =been here since last March for the organization-in that : purpose, YNr. Crabtree ands have -not met but `we have been. 'in (sic) commenication. He reported that you -stood by him through, and thin' and he -thick owes .you 100'which bas been guranteed ,(sic) by<you, and, although I did not approve, of, =his general. aconduct. whilst in Nigeria of which. you are aware, instead of silently carrying outour programme, it is onlyfair that the ca mpany.-should--refund to ,you .a11 (ionies expended ,by you on his behalf, =- .This `will be done :upon my arzival. in aLgos :'. he bas violated, his contract with the Company, hie :In -reality his him in carrying=out unseemly conduct unquestionably-hampered, for the duties.: v, He has not even returned with tentative-'oontracts supplies of: cocoa, palm 'oil or groundnuts nor " has the +beenrable to to -follow; for-, the directors.: in Nigeria ' "a `` set up a constructivepolicy, ,

112.. W.,,Tete Ana, for. >West African Co-operative Jeffers Esq., 7 Hart Street, Port of Spain, Indies, 8th November 1926, Macaulay Papers, 1926.

Producers Ltd., to H. Isaac Trinidad, British West III, S,General Correspondence,

702.
however, his report which, in a sense is. vague, serves as an evidence that our People in Nigeria approve of the movement and they will in Nigeria: help when we arrive grant aaterial Mr. Duse Mohamed Ali, whom you know and what he stands for, is to you. hare co-operating with us and I have read all his letters We have already formed the company here, and hope to complete financial arrangements this week, and I shall be able to sail for Africa during next month with staff to commence operations. We shall be ready to ppen the trading business and as soon as (sic) as we get support, the bank will be also opened simultaneously that we may not be handicapped. I know what you can do but in order to impress the representa(sic) who may go out with me,. we want your help tives of the financies in order to organize the Native rulers and the Chief traders both in Lagos and up country - Although, the co-operation of the comwe need that in tatters of this kind, the opposing munity, it is possible factions naturally will aim to undermine us, "andthey will therefore (sic) for that purpose. I know we shall have set up a campaign succeeded if you get in -all your followers= and let in the others gradually. 4. I understand that Principal Euba-is the president of. the Farmers -. is (sic) Southern Nigeria; Association you we shall be obliged-if and into, touch with him and, let him organize, his Association will-get properly-and get. him to enroll. asr many members as he can get hold oft keeping proper register with-names and addresses and probable supply and let, them and when we arrive we shall. take, over the Association be represented' on the directorate so, they can- enjoys our connects one This, -"I" think-will leave no loophole for-any group., t use against us. Mr. Euba's son sailed some time ago for Lagos and he may give to, organize. and he promised to Whelp his father you a, personal call, the Association. If anythinghappens in the meantime, it. will, be, necessary , to cable you for an assurance of supplies of cocoa and' palm 0: l, please,. dorso; unreservedly ,, because, you will be.. helping a. great, cause. Before concluding this letter, I should like to mention in confidence, that Mr. Kwamina Tandoh alias Chief Amoah III of Cape Coast who I in America was hired by the opposing groups in order (sic) lure met and side-track me He boasted openly here that he was working in, r 'the, British' to ` stand 'the the, interest Gov. `ind= against me -' e' failed `of however, l and- hasp sailed for` Africa, and probably he may weather try-, to bias ' the minds of ` your `group against us tim refore try to 113 ,'Whiteman's'.. nigger' "as, they call them in America. the' traitor;, watch a

113. See- note"105

above.;

703.
This of a lack Ansa's letter gives more of an impression co-ordination It that contradicts all of chaos than of organisation; sectors of Tete-

of any real

between the different Duce Mohamed Ali's

organisation.

eager assurances operations. credentials

two months previously As for the opposition

was ready in New York to start -a man with

of Amoah III

good Pan-African

who had been a founder and had attended African written

member and Financial third and fourth

Secretary

of the APU in London Pan-

the second,

Du Bois organised 114

Congresses - his

enmity was real

enough.

He bad already to the effect that;

to Macaulay from London at the end of February

I shall be leaving for Nigeria with the idea of starting Corporation to create and establish a land Bank, to finance industries and to facilities to farmers, Traders and Chiefs; in a word, grant financial to organise various agricultural districts into co-operative societies I am backed by through your registered company and other companies. the biggest banking institutions in the world. I'y idea is to help our people with no intention to engage in (sic) but. if fights disputes tricks commercial or are played-bn -any the strength and stability. me my people will not be found lacking 215 Please prepare your people to seize theopportunity. How far ful. Tete-Ansa's charges against regarded Amoah III should be credited person, for is doubthe endorsed benefit

Du Bois certainly efforts

him as a bona fide as early

his business

in The Crisis

as November 1927 -a

secretary 114. K. F. Tandoh/Amoah III had been the first of the APU in London Telesrrach dinner of the APU in the African see account of the inaugural January-February 1919, pp. lll-2. For his. participation at the PanAfrican' Congresses, see The Cris, January 1924, p. 120 and, November , 1927, p. 307. 115. Chief Amoah=III, Hotel Russell, Macaulay, Lagos', 28th February Correspondence, II1,7,1928. Rusae11 Square, tondon,, to" Herbert ; 1928, `"in Macaulay Papers, General
wY

,-.-

704.
that be did not extend that not only to either Duse Mohamed Ali been seeking The sympathetic useful or Tete-Ansa. financial attitude ThCrisis

revealed

had Aaoah III 116

backing, in of The Crieis any

London, but also towards Aoah supposition for III's that

in New York. plans its editor it

serves as a further was at that

Warning against

time indifferent

to economic plans

race advancement;

would be more correct a greater inclination

to see the Du Bois of the to political and legal scepticism at that

nineteen-twenties action, but also

as having

having an interest,

tempered by a healthy affairs too. . 117

the wilder powerful

schemes, in race business London financial circles

The suspicion

were using Amoah III be proved,

as a catepaw to reminiscent

Tete-Ansa's emash".

plans cannot allegations

but is significantly played

of. Dues .I4ohamed Ali's British West Africa

about the part

by the Bank of of the Interis no A letter

and Abeohe-Evans s cocoa trading Amoah III

in the dest-cation in America.

Colonial,, "Corporation! reason to believe-that

<,.3-

Certainly

there

was a British

Government stooge.

states; 5"Chief moah is a'thoroughly 116, The Crisis , November 1927, p. 307, black in the economic emancipation ofthe and; is interested -. modern man , ,, the Gold Coast. * He has tried to get banking and cocoa growers of he. has been, in England, and. for. come time, lately facilities credit, X It in due consultation the leading bankers of Neig York City. with in West is said -that an American branch; bank may soon_be; established Africa. " 117. See note 51 above for other biieineas schemes with Pan-fricn implicaBut having in the nineteen-twenties. tions sanctioned by The Crisis, Du Bois in such The C the point about the interest under of risie made it must be conceded that, for example, such matters as the things, graduation black IIericans from universitiescould'always attract of far more space in the' Jouriatl. =' "' ""

705.
from .the British Consulate-General in New York to the Commercial Counsellor that the Consulfrom either this to"hia

at the Embassy in Washington in November 1928 denied Cenral''had London'or associatei. any knowledge of official though Amoah III support for

Amoah III

West Africa, 118

had been claiming

The most reasonable and Amoab III

conclusion

of the causes of the clash the

between Tete-Ansa same ideas, In the world twenties, If'Tete

is that

though both shared basically benefits

both wanted the prestige of Pan-African style

and material

of leadership.

economic' activity

in the nineteen-

there

were too many Chiefs and not enough Indians. was loud in his accusations in his accusations the initial against contact against Amoah'III, so, later, to

Ansa

was DueMohamedAli Du, e'i version

Tete-..&naa.

According to, his,

of events,

between theft led

arranging

an interview

between Tate-Anna

and the solicitors " After the first

of the Wilburseveral for months

Suchard"ccoa of negotiations, supply'of` for

manufaturing`firm two contracts

of Philadelphia., were concluded,

the immediate

ten'thouearbd

tons of -cocoa at an- agreed "price; tons oPcocoa annually -"at ",

:and the seocnd.

up` to, "'fifty

thousand

a =price"to be' mutually But "for :some years ded, " about the quality that a cocoa and

agreed,

upon the fulfilment

of -the"first in America; Cocoa. So it

contract. often is well-fou

there " badobeen suspicions of British expert

-<.

West African

not ourpriaing

of the New York Cocoa Exchange was to travel

9ax " + w. .. waz .. it(Y`i K. +P '

to West Africa

118.

SeeiH: G: Armetrongt-'British__Consulate.. General; New,,York, - to< Sir,, J. -`, . Washington; Joyce`Broderlok, Commercials Counsellor, Britishr=Embassy 8426. 27thsNovember 1928, F. O. 371/12831/A

706.
assess the quality "pay" for A credj t of X300,000 was arranged 119 for Presumably this was really purchases, on the spot. of the cocoa. would not have fully that payed for 10,000 tons of cocoa* with the cocoa of to

advances, It

as it

120

had been arranged

: ete Ansa

would travel

examiner to West Africa the financier letter (sic)

- procumably

he was one of the "representatives me" referred to in Tote-Annals con-

who may go out with ):arch 1928.121

to Macaulay of let when their

But to Wilbur-$uchard'a

oternation, that

cocoa expert

was about to Bail, Their

they discovered lawyer called on he

no passage had been booked by Tete-Anna, to give an explanation.

Duse Mohamed Ali was awaiting wait for

Tete-Ansa's

answer was that Rather than

monies from West Africa to materialise,,

to pay his passage.

these

Wilbur-Suchard Witnessing, did

$700 for advanced so he says, with

travelling

expenses,

Duse, Mohamed Ali ButTete-Anna

actually still to;

the hand over

of the money.,

not sail

the cocoa examiner

and had perhaps never intended

He_was secretly to form a comnegotiating with group of financiers , ,a pany to' `take' overt the two cntracts 'a` his collateral; create him to pay his and advance him fiver thousand dollars managingtdirector the contracts: eipenees'to'execute He received that five thousand from the Nov York people in group and instead addition 'to the seven hundred"frnm'the Philadelphia for West Africa, he went off to Paris where he remained of sailing ,for some six months:
ul t. "e .. _ f" .M d= .

"i

.N

oIt

"6

t-"-

i-

':

1.

-,

a&

,,

"

t.

of

,,

If

---

sa

-,

--

119. "Leaves",

in The Comet. 5th February

1938, p. 8.

120. The average value per ton f. o. b. of Accra cocoa in 1928 was 450 - see The Gold Coast Cocoa Farrer, tables in P. Hill, p. 132. Thus, the full purchase price-for--10,000 -tons" of cooa would have been approximately 500.000. 121. See note 105 above.

707. The Philadelphia firm's Examiner obtained no information whatCompany on the Gold-Coast, nor was any Cocoa ever of the 'magnet's' The examiner subsequently in Lagos with a like available. arrived result people lost their cash advance to the and the Wilbur-Suchard 'magnet' and the expenses incurred by their Ezaminer. 122 This ought not perhaps to be regarded but it would seem at least within no real himself, Tote-Ansa's financial as the last word on these matters, was is

to be a sad commentary on the way business organisation. backing, option Perhaps the real like his critic truth Dues afloat

conducted that with

Tete-Ansa,

Ali 14ohamed

had little

but to keep precariously off one set of potential that, although

by

sharp practice, against Ali's another. account

in this It is

case by playing

buyers

perhaps worth noting with Tete-Ansa

Duse Mohamed until he only

of his relations

was not publislud figure,

1938, by 'which tine, Tete Anea referred 'Magnate', to. him in such indirect

was a largely terms as= term,

discredited "the as this

Cold Coast financial can was not only a

magnet would be a better at attracting in causing dealing,

craftsman master very successful The double contracts

the Coin Current, to stick very

but has always been closely to hin. "123 cocoa

such ...

supposed or real,

over the Wilbur-Suchard between Tote-Anna

was only

one cause of the rift was the conduct

and Dune which was had long been

Mohamed Ali. intended

Another

of the magazine Africa enterprises. plans It

to give

publicity

to Tete-Ansa's

an aim of., Tete-Anna . to, back, up with. a, rjexspaper" his

for-salvation

122. "Leaves", in The Comet. 5th February 1938, pp. 8 & 20.
123. ibid, p. 8.

708.
of the race through to the West Indian among the objects for "co-operative" solicitor of his economic action. In. his approaches first

H. Isaac Jeffers movement, "the

in 1926, he had, listed

establishment.

in London of a 'Press' and, disabilities been resident of Duse African in

the purpose of publicity It

and to voice

the sentiments that having

of our Race. "124

is hard not to imagine

London between 1919 and 1923, he was unaware of the precedents Hohamed Ali's Telegraph. fruition until Africa But it and Orient Review and John-Eldred Tete-Ansa's Taylor's

would. seem that

press plans never came to and. then the course

he, met Duse Mohamed Ali and disastrous.

in America, According

of events was brief

to Dusel

The cost of the initial including office rent production of Africa, ,. incurred liability of about- five staff, a and a small editorial' Of this sum, the 'Magnet' supplied one hundred hundred dollars. dollars, and left me' to pay the balance as best I could. When I discovered the double game he had played in connection the new company I decided to cut my losses and suspend125 with ... number. of Africa. which was confined to, its initial publication So A rice , seems at times than a small ras a total failure as a publicity far wider magazine -. indeed publicity Tete-Ansa

to have received

from the Negro Press

circulation

low budget magazine can have hoped to give. his activities., in. such widely van printed separated , cities in as

Thus an'Associated

Negro Press report-of journals

summer "1927 in-several-Negro

8th November 1926, 'Macaulay- Papers, 124. W.- Tete-Anna to,., II. Isaac--Jeffers, II15, General .Correspondence, -'1926., .-=- 125. "Leaves", -in The 1938,. p. 7.5 x

709.
Birmingham Alabama, not entirely of his plans, New York and Washington'. since 126 But this although publicity giving details rather, was

satisfactory,

these reports, declared

took umbrage at his in his

intention

to use white with

than black words, Ansa's

Americans

companies,

and concluded

the warning Ihr. Teteonly. " as this -

"there

are those in New York ... and who affect

who are, investigating him a clever

credentials

to think

adventurer

Nie publicity

in the black

American Press was not always so nixed in November 1927, with bu$iness schemes. friendly 127 vehicle, for

the Chicago Defender a long letter But If despite throve

published

comments,

explaining Africa

-Tate-Ansa'a

magazine was- a failure interest

as a publicity

it

in it

thisof

considerable

to the historian in it.,

the light

on the activities a fair

of those

involved

For instance, as well circle, as business

from it actithat

can be learned vities time. `

amount about the cultural Duse Mohamed Ali Association

-

of-Tote Ansa,

and their Inc.

in New York at

The'America Asia

of New York,

which has already

Wabhingtn" D. C., 19th August 1927; the 126. ' The report was in "thee, Birmingham, the Reporter, Ini ormer, Columbus, S. C., 22nd August 1927; Ala'., 21st August 1927 - see Uoton Papers, General Correspondence,
The Eagle report 1928. its source the New York ulorld of gives as ., ,15th4ugust R. R. Moton's 1928. As' this list 'merely represents press this report there is good reason to suppose that appeared cuttings, Negro newspapers in other too.

Defender, 26th. Kovember 1927, in Moton Papera, General Corres127. Chime 1927. The Dee of course, the most influential pondence, waa,, . Its friendly attiof the black newspapers in Chicago at that time. tude towards- Tete-Anna can. be. well` understood in the light of the faot:: that'its Robert 2. Abbott, was "an ardent, Itace )ian", editor,,, , 'in ''individual coupled with vigorous
rho "believed group action as the Negro's Blag k Metov lie, and Drake, achievement'. program for advancement. p. 400. " See Cayton

710.
been discussed, about the Native is 128 too

a case

in

point.

Africa

gives

information

African

Union

of America

Inc12o9rhich

had been formally

founded on 6th February its. origins York, mainly

1927 and incorporated

on 9th February. 1928.

Bat

seem to go back into from West Africa, of a Native

1926, when a group of Africans asked Duse Mohamed Ali to be their patrons

in New adviser

in the formation Duse Mohamed Ali; since

African

Union. '

Its

by 1928 were friend

W. Tate-Anna;

Fred Dove, Duse Mohamed Ali's

1912, continuing of. interest

even in old age the grand old Victorian-Creole in public Chief affairs; It and, strange may well to say, Tete Ansa'o the Chief had with

tradition

arch enemy and rival not quarrelled with

AnoahIiI.

be that

Tete-Ansa by"the

at. the time he became first time Africa

associated

the NAUA, but certainly

magazine was published The officers Gold Coast;

in June

1923 the two men were at each other's were; President, V, 4uashie .

throats.

of the NAUA let Vice-

Lawson o 4uittah, Prince"

Precident, Treasurer,

"Hie Royal Highness Edet_Effiong,

Y; ket. "Royal

Houae, of Ibibio"f, Franklyn ,

Calabar,

Nigeria; Sierra

Secretary-General,

A. Gilipin-Jackson

of. Freetown,

Leone;

anc 2nd. Vice-President, There was. also, a board Afro-Americans.

Eli, B. N'yombolo of, Cape Province, : ; four of seven un-named directors,

South Africa. Africans

and three

The

June 1928; -p. 2This 128. Africa; aims; but'notof any activities

and organisation =gives details 'of'its in '1926. time `of `foundation ainoe'the

129. Hence referred to as the NAUA. Information about the NAUA is from "About 'A1i's 'regular Afric, -June 1928, p. 20; "-'and from Du$e Mohamed., it and About" feature in the Nigerian Dally Times, 20th January 1933, pp-3-4.

711.

NAUA's offices It

were at Laws Building, organisation

200 West 135th Street,, of its kind

New York City. States at the the and

claimed ito be the first sole

in the United in' America,

and to have ' "the same'-time'-proving African

purpose of protecting

Africans

to the peoples

of the Western Hemisphere that in his Social, Commercial, words,

has been misrepresented standing with other

Political

Economical reminiscent

groups. "

In other

it' was highly had

of the sort

of organisations

in which Duze Mohamed Ali ' It no doubt student

been involved,

in London before

the Great'War.

has a relationhouse in

ship with-these-London the United-States

precedents,

followed

as the Indian -just 130 the example of London.

The`'NAUA's detailed cerned with clear"by Africans,.

aims and objects-were but also includednblack

not merely Americans, -

narrowly This

con-

was-made

the first

of these objects,

which was; -

Africans 'To-bring together allslative-born of good moral character, in the United States of America, and their offsprings with residing for their-common welfare, proco-operation a_viewto a sympathetic in collaboration tection and interest with such other pI 1ons of descent for-their mutual benefit and advantage. -African, Other"objects aciencee; included -the promotion'of-'athletics, physical culture, arts,

runic=and

drama-entertainment

on--a non-profit

making basis.

130. For-thetvarioue Buse Mohamed Ali-was involved in organisations"whioh for before the Great I+ar in London, see Chapter V of this thesis; States, the Indian*etudent house*'in4theUnited see Chapter V, note 224. 131. For this and other objects of the NAUA, see Africa June 1928, p. 20.

712. An "African Home", reminiscent

of the earlier

similar

projects

in London,

was to be acquired aims"order

in the greater

New York area. and'American

There were commercial commercial houses, ' in newspaper in matters statePreAn to

to be a medium between African to encourage commercial

enterprise.

There was to bea the American public

"through relative

whose columns we can enlighten to. Africa ...

at the same time correcting

whatever `false

ments are made 'by those who try sumably Africa information Africa; return

to besmirch 'the name of Africa". intended to fill this role.

magazine was in part

bureau was to help

prospective

'tourists

and emigrants in that old

here the NAA seems to have been dabbling of w the exiles. And in case any ran should it undertook

theme, the

accuse the NAUA of and obedience

being a trouble

making body,

to preach respect for that

not only; far, the' U. S. constitution constituent strongly states. derivative In all,

and laws but also there can be no doubt African It

those of its the NAUA was in London, disguess that Ruse

or the earlier 'thesis.

organisations is a reasonable its

cussed in Chapter V of this , Mohamed Ali in hsd a large 132

hind 'in drafting

` aims and objects

as presented

gg nagazine.

piQue hope is not mere was connected a black mount Office on this with

To what extent these worthy objects remained a , ttiL' y clear, but it is possible that the NAUA Duoian project Africa. the relevant in 1930, namely; to -,

one extraordinary. to explore . `Regrettably,

expedition :idea.

He sounded the Foreign documents are no longer

132. It -is . to 'compare these aims and objects with those of 'instructive the Oriontal': Occidental African Society in 1912 - see Chapter V and of this thesia, note 220.

713"
in ' the P. O. file. 133 ' An NAtLL project Information

which

was temporarily from the 134

realized, 'address same It could Trade

wits a Confidential as Africa be regarded magazine

African itself,

Bureau' run

55 West 42nd Street equivalent of the old

New York. Africa

as a rough 135

and' Orient

Exchange in London.

_-Y organisation acted as its as Africa President, had in its brief is existence its Vice-

Such administrative was that President editor also its W. Tate-Arica and editor.

Duse Mohamed Ali American,

The treasurer America,

was a black

Joseph J. Boris. Nary Frost, was

"of 'Who's Wh 'in Colored one may'guess a black

the 'Secretary and The ragazine Crania Its

136 American. to Walter phinx. a

had 24 pages, and art nouveau were

cover'design,

"far

inferior

pleasing agents

cover for stated

the ATOR, represented

in fliest Africa

tobe

Rvamina E. Ampiah in-Ashanti;

and West African

Co-operative

This is not the only example 133" This missing document was F. O. 371/288. in the United of Foreign Office notice of Duse Mohamed dli'slife. . In 1928 the Foreign office States. on his activities a file collected Other papers in I. O. 371/12831/A 4326/699/45" in the United States, this series, which was concerned with the whole nexus of W. Tate-Anse, Co-operative Producers Ltd., and Chief Amoah III in West African in 1928-29, have been preserved: respect of their American activities P. O. P. O. 371/12831/A 473/45; F. O. 371/12831/A 7483/6575/451 see P. 'F: 'O 371/12F531/A/2891/699/45; '', O. 371J12831/4& 371/12831/A/699/45i 6321/699/45; F. O. 371/12831/A`13299/699/45; " P. 0. -371/12831 A 4324/ 699/45; P. O. 371/12831/A 6321/699/45; F. O. 371/12831/A 8426/699 45. the" specific" But unfortunately, of documentation, -despite'thisi`wealth It is, `however, item ont`Luse Mohamed"'Ali` has notbeen -preserved. it would have been about that, 1n view 'of'its'context, clear enough 'with W. Tete-Ansa. his association 134. Afri `advartisment , on inside thesis of back cover. 'for details' of the Africa and Orient

135" See Chapter VI of this Trade Exchange.

136.

Africa p.4. ,

714. Producers Ltd., in Accra, Seconds and Lagoa. written, 137

Much of the, one and only himself, inolud-

issue was written, ing. an introductory Writes"; better review;

or probably item;

by, Duae Mohamed Ali called

- an editorial"feature, piece called "Hello.

"The Moving Finger

serio-comic as connections a theatre

Wall St. " on the need for business-world= a book Trade" Though 138

between Africa review;

and the, Anerican

and a long article

"America and Oriental total space.

This added up to well he had written write.

over. one third for his

of the magazine's

prolifically.

