1

EE 368 POWER SYSTEMS ANALYSIS (3 0 3)

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS: Formation of a.c. load flow equations. Gauss-Seidel iterative method
of solution. Cartesian and polar forms of load flow equations, formation of the jacobian matrix and
solution using the Newton-Raphson method. Digital computer study of load flow.

FAULT ANALYSIS: Causes of faults, types of faults, 3-phase symmetrical fault calculations,
unsymmetrical shunt and series fault calculations. Simultaneous faults. Applications to digital
computation.

OPERATION AND CONTROL: Characteristics of governors and their operation, speed changer
settings, load-sensitive components of a power station, load-frequency characteristics, Exciter
characteristics, block diagram representation of voltage control systems, voltage and reactive power
control.

STABILITY: Equal area criterion and solution of differential equations.




Mr. E. A. Frimpong
eafrimpong.soe@knust.edu.gh
0246665284



























1. LOAD FLOW STUDIES


2



Aims
When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to
o Explain the important of load flow studies to power utilities,
o Explain the nonlinear nature of load flow equations,
o Formulate the admittance matrix of a power system
o Solve simple load flow problems using the Gauss, Gauss-Seidel and Newton-Raphson
iterative methods
o derive simple equations for load flow and formulate them in a fashion suitable for iterative
analysis,
o perform simple load flow analysis by hand and appreciate why computers perform these
tasks far better than humans and

1.1 Introduction
The purpose on an electric power system is to deliver electric power to consumers in a reliable,
quality, safe and economical manner. The electric power generated are transmitted through power
system components, generally over geographical distances from the generating point to the
consumers. Electric power systems very often have numerous paths over which power can flow,
and the term load flow refers to techniques used to understand how power flows and over what
paths.

In a large integrated power system, it is difficult to assess the voltages and currents associated with
each individual transmission line, although the positions of power generation and consumption are
known. The difficulty lies in the fact that the system equations are nonlinear and cannot be solved
directly. Instead, an iterative approach is used where an initial guess is made to the problem and
then subsequently changed until the solution fits the problem.

Load flow analysis is important to power utilities for the following reasons:
(a) To ensure proper redistribution of power when a line is being removed for maintenance.
(b) For power system planning in other to be able to accommodate future expansion.
(c) To ensure that power system plant is not run above nameplate rating. To keep voltage levels of
certain buses within close tolerances to ensure correct reactive power requirements.
(d) To assess if contingence fault conditions may potentially lead to wide scale system outages.

The objective of any load flow study is to produce the following information:
(a) Voltage magnitude and phase angle at each bus.
(b) Real and reactive power flowing in each element.
(c) Reactive power loading on each generator.

The above objectives are achieved by using the following information:
(a) Branch list of the system connections. That is the impedance of each element, sending-end and
reciving-end nodes. Lines and transformers are represented by their -equivalent models.
(b) Voltage magnitude and phase angle at one bus, which is the reference point for the rest of the
system.
(c) Real power generated and voltage magnitude at each generator bus.
(d) Real and reactive power demand at each load bus.

The forgoing information is generally available since it either involves readily known data
(impedances, etc.) or quantities which are under the control of power system personnel (active
power output and excitation of generators).


3


Simply stated, the load-flow problem is as follows:
(a) At any bus there are four quantities of interest V ,u , P and Q.
(b) If any two of these quantities are specified, the other two must not be specified otherwise we
end up with more unknowns than equatioins.
(c) Because records enable the real and reactive power to be accuralty estimated at loads, P and Q
are specified qunatities at loads, which are called PQ buses.
(d) Likewise, the real power output of a generator is controlled by the prime mover and the
magnitude of the voltage is controlled by the exciter, so P and V are specified at generators,
which are called PV buses.
(e) This means that V and are unknown at each load bus and and Q are unknown at each
generator bus.
(f) Since the system losses are unknown until a solution to the load flow problem has been found,
it is necessary to specify one bus that will supply these losses. This is called the slack (or swing,
or reference) bus and since P and Q are unknown, V and must be specified. Ususally, and
angle of
o
0 = u is used at the slack bus and all other bus angles are expressed with respect to
slack.

