Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the A.M.I.E.T.E. course.

Scrap Collecting Robot

Submitted By Abhishek Kaushik SG-119836.

Table of Contents

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. 7. 8. 9.

Acknowledgements. Certificate. Introduction to the Project. Circuit Diagram. Component List. Hardware Power Supply for the circuit. Integrated Circuits. Transistors. Diode. Relays. Transformer. Resistors. Capacitors. Project Working. Project Synopsis. Bibliography.

Introduction Project is very interesting. We are using Tsop1738 as a IR infrared receiver. We using relay coil to collect scrap. Coil need 5 to 12v DC. Better voltage- better collecting power. Robot help us to collect scrap from every corner and from everywhere.

In this project we will control robot with infrared sensor remote. We will control different functions of moving robot. As we know the value of robotics it can be used in biomedical industry, domestic, food, leather, autoparts etc. In this project we will make remote which will have functions to control robot like forward, backward, right and left. There will be six functions. We will use 89c051 microcontroller for this function. We will give 9v supply to remote with 9v dc battery available in the market. We will use 7805 voltage regulator for 5v dc supply. For input to microcontroller there will be microswitches. There will be complementary push pull power amplifier after Microcontroller output. For that we will use 548 npn transistors 558 pnp. It will amplify data so that it will not destroy in the way. After that it will be amplify and led will convert that signal into phpt signal . On receiver end phototransistor will amplify that signal and will give it to microcontroller. Microcontroller will give signal to optocoupler. Here optocoupler will work as a isolator after that h bridge will amplify that signal and will give signal according to rxed signal Automation requires precisely rotating motor which accelerates / decelerates very fast & stops at precise predetermined position without any error, and also has holding torque so that the motor-shaft position is maintained. AUTO CONTROLS make stepper motor controllers are based on H-bridge configuration with facility of having constant current supplied to the motor. Stepper motor controllers are MOSFET based and utilize high voltage D.C. Supply at constant current mode. Hence, the stepper motor can run at higher speed up to 1000 rpm and above. Stepper motor controllers can achieve the

acceleration of 100 m/Sec2. to zero speed to stop the motor from running speed, with rated torque. The time of Acc & Dec. will vary as per the load and GD2 of the load to overcome inertia force. the smallest step available is 0.9o. Hence stepper motor follows the step of 0.9o per step, It can be used in open loop system. Hence, the controllers become simpler. Working In this project we will use microcontroller 89s51.in which we divide project in two portions. In transmitter

WELCOME TO THE WORLD OF THE MICROCONTROLLERS.

Look around. Notice the smart intelligent systems? Be it the T.V, washing machines, video games, telephones, automobiles, aero planes, power systems, or any application having a LED or a LCD as a user interface, the control is likely to be in the hands of a micro controller! Measure and control, thats where the micro controller is at its best. Micro controllers are here to stay. Going by the current trend, it is obvious that micro controllers will be playing bigger and bigger roles in the different activities of our lives.

So where does this scenario leave us? Think about it

The world of Micro controllers What is the primary difference between a microprocessor and a micro controller? Unlike the microprocessor, the micro controller can be considered to be a true Computer on a chip. In addition to the various features like the ALU, PC, SP and registers found on a microprocessor, the micro controller also incorporates features like the ROM, RAM, Ports, timers, clock circuits, counters, reset functions etc. While the microprocessor is more a general-purpose device, used for read, write and calculations on data, the micro controller, in addition to the above functions also controls the environment. We have used a whole lot of technical terms already! Dont get worried about the meanings at this point. We shall understand these terms as we proceed further For now just be aware of the fact, that all these terms literally mean what they say. Bits and Bytes Before starting on the 8051, here is a quick run through on the bits and bytes. The basic unit of data for a computer is a bit. Four bits make a nibble. Eight bits or two nibbles make a byte. Sixteen bits or four nibbles or two bytes make a word.