London magazines he bad never had to such a variety of his of earlier

eo, much of the ATOR or AOR, which haft attracted some of them distinguished. was clearly journalistic part of Africa piece a far view.:,

contributors,

By the yardstick shakier, less well

work in London, Africa even from.. the purely A considerable

founded effort,

magazine was devoted

to economic pro-

paganda, of which the central entitled "West African

Possibilities".

by Tete-Anna himself was,,. long article a 139 for a WhiteThis was tailored any mention of Tote-Ansa's long

American, businese, audience. tIt I avoided h I "I k,

` 4

137. ibid:

-, ,

,I-1,

;-.,

-, v

138. 'ibid. `Thefitems by'Duse P: probably written ohme& Ali are'"Our'`Progran", "Hello Wall Street", p. 2; on pp. 17 & 22 p. 7; and the theatre review cf. the'pseudonyi "the balcny "the savage written*under savage" Dusian in the TOR'. All these items are characteristically atallite" in 'their -style: " Openly ascribed `to his pen `are "The Moving Finger Writes", "The Defense of Serge Saganor", pp. 5-6 & 12; a pp. 11-12,

'book review, which includes sa resume of the background of the 1912-13 Balkan Wars; and "America and Oriental & 23-4.
139. W. Tete-Anna, 8-m9 X12='& 16. i "West African Possibilities", Africa,

to -and events Trade", pp. 18

1928,

June

pp.

715.
term racial large hopes, and, concentrated in valuable on such socio-edri6mic of. British peoples, point as the the

resources

raw materials of its native

West Africa; rendering them a "fur

educated and advanced state suitable radiators"; "Foreign by: inviting market for all

American manufactured domination

goods except

coats

and

the present Corporations",

of West African

overseas. trade. by monopoly

and the West African's

wish. to break their continuing The crucial factors

in competition;

and, the West African's sprang.

ownership point, possible which was,

of the land from which the flaw materials made American commercial said Tete-Ansa, exploitation

of these other

the growth

of co-operation

among the West Africans

thei-

selves;

The difficulty, the Co-operative however, is being overcome through hold in West Africa. Co-operative Societies movement which is_taking, ,,. in the Gold Coast and Nigeria support with the full are being organised Governof"the. African rulers and with the co-operation of, the British (sic) into account as the needs of the Africans ment which is taking part. of, ita original policy. rh P These co-operative through their societies affiliated~ will 140 in West Africa. institutions, both.. the-buyer,. guarantee and. the-seller

11 .. .-,:.. Hitherto there, have been-attempts; at trade, direct with American firms , by individual Africans but they have been handicapped on account of facilitiss. lack. of credit

These remarks were, seconded and, buttressed, section side of his editorial, 141 though he also

by Duse Mohamed Ali took the opportunity

in a subfora few.

blows at his

old enemies Lord Lenerhulme and the British Indeed there that it seemed to be something would have been quite

Empire Resources like a note

Development Committee. of regret

in Duse'a assertion

unnecessary

140. ibid, .

pp. 9 & 12. ; "Went Africa and Co-operative Trade", ibid,

Mohamed Ali, 141. SDu3e CO pp. 6 & 12.

716.
for the West African native Capitalists, the'African to seek financial assistance firms, 142 for'the outside as well Despite British the British as the everything, Empire. Tat*-dnea'a

Empire had British

Banks and trading a square dea1: a nostalgia devoted primary

West Coast Banks given it would seem that Africa commercial

he still

harboured

magazine was not entirely plans, though that was its

to propaganda for purpose. in Egypt,

Dues Mohamed Ali Turkey, the Middle

length on political wrote at considerable 143 East and India, showing that his old these areas had by no means entirely had nothing Egyptian

events interest

in and knowledge about But essentially he Anglo-

passed away.

new to say on these matters. clock has acquired

Comments such as "the the reprehensible trick habit

diplomatic'

of ticking

backward --it since

has been up to that suggestion

reactionary that India

of backward discourse of ruling itself

1882", `-ors"the

is incapable

is as sensible plane of cultural years previously.

as the assumption advancement"144 It - -

that, the Balkan States

are on a high fifteen

smack of what he had been writing

is to be wondered -hoer many 'American readers would remarks relevant,, context -that was. interesting British or even''comEmpire. Dusel Mohamed

have found these and similar prehensible. -their, proper

of 'the with

Even after Ali

his disillusioning attempt

experiences at marketing

Tete-Anse,

was to have one last

heat African

cocoa in the

142. ibidt-,, p. 6. 143. See; 144. ibid, -"The Loving Finger Writes", 'ibid, pp. 5-6; and ibid, p. ll.

6. p.

717.
United States, 145 though it is perhaps significant with Pan-Africanism. that his final effort

was in no way overtly to a Mr. Rutger who bought

connected

He was introduced a broker

Bleeker,

"member of the New York Cocoa Exchange, Hershey the Cocoa Manufacturers", his return 146 to the United several States

the commodity for

by one-who in 1921, a Bleeke r'a had " The

had been a friend

of his since

Jewish businessman called decision was that in business

Runkle. could

After

interviews,

be done if ... after

Auge Mohamed Ali-"really previous experiences.

any confidence

the Zative grower was-felt

crux of the matter grower required this solely

to be quality

and credit.

The West African to concede stamp of

credit,

but the American of a colonial shipments

buyer was reluctant

on the basis since all

government so certified

cocoa examiner'jA

approval, in quality

too often

bad proved defective' that business in should .

on arrival.

Bleeker

therefore

suggested

be done through . America.

the West African

banks and their

representatives

" As. he put it;

can't .they ship through. the Banks? ! We need the cocoa; - they-they. , -Why the money; we will the market price larded in New York and pay need their acceptance, -in advance of shipment. will quote'a price-for ... they must if they possess the most elementary knowledge of business, they that business men do not ,part with their cash until understand ]M,owrwhat they are getting for their money.

145. All information about this episode in Duse Mohamed Ali's in. The, Comet. *26th February 1938, p: T. "Leaves", _

life

is

from

"when I first 146., "Leaves"; 'in The-Comet;. 12thiFebruary1938, p.?, states Runkle in the United States I contacted a Hebrew contractor, arrived by name. {.. This-man. who,was:..exceedingly aatutei-in. busineas had proved He knew everyin the highest himself a friend sense of that term. body worthy to be known in New York. "

718.
Duce Mohamed Ali he accepted on a trip least Furthermore, to pay his expenses of at cocoa

accepted

this that if

argument he could put

as "indisputable". find backers

a challenge to West Africa tons

and to of cocoa,

up a fund would

to guarantee "assure" that

shipment such

one hundred

Bleekar

would be sold Firstly, on the limited

in }ew York before it is clear scale that

arrival. this was a purely a trial venture, style business rather arrangement, than being in and the

suitable

for

mould of the all-or-nothing

dozen years. Secondly, All. it

Pan-African
would

ventures
the risk

of the previous
element fell solely this of

seem that

on Dues Iohned challenge which this

The fact there

that

he was willing his than produce running

to undertake trading others to

show's that

was more to last in example, New York in

activities, into put risk.

was' to be the a friend

Somehow he found required also fund',

who was willing thenBank plus of British

up the and

depositing passage

10,000 to

West Africa, for

paying

Duse'o " ,: It years is in

West Africa state'

fifty

pounds

personal own finances pay his

expenses. after ten

comment on the a business in

e Mohamed f 'bus Ali's that'he had no'money'to

America

'' own expenses. as his wife, Ali left

Gertrude

La' Page, they American woman who went `with

him

bad to pay her cwn passage and expenses. Staten in 1931 chasing in 1921.

Thus, Duse Mohamed of cocoa had

the,, United that

the same illusion But if

trading

had brought

him there

circumstances

been by no means propitious when the far graver

in 1921-22,: they, were even worse in 1931, and lower commodity prices of the thirties

depression

719.
were ahead. trading 147 It will be noted that all by the time of this idea of financing as a free-lance last cocoawith

effort,

he had jettisoned

such trade rather

black'American would-be all white

money, and was working his race. while

than as a were probably that the

spokesman for Bleaker -

His American associates there is nothing

certainly, was black.

to suggest

anonymous,, guarantor was to be the financial organised. Save for

The hated through

Bank of British which the project

West Africa was to be

institution

the hope of marketing little

West African was left

produce directly of his former

from the grower brave plans. The account

to the American buyer,

liven

in the previous

pages of Du$e Mohamed Ali'a

life Brief written and

in

America necessarily glimpses during

has passed over such of what he said and did. from his his occasional return journalistic pieces,

can be obtained the first life

years after quite apart

to Nigeria,

of a colourful journalism,

interesting lecturing

from the worlds and cultural

of business, groups. This first

and organising

religious

Thus, he undercame about African Union of.

took a certain indirectly.

amount of radio the activities

broadcasting.

through

of the embryo Native

147. The following Cocoa exports,

tables of the average 1928-33, illustrates

Year

value per ton f. o. be of Gold Coast this point;

Average value ]2er tonf . ob. C

1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933

See P. Flill, Gold Coast Cocoa Farmer.

50 41 36 23 24 21
p. 132.

720. America in New York in 1926. by a group of Yoruba musicians, producer for radio station Shortly

after

the 2JAUA had been entertained was asked by a programme for a replacement pro-

Duse Mohamed Ali

W.A. B. C. for week.

suggestions

gramme for
introduced attack of

the following
by "Mr. nerves in

The upshot was a one hour programme,

the Egyptian hardly Yoruba to 148 lead Historian". surprising, than his Despite since listeners in an fact -

Duse Mohamed Ali front of the

'mike'

he can have known scarcely the programme was successful

more about enough stations.

music

to many subsequent On another occasion

broadcasts he was taken

on New York and New Jersey

to meet the famous Hearst friend his Runkle, 149

newspaper columnist to find

Arthur

Brisbane

by his recalled volumi. cocoa

and was delighted.

that, Brisbane

not only

In The

Of The Pharaohs but even had a copy to band on his Runkle was so impressed that it that he suggested for

nous bookshelves. Egyptian trading ". mad: But unfortunately, no information. friend and enter

to his

would be more profitable journalism

him4to foresake

lull-time

"The Nan who made Teddy Roosevelt as

Duse kiohamed AAli's autobiography : personal life between the years ., . of America. .. Ere Roosevelt .

contains,

almost ., _

about his

1921 and 1931o, point is, ,.,,,;,

or even about his general however, partly

impressions

The :latter Crete.

remedied by his novel interest

In this, we see sexual relations

a considerable

in the sociology

of inter-racial

148. SeeJiaerian Daily Times, 20thJanuary 1933,. pp. 3-4" with his usual Duse Mohamed Ali dates in this article vagueness about chronology, this event as -taking ; place in "winter' 1926%, . 149. "Leaves", in The Comet, 12th February 1938, p. 7.

7214
in America.
mulattoes

Two leading

characters

in the novel are very

One of them, Smithson,

light
is the

skinned
illegiti-

who can pass as white.

sate son of a Southern

had witnessed adult, rejects of her the Smithson his is father

Colonel,
brutally to

the head of the Klan,

murder his black white but

and as a tiny
150

child

mother .

As an woman, who

married

an aristocratic he is hand, coloured,

Virginian later

him when she learns ways. 151 On the mulatto

that

sees the the fiance

error of. brute

other

her kitte

brother, Swanson,

who is is

other

leading

character,

an unmitigated

straight with.

out of the Victorian He attempts of all this with Duse's

melodrama that

Duse was so well that

acquainted 152 in in. But,

to rape Etta, once to discovers is white plainthat., coloured

she is coloured.

The moral their other

men are more honourable coloured women; Men".

dealings words,

women thali. white

men with

old theme of "White-. Womenend. Coloured of the book; fit

mulattoes

as auch are not the heroes

the two characters of the, a, dark Virginian, mulatto

mentioned above, have to be, mulattoesr$to somewhat over-involved skinned black plot. No reader

the complexities find white credible

could

American marrying being accepted is by, c9ntrast. ,

an aristocratic as at

and racist A third

and furthermore character effects rake's ,. Jones

mber of the Klan!

an example, of what on his race,

e saw as the spoiling Jones describes his

of an over., academic education progress0thus;

150. "Ere Roosevelt

., ti ,. II>, _ ,, r. "r

Came", The Comet. 24th Parch 1934, pp"10-11. 30th June 1934, pp-13 & 18; and 11th

151. ibid, 17th )arch 1934, p. 10; July, 1934, pp. 11-13.

152. ibid,

31st March 1934, pp. 10-12.

72?.
My gran'father didn't he got himself a farm mortgaged the farm to but useless ambition, know the letter A. from a load of manure, an' He sent we to college an' an' made money. I came out o' school full. o' hope an' do it. No white man wanted me in as an earner.

his office, I tried only as his messenger. an' portering, waiting, for a while. The work was hard, the pay an' the Pullmah service, The old man lost his farm an' died an' Ismall, an' I quit. well, there was easy money at pimpin' an' gamblin', an' I ended up in the pea .

Ultimately, by fear'and that that

the degenerate money to spy for

Jones becomes a traitor the Klan. But for all

to his race, that,

aubborned

one suspects thoughts

he is a useful

mouthpiece-for

I)use Mohamed Ali

to express

he would have found embarrassing he is able to attack black

to openly avow. `

Thus; through

Jones,

clergymen as;

thing God ever let live. When they ain't' on graftin' they're to their politics on the pour saps who listen grafting They don't shouting an' Bible care' how the congregation punching, They're gets the money so long as they get the kale ... on Sunday. if, debt. that-are on' buyin' great second hand churches always-in they were'nt in debt all they preach to-. wouldn't the time the niggers dime'. 154 part with a

the-last

All

this

is nicely for

consistent the black

with

Duse Mohamed Ali's Christianity

belief

that

Islam

waa the religion influence.

man, and that

was a corrupting

There is no evidence appreciated and taken part

in Ere Roosevelt in the exciting

Care that cultural

Duse Mohamed Ali life that

had

to be, was in celebrated

found in some of the newly expanded. tlorthern the nineteen-twenties - the world

urban black

co=unities

of jazz and the Earlem renaissance

153. ibid,
154. ibid,

24th March 1934, p. 12.

p. 11.

723.
in the works of such writers black night life is as Langston Hughes. the desires 155 His only picture Jones, of who

seen through

of the despicable

is eager to spend the money allowed State" Here, to indulge

him by the Emperor of the "Invisible of a jazz cellar. 156

in booze and whores in the atmosphere Duce Mohamed Ali's He was, after tastes all, tastes sixty-five

one can see that British.

were in some ways incorrigibly in the year that be

Victorian left

America,

and h$s basic

had been formed long before This comes out in

in the

eighteen-eighties

and nineties. black of

the way he portrays from the Coloured the

the language of low-class Victorian Coons', United music hall and could States world

Americans 'Nigger

it -

is straight

Minstrels'

and 'Chocolate

have been written

by a man who had never been nearer Despite his ten years

than the boards of a Moss Empire. his earlier visits there

in America, that

despite

as a young man, it

would seem in

he was no more fully

at home. there `":

than he had been, ultimately,

Britain.

The Big Sea, 3rd, inpression, 155. See Langston Hughes' autobiography, London and New York, 1945, pp. 223-33, for a description of the Harlem Renaissance which, while fully aspects, aware of its exploitive too. captures its genuine excitement 156. "Ere Roosevelt Came", in The Comets 10th larch 1934, pp. 10-11.

CHAPTER VIII

BACK T0' AFRICA 1945' 193, l , _,

724.

Duse Mohamed Ali

in

as an Old Man

Lagos

it rom The Cotet 1936 10th October

725.
Luse Mohamed Ali's
When his authorities next port boat arrived at

return

to West Africa
in to the Gold

in 1933 began inauspiciously.

Coast, the Colonial at health the -

Takoradi

refused of call, old

him permission Cape Coast.

land.

The same happened "legal "at friends" all

Then at - were urging see that

Saltpond, him

probably

ATOR supporters that was, the they "the would

to land

costs"

and promising His they own belief approached the

his quickly

liberty learned Coast",

was not

endangered. and who had

'interests' of the

of my mission and that those

Government

Gold

"wrecked"

Inter-Colonial

Corporation

"feared

a very

much overdue

reckoning". strongly him.

In other

words,

he did not know who was responsible, been or seemed hostile remains obscure,

but to

suspected The official

those who had, in the past, reason for his exclusion

though it

is not difficult panied by his

to hazard some guesses. To begin with, he was accom3 2 Gertrude La Page, who like Beatrice was white. second wife, the reaction of the colonial States immigration a white this officials wife! to a Even without alone technical

One can imagine black man arriving

from the United

with

the suspected would probably

machinations

of hidden

enemies,

circumstance to find his

have been enough to induce health

the authorities documents - for

reasons - euch as 'unsatisfactory'

exclusion.

1. 2. 3.

"Leaves", ibid.

in The Comet, 26th February

1938, p. 7.

Gertrude. La Page's mother was said to be a prominent American Hotel Mary Murphy - see Comb 9th October 1937. p. 3. called proprietorees in the United States Gertrude La Page had, been<a. professional singer Presumably La Nigerian Daily'Times, 5th October 19320 p. 10. see Page was a stage name.: How, when or where she met Duse Mohamed Ali the writer has been unable to`discover, other than that it was in the United States between 1921 and 1931. evidently

726.
Additionally,,
activities, in tion the United

there
or even States.

might have been a long official

some official Certainly 4 But reason even this, for knowledge the Foreign at the present, Gold of his Office

memory of his
association bad noted with his

previous
Garvey connec-

with

W. Tete-Ansa. of the

remains Coast

mere speculation, action were out

as evidence remains of order.

actual It is

authorities documents

obscure.

possible

that

his

health

Be that Duae decided

as it

may, despite in his

the proffered exclusion;

support

of his

old friends,

to acquiesce

but Had I been alone I would have followed the advice of my friends, I could not conscientiously embarrass my wife who had not previously travelled abroad, nor could I encroach on the financial resourges I therefore of a necessity at her command. made a virtue ... But to accept was virtually although exclusion from the world's major cocoa 1woducing country There still remained Lagoa, but his reception , by In

to abandon his mission. gives

his autobiography there

no indication

of this,

the authorities desperation, friends for

proved

to be as hostile to fight; and-called including

as, in the Gold Coast..:: on some, of his Dr. Sapara, failed

he now decided help.

old Lagos to respond. 6

Some, apparently

Among those-he

approached, xas -Herbert

Macaulay,. w o was sent a desperate

_a

note on: 30th. September 1933;

-. -

I am, in great`, trouble please assemble friends-and come on board to me CommuniGovernment would not let-me land in-Gold Coast. at once. cate with Central Mosque secretary.

a. 5. 6.

See previous "Leaves", "About it

chapter. 26th February in Daily 1938. p. 7.

in The___ Comet, and About",

Comet. 27th June 19459 p. 2"

727.
The ship only remains Please get busy. I need help. In haste.? a few hours and something must be done at once. Macaulay, his who has often 8 been remembered as spiteful loyal to this friend and vituperative in need. in Lagos

to

enemies,

was staunchly

This should personal

be remembered by those who wish to weigh the balance qualities. He organised "the assistance, Bond". and another 9 it

of Macaulay's

old friend,

Dr. J. C.

Vaughan,, signed official motives

necessary

As in the case of Duae'a cold is only possible to guess at the

reception

in the Gold Coast,

of the Lagos authorities. the even greater difficulty remained of securing time for a would-be

But once ashore, cocoa contracts. If

1920-21 had been a difficult

7.

Duse Mohamed Ali, from on board S. S. Reggeratroom, Apapa, to Herbert Macaulay, Lagos, 30th September 1931, -Macaulay Papers, General Corres10,1931. pondence, III, Obafemi Awolowo recalls Macaulay with respect in his autobiography, but nevertheless who were admits of his Lagos Daily News "Africans friendly agents, and with white men ... were denounced as imperialist branded as having sold Nigeria for their personal gains and advanceSee Awo. The Autobiography of Chief Obafemi AwolowO, Cambridge ment. " 1960, p. 69; Coleman, Niias Background to Nationalism, p. 197, bluntly "? or more than four decades he did more than any states; the educated elements in Lagos. other man to create divisions among

0.

in his paper and on His ruthless his opponents abandon in vilifying influenced left deep and unhealed the platform scars which decidedly L. Sklar, Richard later " developments in the nationalist movement. Nation, Nigerian Political-Parties. Power in en Fmergentt Aft

Princeton 1963, p. 43, singles out Macaulay with John Payne Jackson demagogic methodsas two men whose "immoderate aims and allegedly earned them the antipathy of prominent leaders of the respectable African elite. " "Leaves", in The Cow 26th February 1938, p. 7.

g.

728.
'combine', the

cocoa nigh cocoa it

exporter impossible. prices, 10

attempting

to

break world

in

on the

big

1931 was wellbottom out have This of found is

The groat and farmers

slump

had knocked would,

and middle-men on the terms

one imagines,

impossible

to do business by his

Duse was offering. though it was in

largely

confirmed

own account,

written

a spirit

of reproach; Abeokuta and farming groups in Ijebu-Ode, I communicated with certain Ibadan, and laid my plans before them. These men wanted "Advances", produce, or to enable them to collect either, against non-existent When I informed them that there were assignments from the farmers. but they could easily ship their produce-to no Advances-forthcoming faded-away; through the Bank ... they silently and after my friends I cabled my friend, to withsix months' period. of.: fruitleas waiting, A few did promise more small'"trial" draw his deposit from the. Bank. but although than (sic) six years have. elapsed at-this shipments ll I am still those promised "trial" shipments. awaiting writing,, soon exhausted, His money was La Page. she could Instead of returning and his sole remaining support was"Gertrude home, as

to the comfort 12 A that his It

of her. mother's should

have done, she stood by him.

be remembered that determination, failure, of

Dust Mohamed All. was now sixty-five. less courage, would have accepted of disappointment

an of less life

was a total

perhaps died

and deopair. now set about rebuilding life throughout his career in a

But the tough old Egyptian truly remarkable way.

We have seen that reversals

had been one of and then dogged

rosy hopes followed survival

by disastrous But this

of fortune, last

and recovery.

was to be his

great

disaster,

and

10. 11. 12.

See Chapter VII, "Leaves", ibid,

note 147. 1938, p. 7.

in The Comet, 26th February

Pp-7 & 19.

Gertrude

La Page and her

Roeicrucian 1935

students

From The Comet Christmas

7O.
although the remainder of his life was to be lived on a more limited 1931-45 - it ', was

stage - the still to be a story his

somewhat parochial if

Lagos of the years

of solid,

modest, achievement. which he had almost

On his death in 1945" single-handedly founded

newspaper the Daily Comet,

as a weekly in 1933, remained as an ongoing concern within press empire; nor was this his only monument, for

the dynamic Zik he bad

more intangibly,

influenced

a whole generation future

of Nigerian political

"youngme n",

among whom were some Yet to

of the most prominent achieve these things,

leaders to start

of the country.

he had first profession.

again almost

at the very bottom hawking his work profession

of the journalistic

Se, became' a freelance,

to Lagos newspaper proprietors, in Nigeria plenitude was characterised of: young hopefuls

at a time when the journalist's by low standards, from the mission

even lower pay, and a aehools who had given up 13 -Nevertheless, of the

hope of employment in Government or, -the commercial the old veteran Nigerian-Daily proved his worth by persuading

world.

the proprietors

Times to give him a weekly column at the remuneration of 14 To many a young Nigerian this would'have seemed a guinea a week. a 15 time in half but Duse later. remarked "it was the first income, princely a century of my journalistic career I bad accepted so small a fee, oven

13.

For a graphic account of the pay, status and standards of Nigerian in the early thirties,,, journalists pp-80-84see Awolowo, op. cit., "Leaves", in The Comet,, 26th February 1938, p. 19.