1.2 Bus admittance matrix
The admittance, Y of a transmission line is the inverse of its impedance, Z . For example, the
admittance of a transmission line with resistance pu 05 . 0 R = and a reactance X of 0.15pu will
have impedance 15 . 0 05 . 0 j jX R Z + = + = and admittance is:
( )pu 6 j 2 57 . 71 325 . 6
15 . 0 j 05 . 0
1
Y
o
= Z =
+
= .

32 23
Y Y =
31 13
Y Y =
1 2
3
4
21 12
Y Y =
43 34
Y Y =
42 24
Y Y =
10
Y
20
Y
30
Y
40
Y
1 1
V , I
2 2
V , I
3 3
V , I
4 4
V , I

Fig 1.1 A four-busbar systems showing admittances

Consider the four-bus system of figure 1.1. In terms of the node voltages V
1
, V
2
, V
3
and V
4
and the
given admittances, Kirchoffs current law yields,

13 3 1 12 2 1 10 1 1
Y ) V V ( Y ) V V ( Y V I + + =
24 4 2 23 3 2 12 1 2 20 2 2
Y ) V V ( Y ) V V ( Y ) V V ( Y V I + + + =
34 4 3 23 2 3 13 1 3 30 3 3
Y ) V V ( Y ) V V ( Y ) V V ( Y V I + + + =

34 3 4 24 2 4 40 4 4
Y ) V V ( Y ) V V ( Y V I + + =



4


Rearranging these equations and rewriting them in a matrix for, we obtain


(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(

+ +
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
=
(
(
(
(

4
3
2
1
34 24 40 34 24
34 34 23 13 30 23 13
24 23 24 23 12 20 12
13 12 13 12 10
4
3
2
1
V
V
V
V
Y Y Y Y Y 0
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
0 Y Y Y Y Y
I
I
I
I
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(

4
3
2
1
44 43 42 41
34 33 32 31
24 23 22 21
14 13 12 11
4
3
2
1
V
V
V
V
y y y y
y y y y
y y y y
y y y y
I
I
I
I
.

Thus,
( )
13 12 10 11
1 , 1 . Y Y Y column row in Y ie y + + = (The sum of all admittances linked to bus 1)
24 23 12 20 22
Y Y Y Y y + + + = (The sum of all admittances connected to bus 2)
34 23 13 30 33
Y Y Y Y y + + + = (The sum of all admittances connected to bus 3)
34 24 40 44
Y Y Y y + + = (The sum of all admittances connected to bus 4)
12 21 12
Y y y = = (The negative of the admittance between bus 1 and 2)
13 31 13
Y y y = = (The negative of the admittance between bus 1 and 3)
14 41 14
Y y y = = (The negative of the admittance between bus 1 and 4)
23 32 23
Y y y = = (The negative of the admittance between bus 2 and 3)
24 42 24
Y y y = = (The negative of the admittance between bus 2 and 4)
34 43 34
Y y y = = (The negative of the admittance between bus 3 and 4)

Example 1.1
Obtain the admittance matrix of the three-busbar system shown in the figure below.

1 2
3
12
2 5 4 Y . j =
23
1 5 2 Y . j = 2 1
13
j Y =
10
0 4 1 Y . j =
20
0 5 1 Y . j =

Solution
( ) ( ) ( ) 7 9 . 3 2 1 4 . 0 5 . 2 1 . 0 4 . 0
13 12 10 11
j j j j Y Y Y y = + + = + + =
( ) 4 . 0 5 . 2 4 . 0 5 . 2
12 12
j j Y y + = = =

Continuing with the rest, the following admittance matrix is obtained:



5


(
(
(

+ +
+ +
+ +
=
4 5 . 2 2 5 . 1 2 1
2 5 . 1 7 5 . 4 4 5 . 2
2 1 4 5 . 2 7 9 . 3
j j j
j j j
j j j
Y


Example 1.2
Given the following line impedances of a three-bus system, obtain its admittance matrix.
Line (bus to bus)
pu
R Xpu
1-2 0.05 0.15
1-3 0.10 0.30
2-3 0.15 0.45
Solution
1 2
1 3
2 3
1
2 6
0 05 0 15
1
1 3
0 1 0 3
1
0 67 2
0 15 0 45
Y j
. j .
Y j
. j .
Y . j
. j .