1024 bytes make a kilobyte or 1KB, and 1024 KB make a Mega Byte or 1MB. Thus when we talk of an 8-bit register, we mean the register is capable of holding data of 8 bits only. The 8051 The 8051 developed and launched in the early 80`s, is one of the most popular micro controller in use today. It has a reasonably large amount of built in ROM and RAM. In addition it has the ability to access external memory. The generic term `8x51` is used to define the device. The value of x defining the kind of ROM, i.e. x=0, indicates none, x=3, indicates mask ROM, x=7, indicates EPROM and x=9 indicates EEPROM or Flash. A note on ROM The early 8051, namely the 8031 was designed without any ROM. This device could run only with external memory connected to it. Subsequent developments lead to the development of the PROM or the programmable ROM. This type had the disadvantage of being highly unreliable. The next in line, was the EPROM or Erasable Programmable ROM. These devices used ultraviolet light erasable memory cells. Thus a program could

be loaded, tested and erased using ultra violet rays. A new program could then be loaded again. An improved EPROM was the EEPROM or the electrically erasable PROM. This does not require ultra violet rays, and memory can be cleared using circuits within the chip itself. Finally there is the FLASH, which is an improvement over the EEPROM. While the terms EEPROM and flash are sometimes used interchangeably, the difference lies in the fact that flash erases the complete memory at one stroke, and not act on the individual cells. This results in reducing the time for erasure. Understanding the basic features of the 8051 core Lets now move on to a practical example. We shall work on a simple practical application and using the example as a base, shall explore the various features of the 8051 microcontroller. Consider an electric circuit as follows,

The positive side (+ve) of the battery is connected to one side of a switch.

The other side of the switch is connected to a bulb or LED (Light Emitting Diode). The bulb is then connected to a resistor, and the other end of the resistor is connected to the negative (-ve) side of the battery. When the switch is closed or switched on the bulb glows. When the switch is open or switched off the bulb goes off If you are instructed to put the switch on and off every 30 seconds, how would you do it? Obviously you would keep looking at your watch and every time the second hand crosses 30 seconds you would keep turning the switch on and off. Imagine if you had to do this action consistently for a full day. Do you think you would be able to do it? Now if you had to do this for a month, a year?? No way, you would say! The next step would be, then to make it automatic. This is where we use the Microcontroller. But if the action has to take place every 30 seconds, how will the microcontroller keep track of time? Execution time Look at the following instruction, clr p1.0

This is an assembly language instruction. It means we are instructing the microcontroller to put a value of zero in bit zero of port one. This instruction is equivalent to telling the microcontroller to switch on the bulb. The instruction then to instruct the microcontroller to switch off the bulb is, Setb p1.0 This instructs the microcontroller to put a value of one in bit zero of port one. Dont worry about what bit zero and port one means. We shall learn it in more detail as we proceed. There are a set of well defined instructions, which are used while communicating with the microcontroller. Each of these instructions requires a standard number of cycles to execute. The cycle could be one or more in number. How is this time then calculated? The speed with which a microcontroller executes instructions is determined by what is known as the crystal speed. A crystal is a component connected externally to the microcontroller. The crystal has different values, and some of the used values are 6MHZ, 10MHZ, and 11.059 MHz etc. Thus a 10MHZ crystal would pulse at the rate of 10,000,000 times per second.

The time is calculated using the formula No of cycles per second = Crystal frequency in HZ / 12. For a 10MHZ crystal the number of cycles would be, 10,000,000/12=833333.33333 cycles. This means that in one second, the microcontroller would execute 833333.33333 cycles. Therefore for one cycle, what would be the time? Try it out. The instruction clr p1.0 would use one cycle to execute. Similarly, the instruction setb p1.0 also uses one cycle. So go ahead and calculate what would be the number of cycles required to be executed to get a time of 30 seconds! Getting back to our bulb example, all we would need to do is to instruct the microcontroller to carry out some instructions equivalent to a period of 30 seconds, like counting from zero upwards, then switch on the bulb, carry out instructions equivalent to 30 seconds and switch off the bulb. Just put the whole thing in a loop, and you have a never ending on-off sequence.

Simple isnt it? Let us now have a look at the features of the 8051 core, keeping the above example as a reference, 1. 8-bit CPU.( Consisting of the A and B registers) Most of the transactions within the microcontroller are carried out through the A register, also known as the Accumulator. In addition all arithmetic functions are carried out generally in the A register. There is another register known as the B register, which is used exclusively for multiplication and division. Thus an 8-bit notation would indicate that the maximum value that can be input into these registers is 11111111. Puzzled? The value is not decimal 111, 11,111! It represents a binary number, having an equivalent value of FF in Hexadecimal and a value of 255 in decimal. We shall read in more detail on the different numbering systems namely the Binary and Hexadecimal system in our next module. 2. 4K on-chip ROM Once you have written out the instructions for the microcontroller, where do you put these instructions?