14* 15.

Of his journalistic debut, with the Daily Times, in 1934, Awolowo_says that' he spent' hi's first, three months without pay as a trainee, and the in Ibadan'at' 2 per'month plus 2d five months as' correspondent next , See, Avo, p. 83. per column inch published'-',

731.
for London 'pot-boilers: ' But it paid my rent and necessity journalists, could afford knows no law.. ^16 only bicyclea: 17

This was something, newspaper editors Not everyone Duse Mohamed Ali's a decline that

in an era When, among Nigerian and their in Nigeria old friend immediate assistants

who had known better J. M. Stuart-Young his

days showed such resilience. was now irremediably Poor and cocoa set on

was to last was in dire

until straits

death on 27th May 1939.18 well

Stuart-Young like

by 1930 ( and probably

before),

many of his African was looking

colleagues

in the ranks of small organisation for help.

independent A pathetic is also a

traders, letter

to Tote-Ansa's

from him to West African piece of evidence with

Co-operative of the fate the hopeless

Producers

Ltd.,

most revealing of the combine. supply

of the small admission

trader that

in the era not

Beginning

he could of financial

produce statistics

requested,

as they were "a matter

(a quality acumen"

he evidently

lacked), years

he went on to describe on the lower Niger,

what had

happened over the previous was essential;

twenty

and why help

if, to agree that something must fail after reading the following, you have be done against the strangle-hold the Merger and, the BIG CONCERNS to you. on the River, then it is, hopeless for me to talk further , the here, and I am rositive that Agency was established moment an for shipments b the Natives (instead of local powers were offered sales at ruled, prices of the 1'. erger) there would be such a rallying to your standard as you would find more than gratifying.

16. 17.
18.

"Leaves", Ate,

in The Comet

26th February .

1938,, p,. 19.

pp. 60-1.

27th Pilot, SeeVmemorial,. article in West African J. M., Stuart-Young, on, him in his paper; May 1940, p. 5.. Azikiwe bad. reason to-remember Nigerian by Mr. A. K. Disu, to information to the writer according, given had Ministry Lagos, 31st March 1967, the young Azikiwe of Information,, been a member of a reading by Stuart-Young. club run in Onitaha

732.
To-day, in the whole of this Province, there is not ONE African whereas, in pre-war years, and war years, there were at shipper; least a dozen from Onitsha, with the aid of the Nigerian Marine for transport. river
I myself averaged some 1,000 casks of thousand tond (sic) a of kernels a year. the Natives all are held under the vice-like (in their other BIG firma, who are willing Merger Game.

13,000 bags (roughly oil and To-day To-day I am nobody. grip of the Merger, and to play the own interests)

In the time I speak of (say 1910 to 1919) there were only FIVE European concerns (I ranked third highest); tut there were a round dozen HEALTHYAND SOUNDNative Traders, mainly Sierra Leonean and Lagosians. (sic) (reaping where they have not sown) other Since the Armistic "Merger Associated" firms have come here (Walledens, Trading Assoc. of Nigeria, African and Eastern, Welsh eto. ) - and to-day the position is this Merger Firms -

African and Eastern Niger Company. Trading Association Walkdens.

Welsh:. Christians. Opposition -

Corporation. of Nigeria.

Holts (on the river since the first) and myself ditto. (ALL NEWAND SINCE THE AEi-I ISTI CE) Ollivants French Co. (C. F. A. O. S. C. O.A. (just arrived). Now the best answer to your question of what trade CAN be done is surely this Since the Merger,, and- at Merger prices, inasmuch as we are all compelled to obey their-dictates; Ollivants Kernels the rate of 100 casks a month. are buying-oil at at the rate of 1,000 bags a month. C. E. A. O. are buying Oil at the rate of 120 casks a month. Kernels at the. rate-, of, 1,200 bags a month. BOTH these firma are reaping where they have not Gown, as Ollivants are only here three years and C. F. A. O. here under two years; And I? Practically by (a) bad and inadebecause I am strangled nothin -, by quate Bank Agency, and (b) cold treatment in the ratter of transport the Niger Co. steamers - but THEIR PaWERLIES IN THEIR CAPITAL. As to the African community - not a SINGLE ONE HAS SHIPPED for They are all bound to sell locally Years! and it is from THEM %a t the firms buy the cask (wholesale) and buy the 20/50 cots of kernels at a time o

and for

733.
Now isn't it logical to vou, if that there would be a rallying BUYING ENOUGHTO FILL that, before you came here, and could arrange to come here? A BOAT, you could get Elder's or one of the other lines for Onitsha is 200 miles up the river, the year round (except and all

type. open to oceancraft of the "Brancher" a few days, may be, in April) The reason why I can't hold my own is that the Bank (Bank of British West Africa) advances only 75% of local coat which leaves me to pay for casks and bags, river frt. and export duty - making actually Result - well 500 becomes X250, 250 some HALF advance of coat! . becomes 60 - and "out goes the gas". becomes 125,0125 I have tried to tell you facts - now weigh them up, and save the River from becoming the Cemetry (sic) of the Native Trador J9 and the Garden of the l: erger and the Merger's Fellow-Conspirators. . It is a well-known not only story now that West African trade Co-operative Producers trade failed

to-prevent

the lower

Niger

but West African

in general

20 from becoming the "Garden of the Merger". In these circumstances, Lagoa of the depression years Dus4 Mohamed Ali's should more modest efforts for a fitting in the sense

perhaps be praised

Times in weekly column in the Nirerian Daily of realism. 21 November 1931, under the heading "About it and About", which he was also He began his

19.

Producers -Ltd., 11th J. M. Stuart-Young to West African Co-operative III, 9,1930. March 1930. Xacaulay Papers, General Correspondence, Producers see A. G. Hopkins, Co-operative For the story of West'African Movements in Nigeria and the Gold Coast", "Economic Aspects of Political iHistory VII, Journal of Africk 1,1966, pp. 133-52. :3ee "About it and About", "The Hard Time-Bogey", Ni erian Dai1v Tires. The column's title 13th November 1931. was explained by a quotation translation from Fitzgerald's oftDmar Khayyam; "ILyself when young did eagerly' frequent Doctor and Saint and learned Argument About it and about: but evermore Came out by that same door as in I went. "

20.

21.

734.
to use in The Comet. He continued t to produce his column through began to appear in 1933.22 affairs - exhibiting 1932, and It con-

even beyond the date when Com The tained taste social a medley of remiscences; for the role 24 27 28 of armchair history; Like all

current strategist

and diplomatic discussions; 26

his growing 23 commentator; and sometimes ran

questions;

25

literary

sheer nonsense. out of subjects, ephemeral, breath

regular

columnists, as

he sometimes simply of verbiage

Inevitably, is little

much of this doubt that, with

now seems it was a It

but there air

its

wide outlook, Lagos newspapers.

of fresh

among the generally

parochial

22.

Thus,

the

Daily

Tires

of 29th

December

1933t

p"7

contained

i a Duse

"About it and About" on the philosopher appeared on 22nd July 1933. 23.

Comte, while

he

first

Daily e. g. "Spain the Unpredictable", on the new Spanish Republic, Times 22nd July 1932, p. 4; "Those German Colonies", on German hopes 16th December 1932, lost colonies, their Daily Tires. of regaining Captures America", 15th December 1933, p"? " p. 3; "Litvinoff e. g. "Female Slavery" February 1932, p. 10. - an attack on bride Ties. price DAi1v Times 26th -

24.

25. 26. 27. 28.

e. g. "Ever Heard of Moshesh? ", e. g. article on Voltaire, Daily

Daily

30th December 1932, p. 5.

TimPS, 26th March 1932, p-5Time a. 12th October 1933, p"7.

e. g. "The Chimpanzee Actor",

Daily

See "What Shall I Write? ", Daily Time at 24th November 1933, p. 7. Considering that by this time-he was also churning out copy, for The. Comet, it is hardly surprising that for orte a subject eluded him!

735.
is doubtful trace if the- Nigerian press had ever had such a columnist these articles, for before. No

of self-pity-in

to be found in

and indeed he used the their attitude to the

very first depression.

of them to berate Holding

the West Africans

up as examples the settlement men as Rockefeller, he uninhibitedly

of the American West, Henry Ford, gave rein his Edison, to the years,

and the lives Sir

of such self-made

Thomas Lipton

and Barney Barnato, of his nature.

Samuel Smiles side for in general

This was an omen for

Nigerian

the Duee 1lobamed Ali

of 1931-1945 was a more conservative as we shall years see, not invariably than shift

figure 80.

than he Lad been hitherto The conservative

though, last

Dust of these

was no more consistent

the radical

Duse of 1912-21. more than his

But nothing first "About exploiters

could measure the general it and About",

of his opinions

which actually as a

used the deeds of the capitalist reproach to ! eat Africans rather

of West and South Africa

than to the British;

The diamond exploiters from the land of South wrested their wealth Africa and your Went African firms have enriched themselves from the lands of West Africa. In this connection, it is claimed that the hence farming does farmer and trader are not adequately remunerated; This is all humbug. The merchant cannot well be blamed not pay. for taking advantage of conditions. He is in West Africa for business. There is no philanthropy in business. However, this broadside line of argument was quite conformable with delivering a

on, hard work as the road to self-betterment, ways, in West Africa to the western

and on the superiority skillfully Casely

of the good, old- pre-European covering Hayford, his flank by tributes 5ir .

though also class.

educated

'Sarbah,

Camuel 'Lewis, ` Blyden, In the present, neatly

Blaise

and Payne` were singled the mud-slinging "the honourable and

out from the past. factionalism

avoiding in general

Lagos elite, of the

he praised

736.
distinguished corps of rising Barristers and Physicians". And his conclu-

sion was in some ways a reversion

to the early

days of the ATOR;

The land possesses the wealth. No industrious and self-respecting West African needs go about devoid of the necessities of life.

Men There is dignity in honest labour can tuy. which no wealth have back-bone; jellyfish have none. Go back to the land young man to your becoming a credit you, thereby and show the manhood within There are no hard times in West Africa other country and yourself. 29 than those mde by yourself.

Among the plethora the need for he returned Without

during Daily

of themes he treated individual 30 effort,

in his

"About it

and About"

column,

hard work,

and a return

to the land was one

to numbers of timen. giving up his

weekly article
by T. A. paper. from Doherty,

in the Daily
now owner

Timea, at some time

of the Lagos d'er. 31 ian

1932 he was engaged Ty elearaoh,

A

to edit his weekly

that guinea

The salary the

was 25 a month,

which hin

together

with

Dail___yTimen would

have enabled

to lino Daily real badly

like

a gentleman

in the Lagoa of 1932.

While editing

the Nigerian "a wau

T e rauh the germ of the idea of the futuro honest-to-goodness needed in Bigeria. weekly "32 publication But the Telex

Comet came to him; character

of an informative had "neither

the means nor

29. 30.

"About it and About", November, 1931.

"The Hard Time. Bogey"., in D'i1v

Times.

13th

See Nigerian Dally Timesp 9th April 1932, p. 4; 26th August 1932, p. 4; 11th November 1932, p. 3; 10th February 1932, p. 3; 16th June 1933, p"7. "Leaves", in Comet, The 26th February 1938, p. 19. For Doherty's proOmu, The Nigerian Newspaper Press 1659-1937_, Ph. D. prietorship see University thesis, of Ibadan, 1965, pp. 120-21. "Leaves", in The Coret, '5th March 1938, p"7.

31.

32.

737.
the needful if facilities", editor his and to tell a financial editorial the tzuth, was finding its expensive money,

experienced

burden. chair.

The paper wan losing The parting

and so Duse lout

enough, and he remained on friendly all, given

terms with

was, however, amicable 33 T. A. Doherty, who had, after salary and in a position than a

him some months of employment at a decent re-establish It his reputation

in which he could down-and-out became editor

as a somebody rather time that

failure.

was perhaps about this Times, and there at ...

he briefly effect

of the Daily

attempted

to put into

the ideas he had wished to implement of this left were that "the Editor-Manager

the Telegraph. suddenly

The circumstances his job and no

surrendered Number ...

the proprietors

committed on. "

to a special He was "called

Christmas

with

capable situation.

person to carry "34

to the rescue and saved the Tines Suturday edition, being

He began to make changes in the Daily ran into proprietorial opposition,

but once again increased

his difficulties

by ill-health;

I was moving too quickly for those in control were and complaints in my efforts to brighten made about the added expense I had incurred Overwork resulting from my strenuous labours the Saturday edition. to produce the 1932 Christmas number on time, in addition to my work on the Saturday Edition, caused me to be ordered to hospital ... where I remained for four weeks but, notwithstanding the fact that I still managed to contribute was sent me in a letter my weekly article, hospital to quit ... 35 giving me one month's notice

. ..,

33"

"Leaves", in The Corret, 26th February 1938, pp"19-20 and'5th March 1938, 7., and private information from Chief T. A. Doherty, Lagos, to writer p. 2nd April 1967.. "Leaves",, ibid, in The Cwt. 26th February 1938, p. 20.

34" 35.

5th,! arch. 1938, p. 7.

738. i3ut at this failed to carry his Having Telegraph

point

dogged determination the Daily

saw him through. Daily

to persuade either out his idea,

Times or the Nigerian to set up his

he decided

own weekly journal;

While completing my month' notice to leave The-Times, I began to formulate plans for producing the kind of weekly News-Magazine I had in mind. As funds were insufficient to effectively carry forward my plan, I approached a few acquaintances the needful with the hope of obtaining 36 to register financial assistance company. a publishing Money was the most serious as such, early have been Great. problem. As far The coats as staff of setting t. up The Come cannot, it was in its

was concerned,

days virtually

a one man band. to rise

His only helper from this

was a very young

man, Mobolaji

to humble apprenticeship 37 Wages paid to such leading pressmen. the position of one of, Nigeria's 38. But there was the staff as The Comet lad in its early years were poor. unavoidable, legal obligation, under Nigerian 39 Where this Press Law, of putting up a

Odumewwu later -

bond of 1:250 to the government. _-, mystery. Chief Possibly Gertrude

money came from remains a at her disposal; rallied

La Page still

left bad funds ,

Doherty

supposes that Another

Ruse Mohamed Ali's helper

+

Muslim brethren

40 him... round
'

possible

the West Indian was

businessman

...,.,w.,,.

36. 37.

ibid. Information from Mr. Mobolaji Odumewu. The small size of The Coast's in the thirties, all the work, staff with the editor doing virtually was mentioned to the writer'by Oba Samuel Akineanya, Odemo of Ishara, ffin Ishara, `20th parch 1967. Information Omu, op. cit., Information from Mr. Z. obolaji p. 381. from Chief Doherty. Odumewu.

38. 39. 40.

739.
and former Garveyite leader in Lagos, A. S. Wynter 3hackle%rd, who had made

a fortune friend

organizing

the bakery

industry

in Lagoa, and who was known as a

of Duce Mohamed Ali and The Co'et during the nineteen-thirties and 41 All that buss himself revealed in his autobiography forties* was his to procede; There were many promises both hands and proceeded " termed "impossible! but no fulfillment, so I took ray courage in to accomplish the things which my "friends"
forthcoming. And above But I never lacked I had confidence all

will

funds were not adequate .. * in myself. courage nor confidence in God. 42

41.

"The Bread King of Nigeria", Amos Stanley Wynter Shackleford, came to Nigeria as a railway clerk in 1913, became an entrepreneur in 1917, By acquiring the and in 1921 started in the bakery trade in Lagos. both technical baker, and introducing and services of an army trained distribution interinnovations, he made a fortune during the difficult ferry services and petrol war years, also successfully operating He was so cucceec'stations, and expanding into the Gold Coast in 1934. ful that the shares he privately at 450 each later sold to his friends Fnternriso: The African Bee Peter nilby, sold for as much as 3,000. Studies no. 8, Stanford Nigerian Bread Industry,. Hoover Institution 1965, pp. 7-43. University But Shackleford was more than a businessman he entered into Nigerian became a member of Lagos Town life, political a noted philanthropist In 1922 Council, p. 8 a. 5. and was see ibid, he bad been President of the Lagos branch of the U. N. I. A. - see G.H. Walker, D4puty Inspector-General Southern Provinces, Police, of
5, in The Universal Nigeria, Negro Ao o is o, paragraph ve that he C. O. 583/l0,9/6134. This being the case, it is very plausible Possibly helped Duae over the question as a railway of the 250 bond. in 1913 he had heard of Dusels efforts on behalf clerk'back of Ball and ' Dusels obituarist Taylor: Daily Cor,, e 27th June 1945, p. 2t in'the , tha, t`the'close as friendship, presumed as-well working'relationahip, for ho remarked between Duse and the ihacklefords was common knowledge, Shackleford "to carry had left that the old editor T2r.; and firs. on the `work" . good

42.

"Leaves",

in The Comet,

5th Earch 1938, p. 7.

,..

rrx

740.
Barrister conversation Comet, when it z. T. Eke of the old Benin, who knew Duse in those of the fortiees, they him; "Out of recalls would that in Ilehow

man accused mooted, the paper,

who had said crossing answer

support

was being to run

double he would

and when asked nothing God

he had contrived

created

the world".
the

43
money needed to launch TheComet came from, 1}use Mohamed

Wherever

Ali's must,

achievement to be fully

in creating understood,

a lasting

element

in the Nigerian of the nature

press and

scene

be put in the context press in those years.

development early

of the Nigerian

In some ways, Duse's Nigerian would-be newspaper

difficulties

were much like According

those of other authority

proprietors. Dr. F. Omu, "it it

to a leading

on the Nigerian

Press, because

was not always easy for people in high places

proprietors

to get sureties openly potential

would seem that with

were reluctant Further,

to identify sureties and printers, the

themselves feared

the critics

of Government. " quarrels of a fresh

proprietors,

involvement

in the frequent the execution

between proprietors bond.

Dr.

which necessitated
general Duse'a motives individual of

And in describing
Omu largely outlines

Nigerian position;

press

although a handful of people donated money for the purpose of sus... little taining part in the particular newspapers, philanthropy played The fact was Most people established inauguration of most newspapers. newspapers to earn a living ... a good number of newspapermen were people in want of employment. .. o For example, There were various categories of this class of people. there were those who had been dismissed from, or who had resigned from There were also people incapacitated by illness their jobs. or legal from continuing their chosen professions. prohibitions ...

43.

Information 20th April

t6 writer-fron 1967.

Brrister

S. Y. Eko, Ore-Oghene,

Benin City,

741.
almost all the newspapermen in the nineteenth century and ... quite a few in the present century# were people ambitious to recover 44 from financial ruin.
But in other ways, The Comet was less typical of its times, or was an

omen of new directions survival in Nigeria in their year. 45

in the Nigerian achievement,

Press. for

To begin with,

its

very

was a considerable

of the 33 newspapers founded' in lees year, than a year, 23% died seventh pub-

between 1920 and 1937,33Adied third year, 4% died in'their fifth

and 1O in their Nigerian

Thus, The Comet outlived of the Nigerian by 1937; 46 Daily

T. A. Doherty's

Press Ltd.,

lishers bankrupt" blessing

Telegraph.

This company was "virtually from it could thus be regarded as a

Dus's separation Yet another

in disguise. Nigerian

in which The Covet differed way was that its editor--proprietor

from was in

the usual a real

newspaper of pre-1933 Normally

newspaperman. "ownership doctors,

in the twenties, ... were ...

and even to an extent concentrated

the thirties of lawyers,

and control

in the hands and architects" With exceptions he 48

chemists,

businessmen,

and even surveyors

who were not "exclusively Ernest to this Ikoli rule.

devoted

to the profession

of journalism".

and W.C. Labor, 47 In another an older

Duse Mohamed Ali

was one of the rare

way, by being a publisher-editor-printer, in Nigerian newspaper publishing.

was representing

tradition

44. 45. 46. 47.

Omu, op. cit., ibid, ibid, {p. 127.

p. 57.

pp. 120-21. "The Nigerian Press: 1929-1959", in Rerort on the Press for international on "Press and Progress seminar prepared University of Dakar, May 31st - June 4th 1960. p. 76.

Increase Coker, In West Africa. in West Africa", ibid, p. 133.

48.

742.
dowever, the paper proved responsive began to re-organise to the new wave limited the press liability comto two

companies that

in the nineteen-thirties49 liability

in 1941 The Comet's publication pany, the Comet Press Ltd* pressur(, one internal, 50

was taken Almost

over by a limited this

certainly

was a response since Pilot,

and one external. from Azikiwe's format,

Internally, West African

1937, The Comet which with,

had had to face competition its mixture of a popular achieved first

4,000 1933. since

sensationalism,

and- heady radicalism, an unheard of circulacompared with

static in at the that pre-

almost tion

instantly

what was, for less

had,

West Africa,

in its -

year,, little
weekly This 1933, - which

than 10,000 daily,

moreover, remained circulation among the

The Comet's level Pilot of the since era;

had been a respectable only the it. Daily 51 Times

Dailies,

and none staff for -

weeklies,

had exceeded .

Now Due began to lose

example lobolaji

Odumexu52 - as well

as circulation,

to the lusty

newcomer.

49. 50.

ibid,

and Omu, op. cit.,

pp. 114-122.

by Solicitor J, S" Hughes of the formation See declaration of the com5th June 1941, file 526, Registry of Companies, Nigerian Federal pany, Ministry Lagos. of Commerce and Industry,
book, 1933, C. O. 660/24, See Nireria'Blue for official circulation for The C. O. 660/25-28,, The Comet in. 1933, and ibid 1934-37, figure of Pilot's Comet's circulation For the West African during those years. For the circulation in 1937, see ibid, 1937, C. O. 660/28. circulation C. O. 660/24-28. 1933-37, Daily ibid, Times 1933-37, the Nigerian of see For the impact Pilot, of the West African see K. A. B. Jones-Quartey, Serie st London 1965, pp. 147-8" ALife of Azikiwe, '-Penguin African

51.

52.

Information

to the writer

from Mr. Mobolaji

Odumewu.

z.

743.
Externally, rocket, before culation chief 53 the advent of the the Second World War made the in the Nigerian price of newsprint Even cirPilot's the

and so shook

weaker

elements circulation. Pilot held

press. The Comet's and the Probably

1939 The Comet was losing had sunk rival, the to Daily 3,000; Timee, the

By 1938, steady 5,900 at

9,750, 54

was selling

daily.

Comet Press Ltd., was a desperate of the Rilot vain, there duction

the last attempt

of Duse Mohamed Ali's further capital

limited to fight

liability the twin

companies, threats in though

to raise

and inflation for

in the costs

of production. to be swallowed to 5,000,

This was all up by Zik,

however,

The Comet Was destined rise in its circulation

was a temperary

after

the intro-

of a Wednesday edition the general

in 1941.55 context in which The Comet operated, we may It

Having given now look began its

at the way in which the magazine was organised life as a weekly on 22nd July 1933;

and developed.

added the Wednesday edition its final evoluComet. but

on 12th November 1941; tion of its founder's

and on 16th May 1944 went through lifetime, to become a daily, editorial into staff

known as the Daily was not large,

As we have already from this for Ali's

seen, the initial it

humble beginning,

developed

a considerable then.

operation,

an African death,

run and owned business the Daily t

in Nigeria at'least

By Duse Mohamed a

was employing

50 people and claimed

53"

See Omu, The Nigerian Newspaper Press, average price of newsprint had tripled

By late 1942, the pp. 128-9. compared with pre-war prices.

54.
55.