= =
+
= =
+
= =
+


3 9 2 6 1 3
2 6 2 67 8 0 67 2
1 3 0 67 2 1 67 5
j j j
Y j . j . j
j . j . j
+ + (
(
= + +
(
( + +



Self Assessment 1.1
Given the following line impedances of a four-bus system, obtain its admittance matrix.
Line (bus to bus)
pu
R Xpu
1-2 0.05 0.15
1-3 0.10 0.30
2-3 0.15 0.45
2-4 0.10 0.30
3-4 0.05 0.15
Answer
(
(
(
(

+ +
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
9 j 3 6 j 2 3 j 1 0
6 j 2 11 j 666 . 3 2 j 666 . 0 3 j 1
3 j 1 2 j 666 . 0 11 j 666 . 3 6 j 2
0 3 j 1 6 j 2 9 j 3


1.3 The load flow problem
The nodal analysis (refer to any book on electric circuit analysis) is used in the load flow study of
large networks. A balanced three-phase network (a network which has all three phases equally
loaded. Such a network is analysed by studying only one phase) is assumed. The nodal equation for
a system comprising n buses can be expressed in a matrix form as:
| | | || | V Y I = Eqn. 1.1
Where = V voltages at the nodes or buses,
= I currents injected into the nodes or buses, and
= Y bus admittance matrix (admittance is the inverse of impedance)



6


The current injected into the ith bus is

=
=
n
k
k ik i
V Y I
1
n ., . . , , i 2 1 = Eqn. 1.2

In practice, active power, reactive power and voltage are specified, but not current. The injected
current and the injected complex power into the ith bus are related by the equation

-
= +
i i i i
I V jQ P or
i i i i
I V jQ P
-
= or
i
i
i i
I
V
jQ P
=

*
Eqn. 1.3
Substituting eqn. 1.3 into eqn.1.2 yields
n ., . . , , i V Y V jQ P
n
k
k ik i i i
2 1
1
= =

=
-
Eqn. 1.4
Equating real and imaginary parts, we obtain
)
`

=

=
-
n
k
k ik i i
V Y V Re P
1
Eqn. 1.5a
)
`

=

=
-
n
k
k ik i i
V Y V Im Q
1
Eqn. 1.5b
In power forms, if o Z =
i i
V V and
ik ik ik
Y Y u Z = , then
( )
i k ik ik
n
k
k i i
cos Y V V P o o + u =

=1
Eqn. 1.6a
( )
i k ik ik
n
k
k i i
sin Y V V Q o o + u =

=1
Eqn. 1.6b
Equations 1.6a and 1.6b give 2n power flow equations at n buses of a power system. Each bus is
characterized by four variables P, Q, V and o giving a total of 4n variables. These equations can be
solved for 2n variables if the remaining 2n variables are specified. Practical considerations allow a
power system analyst to fix a priori two variables at each bus. Depending upon which two variables
are fixed a priori, the buses can be classified into three categories: PV bus, PQ bus and Slack bus,
swing bus or reference where V and o (or ) are specified.

Example 1.3
An interconnected cable links generating stations 1 and 2 as shown in the figure below. The desired
voltage profile is flat i.e. . pu V V 1
2 1
= = The load demands at the two buses are ( )pu j S
D
5 15
1
+ =
; ( )pu j S
D
15 25
2
+ = . The station loads are equalized by the flow of power in the cable. Determine
the load flow solution of the system if the cable has impedance ( )pu . j . Z 05 0 005 0 + = . It is given
that generator G
1
can generate a maximum of 20.0pu real power.
2 D
S
1 D
S
1 2
1
G
2
G


Solution
The power injected into the buses are given by (from eqns. 1.6a and 1.6b):


7


( )
1 2 12 2 1 12 11
2
1 11 1
o o + u + u = cos V V Y cos V Y P
( )
2 1 21 1 2 21 22
2
2 22 2
o o + u + u = cos V V Y cos V Y P
( )
1 2 12 2 1 12 11
2
1 11 1
o o + u u = sin V V Y sin V Y Q
( )
2 1 21 1 2 21 22
2
2 22 2
sin sin o o u u + = V V Y V Y Q


We specify the generation at station 1 as . pu P
G
20
1
= Hence
pu P P P
D G
5 15 20
1 1 1
= = =
Since the power and voltage of bus 1 are known, it is a PV bus. Bus 2 is thus the slack bus.
2
o is
thus set to 0.
o
. .
. j .
Y Y 29 84 90 19
05 0 005 0
1
22 11
Z =
+
= =
( )
o o o
Y Y Y 71 . 95 90 . 19 180 29 . 84 90 . 19 29 . 84 90 . 19
2 1 12 21
Z = + Z = Z = = =