Obviously you would like these instructions to be safe, and not get deleted or changed during execution. Hence you would load it into the ROM The size of the program you write is bound to vary depending on the application, and the number of lines. The 8051 microcontroller gives you space to load up to 4K of program size into the internal ROM. 4K, thats all? Well just wait. You would be surprised at the amount of stuff you can load in this 4K of space. Of course you could always extend the space by connecting to 64K of external ROM if required. 3. 128 bytes on-chip RAM This is the space provided for executing the program in terms of moving data, storing data etc. 4. 32 I/O lines. (Four- 8 bit ports, labeled P0, P1, P2, P3) In our bulb example, we used the notation p1.0. This means bit zero of port one. One bit controls one bulb. Thus port one would have 8 bits. There are a total of four ports named p0, p1, p2, p3, giving a total of 32 lines. These lines can be used both as input or output.

5. Two 16 bit timers / counters. A microcontroller normally executes one instruction at a time. However certain applications would require that some event has to be tracked independent of the main program. The manufacturers have provided a solution, by providing two timers. These timers execute in the background independent of the main program. Once the required time has been reached, (remember the time calculations described above?), they can trigger a branch in the main program. These timers can also be used as counters, so that they can count the number of events, and on reaching the required count, can cause a branch in the main program. 6. Full Duplex serial data receiver / transmitter. The 8051 microcontroller is capable of communicating with external devices like the PC etc. Here data is sent in the form of bytes, at predefined speeds, also known as baud rates. The transmission is serial, in the sense, one bit at a time 7. 5- interrupt sources with two priority levels (Two external and three internal) During the discussion on the timers, we had indicated that the timers can

trigger a branch in the main program. However, what would we do in case we would like the microcontroller to take the branch, and then return back to the main program, without having to constantly check whether the required time / count has been reached? This is where the interrupts come into play. These can be set to either the timers, or to some external events. Whenever the background program has reached the required criteria in terms of time or count or an external event, the branch is taken, and on completion of the branch, the control returns to the main program. Priority levels indicate which interrupt is more important, and needs to be executed first in case two interrupts occur at the same time. 8. On-chip clock oscillator. This represents the oscillator circuits within the microcontroller. Thus the hardware is reduced to just simply connecting an external crystal, to achieve the required pulsing rate. The Basic Registers of the 8051 For more details contact the course coordinator at contact@microtutorials.com

Block Diagram:-

Receiver

Motor control circuit,

Sensors Photodio

Progra mmable DC Motors

Wheels of the

COMPONENT DESCRIPTION
TRANSFORMER

Transformer works on the principle of mutual inductance. We know that if two coils or windings are placed on the core of iron, and if we pass alternating current in one winding, back emf or induced voltage is produced in the second winding. We know that alternating current always changes with the time. So if we apply AC voltage across one winding, a voltage will be induced in the other winding. Transformer

works on this same principle. It is made of two windings wound around the same core of iron. The winding to which AC voltage is applied is called primary winding. The other winding is called as secondary winding. Voltage and current relationship: Let V1 volts be input alternating voltage applied to primary winding. I1 Amp is input alternating current through primary winding. V2 volt is output alternating voltage produced in the secondary. I2 amp be the current flowing through the secondary. Then relationship between input and output voltages is given by V1/V2 = N1/N2 Relationship between input and output currents is I1/I2 = N2/N1 (Where N1 is no. of turns of coil in primary and N2 is number of turns in secondary )
We know that Power = Current X Voltage. It is to be noted that input power is equal to output power. Power is not changed. If V2 is greater than V1, then I2 will be less than I1. This type of transformer is called as step up transformer. If V1 is greater than V2, then I1 will be less than I2. This type of transformer is called as step down transformer.

For step up transformer, N2>N1, i.e., number of turns of secondary winding is more than those in primary. For step down transformer, N1>N2, i.e., numbers of turns of primary winding is more than those in secondary.