Nigeria

Blue Book, 1938, C. O. 660/29.

baut by 1942 the Pilot's circulation toad risen

ibid, 1942, C. O. 660/33. to 11,600.

744.
circulation Olu Printing of over 8,000.56 Preaa, In its early it by the IfeIn 1935

years

was printed I. W. Osilaia.

owned by Nigerian

businessman,

the paper moved from its original home in Custom Street to new promisee at 57 64 Broad Street, and in Auguat of the following year proudly announced "we have procured its ever increasing our own machinery circulation. " 58 and type to make The Comet worthy At the same time, Yet for the office of

moved yet statistics is, a premises

again

from 64 to 89 Broad Street. The Comet's circulation the whole affair press.

that the official

are worth, mystery

was not then increasing, of the acquisition

and there

about

of the Broad Street

and the printing

On the testimony Mobolaji

of two of those who knew Duse well eon of Herbert machinery,

in those days -

Odumewu and Oged Macaulay, premises, the printing General

Macaulay - the second

Broad Street provided

and the types were all Africa the Now

by Mr. Williams,

Manager in Lagos of the United benefaction; even six to be worth

A "' 'A_ .s 11 1.1

59 Company. printing

This was a-valuable

years

later

machinery
I. -.

and types were considered

II.. . -L I,

1,500.60
1

56. 'See obituary

issue

of Dil_y

Comet, -27th 'June 1945#, p. 2.

57, 'See The Comet, 3rd August 1935, p"5.

58.

-d

and ;See The Comet. 25th July 1936, -p. 5, for the move to 89 Broad Street, ibid, lot August 1936, p. 5, for the acquisition of machinery and types. Information from Y. Oged Maoaulay, 5a Ondo St. East Lagos, 11th March r. National Preset 1967, and Mr. Mobolaji Odumewu,=General Manager. Nigerian 1967. Their two accounts were in agreement, and were Apapa, 4th April to each other and in response to a question as given with9ut reference to how fuse Mohamed All financed his paper. See Return Share Allotments, in Comet Preee Ltd. 26th March 1942 -of-: 5th June 1942, ' file, 526, Registry Lagos. ofXompanies,

59.

60.

745.
it should be remembered that in West Africa, the U. A. C. was the crowning the ultimate fruit of all achievement of,

Lever Brothers mergers that years.

the combines and for'so many

Dua and his friends

had been struggling

against

Was this

a move by the U. A. C. to secure Nigerian for

the docility

of what had

become one of the most influential Ali sold his principles in return

journals?

Had Duse Mohamed in old age? be answered; To

a modicum of security

These questions and as for begin with, that,

must be asked. it

But the former

cannot as yet for

the latter, his first

seems unlikely it

to be true

two reasons.

"About

and About"

in the Daily of the Nigeria and lack firm. from this

Times had shown of the thirties, initiasome he

in`relation

to the economic distress to blame Nigerian than the big idleness

he was more ready tive (as he saw it) there

of individual words,

expatriate of'help active

In other

years before

was any question about it with

unlikely-quarter, Secondly, despite

had ceased to, write receiving conclude firm

hostility.

"money from the'U. A. C.' (and in the, circumstances that he did), he did not scruple attack t

we are bound to and his

Lord Leverhulme

in the'most'forthright

Comet'wholly'after'he in The iitck'were was'alluded'to in reference in`thinly

terms, -in -life autobiography, which was published 61 Itis true tha t"these had accepted help. to matters-long veiled that past, and that openly. Sir William Lever

form', rather"than for

But it

is clearly a quid Indeed,

imposible'to"believe pro quo for a total

the'U. A: C. aid of his

The'Comet constituted on Lever Brothers.

cessation

attacks

61. '"Leaves" appeared in The Comet between 12th June 1937 and 5th March 1938., Its attacks came in the issues for 30th October 1937, p. 17 and ? 29th 'Januaiq 1938, p. 16.

746.
after to it 1936, he did not only attack Lever the Nigerian Brothers' U. A. C. for Produce past. its role Though in the referring cocoa

by a periphrasis, of 1938,

he attacked the

hold-up

and defended

Traders

Union

protagonist,

Samuel Akisanya;

It is quite obvious that matters cannot be allowed to drift but that the Government should protect the interests of the farmers if unrest of brought There were the accusations an untoward kind is to be avoided. when against the "Pool" during the recent meeting at the Secretariat the local representative West African trading firm of the principal declined to place the "Pool" agreement upon the table in order to refute This incident the allegations of Mr. Akisanya. was an undoubted sign of weakness on the part of the Pool which lends colour to the statements Produce Traders Union. 62 made by the representative of the Nigerian But whereas"at to issue the rising one time such a conflict call to black have caused Duse Mohamed Ali would over to combine to fight not their feet on the observed

a clarion tide

men the world

of economic oppression, freedom,

and thereby

road to political "it is devoutly

by way of economic success, there will be a little

now he tamely mental

to be hoped that

stock-taking

resulting

in an amicable

understanding

in the beat

interests A little

of the Farmers, later, he wel-

the Government,

and the members of the Pool. "63 to: the cocoa, crisis to visit hold-up. outlook Nigeria 64

corned as, a happy, solution Office of a commission

the appointment

by the Colonial

and the Cold Coact to investigate or a

the Cocoa-Fool. and-the toadyp hie editorial

Though by no means a turncoat become far attacked

bad certainly

more conservative. anything that might

In conversation,

as opposed to print,
.

be, still
."

62. 63. 64.

`.: The ibid.. ibid, >

15th January, 1938, p. 5., --%

19th February

1938, p. 5.

747.
strangle other the economic life of the people, including the U. A. C. 65 On the

hand,, on 2nd March 1935, the Comet dolumn written actually 66 the help from the U. A. C. Postponed rather Duse, Mobamed Ali's criticised Governor Clifford for

under the pseudonym Levers from

"Growler", Nigeria!

excluding

Certainly financial.

than solved

the

problems

of The Comet. was the creation a nominal with

attempt

to counter incorporated The days of passed. Lagos

these difficulties

of the Comet Press Ltd., of L5,00067 capital

on 5th June 1941, with his speculative ventures

share capital

enormous nominal

were long

The. new company's-directors Muslims -Sunni'Youasouf

were Duee I ohamed Ali Ottun,

himself

and three

liaudu 0. Sunmola, a trader; an auctioneer; 68 Muetapha K. Ekemode, a clerk, All these three men resigned their and in the course ,of' 1942.
John-Ojo Adebayo,

directorships
accountant, by

Their

place

was taken by a Yoruba

company's secretary

who by. July,, 1942 was the

and/September

1942 a director.

From October 1942 till directors, 69

February

1945, he part in

and Duse Mohamed Ali running

were the sole

be played, a large -and

the compsny'a-buainesa

affaira.

65. 66. 67. 68. 69.

Information The Cot, See file . ibid,

from Mr. Mobalaji

Odumeru.

2nd Karch 1935, p. 9. 526, Registry of Companies, Lagos. -. Comet Press Ltd.

particulars

Of Directore-f

5th June 1941.

Agreement of Sale between Duse Mohamed Ali and Comet Press See ibid, Ltd., witnessed by, J, Adebayo as secretary of the company, 29th July f Comet Press Ltd., 8th September 1942 1942; ' Alteration of directors No further 8th October 1942. are noted changes in directorships and,, . , Zik'a'"take-over. in` these"documents- till`

748..
Until February 1945, the Comet, Prese Ltd. At its shares, formation, never attracted oubstantial with

amounts of capital. 2,000 Cl. ordinary pany's assets,

Buse Mohamed All as fully It is paid,

was credited for

considered

in return

the comthe

valued

at 2,014.10p. assets,

interesting 1,200 for

to note that the printing

second largest machines, , capital apart

item in these

following -a

was C405.10s. value,

owing from debtors

high proportion hard times.

of the firm's 70 But

and an indication

perhaps of general there were only

from Duse's 2,000 shares, shares issued

153 1 ordinary

shares and

14 5 preference being the largest of this other

shareholders subscribed

by 5th June 1942 - S. Y. Ottun and H. O. Sunmola 71 What with 64 preference shares each. capital was ever paid from then till shares up is not recorded. 1945 were

percentage The only

significant

subscribers

February

J. Q. Adebayo, who subscribed Ebutte N: etta clerk,

50 C1 preference Salami,

in August 1942, and an 100 preference

Joseph, Ishola 2

who subscribed

shares at the same time.? change in"the -The.-big buying up an overwhelming in the-company

Comet Prose Ltd. controlling. for

came sin February 73 The return

1945, with of share

Zik

interest.

allotments

19th February ordinary

1945 declared shares,

Zik's

Press Ltd.

to own 690 out of 692 subscribed

and, 384 out of 366

70.

"See ibid, list 2,000 shares,

with his of assets in return for which Duse was credited in Return of Share Allotments, 26th March 1942-5th June 1942.

71.
72. 73.

ibid.,
Pp

ibid,

etrn

of Share llotmenta`fron"let in West African Pilot,

guat 1942-21st 1945, p"1.

August 1942.

See account
:"H

20th February

749.
preference was purely The Comet's surrendered remained even there Coe coming shares* 74 The motive 75 Now old, some such for in this poor sale of the company and unable to to Azikiwe secure at last he But

commercial. future

health,

without

arrangement, hand behind his death interest

Duse ? ohamed Ali his paper,

any claim a, director Zik's portents of

to be the the

guiding until

although

company

on 25th in

June 1945.

before were

purchase of the

of a controlling coming event.

The Comet Press, Daily

When The Comet became the with daily an unusually newspaper field

Zik! s West African from the leader in

Pilot the

responded Nigerian

warm commendation, to a new rival;

On Tuesday, May 16th, 1944, The Comet began publication as a daily ,,. Newspaper by the Comet Press Ltd. This is a very audacious move has soared in wartime when the cost of newspaper production especially beyond normalcy. It is also an exemplification of business enterprise. (sic), Duse Mohamed Alli We,are happy to recollect the arrival of . its Managing Director, in this country barely twelve years ago, when The periodical The Comet as a weekly news magazine. he started clicked and the people of Nigeria became "Comet-conscious". On behalf of_ ourselves and the other Newspapers associated" with .. in this part of the world, we extend us in the romance of journalism to, Mr. Duse Mohamed Alli and, his band, of, workers our congratulations .,, and hope that they would continue their mission of evangelization with to support as many daily success. - The country is in a position Newspapers as possible, organizaand editorial provided the technical tion and adninietration aretvailable. The The first two issues of the Newspaper were neatly printed. The was well chosen and the leaders were balanced. editorial matter provinces and foreign columns were devoted to news about personalities, And the Newspaper proudly proclaims that it is published countries. "for. thinking Weoffer. our beat wishes to the Director public". ,a and staff, of . the. Comet Press Limited- and. 'assure them"our co-operation to in, the., "comnon struggle. to destroy4all. vestiges -of man's inhumanity . 76 man, in Nigeria.

74."

, Returnof See 1945,, Yin` file.

75"

Comet Pres Ltd. 19th February : hare Allotments-in, p . 526, Registry, of. Companies, Lagos!,, -, _. "Mr. Infrmstion' tof writer :from" Chief A. - "Enahoro, 6thi 'April"1967"and OgedMculay, `11th March 1967. Pilot,, 18th May 1944, p. 2.

76.

West African

750.
It may well be that the West African Pilot was sanguine about the prospects

of the new daily

his group of

because its

editor

was already

anticipating

adding

it

to

papers.

Even earlier editor.

clear,

than such portents,

Duse Mohamed Ali

ceased to be an active is not

death. But

At exactly
as his

wbt stage he ceased to write

over the editorial

the editorials
till his

name appeared

column

in November 1943, the west African, Yoruba Muslim journalist of the editorial Comet Press, chair

Pilot

carried

X. R. B. Ottun as The did not last long, for

the an item describing 77 His tenure t'a editor. after taking over the

shortly

Zik appointed

a new editor,

Anthony knahoro, since January

a young man from 1943. The twenty-

Uromi who had been a Zik Press journalist

two year old Enahoro determined to "make the Daily Comet the voice of youth 78 Thus in the closing months of his life, the trade unions. , and of Duce 1ohamed Ali's destined newspaper gave the first country's
old'man

big

opening

to a

an who was

"to become one of his

satisfaction the

leading
felt at

politicians.
banding'on his paper as an

Whatever

concern ongoing

to a new generation,

he'surely

felt

a certain

sadness too.

77.

ibid, 20th November 1943, p. 1, M. R. D. Ottun had for many years been a for The Comet.,. There are notes signed by Ottun as regular writer.. The Coat in the Macaulay Papers, General Correspondence, editor of . . III0 23,1944-.,, These are dated 3rd January 1944 and 21st February 1944, and are th addressed to Herbert Macaulay. Daily Comet.. 10th Iarch; 1945,.: p. 2, announced, that the editorial chair Duse Mohamed Ali" had changed hands a reels before '-. though. "Editedby. -, Also "Men, and Mattere", columns the editorial still over appeared Prisoner, Offender. The Store of a Political see A. Enahoro, Fugitive London 1965, p"74"

78.

751'.
Chief Enahoro recalls that in his last months Duse Mohamed Ali was working out, expressed

doubts about accepted After that

the way the Zik takeover the takeover the last

though he also 79

had been the only way to keep the paper alive, relic of the Dusian regime, by the shareholders

his death,

John Ojo Adebayo, was Meeting of

"relieved'of

his directorship"

at a General

the company held

on 7th December 1945, and replaced Pilot, Adolphus in effect Kofi this Blnkson.

by the General

Manager

of the West African virtually

Since the shareholders away the old order. 80 life. to

meant Azikiwe,

was Zik clearing from that time*

He and Blankeon were the sole directors

From 1933 to 1945, The-Comet was, in effect, It

his

Duse Mohamed Alt's was profoundly

employing information journalism innovation in

is instructive
London reviews.

to note that
Comet's The structure, typical This which of was, had

in many ways it
tone

dissimilar
the of short the of in "did the terms neoreader. to be out-

was lighter, of

sentence

and paragraph kind,

and snippets the frivolous

you know that" nineteen-thirties. of the

popular

however, traditionally

a worthwhile

Lagos'Press,

been written to the Pilot ordinary

heavy

Victorian'prose Not till the

almost advent of

incomprehensible Zik'a West African

Nigerian

Comet was The

79.

Information from Chief A. Enahoro. -Duwse also talked in a similar vein S. Y. Eke, Ore-Oghene, Denin, to, S. Y. Eke`-- information from Barrister 20th April 1967. See 'Change of Directors Comet Press Ltd. p 8th December- 1945, in of Lagos. file 5269'-Registry Blankeon was Zik'o business of'Comp*nieo, Africen'Contifactotum in the post-war era, being a director of'the nental`Bank-and National Auditor of the N. C. N. C., besides his role in Parties, See'Richard L. Skar, Nigerian Political Zik's newspaper empire. Pp%164;: 453 & 518.

80.

752.
classed in the techniques popular of popular format journalism. its comparatively The Corot good

Comet's The circulation.

must have helped

Thus, Cnief -a duty

Enahoro remembers reading which, he implies, editorials"

to bis than which

mother as a child reading the usual

he found more pleasant of the Lagoa press, 81 Chief

"ponderously difficult

prolix

were "more than a little

to negotiate".

Obafemi Awolowo and his especially were

remembers Dune Mohamed Ali's paper as selling popular

later it is to

style cakes"

as breezy and easily

understood, being

like

"hot 82

in Ibadan in the thirties,

with

"youngmen".

Though both these distinguished

professional men as well in their in lives, line as political

Nigerians
leaders,

become successful that at they that found

clear

earlier Coa+et's The

stage

when their with their

education needs, as

was incomplete,

style

did many others. itself all a rare but a tiny

The thirties

in Nigeria

was a time when "Standard attainment

VI", for

accomplishment, minority. with

was the acme in educational

Thus the newspaper readership education,

was overwhelmingly rather

one of people . than "quality" 81. Enahoro,

only a primary 83 journalism. Offender,

who needed popular

ftRitive

p. 45. " 1967.

82. ' Information

83.

from Chief

0. Awolowo, Sbadan, 16th February,

Omu, The Nigr: rian Newspaper Press 1859-1967, p. 142, quotes statistics in 1937 there were 218,610 primary in Southern showing that pupils Nigeria 4,285 secondary figures in 1926 the respective as against pupils; In these cirhad been 138,244 and 518; and in 1912,35,716 and 67. Dr. I. Geiss's dismissive "The Comet ... cumstances, remark that reflects journalism in the thirties than serious of cheap British more the taste interestin'Pan_dfricanism", "cheap" though true, that misses the point See I. journalism to circumstances. was an intelligent adaptation Journwl of Pan-Africanism", of the -Geiss, , "Notes on the Development Historical Society III, 4,1967, But in, Awo. The of Nigeria, p. 731. Autobiograrhg of Chief Obafemi Awolowo, Cambridge 1960, p. 84, Awolowo Press of the late thirties to the gave the first place in the Nigerian West-African ilot, despite his strong antipathy for Zik and his methods. Dr. Oruwariyo 1967 that though the writer of Ibadan told on 19th February The Corot was generally the Plot considered was considered a good paper, head and shoulders above it.

753.
The Comet was innovatory
means neglected could have Nigerian if it parish

in other

important

ways;

although
no Nigerian

it

by no
newspaper set in

pump topics so - it

indeed, followed in

survived

had done it

the the

traditions Daily

Duse Mohamed Ali's in also having Nigerian

"About

and About"

column could

Nigerian

Times of any

world-wide newspaper illustrated in Africa

interests of the early

which

not

really

be said This of

other

nineteen-thirties. editorial thirties, coverage which will

was most

spectacularly Italian in

by his during But, of

close the to the

German'and be looked at

ambitions

some detail

presently. tho 84 position

take

some other

examples, Afro-Brazilian 85

we can find and Afro1938 dis-

him discussing West Indian;

Afro-American, in the

Japanese'Militarism

Par East;

and the

turbances

in Palestine. it

b6

In relation itself

to Nigerian totally

affairs,

The Covet

was cautious; political Kitoyi

never identified and apart personal

with any of the Nigerian obituary traditional of Sir in

parties, Ajasa,

from one lapse, mud-slinging

a hostile of the typo

avoided

the Lagos press. caution figure,

The attack for

on. Ajasa proved though Ajasa'had

the wisdom of Duse's usual in many ways been an unpopular Nigerian by a

in such matters, public feeling

was outraged

by. buse of an eminent furors

a foreigner.

Even to-day,

the resulting

is remembered by the older

84.
85. 86.

Comet, The
ibid, ibid,

29th July 1933, P-2:

18th June 1938, p. 5. 13th August 1938, p. 5.

754. in Lagos and Southern (though libel 68 this it Nigeria. 87

generation legal action

Ajasa's

family

threatened law does

is hard to see their the dead), came only

grounds as English obliged

not recognise a retraction. Probably

against Support

and Duos felt

to published J. M. Stuart-Young. by bitter 89

from another outburst

outsider,

unwise and untypical cold-shouldered

was occasioned years

memories of being

by Ajasa in previous professional

- possibly Inter-

Ajasa was one of the influential Colonial great Corporation of his often

men who had opposed his Dus Mohamed All over the events

in Lagos in 1920.

Certainly

spent a of his

deal

time in his Comet years mulling referring to them in his autobiography, paper.

past life,

The most remarkable Life",

example of this serialised

was his

"Leaves from an Active

in The Comet from 12th June 1937 to 5th March 1938, which

87.

This began For Duse's Ajasa obituary, 5th Juno 1937, p. 5. see ibid. with the woras "That remarkable person known as Sir Kitoye Ajasa has glories and honours. passed to his account with all his doubtful After making much wealth and cleverly matters to obtain manipulating to cheer a knighthood he dies a pauper with hardly one sincere friend for his people him on the way. He possessed no helpful consideration Much was made of Ajasa's lavish hospitality ". to Europeans, to ... prove the moral that "in this section of the Empire any native who buys his way into European Society, spending his substance to that is only living in a fools paradise. " Oba Samuel Akisanya, and end, Chief O. Awolowo remember themselves feeling by this obituarty, affronted L. B. Agusto, Mr. Oged Macaulay and while Chief T. A. Doherty, Alhajji Disu.. of the Nigerian Federal Ministry Mr.. A. K. -. of Information all For the to the writer testified that it caused a great scandal. in the Lagos press, see William general atmosphere of mudslinging 1918 to Donald Edmunds, The Newspaper Press in British West Africa 1951, p. 13. 1938, M.A. dissertation,, University of Bristol, Information from Mr. A. K. Dieu, Lagos, 31st March 1967.

88. 89.

See J. M. Stuart-Young 8th June 1937, in Macaulay to Dues Mohamed All, Papers, General Correspondence, III, 16,1937.

755.

contained, four

as well

as a mine of information philosophy

about his

travels

and deeds in Only second "Ere Rooeein part a

continents,

much of his

and outlook

on life.

in interest volt

to "Leaven From an Active Life" is his aerial novel 90 Came", is which as we have seen in the previous chapter, of his life in the United
thing: to about this

reflection
But

States

in the nineteen-twenties.
remiscence, is with the lack apart of from an

the most

striking tendency the

mass of

understandable admission of

self-justification, of his association

any open

closeness

Marcus

Garvey.

This can almost an. Egyptian,

certainly

be explained 91

by necessary

caution.

lie was .

not a British

subject,

and could

have easily

been deported would

as an undesirable, have been very alien sycophantic praise

back to a countri to hin. of senior This, British

which although too, helps

his birth-place his

to explain

almost Sir Donald

officials

in The Comet.

Cameron, in particular, popular colonial in the Nigerian administration

but Cameron was generally was heaped, with praises 92 Press. Usually, he was prepared to give the the benefit of the doubt. A typical example was

90. 91.

See The Comet, 24th February

1934 - 13th October

1934.

Exactly when he became an Egyptian, subject is not known, but the of Directors Particulars of the Comet Press Ltd. of 5th June 1941, which iraa legal document, gave his nationality see as Egyptian; of-Companies, "Lagos. file 526, Registry For an example of his praise of Sir Donald Cameron, see The Comet, This'passage is cited in Edmunds, op. cit., 28th October 1933, PP. 3-4. p. 209, where it is put in the context of Cameron's generally good press.

92.

756.
his support for the unpopular in tone, Yaba Higher compared with officials should 93 College. The t was, cerattacks

tainly

conciliatory

the AT R, "and its of its day.

vigorous

on Lugard and many other criticise risked liking

Nigerian this

Those who would

Dues Mohamed All, for and lost for everything for

remember the many timen he had in, and the respect class, that and had

causes he believed the British more radical entitled this

the British,

and especially with his

ruling attitudes. to a little attitude

always uneasily

co-existed

Furthermore, peace and

he was now an old men, and perhaps felt security in his closing years. for Certainly

he died as he had lived In general

The Comet.

most of his life, that

it

a poor man. be called

all

was not mercenary 94 about

that

there
is

was little,
not to for

could

Pan-African
the concepts

That

say that

abandoned

Duse had been preaching

so many years.

He still

regularly

preached

Booker T. Washingtonian of the land, creating

ideas about hard work in manual occupations, education. hithself'' Indeed, he even contemplated

use

and industrial school

an industrial-,

though the project-foundered

through

93.

issue3. See"The'Comet 27th January 1934, pp. 3 & 23, and following For the general'di'slike"of the Yaba scheme, see Coleman; Nigeria: 2ackarond -to Netionalism, pp. 123-4, and 218, and Kalu Ezera, CoratiCambridga 1964, p. 55. Developments in Nigeria, tutional See obituary of Duse Mohamed Ali, -"We Lose a Prince 'Daily Comet, 27th June 1945, p. 2. of the Pen".