From the
1
P equation,
( ) ( )
o
.
. cos . . cos .
4 14
0 7 95 9 19 29 84 9 19 5
1
1
= o
o + + =

Substituting
1
o into the other equations, we obtain
( ) ( ) pu . . . sin . . sin . Q 13 0 4 14 7 95 9 19 29 84 9 19
1
= =
( ) ( ) pu . . . cos . . cos . P 86 4 4 14 7 95 9 19 29 84 9 19
2
= + + =
( ) ( ) pu . . . sin . . sin . Q 11 1 4 14 7 95 9 19 29 84 9 19
2
= + =
Now
pu . . Q Q Q Q Q Q
G G D G
13 5 5 13 0 5 5
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + = + = = =
pu P P P P
G D G
14 . 20
2 2 2 2
= =
pu Q Q Q Q
G D G
11 . 16
2 2 2 2
= =
Line loss ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) pu . . P P P P
D D G G
14 0 25 15 14 20 20
2 1 2 1
= + + = + +

Figure 1.2 shows, possibly, the simplest power system configuration. A generator of fixed terminal
voltage V
A
is connected to a load S via a transmission line which, to keep matters simple, has a
series resistance of R. The problem is to find the amount of real power, P
G
, generated by the
generator. This seems, at first sight, to be a simple problem, but it will be seen that this is not quite
the case.
? P
G
A B
A
V
B
V
S Load
R ce tan resis Line

Figure 1.2 A single busbar power system

It is common in power systems to specify the loads in terms of their power, i.e. so many watts,
kilowatts or megawatts. Thus, the load of figure 1.1 is related to the voltage at busbar B, V
B
, and the
current through the system, I:
I V S
B
= Eqn. 1.7


8



However, the voltage at busbar B, V
B
, is related to the voltage at busbar A, V
A
and the voltage drop
along the transmission line, IR, which in turn is related to the current through the system, I:
IR V V
B A
= Eqn. 1.8

We may solve equations 1.7 and 1.8 for V
B
. Eliminating I:


B
B A
V
S
R
V V
=

Eqn. 1.9
which can be written as:
0
2
= + RS V V V
A B B
Eqn. 1.10

And so, to find V
B
involves a nonlinear equation. Having found V
B
we may then proceed to find the
power dissipated in the transmission line, and hence find the power produced by the generator at A.
1 1
jQ P +
2 2
jQ P +
3 3
jQ P +
4 4
jQ P +
21 12
Y Y =
41 14
Y Y =
32 23
Y Y =
31 13
Y Y =
1 2
3 4

Fig 1.3 A four-busbar power system

This seemingly simple exercise has turned out to involve solving quadratic equations. This is the
fundamental problem in calculating load flows: nonlinear equations. Consider the still relatively
simple network of figure 1.3. Here there are four busbars to consider. If we wished to find the
distribution of power flows along each line, we would need to solve four simultaneous nonlinear
equations. This may no longer be solved by inspection. Instead, we have to use iterative techniques
which are far more easily performed by computer than by hand. The simplest method of iteration is
called the Gauss Method. Equation 1.10 is a simple quadratic equation that may be solved by the
well-known formula:
2
4
2
RS V V
V
A A
B

=
However, this formula is only applicable to equations with one unknown and hence cannot be used
for solving the equations relating to the system of figure 1.3. To solve a set of nonlinear equations,
we must use an iterative method.


1.4 The Gauss iterative method
1.4.1 Theory
The operation of the Gauss iteration can be appreciated readily by applying it to the solution of the
simple quadratic equation 1.4. Equation 1.4 is rearranged as:

A
B
B
V
V
RS
V + = Eqn. 1.11


9


However, to make the expression iterative, we will calculate a new value for V
B
on left hand side of
equation 1.11 by guessing an initial value for V
B
on the right hand side of equation 1.11. Thus, the
equation becomes:

A
k
B
k
B
V
V
RS
V + =
+1
Eqn. 1.12
where the superscript k refers to the order in which the values of V
B
are calculated. Now, by
assuming an initial value for V
B
and repetitively evaluating equation 1.12, the exact solution of V
B

to the equation may be found.