RESISTORS

The flow of charge (or current) through any material, encounters an opposing force similar in many respect to mechanical friction. This opposing force is called resistance of the material. It is measured in ohms. Resistors are of following types: 1. Wire wound resistors. 2. Carbon resistors. 3. Metal film resistors. Wire Wound Resistors: Wire wound resistors are made from a long (usually Ni-Chromium) wound on a ceramic core. Longer the length of the wire, higher is the resistance. So depending on the value of resistor required in a circuit, the wire is cut and wound on a ceramic core. This entire assembly is coated with a ceramic metal. Such In some electric circuits resistance is deliberately introduced in the form of the resistor.

resistors are generally available in power of 2 watts to several hundred watts and resistance values from 1ohm to 100k ohms. Thus wire wound resistors are used for high currents. Carbon Resistors: Carbon resistors are divided into three types: a. Carbon composition resistors are made by mixing carbon grains with binding material (glue) and moduled in the form of rods. Wire leads are inserted at the two ends. After this an insulating material seals the resistor. Resistors are available in power ratings of 1/10, 1/8, 1/4 , 1/2 , 1.2 watts and values from 1 ohm to 20 ohms. b. Carbon film resistors are made by deposition carbon film on a ceramic rod. They are cheaper than carbon composition resistors. c. Cement film resistors are made of thin carbon coating fired onto a solid ceramic substrate. The main purpose is to have more precise resistance values and greater stability with heat. They are made in a small square with leads. Metal Film Resistors: They are also called thin film resistors. They are made of a thin metal coating

deposited on a cylindrical insulating support. The high resistance values are not precise in value; however, such resistors are free of inductance effect that is common in wire wound resistors at high frequency. Variable Resistors: Potentiometer is a resistor where values can be set depending on the requirement. Potentiometer is widely used in electronics systems. Examples are volume control, tons control, brightness and contrast control of radio or T.V. sets.

Fusible Resistors: These resistors are wire wound type and are used in T.V. circuits for protection. They have resistance of less than 15 ohms. Their function is similar to a fuse made to blow off whenever current in the circuit exceeds the limit. Resistance of a wire is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its thickness. R R L 1/A

RESISTOR COLOR CODE

Example: 1k or 1000 ohms

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

Band1

Band 2

Band 3

Band 4

COLOUR CODES COLOUR Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Grey White Gold Silver NUMBER 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 MULTIPLIER 100 101 102 10
3

COLOUR Gold Silver No colour

TOLERANCE 5% 10% 20%

104 105 106 107 108 109 10-1 10-2

CAPACITORS

A capacitor can store charge, and its capacity to store charge is called capacitance. Capacitors consist of two conducting plates, separated by an insulating material (known as dielectric). The two plates are joined with two leads. The dielectric could be air, mica, paper, ceramic, polyester, polystyrene, etc. This dielectric gives name to the capacitor. Like paper capacitor, mica capacitor etc.

Types of capacitors:

Capa

Fixed

Variable

Electr

Non-

Gang conden

Trimme r

Mica

Paper

Ceramic

Capacitors can be broadly classified in two categories, i.e., Electrolytic capacitors and Non-Electrolytic capacitors as shown if the figure above.

Electrolytic Capacitor: Electrolytic capacitors have an electrolyte as a dielectric. When such an electrolyte is charged, chemical changes takes place in the electrolyte. If its one plate is charged positively, same plate must be charged positively in future. We call such capacitors as polarized. Normally we see electrolytic capacitor as polarized capacitors and the leads are marked with positive or negative on the can. Non-electrolyte capacitors have dielectric material such as paper, mica or ceramic. Therefore, depending upon the dielectric, these capacitors are classified. Mica Capacitor: It is sandwich of several thin metal plates separated by thin sheets of mica. Alternate plates are connected together and leads attached for outside connections. The total assembly is encased in a plastic capsule or Bakelite case. Such capacitors have small capacitance value (50 to 500pf) and high working voltage (500V and above). The mica capacitors have excellent characteristics under stress of temperature variation and high voltage application. These capacitors are now replaced by ceramic capacitors. Ceramic Capacitor: Such capacitors have disc or hollow tabular shaped dielectric made of ceramic material such as titanium dioxide and barium titanate. Thin coating of silver compounds is deposited on both sides of dielectric disc, which acts as capacitor plates. Leads are attached to each sides of the dielectric disc and whole unit is encapsulated in a moisture proof coating. Disc type capacitors have very high value up to 0.001uf. Their working voltages range from 3V to 60000V. These capacitors have very low leakage current. Breakdown voltage is very high.