94.

757.
lack this of funds. 95 His support for Yaba Higher for College must be related lie continued to to

scheme and his great

respect

Tuskegee Instituteo the prejudices

defend the good name of his world; outline thus, for example,

race against

common in the white his readers to an

in September 1935 he treated ideas and practices

of the spread of racist

in Britain

from the on the likes word for word

And

supposedly of Sir
written

happy days when Queen Victoria 96 This article

bestowed knighthoods have been almost

Samuel Lewis.
in the

could

ATOR or AOR as far

as its

sentiments

were concerned.

in a decade in which so much pernicious of miscegenation, defend those Duse Mohamed Ali people

nonsense was abroad about the- evils

out of his way in The Comet to went ancestry.

coloured

who were of mixed European and African rebuked his old friend

On one occasion for an attack

he even strongly on marriage

J. M. Stuart-Young men. This is

between, white

and African women

95.

This project was mentioned in Dus'a "About it and About" feature in in The the Nigerian Daily Times, 11th November 1932, p. 3" "Leaves", "My wife and self sen3ing the Comet, 26th February 1938, p. 20 states; for education of an industrial kind, we decided to local necessity over a Musical raise the nucleus of a Fund toward that end by putting I informed the late Colonel Howe of my and Dramatic entertainment. of Education, secure the Director plans and he suggested that"I should E. R. J. Hussey's interest in the matter.
Zr. land for European had been Hussey was willing to co-operate a grant'of and I solicited the purpose. We held our entertainment aided by both but the net result, and African expenses participants after met, amounted to less than ten pounds.

The Lands Department duly assigned me a plot of land at Tabs but, although the soil was too poor for our purposes, we found the terms Consequently we were compelled absolutely and conditions prohibitive. to, -leave the matter in abeyance... " For an early example of his support in The Comet. see for. Booker T. Washington type ideas and projects For a later example, see The the issue for 5th August 1933, pp-3-4. 6th March 1937, p. 5. Cwt,,
96. Coet, The___ 28th September 1935, pp. 8 & 24.

758.
the theme "White back as his tensions of Nairobi Womenand Coloured Men", which had concerned him as far 97 Likewise he attacked the pre-

days as a New A

contributor. - such-as

of "Scientific" that

racism

the "findings" brains children

theories

of *Dr. H. L. Gordon to Europeans, via that worthy and

"nati'es"had

smaller

and inferior to British

the publicising
journal, Gordon's, cover for the

of those "findings"
Children's purported News, aper. to prove

Je denounced Africans the to

Dr. euch as au a mere 93 On

which

be childlike,, . trusteeship.

economic

exploitation

under

name of

later

occasions

he denounced,

in his

"Men and Mattere"

column,

the Aryan

myth and, even the. noted biological J. B. S. Haldane, for regarding

scientist

and Communist intellectual of Africans missing as not proven. is 99

the equal capacity ' What-is

But these, were echoes from the past. the advocacy races" could of any overall confront their plan,

Comet from Theme

economic or political,

whereby the "darker the road to

enemies in unity

and advance along

freedom.,, Coret The State",

The nearest was editorial, to stretch

to a Pan-African

scheme advocated thirties

in the pages of "Buffer

upport= in . the late

for. an African

from the tropic

of-. Capricorn

to the tropic

Cancer, of

and to be guaranteed where "the salvation. African

by the European Great Powers. may be allowed, by-those to workout{his agencies

This would be a place own political and economic to

undisturbed

dominating

which have failed

97.

4th January 1936, pp. 12-13 contains a long attack on miecegenaibid, between Englishwomen and Nigerians; tin`-ancl=in particular on, marriagea by Duse Mohamed Ali, in ibid,, 25th. January 1936, p. 7. this was sternly rebuked TheComet, '10th 'arch 1934', p. 5.

98.

99.

ibid,

11th August 1934, p. 5 & 31st October 1936, p.?.

759.
advance his advocated material or political this rather welfare. unlikely " But no course of action was

to achieve

state, called

and the very idea came A. J.: iiggins. State" 5iggins' as, in some

not from an African plan,

but from an Englishman

which was published

in The Comet. saw the "Buffer to keeping

obscure way, a contribution anything. Ali's yet it 100 Although advocacy

the peace in Europe as much as plan reminds us of Dune Mohamed in former German East Africa, rather

the "Buffer of an African

State" State

earlier

can only

be regarded

as the fading -

shadow of Pan-Africanism

than the substance. However, it'was African Affairs

by no means the case that sense'during-his

he was uninterested Lagoa years. Indeed,

in one

in a general

of his most constant Impending compliance repartition of Britain

preoccupations-during of Africa and France. for the Nigerian

the thirties

was the apparently and Germany, with the

the, hands of Italy at From as. early Daily

as December 1932, in his

days as a columnist

Times, he had taken note of the

of some elements in Germany to restore Germany's lost colonial ambition 101 that Duse tlohamed Ali could not know was that despite its empire. increasing proceeded, To Hitler, level'of the Hitler propaganda aboutYformer regime placed Africa German Africa low in its-list a matter as the thirties of priorities. and

' German' colonisation

was primarily

of Ostpolitik,

Comet, 100. -The

6th ) ay '1939, PP-. 5,7

& 10.

Daily Times, 16th December 1932, p. 3, 101. "Aboutf'it' and 'About", - Nigeiian Lothar Bohlen, Managing Director of the Woermann Line, for attacked his' col'oinial- hopes.

760.
Africa-a clever times side show102 to - which, the to however, could of be exploited with his usual at

opportunism London inclined of to that African fears,

disadvantage the view to that

Britain

and France. could be achieved

Indeed in

detente

Europe one very in

at - the, price frightening Nigeria general these for

concessions British country colonial

Hitler

West Africans. might

but in , Africa an illusion, 103 In 1938 rumour was rife over to Germany as part

the

be-handed

of a

settlement the Prime

and repartition. Minister might pro

The Comet shared responsible

noting of

that

who had been "mainly also quo for were be tempted the loss to

the

transfer

Czech territory" by way of Although of a quid

"compensate former

Germany, with African statement

Nigeria "104

of her

colonies. of the

these the

fears

soon soothed with

by "a definite there can

intentions

British

Government

which

be no cause for

complaint",

105 attitude

yet

this

scare brought

about a major change ambitions

in The Comet's editorial in Africa.

to Germany's supposed territorial

102. See Wolfe, W. Schmokel,. Dr eam of Erire: New IIaven and London 1964, pp. 17-20.

German Colonialism.

1919-1945,

pp. 103-128 passim, ` shows- that a willingness to hand over parts 103. ibid, trait of the Chamberlain Government. of Africa was particularly a. But Chamberlain & Co. were not`the'only as November offenders as`late 1939 the Labour Party advocated a. negotiated peace, to include. an i. e. the handing "agreed, non-imperialistic`eettlement of colonies"S See ibid, p. 129. to Hitler. colonies over, "of Ibid, 19th November 1938, p"5" 12th November 1938, p"5 t, 104. Thee that Nigeria is to be handed over to Germany remarked "rumour is rife in exchange for Tanganyika. " 105. ibid, 3rdT December; 1938 'p .5 '' '

761.
Prior
taken

to that

time,
cool so far

if

not exactly
and fatalistic

sympathetic,
attitude Gold attitude

Duse Mohamed Ali

to German demands.

bad
The

a surprisingly went

Comet never which the

as the pro Nazi.

contemporary But its

Coast

newspaper

Vox F6vu1t, from The P Voxvuli

was consistently tone not of

was quite Press in

distinct

anti-German although

the

British

West African only

general;

Comet,

pro-German,

was the

journal

to support

in the desire Dusian editorial

to return

to Germany her African

colonies.

106

A typical from

on the return

of Germany's colonies

is the following

The Comet of 26th September 1936; Week" when meetings will be held Germany intends to hold a "Colonial throughout the country demanding the return of her former Colonies. If Europe is not looking for serious trouble with the utter extinction face facts and return her rulers might profitably of her civilization, those German Colonies ere the European Continent is deluged in blood. Herr Hitler is a man of determination who really means business.
The operation may be painful, leg rather than the loss of but it were wiser the head. 107 to lose an arm or a

However shortsighted justification theory different, of British Nigeria theorists, except for

this

attitude

seem at first, may attitude.

yet

there

is some such Nazi

Duse Mohamed Ali's

To begin with, in Africa jargon,

as there

was about native for

administration a different the basis African

was not so very

making allowances indirect rule

from the orthodoxies administration time. culture in

theory, British

of British

and most other the African

colonies

at that folk folly

To the Nazi of his own, him

was possessed of a genuine the criminal

where Europeans had committed

of educating

106. Edmunds, The Newspaper Press in British

107. "Men and Matters", The Comet, 26th

West Africaq
1936,

pp. 213-6.
p"5.

September

762. into a bastard Europeanised suitable within his 108 for

Way of life.

At least

in parts

of Africa could be left

not to

climatically continue white

in

European settlement, culture, thirties

often

the African

traditional In his

subject writing

to subordination

to ultimate

authority.

about European Imperialism

the opinion that there was

Africa,

Duse Mohamed Ali

expressed

little

difference
very

between one brand of Imperialism

mistaken in this. He made these

and another.
views clear in

Perhaps
an editorial

he was not

entitled

"Expansionism"

in October

1935;

In these days of so-called progress every nation which possesses a Japan, Germany, Italy, desires to expand. have surplus population each voiced the necessity. Japan with an enormously increasing seized Manchuria population Germany bereft of her former colonies is marking time until a . favourable to re-possess those colonies opportunity-arises, or seize a section of that disappearing part of this planet known as "No Man's Land". Not, of course, because it is uninhabited, but because the, unfortunate people who are the rightful owners must bow to the exigenThe usual recourse being the backwardness cies-of might over right.
'i

108. See Dream of Empire, pp. 160-71. Note especially clauses 5-8 of the Deutscher Kolonial Katechismus, p. 161 -I _R5. The principle of the separation of the races applies in the German colonies.. Aiding the welfare of the natives is one of the The separate folkish prigs ry tasks of all German colonial activity. dons, their customs and mores and legal. instit nature of the natives, will be honored insofar as they do not offend the German concept of morality. 6. For non-natives German- lax is principally: for_ applicable; : Regular courts have jurisdiction natives, native law. over nonthe administration natives,. over natives. 7.: The natives are protected in. their landed property and.; their Landed propertymay be transferred from-natives to-nonother rights. natives only with the, permission of-. the competent authority.
in 8. The. -German government the administration. " strives for the participation of natives

Substitute the word "British" for "German" throughout, nothing here that Lugard would have objected to.

and there

is

:a., ,

763.
of the inhabitants of the country which wealth and the undeveloped "needs". The "need" of the people to be let alone, being civilization to the expanders; they proceed to extract of minor importance such "advanced" natural wealth and teach the exploited as is obtainable "civilization" though (sic) methods of which agency the expanders for the mineral of a cheap manufactures exchange their wealth ... benighted people. Italy, being banned emigration to with an increasing population, States, She must either the United must find an outlet elsewhere. She needs iron, coal, oil, expand or bust. petroleum, of which all Hence Abyssinia has been marked out as are to be found in Africa. the country to her expansion. most suited

The, big League Members have already expanded so greatly that is alone available. Ethiopia Of course there is considerable unoccupied land in the "New" World but Europe is barred by the Monroe Doctrine which does not permit European expansion in that section ... of the planet which has already been ear-marked for "God's own Country" for any expansion that country may deem expedient. ... Thu Whe 'Dew World being closed to the expansionist, Africa alone is left. A few weeks later the "right" he delivered himself of an editorial, expansion, with tongue in cheek, apparently on

of Italy in their

and Germany to colonial favour, but concluding

accepting

the arguments whole question those who shall

the remark "some day the may be contested by

of the right place

tojossessions morality

in Africa

international

above material

advantage. "110

Commenting-on Hitler's of Germany's former

May Day speech in 1937, which had demanded the return colonies, Duse said;

Let us face facts., Spain, England, %'rance,, Germany,, Italy have all These nations were weak and been appropriating other people's land. compelled to submit to MIGHT. If possession of these lands were "necessary" to the existance of one of these invading European nations, it was "necessary" to ALL. Germany had no RIGHT to "her Colonies" any Her Colonies. taken away by more than ... the. other powers mentioned. Peace Treaty"was, -a measure of revenge; and was Mandated Versailles the countries. who assisted-to-subdue wit` more:Germany. - (sic) to those that Germany should bleat about the restoration of her natural'than Colonies? 111 former
t ?tt..

109: `'"Ab6t it 110, ibid, 111. ibid,

and About",

in The Comet, 5th October

1935, p. 6.

2nd November 1935# pp"6 & 229 8th Yay 1937, p. 7.

764.
It is thus clear claims, colonial that fundamentally he was not hoodwinked by German or

Italian other

but aware that powers. invaded

they were as good (or s bad) as those of

When the Italians demnation

There

Ethiopia

in 1935, The Comet spoke in conagainst an independent

heart really aware

of this

European aggression
where

African

nation.

can be no doubt

Duae Mohamed Ali's of expansionism including incident

was when it that Italy was In Italian

came to a concrete only the doing interval what

example other

though Britain, in

nations, the Walwal

had done before. 1934, and the

between

December

invasion hardly question

in October surprising might

1935, there

was a rather

confused still could

reaction hope that

in The Comet the Ethiopian mention

at a time when the world be solved without war. 112

Duse Mohamed A1i's he then"referred At this aggression

first

of the crisis as, with

was as late

as 2nd'March

1935;

to Abyssinia stage, he

Liberia,

one of the two sick that position

nen of Africa. Italian 113

was content

to warn Britain Britain's

successful in Egypt.

in Ethiopia

would threaten perceptions

9

By the summer of 1935, his adverse opinions

were sharpening;

on 22nd June he warned of "the of the African should Italy

which may be created to seize Abyssinia

in the breast without

be permitted "114

any intervention

on the part

of Britain.

112. For the growing Italo-Ethiopian of 1934-35 and world reactions crisis War J. Barker, The Civilizing MMiseion. -The Itplo-Ethiopian it`iee`A. London'l968, Vacillates", "Britain 19, 48-128, passim, but'eap. pp. pp. 88-405. 113. "MenandiMatters", The in Comet. f. 114. ibid, 22nd June 1935, p"5.
1 f

to

2nd March~1935,
"

p. 5.

765.
n 6th July 1935, he was attacking the attitude of The League of Rations,

never a body for

which he had much respect;

Such weak nations as China, Liberia and Abyssinia can be effectively coerced because, having no means of adequate defence against the big the members, they must curl up, apologise and hand over any territory neither Japan nor Germany big fellows consider ripe for exploitation. be coerced and both marched out. 115 could After Ali the Italian mistakenly invasion believed that in October, there-were occasions when Duse Mohamed hardly -

the war would go in favour 'i11-informed 116

of Ethiopia and often

surprising misleading

in view of the contradictory, news emanating

downright he meditated

from the country. defeat.

But increasingly

on the coneequencea of an Ethiopian

Thua, in April

1936 he wrote;

the non-European world, subject and independent, has been carefully It has been observed how casually watching recent events in Abyssinia. It has been a non-European member of the League has been treated. concluded that had the League been would not have been active Italy before war had been declared and that allowed troops in East Africa Italian cargoes of poison gas would have been barred from passing through the Suez canal. 117, By this as far time, he was no lonv; erIprepared to merely editorialise. a mass meeting Indeed, on the

back as September 1935 he had been 'criticl"of question held at the Glover 'M"Iemorial. Hall

Abyssinian chairmanship

in Lagos under the to Eia

of Ron. E. J. Moore, which had merely

renewed "loyalty

115. "About t

and About",

ibid,

6th July

1935,

_p.

8.

bias, Evelyn 116. Despite its undoubted anti-Ethiopian and pro-Italian in Waugh's, eye-witness the life of a, war, correspondent account of 'rep. 1937, pp. 48-82 Addis Ababa during the war. Waugh in Abyisifiia, 83-213 passim, gives, a, graphic and probably accurate account of the & , nature of much of the so-called news emanating from the preposterous ; ethiopian capital. 117. The Comet, 18th April 1936, 'p. 5.

766.

Majesty

the King Emperor" and expressed His Majesty's from military

"whole-hearted consider

support

of any

measures that restrain Italy

Government might aggression

on Abyssinia.

necessary to take to 118 On 25th April " Ethiopian Minister

1936, in response

to an appeal

from Dr. Worqneh Martin, Abyssinian Relief

The in London, he launched Comet

making the cash 10th initial donations began Cot, et of five

Fund, he and his wife

same time same cause. to Duse. his 119 He wrote friends In on

pounds

each. with

At the the

Shacklefords terms October the

to concern

themselves

Relief

Fund was a disappointment

1936;

(has been sent) to the to this writing 80 sterling up .. e a sum of Ethiopian Ministry in London. Instead of E80 we should have been able to send 08,000. Abyssinia has been allowed to be invaded without the from Nigeria because those who should have raised the mildest protest They did not and duty were asleep. people to a sense of righteousness that its ethnic strains that Africa is one and' indivisible; realise that the same blood passes through the are so universally -blended Meanwhile, the Afro-Americans are reported to have sent veins of all. These people to Abyssinia and supplied a Red Cross unit. volunteers but they were behind their-American could have retired citizenship, to proud of their African origin and that pride was an incentive The British They acted while the indigenes slept. Government action. did not prohibit its subjects from contributing aid to material The people were asleep and their leaders allowed them to Ethiopia. They forgot that they bled. continue their slumbers while Ethiopia one day be called upon to render 'a strict account for their --shall When will Africa stewardship. awaken to a true sense of her respon120 aibilities? '""

118. "Men and }tatters",

in The Comet. 28th September 1935, p. 5.

119. "About it and About", The Comet, 25th April 1936, p. 7. For the interest funds for the Ethiopian Shackleford's in collecting cause, Mrs. " G. - S2iacklefoz d-to Herbert Macaulay, 19th May 1936, undated, see III, Papers, General Correspondence, and 10th May 1936, in. ". acaulay 15t 1936. 120. "Von and. Matters", 10th October The Comet, 1936, p"5"

767.
Yet immediate together I)use Wohaned Ali fruits with his of of his have been so pessimistic. Fund were small, in it played in his Although a part, awakening schooldays, a the

need not Comet Relief

many editorials Nigerians.

on Ethiopia Chief. 1nahoro,

1.935-1936,

new generation has written;

recollecting

I was fairly informed the well about those matters which occupied Our favourite of the Lagoa press of those days ... newspaper, attention emigre domiciled The Comet, was a weekly publication for by an Egyptian From it I followed the fortunes of the Italomany years in Lagos. War, about which Father and my teachers Abyssinian appeared considerably Fellow-feeling with other Africans agitated. was a newly awakened failure to go sentiment, much diappointment was felt about England's to the aid of the Ethiopians, were taken for a 'Help and collections 121 Fund'. The seeds of nationalism Abyssinia were being sown in tae.

Chief

Obafemi Awolowo likewise public

recalls

the big impact Italo-tthiopiaf

the Vigerian on

news-

reading paper he believes in other Premier figures

of Duce Mohamed Ali's

:gar editorials;

lacking, they helped' to create an axarenoss, hitherto of events 122 destined to be The late S. L. Akintola, parts of Africa. 'most powerful political letter readers

of' the Western Region' and one "of Nigeria's prior 'to the military

'1966', ' wrote coup of 'January its editor

a worried his

to The Comet on 20th July on the situation, dedication taking

1935 asking into

to enlighten

to collective

account the League of Nations' 123 Akintola security. was bluntly victory attend the armed invasion

supposed told "Mussolini

will'nnez"Abyssinia

should

of Ethiopia

121. Enahoro, 122.. Information

Fugitive

Offender,

45" p. 16th February 1967. The Comet, 20th

from=Chief

0. Avolowo,

123. Letter from S. L. Akintola July 1935, Q"1"

on the-Abyssinian

question,

768.
by Italy". letter, 124 After the Italian that invasion, "the Akintola sent The Comet a further the Ethiopians 'negro' world the a full

in which he observed

war has taught the

unprofitableneas realization had also intellectual

of conservatism",

and had "given

of the merits t;hown that "the

and demerits partitioning remote, "125

of European imperialism", of Africa It makes our political

though it and

emancipation writings

would be too much to say that conquest inspired

Dugs Mohamed Ali's PanAfricanism and Akintola,

about the Italo-Ethiopian Nigerian leaders rather

among such young future

Awolowo, Enahoro as

who were to become nationalists

than Pan-Africanista. on Africa sowed, as, to the people

But a new awareness of r%urope's growing Enahoro has said, Ethiopian against crisis "the

stranglehold

seeds of-riationalism". of the world-wide triggered off

Duse's reactions revulsion of black 126 part

form part

European Imperialism years

by those events* War were the last -his initial

The early

of. the Qecond Jorld journalist.

of Duse to the hour of

N: ohamed-Ali! s life outbreak

as an: active loyalty

reaction this

of war was "Let

and Duty be our watchwordAn

124. "Men and Patters",

The Comet, 27th July

1935. p. 5. War, The Comet, 30th

125. Letter from S. L. Akintola November 1935, pp. 1-2.

on the Italo-Ethiopian

West African Press to the Ethiopian 126, For thejeaction of the British Crisis, of. black Amerisee Edmunds, op. cit., p. 118; --for the reaction From Slavery to Freedom, p. 561 and Angelo cans, see John Hope Franklin, Del, Rocca,, 'ire Ethiorian 1War1935-1941,. Chicago and London 1969, p. 92; for Jomo Kenyatta's reaction, see. his "Hands, off: Ethiopia! ", Labour September 1935, pp"532-36. Monthly, 17,9,

769.
trial! African in the "127 press. First to to This 128 World the was, indeed, the general from reaction this of the of British loyalty; and Asian for those the who arrest West but as

He never iar

wavered

position the

he repeatedly war effort. of British leaders

emphasised

African

con-

tribution wished of that

Allied

He had no sympathy defeats in thus -

take

advantage

he regarded deserved,

Gandhi

and other Nippon

Congress attempt

1942 as richly invasion the

believing

"should

a successful

Mahatma and his cause which them to would be

Congress realise

would that

be forced rule

to accept

conditions

which to

would hell

British

was a mundane heaven

the

meted out by an acquisitive Japanese Imperialism from suspicion But on other British Atlantic colonial

Japan. "129

Since he had had his doubts about 1920,130 he may be exonerated to read. disgust of the coloured recognition

and militarism writing

since at least

of merely occasions

what the censor would have liked accomodating. the universal of opinion he cited He noted with application among Britain's the half-hearted

he was less

attempts Charter,, subjects.

to equivocate

about

as did many leaders 131 In particular,

127. The Comet, 9th September 1939, p"5. 128. Edmunds, op. cit., p. 219. 1942, `p. 5.

129. The Comet. 12th August

130. See -'AR, Islay 1920, p. 45, which in sharp distinction to Dus4'a preabout japan, refused to accept fier politically Great War writing as a in Rorea does not non-European power, on the grounds that her "policy inspire in her bona fides in so far'as her'' it affects confidence with the coloured peoples of 'the world. " relations , , 131.. See'The Comet, 10th -January ,1942, p. 5, and 25th February 1942, p. 5. 'For Zik on the Atlantic Charter and"British West Africa, see note 134 below.