Paper Capacitor: It consists of thin foils, which are separated by thin paper or waxed paper. The sandwich of foil and paper is then rolled into a cylindrical shape and enclosed in a paper tube or encased in a plastic capsules. The lead at each end of the capacitor is internally attached to the metal foil. Paper capacitors have capacitance ranging from 0.0001uf to 2.0uf and working voltage rating as high as 2000V.

THE DIODE Diodes are polarized, which means that they must be inserted into the PCB the correct way round. This is because an electric current will only flow through them in one direction (like air will only flow one way trough a tyre valve). Diodes have two connections, an anode and a cathode. The cathode is always identified by a dot, ring or some other mark.

The PCB is often marked with a +sign for the cathode end. Diodes come in all shapes and sizes. They are often marked with a type number. Detailed characteristics of a diode can be found by looking up the type number in a data book. If you know how to measure resistance with a meter then test some diodes. A good one has low resistance in one direction and high in other. They are specialized types of diode available such as the zener and light emitting diode (LED).

SYMBOLS OF DIFFERENT DIODES

anode cathode

simple diode

zener diode

RELAYS

Error: Reference source not found

STRIP OUT N/C

OUT N/O SPRING 230V P MAGNET

A relay is an electrically operated switch. The relay contacts can be made to operate in the pre-arranged fashion. For instance, normally open contacts close and normally closed contacts open. In electromagnetic relays, the contacts however complex they might be, they have only two position i.e. OPEN and CLOSED, whereas in case of electromagnetic switches, the contacts can have multiple positions. NEED FOR THE USE OF RELAY The reason behind using relay for switching loads is to provide complete electrical isolation. The means that there is no electrical connection between the driving circuits and the driven circuits. The driving circuit may be low voltage operated low power circuits that control several kilowatts of power. In our circuit where a high fan could be switched on or off depending upon the output from the telephone. Since the relay circuit operated on a low voltage, the controlling circuit is quite safe. In an electromagnetic relay the armature is pulled by a magnetic force only. There is no electrical connection between the coil of a relay and the switching contacts of the relay. If there are more than one contact they all are electrically isolated from each other by mounting them on insulating plates and washers. Hence they can be wired to control different circuits independently. Some of the popular contacts forms are described below: 1. Electromagnetic relay 2. Power Relay. 3. Time Delay Relay. 4. Latching Relay. 5. Crystal Can Relay. 6. Co-axial Relay.

1. Electromagnetic relay: An electromagnetic relay in its simplest form consists of a coil, a DC current passing through which produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field attracts an armature, which in turn operates the contacts. Normally open contacts close and normally closed contacts open. Electromagnetic relays are made in a large variety of contacts forms. 2. Power relays: Power relays are multi-pole heavy duty lapper type relays that are capable of switching resistive loads of upto 25amp.. These relays are widely used for a variety of industrial application like control of fractional horse power motors, solenoids, heating elements and so on. These relays usually have button like silver alloy contacts and the contact welding due to heavy in rush current is avoided by wiping action of the contacts to quench the arc during high voltage DC switching thus avoiding the contact welding. 3. Time Delay Relay: A time delay relay is the one in which there is a desired amount of time delay between the application of the actuating signal and operation of the load switching devices.

4. Latching Relay: In a Latching Relay, the relay contacts remain in the last energized position even after removal of signal in the relay control circuit. The contacts are held in the last relay-energized position after removal of energisation either electrically or magnetically. The contacts can be released to the normal position electrically or mechanically. 5. Crystal Can Relay: They are so called, as they resemble quartz crystal in external shapes. These are high performance hermetically sealed miniature or sub-miniature relay widely used in aerospace and military application. These relays usually have gold plated contacts and thus have extremely low contact resistance. Due to low moment of inertia of the armature and also due to statically and dynamically balanced nature of armature, these relays switch quite reliably even under extreme condition of shock and vibration. 6. Co-axial Relay: A Co-axial Relay has two basic parts, an actuator which is nothing but some kind of a coil and a cavity, housing the relay contacts. The co-axial relay are extensively used for radio frequency switching operations of equipment

THE JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

Collector

Collector

Base

___ _ _ ___ __+ ++

Base

+++ ++ +++ ++ -- --

Emitter
C B E B

Emitter
C

NPN PNP

Junction transistors consists of two junctions made from N-type and P-type semiconductor materials and are called bipolar transistors (two polarities). They have three connections emitter, base, and collector.