770.
given to that British Writing he said; what still to Haile Selassie, Charter's world when restored honest to his throne, 132 political to live to as cause Duse also changes see those in its the for doubt. as

the Atlantic the Second Colonial in the "what stands

implementation. lead to vast

recognised within the

war would though of the

Empire, context

he was not sweeping will

changes. Far hast, shape;

Japanese not

conquests in

has been destroyed will undergo

be rebuilt reaching

former "133

profound

and far

changes.

Thus his support did not mean that system was either demands - for government five years for

for

the wartime

imprisonment

of the Indian of the British

Congress leaders colonial to the political responsible after selfanother

he believed possible

the preservation

or desirable.

He gave publicity internal

the end of Crown Colony Government, Nigeria after ten years, with full

independence

drawn up in 1943 by Azikiwe as secretary to the West African 134 to Britain. Press Delegation And in May 1944, at a dato when the Daily 132. The Comet, 2nd January
133. The Comet. 9th

1943, p. 5.
.

May 1942, -pp. 5'&

Press'Delegation, 1943 West African 134. For'the see Sklar, Ni, er n Political r ies p. 56.. For a summary of this delegation's memorandum and the
full text introduction to it as the delegation's of Azikiwe's Note that & 16. see The-Comet . 18th September 1943, pp-5,7 introduction, ibid, wrote in this p. 7; secretary, Azikiwe

"We have listened to the orations of our, leaders on attentively We have read the declaration war and peace aims. of policy contained The undersigned, Charter. in fact, in the Atlantic asked the Prime )ttnister document was applicable to the British whether this historic Empire, and he replied Colonial that the provisions made therein were Government. with the declared policy of His Majesty's not inconsistent But it has become clear to us in British West1Africa that unless in the lurch. we make known our feelings and aspirations we may be left it is the duty of the Africans-themselves-to get together now and ... hammer out unceasingly what they want for Africa. "

771.
Coret's editorials no longer invariably came from his own pen, the follow-

ing appeared;
Hitler is as much a European as any other white man, and his contempt for the non-European has also been one of the items of the propaganda Coloured The to mobilise the Axis Powers. to fight peoples against not majority of the Coloured races are today with the United Nations, Powers, but as equal of the great battling as mere camp followers sharers of a common destiny.

Those white men who still dream of establishing a post-war world based on a colour bar, racial discrimination and economic exploitation l35 living in a fool's paradise. are undoubtedly Surely Duse Mohamed Ali himself wrote these prophetic words, which were to Remarks about 136

be fulfilled

in so many post-war

colonial

freedom struggles.

"camp followers"

can be found in his

editorials last forty

in the old ATOR in 1917-1918; testament years on the future life of those for.

and they can perhaps be regarded "darker races" that he had spent

as his nearly

of his outlook

fighting

Having thus surveyed

during his his Nigerian within to have in last Nigerian left,

the old Pan-Africanist's

years, society it remains"to indeed, there.

on the world
of

attempt within In

some assessment which terms,

place

Lagos, personal

he seems his first

scarcely few years

once returned

Lagos

may have been among his herself loyally in

happiest. his various

Gertrude activities,

La Page both topics

to have seems journalistic

associated and social.

She contributed

articles

mainly

on moral

135.

"Men and Matters",

The Comet,

30th

May 1944,

p. 2.

136. For the ATOR's reactions PP"308-20.

to the Great War, see Chapter

IV,

part

II9

772.
for The Comet, and even ran a Rosicrucian they put on a variety of dramatic study centre in Lagos. for 137 To-

gether,

entertainments

the Lagos public and were

over the years; usually cultivated considerable From an Active fiction, historical for

these were sometimes attended himself.

by high officials, 138 Indeed, stage, career

produced by Duse Mohamed Ali an image of being a veteran length Life". relating 139

he assiduously proudly in and at

of the English of his theatre his

anecdotes Nor did

"Leaves for writing

he discontinue

penchant

in addition

to "Ere Roosevelt "A Daughter

romance entitled

serialised a 140 He also of the Pharaohs".

Came", he also

137.

La Page's contributions to The Comet, see For examples of Gertrude Responsibility", "Retribution "Individual 12th August 1933, pp. 10-11; Control", "Birth 16th 7th October 1933, pp. 10-l1; of Nations", In TheComet's December 1933, pp. 10-11; she had an years, earlier Duse of have relieved in virtually issue, every which must article of finding of reporsome of the pressure paying a staff copy without The notice from Lagoa in The Comet, 20th ters. of her departure to her "sorrowing farewell !; arch 1937, p. 2, speaks of her bidding Rosicrcian students".

138" See The Comet, 2nd December 1933, -P-5. for a review of a recent production of obson's Choice, produced by Duse himself, and attended by _. the Governor and his lady. His obituary in the Daily Comet, 27th to an early Duse Mohamed All production Juno 1945, p. 4, referred at the Glover Memorial Hall on 3rd October 1932 as setting a standard in Lagos entertainment real stagecraft. and. introducing 139. See Chapter II for Duse Mohamed Ali's theatre career.

140. For "A Daughter of the Pharaohs", see The Comet, 29th July 1933, pp. 12-17, and subsequent issues to 17th February 1934, pp. 12-13.

..

f.

773.
turned his hand to short stories on occasion, examples being "The Eamlet of Christmas

Samson Synns" is the first 1933 number. 141 But after

Comet, and "Jonah and the Whale" in its a few years, the loneliness

of old age must for the

have begun to face him. United States, to visit

In March 1937, Gertrude her dangerously ill mother;

La Page left

she never returned, September. Apparently

even after she survived

discreet them. of

the death of her mother in the following Duse Mohamed Ali's

cities, does not

death in 1945.142

Lagos, not the most

rift between been

seem to recall

any particular and tired After in her of what

Perhaps

she simply

grew homesick, life. carefully Egyptian

must have

a semi-penurious in a frugal -a

and uncomfortable but dressing of the

departure,

Duse lived floppy black

manner nice

a Fez and a big theatrical

bow tie

amalgam

and the

gentleman.

He never owned his wealthy rent Lagosian

own house,

which would have marked him off and on occasion

from the

bourgeoisie,

even had to: aove because of generation,

difficultiese if

he was friendly they were interested

enough to men of a younger in politics.

especially ,veteran
of the

Thus, Oba Samuel Akisanya, the leading

the

Nigerian

Trade Union organiser.

movement of the

and then one-of

nineteen-thirties,

lights
Youth

new nationalist

Nigerian

Movement, remembers exchanging. viaita,

went on, men of his own generation

with

the old man.

143

But as the years

passed

who he had known over

many years

141.

For "The Hamlet of Samson Synna", see The Comet, 22nd July 1933, pp. 12-18; 1933, pp. 24-27. for "Jonah and the Whale", see The Comet, Christmas La Page's departure from Lagos, see The Comet, 20th March For Gertrude for her mother's 9th October 1937, p. 3; 2; 1937, death, see ibid, _p. to his funeral those who sent wreaths see %eat African she was among Pilot, 28th June 1945, p"l.

142.

143.

Information Ali's life

to the writer from Oba'ISamuel"Akieanya, in Lagos. style and circumstances

on Duse(Mohamed

774. In l4ay 1939, J. I"I. Stuart-Young,

the years, regained died. close

away.
for it

who had contributed

Herbert Macaulay A cryptic

many articles
survived note in Luse, the and

The Comet over is clear that

144

they

friends.

Macaulay

papers,
acting

dating

from December 1939, implies

in one of Herbert

that

in some way Duce was then

business deals. 145

as an intermediary

Macaulay's

Duse Mohamed Ali movements, although and indeed Nigerian known as the Nigerian Yaba Higher Macaulay's College Nigerian

was not partisanly his years there

active

in any of Lagos's evolution

political

saw an important

in Lagosfan,

politics.

In 1934 the Lagos Youth Movement (later initially to fight the

Youth t1ovement) was created, plan. National

In 1938, as the N. Y. M., it Democratic Party,

displaced its

Herbert foundation

which since seats

had enjoyed a virtual and the Nigerian less destroyed

monopoly of the elected Council. crisis, 146

in the Lagos municipality

Legislative by an internal

In 1941 the N. Y. M. was more or in the secession Nigeria, of Zik the (N. C. N. C. )

culminating

and hie follower8.147 nucleus of 'the later 148

In 1944, the National National

Council, for

Council, for -Nigeria

and the Cameroon

was inaugurated.

This was a departure

of the greatest

significance,

144. See "Gone but not Forgotten", Comet, 27th May 1944, p. 2.
vr

in memoriam for

J. M. Stuart-Young,

Daily

145. Duse Mohamed All to Herbert Macaulay, 4th December 1939, in Macaulay Papers, General Correspondence, III, 18,1939.
146. For the foundation the nineteenthrough of the L. Y. M. andaiti progress Constitutional thirties, in Nigeria, Developments see K. Ezera, p. 55 Nipprian Political Parties, and Sklar, pp. 48-9 & 52.

147. Ezera, op. cit., p. 56, op. cit., _Sklar,. Awo, pp. 142-152. account, 148. Coleman, Nigerias Background

pp. 52-4,

and a lively pp. 264-5"

but partisan

io Nationalism,

775.
since of the under Azikiwe's dynamic national leadership movements the in N. C. N. C. was to be the post-war British Colonial first

mass membership

Africa. The emergence situation sides of for the of the L. Y. M. in 1934 created a potentially friendships divide The leader difficult on both

Duse Mohamed Ali, new Lagos political

as he had personal divide, and this

was characterised of but the N. N. D. P.,

by much personal Herbert Macaulay,

bitterness was an old the

and mud-slinging. friend of

Duse Mohamed Alt's, members, L. Y. ft. 's

so was Dr. became

J. C. Vaughan, friendly with

one of at least 149

L. T. M. 's

founder of the

and Duse also

one other In practice, remembered

founders these

and leaders, with

Samuel Akisanya. consumate impartial, skill; above

he negotiated by Obafemi party

difficulties as politically

he is the

Awolowo strife,

normal

rancorous

and as having

helped

to raise

the general

standard

of objective in Duse's

reporting time, this

in the Nigerian finely balanced It

press* and

150

Given the tone of Lagos politics widely accepted impartiality

wan a considerable as an outsider, local goodwill,

achievement.

was also

a necessary particularly luxury

achievement; dependent'on

whose circumstances

made him the

he could not have afforded

of political

partisanship. for political

As we have seen, in-fighting

in London days he had politicians

had as much-talent of the thirties So far

as the Nigerian

and forties. than personalities were concerned, he generally

as causes rather

149. For the, original 150. Information

leadership

of the L. Y. M., see Ezera, 16th February 1967.

op. cit.,

p. 55.

from Chief

0. Axolowo,

776.
managed to align of iaba Higher 151 In

himself College,

with his

the initial

prevailing enthusiasm.

feeling for

in-Lagos. the project an for

the case of

and rebuke once almost as 3rd part must of

"doubters" all

put

him in

a dangerously united in

exposed the

position, College. as "for that

prominent 1934,

Lagosians

opposing

As late the most

March

lause was condemning rather than

the

Yaba critics and urging after the the

destructive rest 17th the for tional value

constructive" 152 trim, However, shifting

"our

confidence meeting

upon the

Governor".

L. Y. M. protest of his

March he began to protesters "a very to natural the

weight Its

disapproval

from

Education

Department. and he conceded

secrecy that

was responsible rate educalittle

suspicion", operating but

"a second would the regard

institution to Nigeria";

under

the

guise

of a College of

be of existing for

he still "while

avoided

any criticism the highest

authorities,

by remarking

we entertain

the

sincerity,

of both Sir

Donald Cameron and

.r.

Hussey neither 153

of these gentle-

men are destined direction

on his of its

to remain permanently fences

title Service.

in Nigeria., with
to

His change of it was

was enough to mend his

advice that it changed the of Daily its

the embryo L. Y. M.;

and until the

N. Y. M.,

creation by being "154

own newspaper, the privilege popular

The Corset was "honoured its informative agitation

accorded

publishing

many of as its

articles. against

Such generally

L. Y. M. campaigns

increased

151. see TheyCovet. 3rd February 1934, p. 3",

152. ibid', 153. ibid,, 154. ibid, 3rd 'arch 1934, PP. 3-4.

,,..

24th FArch 1934, P-.514th September 1940, p. 4.

777.
licence supported fees for lorries (most 155 of which were owned by Nigerians), were

by The Comet

But all During

this

was far fought

the heat

from becoming a committed Lagos Town Council

of battle, and the

partisan

of the L. Y. M.

the bitterly
from

election
reasons for

of 1938, he made his

it, very clear to

abstention

his

readers;
We are not partisans. We recognise the virility of Youth and its for in the direction potentialities of advancement with a due regard Old age, when influence the stabilizing of well-balanced old-age. by misis termed dottage; Youth, can also be unbalanced unbalanced, We have refrained from comment because, directed enthusiasm. although the extremely in narrow outlook which seems to obtain an African, this to be rather is inclined in section of the Continent parochial is apt to be considered African, although which the "outsider", an interloper And as both parties issue are to the current political ... to be sensitive to well-intentioned very likely criticism or adverse to stick comment, however constructive euch comment may be, we prefer to our own brand of non-intervention at the ring-side while standing to view the contest with such detachment as we have at our command: During the five existence, we have endeavoured years of "The Comet's" Such criticism to be informative than critical. rather as we felt impelled to offer has been, for the most part, perversely misunderHence, we consider "discretion" to be the "better stood. part of 156 it quite impossible to be "all things to all valour", as we find men".

If

he had any leaning

at all

in'the

N. N. D. P. - N. Y. M. political the N. N. D. P. 'and his was over,

conflict old friend

of 1938, it Herbert l: acaulay

would seem to have been towards After the heat-of

Macaulay. for

the elections in`the

he praised elections

accepting

N. N. D. P. defeat

Legislative

Council

L. Y. M., and Samual Akisanya, from Dr. J. C. Vaughan, President 155. See letter L. Y. M., attacking the incE Secretary sed road licence fees in The Comet, 3rd August 1935, pp. 1 & 23r/editorial support for their position in ibid, p. 5.

156. The Comet, 25th June 1938, 'p. 5.

778.
"with his the is supreme detractors, N. Y. M. were a game fraught dignity should. warned; with wedded to a manly unstintingly "to disaster play for at courage which "157 without all Nigeria, other including hand, experience place

appreciate. politics the players.

On the

any political We take no second

in our sincere necessary

desire

for

the advancement of youth, if we would avoid

but it

is vitally

to "hasten

slowly"

disaster.

"158 Duse Mohamed Ali's figure of Nnamdi

The most spectacular.

political

phenomenum during

time in Lagos was undoubtedly Azikiwe. friends,

and the his first

the dynamic if

controversial let

He and Duse were never close but neverhtless

N. C. N. C. exposure November The Cornet;

associates, part
the

alone personal of Zik

from Hail

Duse vas to play his

impressed welcome with

in the story
Zik

He was deeply to it. Zik's

phenomena

home at

the

Glover from

Memorial

on 10th Ali in

1934 produced

an enthusiactic

response

Duse Mohamed

This brilliant young man is a product of the New Africa being and which represents a high order of intelligence He very lucidly how the African explained of to-morrow upon the efforts of the African of to-day and that the

which is in and erudition. is dependent unrest which

is at present sweeping the world is the direct result of the intellectual bankruptcy of diplomatic and economic Europe and America, which have combined to produce the social revolt in the Alussolinis, resulting Obviously this is the day of the "new the Hitlers and the itoosevelts. deal" for the younger generation, many of whom died for the chimera of democratic revival ineptitude, to for which diplomatic a universal
forms of autocratic give it no worse name, has caused the substitution for Gast and West, instead determination of government, of "Self "making the world small nationalities", and all safe for democracy": the amazing clap-trap with which a credulous world was drugged "Man Know Thyself" during, the great and immediately war. after,

157. The Comet, 29th October _ 158. The Comet, 20th August

1938, p. 5. 1938, p. 5.

779.
This young African has drunk deeply at'the is an old axiom. fitted of that knowledge which is worth-while, and has thereby brethren to show his loss informed not only whence they came, fountain himself by

the history citing of the past, but also suggesting the means of heritage Mr. Azikiwe that glorious recovering %hich was Ethiopia's. of America where there is was educated in the democratic institutions a comparative absence of false values of academic humbug, but a close to true values added to a progressive economic development attention to those of 14r. Asikiwe's type who are mentally which is a stimulant the enormous potentialities of an awakened capable of visualising Africa. to a Mr. Asikiwe likened the physical of Africa structure "question nark", we would suggest that it also taken the form of ... awake to the utter discomfiture a sleeping Negro, which oust ultimately 159 its caluznniators and exploiters. of A few weeko later
venture on his

Dune Mohared Ali

to Africa, debut

was praising
the Accra African

Zik'a

first

journalitio
Poet,, 160 an having However,

return

t+ornir# Africa"*

made "a really

impressive

upon journalistic

he was not so much under 2ik'e

election victories of 1938, in

spell
which

as to be enthusiastic
Zik and the Meat

about the N. Y. td.

Pilot played

African

a prominent competition been seen. journalist

part;

while

Co the way in which Theme t

first

suffered

from the

of Zik Press Ltd* Possibly "ik"8

and was then taken over by it of combining successful

has already business with example

practice appealed

and politics161

to the, old Egyptian

as a living life

of the practicality Zik, on the other

of what he had spent 80 much of his hand, felt affectionate birthday, respect for

attempting. editor.

the veteran

In 1943, on the occasion tribute, which listed

of his

many of the'rain

Zik paid him a handiio e birthday 162 'events of his life. '

159. See Comet, The 160. ibid,

17th: November :1934, p. 4. ' 1935, =p"5"' =" . to-his. busineae pp. 179-430. enterprises,

19th: Jnuary

161. For `'diaueaion neeJonea-tuartey, 162. vest Africn

attitude of, Azikixe' of Azikiwe, A-Life,,

i1ot,

Iivember 1943, p"1" -20th

780. The old man's position the Nigerian Nigeria political

as an honest broker

and elder

statesman

within of 163

community was such that

when the National its first

Council meeting.

ras inaugurated

on August 26th 1944, he: -chaired as a result strike of the political

The N. C. N. came into by the King's College

existence

steam generated which

Lagos students

of March 1944, against

the Government had acted harshly, into the conscripting eight ring-leaders 164 The Comet had protested in a measured way against these measures, army.
though it had not, 165 as had the is the Pilot, made them the of fuse meeting, subject of a prolonged any great N. C. N. But his

campaign. feats meeting presence record of

. There at

no record inaugural

Mohamed Ali nor at the

performing one further

oratory he chaired, in the

nor did

he ever

become an N. C. N. C. militant. was surely both a tribute

chair for

on these Africa, respected, leading

occasions

to iscpast in At U.

as a fighter

and an acknowledgement acceptable functionaries

of his

position figure. Fred

Lagos as a universally least one of the future

and non-partisan of the N. C. N. C.,

Anyiam, has since written Street, 'attending of

acknowledged

the old man's influence "claae"in Ernest

on him.

He has in Custom

Duse Mohamed Ali's with

A

journalism" Ikoli,

166 Lagoe, and of Dusk being,

13 .

one of the two

163. This seems to be one of the few really known facts about vuse widely Mohamed Ali's life, which may have given an undue impression of the See Sklar, in Nigerian party politics. extent of his involvement Nigerian Political The LevelolDment Parties, 57,. n. 46= N., Azikiwe, p. Parties London 1957, PP. 9-10; Fred U. Anyiam, in Nigeria, of Political Men and Matters in Nigerian 1934-1958, Lagos 1959, p. 14. Politics 164. Sklar,,, Nigerian Political Parties, 2; pp. 56-7. for the Pilot's campaign, see

165. See The'Comet-,, lOth. June,; 1964, j. 166. F. U. Anyiam, Among ! iperian

Celebrities,

Yaba, Lagos, 1960, p. 6.

781.
newspaper editors Anyiam has also I eat at the feet (sic), whose writing appealed that like to him in his-young "I Zik, days. 167 but

paid him the tribute of intellectuals

am not an intellectual, Ikoli, Duce MohammedAlli and otherwise. clear life that

Dr: Henry Carr to appreciate Despite contributing a small to Nigerian part

things

intellectual it ii

"

168

politics,

political A

activity far

was only

of Duse Mohamed Alt's was the affairs

in Lagos.

more continuous

preoccupation this

of the Lagos Mulsim comby faction; quarrels ' there were

munity. quarrels

Unfortunately,

community was riven

between Ahmadis and orthodox elderly leaders

Sunni Muslims;

between with educa-

ultra-conservative western tion plexity Within learning,

who wished to shun all

contact

and younger

modernisers

who wished to see western and personal quarrels

embraced by the Muslim community; that this outsiders difficult could hardly

of such com169 hope to get to the bottom of them. without hesitation, him the

situation,

l)use Mohamed Ali,

embraced. the cause of the young modernisers. enmity of some more conservative elements. on'-"The Spirit and proclaiming

This soon brought

In November 1932`he addressed of"-Islam", tluit attacking the Lagos

the Lagoa Young Muslim Society Muslims for. mere formal antagonistic. Hope for to European piety,

Islam,: far for its

from being origins. 170

learning,

had been responsible'

the Muslim future

in Lagos was only

to be found in youth.

167.

Anyiam; }Men and hatters

in"Nigerian

Politico.

P. T.

168. ibid.,
169.

p. 17. r

. ="

.4

Islam on See Humphrey J. Fisher, A Study in Contemporary Ahmadiya. Coast, the West African Oxford-1963, pp. 91-116, and G. O. Gbadamosi, , "The, Establish ent, of,. W'estern_tducation among Muslims in Nigeria", Journal IV, 1,1967, Society of the Historical of Nigeria, pp. 89-115, for the background to the disputes among the Lagos rlualims.

170. Nigerian

Daily

Times, 26th November 1932, p. 9.

782..

Within

a few days,

this

brought

violent

anonymous accusations and fasting,

that

he was the

encouraging

FZualim youth

to neglect in drinking,

prayer

and follow

example of the Christiana

dancing

and adultery. defence.

However, 171 He con-

younger members of the Muslim community came to his tinued the role he chaired an ardent supporter of the younger To give Muslims,

among whom he assumed in July, 1941 by the

of a respected a mass-meeting

leader.

an example of this, Hall,

in the Clover with

Memorial

sponsored

Young Ansar ud-Din ing Muslim primary

part into fitted on the Spirit coloured in the to the struggle stream for

Societyp

the object education.

of considering 172

ways of improvan honourable

obscurantism

and secondary
to of his bring national religion indeed, -

Thus he played
Muslims was a part out of

Southern life.

Nigeria's This

main play,

he was peculiarly to his outlook

had always in his

related controversial to stress

closely

world-he of Islam" men-in

lived-in in world 1932,

address the role

on "The of great

he had found

time

history.

The respect

in which he was held by the modernising community, was . ehoxn" after hearse was drawn through Society, 173

younger

element

in the Lagos. A. uslim

hie: death # when at hin funeral the streets by members of The

on 27th June 1945 his the Young Au3ar ud-Din

of which he had been patron.

171. See attacks and defence

30th November 1932p p"4; on Duse Mohamed Ali in ibid. 15th December 1932, p. 10. of-Duse in ibidt p. 9, and ibid, 1941, advertisement for meeting of Young Ansar ud-

Comaet, 5th July 172. The Din Society, n. p.

173. This, and the following details of his funeral, are taken from the Pilot, 28th June 1945, p"1. account in the West African

783.
Jamazat prayer School Yard, L. B. Agusto, was led by Chief and a panegyric Imam Ligali in the Ansar ud-Din Alakoro

sermon was preached in English Dusa twenty-five

by Barrister in London,

who had lodged with

years before

and who was one of the leading Muslim community. who sent wreaths, Lagos's social Gertrude whilst

proponents

of modern ideas

in the Lagos were among those of I. S. L.

La Page and the Shacklefords

among the mourners were many of the leaders life, including Herbert Macaulay, Dr.

and political

Olorun-Nimbe, Akintola,

Dr. O. H. Omololu,

J. T. Nelson-Cole,

Rev. J. A. Iddwu,

Bode Thomas, Anthony Enahoro and Rev. ' S. A. Pearse. of Nulsim mourning,

This was from all The obion the events Perhaps the most

more than an occasion sections tuaries of his fitting

but one in which leaders last respects.

of the community gathered were suitably life largely eulogistic from Zik's

to pay their and drew their -

information of 1943.

birthday

tribute

words to conclude from his

the story own Daily

of Duse'Miohamed Ali's Comet;

life

work with

are the following

If Mr. Ali did not die with thousands'of stored away idly in pounds the bank, it is certainly not because he could not have made money ... But I like to believe that wealth in itself meant nothing to him, happy. 174 unless as a means of making, others ,

'174.

"We Lose a Prince

of the Pea",,, Dai1v Comet, 27th June 1945, p. 2.

784.
CONCLUSION

In many ways,

Duse Mohamed Ali's

life

and work

is

difficult

to fit

into

existing it

knowledge about Pan-Africaniam. with the picture that -

To take the most obvious that

example, be

does not accord at all the traditional

emerges from what might by the writings

called

school

exemplified

of W.E. B.

Du Bois himself, Pan-African of congresses it

by the writings

of George Padmore, and the summary of the Legum'a Fin-Africaniism. left intellectuals That world although

phenomenon given and Marxist

in Colin

and other a total

was not his,

would be wrong to conclude the African

polarity.

He did have connections, linked Also, up his a simple

such as with with

Progress world with

Union of London, which in turn of Pan-African Garvey show that activities.

deserve the appellation

the orthodox

Du Boisian relations

Congresses.

somewhat equivocal

one cannot offer

model of pro and anti

One must as opposed to ask,

Du Bois Pan-African
Duse Mohamed Ali to use the

does

Pan-African

pan-African, l

distinction that'he concept

usefully does, without,

made by Professor grounds; doing

G. A. Shepperson. though these

The writer modify the

believes original

on two main. he hopes,

would

undue violence on 158 Fleet central

,

to it. Street

To begin with,

the sum of the activities a virtual if

centred informal fruit-

between 1912 and 1921 made it

secretariat interleave

of Negro Pan movements, through with various Islamic

which they could

fully

and Asian movements.

This was and

possible,

on one level,

because of Duse Mohamed Ali's

persistent

10. ', G: A.,: Shepperson; -"Pan-Africaniea and 'Pan-Africanism's Notes", Phvlon, 23,4,1962, pp. 346-58.

Some Historical

785.
unrelenting throughout consciousness hard the work; on another African roles because at that were roles point in time, when

world of the

and Asian they desired

peoples and the

growing that

to a greater were being imposed

on them by European focus capital and meeting of the

and North point.

American

imperialism, there

London was a natural by its position then as the ruled more contenwhich with was

They were drawn Empire the political

British

entity It a London linked

which is

Afro Asians tion not that only

than

any other

contemporary for nine but

state. years which Asia,

the writer's

to have maintained consciously in subjugated

headquarters,

Pan-African or

Pan-Africanism that this

freedom its

movements

threatened

indicates

Was, in

time, century

a central concepts for

not peripheral of a "third social white

phenomenum. world",

As a portent and poor, with

of mid-twentieth engaged in a aggressive, rich,

non-white

struggle

political, powerful

and econmic'freedon nations,

technologically can be regarded world history.

the 158 F1eet'Street some central

H. Q. of 1912-21 of modern

as of 'real''significnce'in

events

Dube Mohamed Ali's Secondly', Pan-Africanism, ' to 'wider relates Bruce,

growingiinterest'in of his trip

and"practice to Nigeria

of "economic" in 1931, J. E.

from 1912 to the debacle events,

!! any other- significant

figures

Garvey, -

%. Tete-Anna,

John Eldred} Taylor,

X. T. Tandoh, and even, in, or approved of, to produce political

to a limited "economic" its looked

W.F. B. Du Bois himself; degree Pan-Africanism. for results, -'Thus, despite

were"engaged an ultimate shared,

failure

a characteristic Pan-Africanism developments

indeed,, with

Pan-Africanism, of

"economic" Pan-African

can claim during

to have been part

of the mainstream No individual-

Dust Mohamed Ali's

time.

786.
did more, either attempt to put it to propagate into practice. were influenced may well "economic" Pan-Africaniem. ae a theory doubt that in this or to both respect, indirect

There can be little by Duse Mohamed Ali

Garvey and Tete-Anea and indeed his impact

have been even greater efforts. life

through. their

agency than through Thus the central p add up to something as Professor

his

own immediate

events far

of Dust Mohamed Ali's

as a Pan-Africaniat ephemeral", some of 2

more than "a group of movements, many very pan-Africanism. and all True,

Shepperson has characterised on 158 Fleet Street,

the movements centred business

of lluse Mohamed Ali's to obscure Duse himself, over nearly

schemes, were ephemeral. given by the 158 Fleet there,

But this Street

must not be allowed circle, especially effort

the continuity

by the magazines published two decades to proclaim Finally, and tenacity half of his

and by the continuing "economic" is a fine

and practise

Pan-Africanism. illustration may be. producing of the vigour The first consciouswhose did

Duce Mohamed Ali's of the Pan-African life is a classic the same is

career idea,

diffuse

though it

example of circumstances true of other early

ness, and no doubt formative not just twentieth direction, years

PanAfricanists Duse Mohamed Ali nineteenth forced

are as yet

wreathed

in obscurity. late

even to become a Pan-Africanist; century leaving Britain relentlessly if option

and early him in that of

unconsciously only passive

as an alternative

acceptance

imposed inferiority. Problems remain about his private life. in relation to this man. Little, really, is known for whom

Though in his

own way a

an of action,

2.

ibid,

p. 346.

787.
words were intended by his words alone. was highly, usually ephemeral; as the prelude Like nor, any other to deeds, journalist, too often he has to be judged production

much of his vast

even when not ephemeral, originality. This,

can his writings however, makes them all and done

lay claim

to profound

the more serviceable in the world

as a reflector during

of much that his lifetime. for

was being thought

of Pan-Africanism

Less than a great the student within of history: human society an

man, he was something

even more significant

embodiment of some of the forces in his era.

of change developing

788.
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22nd July

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Ltd. .

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Mortgage on Gold Coast Properties Concesaiona, 15th December 1916. ; -:. General Extraordinary 31st January, =1917. ! Meetings,

/21 ... ___.. ' w. _ /22

on. Gold Coast-properties Mortgage 17th February 1917. concessions, of balance, sheet,

and

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31st December 1917. 31st December 1918. in.

-, Last balance -, Allotment

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Nominal share capital. Contract between-Dune Mohamed, and-Fe Dove, trustee for the company, 21st August 1912. Proepootus Original Allotment
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1914.

1915"

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31st'Dicember

1920.

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B7 31/21097/125895 vii. Sierra

Leone Deer, Sea Fishizgand Proposal-to Prospectus

BT 31/18354/99352/1 /5 /10 viii. pest African

- Allotment 'ieheries" -

and Industries

BT' 31/18354/99352/10 N /17

Allotment=of

shares,

-" August 1909. Extraordinary General

to 28th 7th March 1916. 7th & 26th

" MNN

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reeting,

September 1917.

790.
BT 31/18354/99352, J. E. Taylor to !issistant Iegiotrar Companies, Transrequest change of name of to African 30th !. ay 1918. port and Industries, Allotments of Shares, 31st December 1918.
amt Trading

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31st December 1917 -

Lx.

West African

Trawling

Company Ltd.

BT 31/20739/122645 D. Colonial Office

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C. O. 446/107/39033
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Nu

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Memo. to Lugard.

C. 0.446/109/12594

Minutes n Miee S. E. 'A4arplea, 30th April 1912.

jagos Standard: 7th August

29th and
letter from

C.0.446/109/20176

1912,

Kiss S. L. ) arples with floggings. of`Zaria /114/41035 -

ref.

to

Oft cxpoae

November 1913, Northern Minute 1,27th Nigerian confidential leaks in, ATOR. Barcourt to Lugard, 8th December 1913.

MN"

/41149

Cutting of "Utopia Unlimited" by "Meganin 1913. Karin" frort ,TOR-October St. Barbe, rSladen & Wing, for Sir 28th November 1913. to Harcourt,
H. J. Bead to St. Barbe, 51aden

W. Geary,

& Wing,

5 th"'December'-1913. rt " /43686 St. 'Barbe; ' Sieden & Wing to C,.0. E 19th December 1913.
C. 0. 'to StBarbe, 81adpn & aping, 30th

December 1; 13C-0.554/10/37806 Dnily Citizen 21st November 1912, attack'

on Harcourt.

791.
C. U. 554/23/36403 Duse tiohar ed Io Flarcourt, C. G. to elder Harcourt,
Sierra

22nd September 1914.. 26th September to Governors -1914" Gambia,

Dompater,

Confidential, 2nd Cotober

Leone & Gold

Coast,

Governor-General

Nigeria,
Minute 1,

1914.
of i Dune Mohamed.

suspicions

C. O. 554/40/11271

Dune Mohamed Ali

African Association

to Bonar Law, 5th March 1918.

to Duce Mohamed Ali,

6th March 1918. Colonial Bank to Duse Mohamed Ali, 7th March-1918.

NNNN

Dune Mohamed Ali

to Long, 8th March 1918. to Duos Mohated

Bank of British hest Africa Ali, llth. March 1918. Minute 1,13th Mohamed Ali's

NNNN

Duos ?arch 1918, rejection '. offer concerning West African to Long, 16th March 1918. 20th March 1916. West Africa,

War Loan.

Du *. Mohamed Ali

C. O.. -to-Dune. Mohamed Ali, " ON " OF -'C. O. to Baik of British Duce Mohamed Ali

20th March 1918.

C. 0.554/40/21897

to Long, 3rd May 1918.

May May 1918 & Minute 3,7th 2,6th "Minute, 1918, concerning Duse MlohamedAli's wish British West Africa. to. visit
NNNN Long to Duae

Mohamed Ali,

11th May 1918. identity book.

Detaile:

of Dues Mohamed Ali's

Jules t:arpelee & Co. to Duce Johamed Ali, 21st December 1918. Aubrey Barbart li. P, to bir 16th May 1918.,. C. O. 583/8/23740 Use William Bull,

S. c. Marillen, to. Barcourt, . Protection

23rd April

1912.

Travers Buxton & John Harris,

;,. y and Aborigines 8th. July. 1913,

for Anti-Slavery;
to Marco ct,

Society,

792.
C. O. 583/27/300 Lever Bros. to under S. of :S., 24th January 1914.

Sir C. b'iddoa account of meeting with Lover Bros. representative Mr. Greenhalgh, 29th January 1914. C. O. 660/24-35 C. Foreign_ Office
i. Activities of

Papers
Ottoman -

Nigerian press-statistics, 1933-1944.

Nigerian

Blue Booka,

Committee .

and Anirlo-Ottoman Society Para, Claud 1914. to

docinty. Grey, 24th 10th August February 1914. 1914.

F. O. 371/2127/3721 " " /6859 /8751

Anglo-Ottoman Sir L. Mallet,

to Grey, Hawker,

Major-General 18th February

Trebiaonde,

to Grey,

/2128/8171 /2127/6859

Anglo-Ottoman Sir L. Fallet, 23rd February Sir L. ballet,

Society Pera, 1914. Para, India

17th

to Grey, to Sir

20th February

1914.

1.. 1licoloon,

/10316 /2135/274678

to Grey, 3rd March 1914. to G. R. Clerk,

with Govt.

A. Uirtzel,
Cone c entat, t

Office,

P. O.,
of

June 1914,

India, Home Dept., Simla, 28th May 1914, enclosed. /27468 Minute, G. lt. Clerk, by Grey. Anglo-Ottoman Society

to India

Office,

23rd June 1914, approved Circular, 23rd January January 1915. 1915.

/2482/9577 " "" /2488/50954 .. "

Henri 'Leon. to Grey,

to S. Wheeler, Home Dept., Govt. of: India, Judicial & Public Dept., India Secretary, Office, 12th i4arch 1915, enclosed. in S. ofS. 1915. India, to Under S. of S., P. O., 27th April Anglo-Ottoman. Society to Minister of Foreign .. Russian Govt., Petrograd, Provisional Affairs, 5th July 1919,. encloeed in Anglo-Ottoman 0. of S., 24th July 1919. Society-to Anglo-Ottoman 4. Anglo-Ottoman Society . Society to S. of S., to Curzon, 21st July 1919. 1920.

/2127/147160

/4219/105630 /5140/E 139

13th February

793.
ii. Aule Mohamed Ali's nationality, hackpround and origins.

P. C. 371/3728/114005 372/1274/132591

Luse Kohamed Ali

to Balfour,

9th August 1919. to Under

H. C. tiossop, for Luse Noraced Ali, :io of 3., 22nd September 1919.

wwa"-P. /135061 -

O. to H. C. Moaaop, 27th September 1919. Account

M. P. and W. Stewart, Stewart ++.

of conversation
at to Aubrey

bAtween Aubrey Herbert

P. O., 27th 14.}., t0eptember 29th 1919.

iterbert

September 1919. 371/3728/143799 M. Cheethan, British Curzon, 9th October Renorta. Residency, 1919. Rrmleh, to

iii.

F'olieA 8. n4_hiliturv_Into+lliPenee

F. U. 371/2355/15047

to C. Clarke, 8.1.5(g), war Office, P. O., 7th February 1915, with M. I. 5(g)

P. Nathan,
con

ttai

report

on Dune Mohamed enclosed.

/3717/78495

Yard, Report by gt. New Scotland J. O'Sullivan, 17th May 1919, "With reference to the activities indonm. " in the United Y. Nationalists of :, gyptian

/3728/114805

Office, Col. J. F. Carter, Director of Intelligence's 13th August 1919, Scotland House, to C. Loder, 1.0., with report on Duse Eohamid by Supt. P. kuinn, Special Branch, ;iew Scotland Yard, 27th Larch 1916. J. Loder, F. 0., to Col. J. P. Carter, Director Scotland House, 13th Intelligence's Office, Augue t 1919. , Carter to Loder, 15th. Auguet 1919.
Widows andOrQhano War Fund

/1316

of

iv.

the _Indtan_

Muslim

:soldier's

F. O. 371/2459/5541

1!. Paul Cambon, French Embassy London, 5th May 1915. Grey to Conbon. 14th Fay 1915.

to Grey,

NNNN_ /62276 -

F. Ponsonby, Privy Purse Office, V-0- p 17th h. ay 1915.

to Sir A. Nicoleon,

/5541

F. O., to Lord L3tamforaham, Privy sir As' Vicoloon, Purse_Of_fice, 17th Pay 1915.

794.
v. The ATOR'a df, r Correspondent. 1917. Herbert ?. P.,

F. O. 395/130/166216/58

Duse Mohamed All. to Aubrey 14th September 1917.

NN"

James Baird, F. O., to Lt. Col. Raymond Greene, War Office, 18th September 1917. Col. J. L. iichor, to K. I. 7. c., War Office, James Baird, P. O., 21st September 1917. James Baird war Office, F. O., to Col. J. L. Fisher, 7 September 1917. 14.I. 7. c.

NMNM

P. O*, 3. A. Gi llon, Department of Information, ) Mohamed Ali, 24th September 1917. to Duse
Duse Mohamed All to L. A. Gillow 1917. 4th October (sic), P. O.,

Wellington to O. S. Ashcroft, 1917. e James Daird, F. O., to Dus Mohamed Ali, 6th October 1917. " James Baird, P. O., House, 6th October tellingtoa 0.5. Ashcroft, , P. O., 6th October 1917.
to the United States.

vi. Activities of

House, to James Baird,

W. Tote-Anna

T`.0. -,371/12831/699 """ "/A 8426 -

Pile on activities of W. Teto-Arsa and West Producers Ltd. in the Co-operative African United States. Consulate General, New York, to R. G. krmatrong, Commercial Counsellor, Sir J. Joyce Broderick, British Embassy, Washington. `

D. High Court J. 20/14838334

of Justic

e Patera. " -

Judgement in favour of Page and Thona Ltd. v. "African Timen and Orient Review Ltd., King's 9th high Court of Justice, Bench Division, Decembor, 1912.0 Thomas Ltd. v. African Petition-of-page and Times and Orient Review Ltd. in High Court of Companies winding up. Justice, Court Order by Yr. Justice Aetbury, 20th January 1914, for winding up of African Times and Orient Review Ltd.

J. 13/6470/No -00403' of 1913 "' J. 13/6470/224 B 51 No. 00403 of 1913

795.
E. Rohe Office
fl. 0.45/274031/la

Fnners
Draft, amended by F. U., of circular Registration application of Aliens Turkish subjects. jrea e tof Ottoran Sublet _in, the to Police Order to on

U. 0.

""

/128

LAW

Kinmioz.

II.

Firers

from

the

Ghats

National

Archives.

Accr,.

Original

Correspondence,

ADM 1/531

Despatch G. C. 372, Clifford 13th June 1913. Despatch G. C. 451, Clifford 8th July 1913. Despatch G. C. 927, Clifford 19th December 1913.

to Harcourt, to Harcourt, to Barcourt,

1/532

1/536
1/239

609, S. of S. Long to Gov. G. C. despatch 1917, the Colonial Bank and 29th'October licences. Gold Coast Cocoa export Clifford Deepatch, G. C. 590 (continued), Lone, 25th October 1918, enolocure 2, Difficulties of Gold Cosut Coco rhi 18. !Native to r

1/569

III.

aj ers Fz Registryof

the NigerianI'odjral'*-, Minietrj Comrantes, Lacroa.

of

Cot rerco

and Industry,

File

526. The Comet Press Ltd.

Declaration Return of of Share formation Allotments, of the 26th company, ! 'arch 5th 5th June June 1941. 1942. Comet

Agreement of Sale between Duse Mohamed Ali Press Ltd. 29th Jiily ' 1942. ' ' 9

and the

Alteration Allotrent

of directors,

8th

eptomber 1942. 1942.

8th October of ehereg, let

August -' 21st AuCuat 1942.

Change of Directors,

8th December 1945.

796.
Protection Distressed Society Protection society to Society_Paneras r:atives C. C., Rhodos House. of Oxford. Garvey;

TV. Anti-31a_very MSS British

andAboripires S 22/G 127,

Empire Aborigines C. O. to aborigines

- repatriation 28th 30th 9th 19th 18th fay 1914.

Marcus

Protection Aborigines Protection

Society, to C. C.,

May 1914. June June August 1914. 1914. 1914.

V. J, E. Bruce MSS 1731 -

Papers.

Schamburg to

Col, leotion. J. h. Bruce,

New York 5th June

Public 1916.

Lib

ar

Duae Mohamed Ali

"? "
" " "

1922, 1936 1954 1994 -

Dues Mohamed All William E. lilkee

to J. L. Bruce, to J. 1. Bruce,
E. Sherlock,

12th 2eptciber no date.

18th January

1919.

J. E. -Bruce" to J. E. Bruce Amanda Ira to

George Mra.

1922.

Bruce, to

22nd June

1922. 7th larch 1923.

Aldridge

J. 2.. Bruce, . of . Ibadan

VI. i.

Afr

cana

llCollection,

-University

Library.

Herbert

Nacaulav

Papers..

Coneral, -Corroapondence,
of "-W.

III,

5,1926

W. Tote-Ansa to H. Isaac Jeffers 8th November 1926.

Tete-Anea to Herbert 29th November 1926. } acaulay,

Esq.,

of

of

"

79.1928--

Duos Mohamed Ali to. Herbert 10th January 1928. Tote-Anaa to Herbert lot March 1928.

Kacaulay,

"

of

of

""-W.

Macaulay,

^"

""

to

of

Duse Mohamed Ali to Chief 12th January 1928. Thaw Uobamed All to Herbert - . 12th January 1928.

Ali

alogun,

Macaulay,

797.
General Correspondence, III, 7,1928 Dune Mohamed All January 1928. to Chief Oluwa, 12th

(K. F. T&ndoh) to Chief Amoah III Herbert Vataulay, 28th February 1928. 9,1930 10,1931 CoJ. H. Stuart-Young to Went African Producern Ltd., 11th Earth 1930. operative Dune Mohamed Ali to Herbert 30th September 1931. Pacaulay,

15,1936
16,1937

firn. C. :nhackleford to erbort Iacaulay, 19th yay 1936.

J. M. Stuart-Young 8th June 1937. to Dusel 1ohamed Juli, Macaulay,

18,1939

Dose Mohamed Ali to Herbert 4th December 1939.

U.

Obisesan

Diaries.

Entries .....

for

29th July 30th-July,

1920. -1920.

2nd August 1920. 3rd August 1920.

VII. ! anusorirt Faera fron the__Library Cori recs.

_0_f

i.

Booker T. VOLshlMto

Pacers. 4th April let 1912.

Box 465,1912

Duce Mohamed to Booker T. Naahington, Duse Mohamed to Booker T. Waohington, -

May 1912. 7th August 1912. 1912.

J. V. Caaely Hayford to Booker T. Wauhington, I>use 1ohamed to Bookor T. w'anhington, ii,, Carter. C. son Patera. _'Wood

23rd October

Accession 3579, addition :. I

5 to box. 5 - J. E. Bruce to-Carter 25th January 1922.

J. E. Bruce to Carter 2nd August 1922.

C. Woodson,
0. Woodson.

796.
VIII. CorresDondenco fror} R. R. tioton Paroro. TuskeRem Institute Archives.

General

Correspondence,

1917
1922

Ouse Mohamed All,

R. R. Moton to

to R. R. Moton, 24th October

Mohamed Ali, 31st 'arch

1917.

Dwe

1922.

"

to

"-

: Vane Mohamed Ali

1uae Mohamed Ali,

to A. R. Ftoton, 4th April

for Universal Eegro

1922.

Improvement

Association, to to -

to R. h. Voton, for
R. it. to Noton, to

4th April

1922.

Duse Mohamed Ali,

Association, B. R. Moton's

Universal

Negro Improvement

20t h June 1922, i Uuse Mohamed All,

secretary

June 1922. 1)use Mohamed Ali,

Trading Co. Inc., Ahns and Objects Trading Co. Inc.

1923
""-

for
to

American African
R. R. Moton, Anerican 19th African

Oriental
February Lriental 1923.

is

of the

IX.

in The JMrd ChambA 1a 1Anus t rlsXs J! useug Library. and British

's co11e

do

.J

es Palec

Licence

no. 241 of lot " 123 "

227 " 184 "

August

1901

--

Goldberg,

Pax, ecreta Leonard.

Henry,

`of the Orient). Service.

W.C. 0 Claudian. Lrne t,

30th November 1899 - herberty

22nd November 0th 1883 - Heran,

On Active

and Willa,

tlovemaber 1909

- Mohamed, pose, and irimmingham, The Lily of Bermuda.

285 "

11th August 1902,1,. --! $cudamore, Frank A.,

ondtnce with the writer.

Bec use I t.cve You. .

X.

Interviews

and Correa

Alhajji

L. B. Agusto

interview,

Lagos,

28th March 1967.