TRANSISTOR CURRENTS

Collector Current

Ic

Ib
Base current

Emitter current

Ie

Ie = Ib+Ic

The forward biased base/emitter junction causes electrons to be attracted from the emitter area towards the base. Arriving in the base area, most of the negative electrons come under the influence of the more positive collector and are attracted by it. This is shown in the left hand drawing, where the base current plus collector current equals the emitter current. Alpha gain is collector current divided by emitter current, and is always less than 1. Beta gain is collector current divided by base current and can be fairly high number. Therefore, causing a small base current to flow makes a much larger collector current to flow. A small base current controls a large collector current. There is 0.6 volts across the base\emitter junction, where it is forward biased (0.3 volts for germanium).

MOBILE CONTROL ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES

Project Introduction.
This unit talks about the basic definitions needed to understand the Project better and further defines the technical criteria to be implemented as a part of this project.

Why automation?

Earlier, we are looking into the face of future when we talked about automated devices, which

could do anything on instigation of a controller, but today it has become a reality. 1. An automated device can replace good amount of human working force, moreover humans are more prone to errors and in intensive conditions the probability of error increases. Whereas an automated device can work with diligence, versatility and with almost zero error.
2. This is why this project looks into construction and implementation of a system involving hardware to control a variety of electrical and electronics instruments.

POWER SUPPLY

IN 4007

7812

1 3 2
supply 1000 uf 4700 uf

+12V A.C

How to control sensors

What is a voltage divider?
You are going to find out but don't be in too much of a hurry. Work through the Chapter and allow the explanation to develop. The diagram below shows a light dependent resistor, or LDR, together with its circuit symbol:

The light-sensitive part of the LDR is a wavy track of cadmium sulphide. Light energy triggers the release of extra charge carriers in this material, so that its resistance falls as the level of illumination increases. A light sensor uses an LDR as part of a voltage divider. The essential circuit of a voltage divider, also called a potential divider, is:

What happens if one of the resistors in the voltage divider is replaced by an LDR? In the circuit below, Rtop is a 10 resistor, and an LDR is used as Rbottom :

Suppose the LDR has a resistance of 500 shade (these values are reasonable). When the LDR is in the light, Vout will be:

, 0.5

, in bright light, and 200

in the

In the shade, Vout will be:

In other words, this circuit gives a LOW voltage when the LDR is in the light, and a HIGH voltage when the LDR is in the shade. The voltage divider circuit gives an output voltage which changes with illumination. A sensor subsystem which functions like this could be thought of as a 'dark sensor' and could be used to control lighting circuits which are switched on automatically in the evening. Perhaps this does not seem terribly exciting, but almost every sensor circuit you can think of uses a voltage divider. There's just no other way to make sensor subsystems work. Here is the voltage divider built with the LDR in place of Rtop :

Temperature sensors
A temperature-sensitive resistor is called a thermistor. There are several different types:

The resistance of most common types of thermistor decreases as the temperature rises. They are called negative temperature coefficient, or ntc, thermistors. Note the -t next to the circuit symbol. A typical ntc thermistor is made using semiconductor metal oxide materials. (Semiconductors have resistance properties midway between those of conductors and insulators.) As the temperature rises, more charge carriers become available and the resistance falls. Although less often used, it is possible to manufacture positive temperature coefficient, or ptc, thermistors. These are made of different materials and show an increase in resistance with temperature.

How could you make a sensor circuit for use in a fire alarm? You want a circuit which will deliver a HIGH voltage when hot conditions are detected. You need a voltage divider with the ntc thermistor in the Rtop position:

How could you make a sensor circuit to detect temperatures less than 4C to warn motorists that there may be ice on the road? You want a circuit which will give a HIGH voltage in cold conditions. You need a voltage divider with the thermistor in place of Rbottom :

This last application raises an important question: How do you know what value of Vout you are going to get at 4C?