Oba :x ue1 Akisanya, Odemo of I8bara Chief Obafeni, Awolowo -"

Afin Ishara, 20th March 1967. interview, Ibadan, 16th February 1967.

Mr. A. K, Licu

Federal Nigerian Ministry of Lagos, 31st Farch 1967. Information,

799.
Chief T. A. Doherty S. Y. 4ke interview, Lagoa, 2nd April Ore-Oghene, 1967. 20th April 1967.

Barrister Chief

Benin City, 1967.

Anthony Enahoro

LaGoa, 6th April letter,

interview,

Mrs. Amy Jaques Curvey

; 'r. Oged E'acaulay

6th December 1965.

Lagoa, 11th March 1967.

'?r. Mobola ji Odumewu, General Manager, National Prase, Apapa

Mr. Andrew Rothstein

letter, 1

Apapa, 4th April

June

1967.

Writinps.

1970.

Y.I. i.

Dual

Noharteed Alt's Dooke

Published

In the Land of thePbaraohis.

Peeha to the Aeeasainat

A History -Short Pasha. on of Boutron

of Epyvt from the FH11 of Iara

Paul & Co., London 1911. Stanley & Co., Lex York 1911. 1). Appleton 2nd ed., with introduction by Khalil Yahzud, London 1968.

West African

Directory

and-Y2
serials

-ar

Book 1920-21.

ed. by Luse Mohamed Ali , London 1921. YI.P. ilutchison,

ii.

Autobiographical

and articles.

"Arabi "Cecil

Pasha",

AOR, April

1920, pp-5-7.

Cheaterton",

AOHOAugust e1920, pp. 6-7. Nirerian Daily Times. 31st Farc)1 19339 p. 7. & Dcecber 1920, pp. 53-6.

"Down and Out in London", "The Editor Abroad", AOt, AR

September 1920, pp. 13-15, Septersber 1920, pp. 6-7.

"Dada-Bhay, FFaurodji",

1.

This only gives a selection items in his enormous of the most important editorials in his various_ragazines journalistic for important output; in the toxt. and papers, reference must , bo made to footnotes

800. "Frank Hugh O'Donnell "loapital "King Impressions", of O'Donnell", Nigerian Daily

A(k', March 1920, pp. 5-7. Tiasee. 10th March 1933.

Eduard VII",

A011, January Life",

1920, pp. 10-11.

"Leaves From An Active "Lord Headley's "Lord Russell "Mohamed Fand "Oscar Wilde", "Sir iii. William

The Comet. 12th June 1937, p. 7 to 5th March 1938, p. 7. Nigerian Daily Tunes. 7th April 1933, p. 7"

Conversion", of Liverpool", Bay", OK, A

AO9 May 1920, pp. 6-8. February 1920, pp. 5-8.

AOR, December 1920, pp. 26-7. Conrad. Heoves", 1OR, June 1920, pp. 6-7. typescript).

Flctional "Abdul",

(in works

magazines and in

ATOR, Christmas
of the

1912, pp. 94-9.

The Comet, 29th July 1933, pp"12-17 1934, pp"12-13. 17th February to

"A Daughter

Pharaohs",

"Ere Roosevelt "The Foiling

Came", The Comet. "24th February 1934, pp. 10-12 to 13th October 1934, pp. 11-12 & 17. of the King", (short historical Vol. l,; no. 7,1902, Comet, The Bull romance), pp. 24-8. The Hull Ladv,

. "The Hamlet of Samson Synns", "Bull's Coronation Ode",, T

22nd July

1933, pp"12-8. no., June 1920, PP-3-5-

Ladv,.. Coronation

"The Jew's

Revenge",

summary of plot unpublished, "no known manuscript, in The" Starre. 28th July 1904, p. 12. The Comet. Christmas 1933, pp. 24-7.

"Jonah and the Whale", "Katebet the Priestess",

A OR, Christman

1912s pp. 3-7. withErnest -Trimmingham, Lady,

The 141v of Bermudag written in conjunction see under section IX. "Twixt King and Honour", (short

historical romance), The Hull May 1902, -pp. 38-9. ''':.

801. IV. Selected "America Journalistic and Oriental

Writings. Trade", Afr_, New York, Juts 1928, pp. 18 & 23-4.

"The Americanisation "British

of England",

AT0, ray 1913, p. 326. 1912, pp. 39-40. Times, 12th October T. P. 'e Magazine, 19330 p. 7"

ruaeum Types",

ATOR, Christmas Nigerian Daily

"The Chimpanzee Actor", "The Coloured Man in Art

and Letters",

June 1911, pp. 404-7.

"Egypt and :Velf-Determination", "Egypt's "Egypt's Case Stated", Ruin",

ATOR, October

1918, PP. 37-8.

T. P. 'e Magi

November 1910, pp. 189-94. , Ruin,

Egv t'o review article on Theodore Rothstein's The New Aire, 22nd December 1910, p. 174. 2Jiiaerian Daily Dallv,

"Ever Heard of hoahesh", "Female Slavery", "France Nigerian

30th December 1932, p. 5. 1932, p. 10.

Timen, 26th February

and the. egyptian Islamic

Nationalists", ReviewFebruary

The Now Age, 29th September 1910, pp. 509-10. 1916, pp. 90-95. 1911, p. 606.

"God and Science", "The Good Friday "The lard "The Indian "Islam "Is

Procession", Nigerian

The New Ago. 27th April Daily *orld'e Tim-a.

Time Bogey",

13th November 1931.

Muslim War rund", African",

Work, September 1916, pp. 349-50. 1916, pp. 180-65. 1916, pp. 27-31. Fusic", ATQ}, September 1912, pp. 81-3.

andthe,

'Islamic Ie_to

Review. April Reviev. The January

Thought Original",

"The Late 3cmuel Coleridge-Taylor. Captures

an and his Daily Times,

"Litvinoff Obituary 0bituary'a1' "Open Letter

America",

Nii eyign

15th December 1933, p"7.

of Marcus Garvey, ir. Kitoyi to the Rt.

The Comet. 17th

Iugust -1940, p. 4. ,

Ajasa#, The Comet. 5th June 1937, p"5. Icon. Lewis Vernon Harcourt" (on the Zaria floggings), 0', July 1912, p. 8. ;

"Open Letter

to Theodore Roosevelt",

ORS August 1912, p. 60.

802.

Plan -Tor'black
"duo Vadis",

'merican Fand-West Indian ruled state in ex-German East Africa, Negro World, 15th July 1922.
The New Age, 23rd February 1911, pp. 387-9.

"Rotten

Row. Conversations. %

White Womenand Coloured

Iden", ATOR, September 1917, pp. 63-5.

"The Situation-in-Egypt", "Those German Colonies", "Turkey and the Muslin

The New Age, 16th June 1910, pp. 148-50. Nigerian World", AOR' April Trade", Timei, 16th December 1932.

1920, p. 44. June, 1928, pp. 6 & 12. The New Age.

"West Africa "Western

and'Co-operative

Africa.

Civilisation

Through Eastern Spectacles", 4th February 1909, p. 301; 18th February '"1909i-pp"341-2; 4th March 1909, p"381; 25th March 1909, p. 443; 22nd April 1909, p. 519. Nigerian Daily Times,

"that, "White

Shall

Lwrite",

24th November 1937, p. 7. 1909, pp. 262-3.

women and, Coloured, Men", The Now Age, 21st January by Duse Mohamed A11. (One issue only).

t aazinee and Newsnapera edited V,. Africa Africa

"-bra w;

New York1City, and Orient

} o. .-.... 4;

June 1928.

Review,

London, monthly, January-December (October and November missing). Review, London, monthly July

1920

African-Times
. ,,

Orient and

weekly 24th March 1914 - 19th August January 1917 1914; monthly, for April No issues October 1918. June 1918; combined numbers for 1913 and December 1912 - January March 1913. February -

1912 - December 1913;

The'Comet; -Lago, ' Cam;

Nigeria

weekly from 22nd July 1933 from 12th November 1941 bi-weekly Duce Mohamed Ali Editor-in-Chief, daily, from, l6th 14' l944"., L_, ay,

---T

e'D

Lagos; - Nigeria 1:; .... n.

t ., c .1->

803. XII.
i.

Newaoataera and VaRazinea.

BriNewavarer and

other

than those edited

by Dune Mowed

Ali.

t"agazinea. NLS.

The Academy and Literature, The African The Anglo Telegraph Russian

The British

Congre atp3 ionalist NLS.

Chamber's Journal,

The gentlewoman, NLi. Graphic, The The Hull

Islamic

EPL. Lady H.

Review

(originally Guardian

Muslim

India

and Islamic

Review),

NLS.

The Manchester

The Near East The New Age, NLS. The New Age Literary The Observer Pall Pall Gazette EPL. Review NLS.

Review of Reviews, The Scoteman, NLS. The Spectator The Stage, The Ti^s, NLS. EUL.

T. P ' Magazin, . P. 's Weekly;

NLS. NLS. ''

2.

, 'fror Unless otherwise British Museum Newspaper Library, Colindale; indicate Library NLS _ National RkM - R. N. Noton Papers, preee cuttings, ofScotland; Tuskegee Institute 11= Hull Public Library, Reference Section; Archives; EUL a gdinburghY University,. Librarys George ! EPL " Edinburgh; Public Library, , IYth-Bridge, Edinburghs,! NNI. " Nigerian., National,, Archives,.. Ibadan. For individual items from newspapers and ragazinen, see section XI, iii & iv, and section XXV of bibliography, to parts ii, and footnotes main text of thesis.

Boa. Truth,

NLS. R_view, NIL.

The Westminster, World's ii. Unitedd

Work. NLS. , tate5 news and Iagasine8.

RRH. General Correspondence, 1923. 1927.

The Bal t more fereld, fender, The Chic_ago Dem The Cri, EUL.

The Faalo, The I

Washington

D. C.,

R34, General

Correspondence, Correspondence,

1927. 1927. 1922. 1927.

of er,

Columbu, i. C., 7: RRM, General York City,, New},

21e : he___ o

wow.

RRM, General J(RX, General

Correspondence, Correspondence, 1923-

The ReAgrter,. St_ Lois

nirmingban'Ala.,, RRM, General

Clarion,

Correspondence,

Gold

at Indete

ent >. .... -....

,,

CossS: Leader,. EUL.. "Qc1d; S : LaRO, tendard,, -EUL.

Lagos WeeklX Record. Ui ertan

Sierra SierraL

Daily

Tires
Government Gazette

Ljons one

Weekly

Nexe

t Wes_ African'o-Filot, Other Puli hed

NNI.

XIII.

Doke. addressea and esaave

Abdul )a jid,

EnElend and the I'uslir. World. Articles. astern vubjegt-a, jork;, 1912. .m

3,

Authors with !"iielin-names have been listed with their forename first, except where they have clearly adopted another name as a surname.

Bog. Abdul Majid, The Psychology The Abdul }iajid Afaf Lutfi with ubiliyat air of Leaderr-hiv, London 1915.

Hafi z, London 1910. of A Uirpet of Hindu London 1919" , Relntione; London 1953.

R. West and J. G. Buehler,

il-Sayyid,

Egypt*pnd, -Cromer. A Study in Ana1o-Pavntian London 1968. Lile of -Islas, Vol-I, Enlend -. Heforo the Storm,

Amery, Leo, ? Political "ty Amir Ali,

Anti-slavery

irit Tie 'Sy

London'-1891.

and'Aborigines

Protection

Society,

The Anti-Slavery and Aborigines London 1938. ProtPetion Society, 1960.

Anyiam,

F. U.

Amona Nigerian

Cori

iea,

Taba,

Men and? Awolowo, Obafemi, Ayandele, Azikiwe. Benton, Barker, Bittle, L. A.,

attars

in Ni, erian Politics of Chief

1934-1958,

Lagoa, 1959.

Awo. The Autobiogranhv

i Awwolowo, CarAbridge 1960.

11013 r,'

London 1970. Dsve1tment of Politic_1, ttiarter, Partien London 1955" War 19)5-6. London 1968. in ?: eria. i, London 1957.

Ynamdi; T lichael'P., A. J., William

The Coloured

Civilizing he_e E., 8t Geiaa,

Kiesion. Gilbert, s;

The ItaloDiann

The Longest Way Hose: Chief Alfred C. Csm'Z 1964. Movement, Detroit 'Back to Africa

Blunt , Wilfred It Blydea, ='`'

3caxen; - t&r , Dirie

xvol :4 ed. '; 't London 1932. --l of *Abe :nQj =London 1903. introOce ti on of Ei t. . London 1907

Secret ! His torj, , grid `the'-Afr'ioni,

E. W.; Africa f{,

= Zslem, and the Neuro Race. 2nd. ed. , with lirietinit_r. k'yfs, Edinburgh 1967. duction by Christopher West Africa Before Eurore, London 1905.

Booth,

General

William,

In Darkeet

England and the Way Out, L`,

London 1890. John Dickinson,

Boucicaul t,

Dion..

Jei+si e Brown t or the Relief of London ' 1883 ? ,.r .... 9_.. `'The; Oot_, oron, J6hn-Dickinson,

'London 1883 ?

806,
Bracey, John H.; Maier,. and Rudwiok, Elliott, America.

August;,

Black Utionalism New York 1970.

J!,

Broderick,

Francis

L. W.E. D. Du Bois. Stanford 1959.

Eiaaro Leader in a Tire

of Crieie SteoresentgItiv

Brotz,

Howard (ed. ) Negro Social and Po'liticgl Thought 1850-1920. T=, New York and London 1966. The Nigerian Dr Banking Systej L, London 1966. did Bjo ragh, How Yor' 1937.

Brown, C. V., Carlson, Carr,

Oliver?

iabaneIACa

L. H.,

Cayton, Clark,

': tiorace R. & Drake,, 3t. America.

Bolshevik Abe

Revolution, Clair,,

Vol. I,, London 1960. }sla____,eetro ck i oolis, London 1964. London 1958. The sierra Leone Now York 1945.

John Pepper,

r Ae_, _erica, B okground

London

Coleman, Jamea 3.,, Nigerias Cos-George, Cromer, Earl ., N. Y`iiance

Fx griente,

to flationaliom, in West Africa. 19013.

and Development
1961.

of,

Moderte

Iondon nt, "2 Vole,

nii`t e Universal: Cronon E. D., Black' Meea:'The'Story` of - 'arcue'Garvey Nero Irovemenaoe on, Padison, Wisconsin, 1955.
Del Boca, The EthisDian'"War-1935=1941"trans Deniga, Adeoye, African Leaders P. D. Cummins, Chicago & London 1969. Lagoa 1915.

and Preient. Past ! ho for Geo ratihy

The' Nigerian"Who's Dickson, Dilke,

Driberg, Du' Bois,

1934, Lagos 1934. of Ghana, Cambridge 1969.

Kwamina B., ` AHistor David, Curt on"An India,

cal

2'Vola.,

London 1970.
and Fruatrption, 1953:. London 1956.

Tom, Beavprbrook. Wei. B., lhe Souls

"Stdv`in`Po4er of Black 1blk,

Newt York

Durham, Edith,

The Burden of the Balkans, Hih Albania; London 1909.

London 1905.

fy`'

g1e" for `Seuta4, The 3tru,

LTwenty-Years

:London 1914.
le, London 1920.

of. Balkan-Strug

807.
Dutt, Roiaeah, TheHcono? nic Hiotorv
Charles A. (Oniyesa),

of India

in the Victoria

Are.

London 1903.

Eastman,

From the Deep Woodn to Autobiovrgphvyor Inthe

Civilisationt'Chanters London an Indian,

1916.

Th6 Soul of the Indian, Enahoro, Anthony, E. U., Fugitive Black Otf. nder Nationalism, The Story .

London 1911. Prisoner, London 1965.

of a Political

Esaien-Udom,

Chicago 1962. Oxford in Niaerip, 2 Vole., 1949. Cambridge 1964. 1913.

Evans-Pritchard, Esera, Ferris, F'inot,. Zalu,

Th4"-96Lguei of, Cyreriaica, Constitutioh 1 'Uevelccmntg, Abroad.

William Jean,

H., The African

New Haven, Conn.,

Race Prejudice

trans. ,
the

Florence
Science

lade-Evana,
of Racet

London 1906.
Conotance A. Grande,

The Death Aaonv of London 1911.

trans.

Fisher,

Humphrey J.,

Ahmdi_vyah. A-Stud-r in Contemwrari African, n Co_nt, Oxford 1963.

Islam on the West of American Nekrose. New York'1957.

Franklin,.

John Nope, Fron Slavery to Freedom. A iiintorv New York 1964. 2nd ed., revised, E. Franklin, Anne M.li., The flerro in the United , London 1935. , rLondon tes,

Frasier, Fremantle, Fyfe, Fyfe,

revised

ed.,

Loyal--Enemy HitrY

Christopher# K. Humiltn, A

f_Sierra o a Jouriil

Oxford' 1962. * 1949.

4aixtY T.

Yews

P. 01 Connr;

London 1934. 1929, Penguin Books, London 1961. 5Niaer1in Coe.,Parr.; e. An 'F'aoi omit I: O:; o Survey Yorub Cocoa Farming, London 1956. Families, Jamaica, 1963..

Galbraith, Calleti, ,; Garvey, .

J. X.

The CretCrash

K. R. 1 Baldwin, +. D: 3.; ` gnd'-Din ,;:.,:. ' "' :. '

.. Jaquea, Garrey and Garvevieca, Kingston, Amy.. ,

Garvey,. Marcus :M., Geary, Sir William

'hilosoDhvand ODinionu of-Maw Garver, compiled by A. J. Garvey, with introduction by, 4. U. Lesion-Udom,, 2nd ed. , London 1963, ; M. N., Nigeria Under British Rule, London 1927.

808. (eds) Britain and GerranX in Africa, Immrtal Riva1r_v and Colonial Rule. New Haven and. London 1967. in Ooeition and in Power,
Problems of II, London 1940.

Gifford,

P.;

Louia,

V. R.; with

Imith, .

Alison

Gollin,

Proconsul in Politico: 1964.

Sir

-Study

of Lord

ilnsrr

ilancock,

W.1C., Sy y ey of Minh Economic Develot

Comiuonwealth ent, Part Z,

Vol. IS, Affairs. London 1942, Part

Hargreaves,
Harris,

John,, A Life

of Si

Savuel. Lewis.

London 1958.
8ankitc and Busi, nese 1936*"

Abram L.,

The Nearoan C_ italists Wong American Neuross,

A Study of Philadelphia,

Hastings, awkina, Hayford.

Beatrice, EJ.,

' New E*e' -Oral e and Others, The Old .

P

London 1936.

London 1958" Road Transport in ?i aria, P J. E. Casely, r-thio Unbound: itudies in Race ?manci ration, Dia
5 p4

London 1911.

Gold Coast Native -Inetitutions, The Truth Herbert, Herbert. Aubrey, About the West African

London 1903" Land Question, 2nd ed.. London 1913-

Ben Kn_dimr . ApRecord of Leatern C_. and- Nilson, , Martin,.

Travel,

London, no date.

H111, -Adelaide

Sentiment a of Negro At ro oc of Africa. AEgrican Leaders on Africa from the 1C40's to the 195018,p London 1969.
A Prelimihnrsr\'Survey, Ghana, Cambridge London 1963. 1956.

Hill,

Polly,

The Gold t Mixra

Coast Cc"-

Cocoa Farner:. Facers of

Southern

Hobson, J. A., 1, Hofs tadter,

Imperialism. The Pevcholoor

A, St dy, 3rded., of "JinAoiec, Political

7th imp., London -1968.. .. London 1901.. ., Tradition. And the ten Who Fade It,

Richard, =.

The American London 1962.

holden, Holt,

Edith, . M. _(.

Blyden of Liberia, d. ), Political

Now York 1966. ' Change in Modern r.pvnt, Countries London 1968. 2nd ed., ... '

and Cooiel Beale,

Horton#

James, Africanus

West African

rks; a:
Hughes, Langston, Bir _71e

with introduction ` .. '1969..

by George Shepp rcon, Edinburgh

1945.

and Peoples

ea, London and New York,

609.

Ishtiaq

Husain Gureehi,

The Struxale

for

Pakistan, 0rigina

2nd ad., `karachi, n Na tonal

1969. em,

Jamal MohammadAhmad, The Intellectual 1960. -London James, C. L. R., The Black Jacsbina, Janil-uci-Din Jones-tcuartey, Keddie, Ahmad, Early Y. A. B.,

of Eaxvt

2nd ed.,

revised.

New York 1963. Movement, Lahore, Series, no date.

Phace of Mua1ia, Political of A iwe,

A Life

Penguin African.

London 3965. and Religious lierkely 1968.

Political idikke R., An Islamic Reeuonee to Irperialimt Writ p of Savyid Jam ad-Din "al-Afghani", Elie, Afahani and! London 1966.

ICedourie,

Beadle. Kerr,

J. I. JLondon: 1967. )aloolm J., Islamic Reform. Thee Political and Legal Theories 'AbdHh and Rashid Rids; Berkely and Los Angeles,
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L-uhammad of ? 1966. -

Khurahid

Kamal Aziz, India . 1857-1947, 1i

London 1963. Hoover

Kilby,

Peter,

Atri. ca ntervrise: tudiea Institution History

The "xim#rian Dread Inius try, 1965. no. 4, Stanford, of Ghana, Oxford 'Amalamation Po1itica1 k 1963. `of Nigeria; Cuide,

Kimble,

D., A Political A. ii. i.,

Kirk-Greene, Legum, Colin, Lethbridge, Lewis, Linken,

Luaard and he London

A Documentan

Record,

Pan-=Africaniem. 'Sir

A_ hurt'

revised

ed., -2

New York 1965.

Robert, 'The Go den

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:..:

Bernard,
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The Eaergenae of Mcdern Turkey,

Y

Charles

Eric,

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States

ter..,...

,"

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Little, Loti,

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Turkey in Agony, trans. by "Bodwin Sands" (George Raffalovich), by_Afrioun Times. ndaOrient. Review Ltd. Ifor, the Ottoman pub... Committee, London 1913.

010.

Lynch,

liollia,

Edward Wilmot
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Elyden.

Fan-trerro

Patriot.

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Government

Macaulay,

Herbert,

Fiat: House of

e ,Morel Obligation of the British King Doceno of Lagoe, London 1921.

Macmillan,
? airet, Martin,

Allister,

The Rod book of tapst Africa,

A Y. eroir, London Orage. 1936.

London 1920.

Philip, Wallace,

A. R. Orave.

Tbg New Age Under Manchester. 1967.

Chartere

in

Enelish

Cultural

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Malani, Marshall,

Sir

R. P.,

Dadgbhpt ?aoroii. t; ildred,

The Ger d Old !'an of I dip,

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U., & stock,

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The End-of Amei'ic4n Innocence. A Studs of the First 1912-1917, New York 1967. Our `fire. Poetic Come Selected fro? the Forke of .cillian 2nd ed., 14th imp., Dundee and London 1966. in British oa 1 frica, West A

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Naoroji, Newlyn,

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British ' African" 1941.

Atrien.
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Nicol,

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Nicoleon, O'Brien, Odoll,

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Ogilvie,

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Russimn Flashlights with a biographical ..., author .by ',Hslen `Prank,, London 1911. Ram Gopal, Rankin, Indian ?usurps. Sir -Political The Inner Story Reginald, .. London 1914. A Eistory 15-1947,

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Ruin,

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New Haven &

Beal, Solver,

Anil, Faul,

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Nationa1tem,

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