Key point: The biggest change in Vout from a voltage divider is obtained when Rtop and Rbottom are equal in value

Sound sensors

Another name for a sound sensor is a microphone. The diagram shows a cermet microphone:

Cermet' stands for 'ceramic' and 'metal'. A mixture of these materials is used in making the sound-sensitive part of the microphone. To make them work properly, cermet microphones need a voltage, usually around 1.5 V across them. A suitable circuit for use with a 9 V supply is:

The 4.7 and the 1 resistors make a voltage divider which provides 1.6 V across the microphone. Sound waves generate small changes in voltage, usually in the range 10-20 mV. To isolate these small signals from the steady 1.6 V, a capacitor is used.

Signals from switches

When a switch is used to provide an input to a circuit, pressing the switch usually generates a voltage signal. It is the voltage signal which triggers the circuit into action. What do you need to get the switch to generate a voltage signal? . . . You need a voltage divider. The circuit can be built in either of two ways:

The pull down resistor in the first circuit forces Vout to become LOW except when the push button switch is operated. This circuit delivers a HIGH voltage when the switch is pressed. A resistor value of 10 is often used. In the second circuit, the pull up resistor forces Vout to become HIGH except when the switch is operated. Pressing the switch connects Vout directly to 0 V. In other words, this circuit delivers a LOW voltage when the switch is pressed. In circuits which process logic signals, a LOW voltage is called 'logic 0' or just '0', while a HIGH voltage is called 'logic1' or '1'. These voltage divider circuits are perfect for providing input signals for logic systems. What kinds of switches could you use. One variety of push button switch is called a miniature tactile switch. These are small switches which work well with prototype board:

As you can see, the switch has four pins which are linked in pairs by internal metal strips. Pressing the button bridges the contacts and closes the switch. The extra pins are useful in designing printed circuit boards for keyboard input and also stop the switch from being moved about or bent once soldered into position. There are lots of other switches which you might want to use in a voltage divider configuration. These include magnetically-operated reed switches, tilt switches and pressure pads, all with burglar alarm applications.

;**************************** My code tx********************************* org 00h

jnb p1.0,reverse jnb p1.1,forward jnb p1.2,right jnb p1.3,left right: Mov a,#01100000 Mov sbuf,a Acall delay ret

left: Mov a,#10010000 Mov sbuf,a Acall delay ret forward: Mov a,#01010000 Mov sbuf,a Acall delay

ret

reverse: Mov a,#10100000 Mov sbuf,a Acall delay ret

delay: mov r2,#50 here : mov r3,#150 here1: djnz r3,here1 djnz r2,here ret end

;**************************** My code rx********************************* org 00h out equ p2 mov a,sbuf

mov p2,a acall delay delay: mov r2,#50 here : mov r3,#150 here1: djnz r3,here1 djnz r2,here ret end

BIBILIOGRAPHY
1. HAND BOOK OF ELECTRONICS A.K. MAINI.

2.HAND BOOK OF ELECTRONICS

GUPTA & KUMAR.

3.LET US C 4.SHYAM SERIES 5.DIGITAL SYSTEMS PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATION (Sixth addition)

YASHWANT KANITKAR. TATA MC GRILL. RONALD LTOCCI.

6.ELECTRONICS FOR YOU

(MARCH 1998).

7.DIGITAL DESIGN (Second addition)

MORIS MANO.

8.RELAYS AND ITS APPLICATION (Bpb-publishers)

SHARMA, MC.

9.MODERN ALL ABOUT MOTHERBOARD (Bpb-publishers) 10.POWER SUPPLY FOR ALL OCCASION (Bpb-publishers)

LOTHIA, M.

SHARMA, MC.

11.CMOS DATA BOOK (74SERIES) (Bpb-publishers)

ECA.

12.PRACTICAL VALUE AND TRANSISTOR DATA (Bpb-publishers)

POPE.

13.PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER DESIGN HAND BOOK (Bpb-publishers) 14 MODERN IC (DATA AND SUBSTITUTIONAL MANUAL)

LABON. E.

MANAHAR LOTIA.

Notes By: www.ludhianaprojects.com/ For microcontroller programming and PCB designing Innovative project solutions SCO-54, New Grain Market Gill road ludhiana