Example 1.4
Calculate the power generated by the generator at busbar A in figure 1.2 given the following
values: Load MW 400 = , Resistance of transmission line, O = 5 . 15 R ,
Voltage of busbar kV A 231 = . Use the Gauss iterative method and check it by using the quadratic
solution formula.

Solution
To proceed, we use equation 1.12. Taking an initial value of V
B
as 231kV (i.e. the same as V
A
), we
get the following results by iteration:
K 1 2 3 4 5 6
V
B
(kV) 204.16 200.63 200.10 200.02 200.00 200.00

And so we see that to two decimal places, no improvement in the answer occurs for more than 6
iterations. To check the answer, we use the quadratic formula:
2
4
2
RS V V
V
A A
B

= ,
which gives the answers V
B
= 200kV or V
B
= 31kV.

The above example has illustrated another important point regarding iterative equations: the
possibility of multi-valued solutions. When assessing the answers from the quadratic formula, we
intuitively choose the higher value solution since in a power system, we expect busbar voltages to
be approximately the same in magnitude. Hence, V
B
= 200kV is the correct answer. However, if the
two answers were closer together, this selection process becomes more difficult.

Having found V
B
, we can calculate the power loss in the transmission as:
MW
kV
R
V V
P
B A
L
62
5 . 15
) 31 ( ) (
2 2
=
O
=

=
thus, the generator at A must export
P
G
= Load + Losses = 400 + 62 = 462MW

Self Assessment 1.2
Try performing the iteration of the previous example using different starting values. You should
find that the result is always 200kV, even for starting values close, but not equal to 31kV.

1.4.2 Application of the Gauss iterative method to multi-terminal power systems
To be of any use to a power system engineer, the Gauss iterative method must be applicable to
more realistic power system configurations. We shall take as our example the system of figure 1.2;
in practice, computer programmes used by power utilities are capable of handling systems with
2000 or more busbars.



10


In our simple system of figure 1.2, we assumed that the transmission line and load are purely
resistive. This allowed us conventionally to ignore any flow of reactive power. However this
quantity is very important in power system analysis and must be considered further. This implies
that loads must be specified in terms of their real and reactive powers, and that the reactance of
transmission lines must also be represented.

The equations are formulated as follows. Taking busbar 3 of figure 1.3 as an example, the total real
power P, and reactive power Q, at busbar 3 are related to the voltage at the bus V
3
, and the net
current passing through the bus I
3
, as:
3 3 3 3
jQ P I V + =
-
Eqn. 1.13

where the superscript * denotes the complex conjugate. P is taken to be positive if there is net
generation at a bus, in which case I
3
is flowing from the generator into the transmission system as
shown in figure 1.3. I
3
may therefore be expressed as:
3
3
3 3
*
* ) (
I
V
jQ P
=
+
or
3
3
3 3
*
I
V
jQ P
=

Eqn. 1.14
However, I
3
is composed of the components of current entering or leaving busbar 3 via the lines to
other busbars. Thus, using admittances to represent the transmission lines, equation 1.14 may be re-
expressed as:
4 43 3 33 2 23 1 13
3
3 3
*
V Y V Y V Y V Y
V
jQ P
+ + + =

Eqn. 1.15
Note that admittances refer only to the transmission lines and not the busbar loads or generators.
Equation 1.15 may be rearranged into a form suitable for iteration:
( )
(

+ +

=
4 43 2 23 1 13
3
3 3
33
3
*
1
V Y V Y V Y
V
jQ P
Y
V Eqn. 1.16
Similar to equation 1.16 for the simple system of figure 1.2, iterative use of equation 1.16 allows us
to find the value of V
3
. In general, for a power system having N buses, the voltage at the kth bus is
given by:

(

=

=
N
1 n
n kn
k
k k
kk
k
V Y
* V
jQ P
Y
1
V k n = Eqn. 1.17
where Y
kn
is the negative of the admittance measured between busbars k and n in the network. Y
kk
is
the sum of all admittances connected to busbar k. Iterative evaluation of equation 1.17 for all buses
will eventually lead us to the final solution. As described so far, the complex power, jQ P S + = is
specified for all buses. However, no allowance has been made for the power losses, real or reactive,
that occur in the transmission lines; these losses are, of course, load dependent. If we specified S for
all buses, then clearly no solution could be found unless the generation power supply exactly
equalled the load plus the losses. To allow for this, we make one bus within the system independent
of S; this bus is referred to as the slack or swing bus and is usually denoted as being node 1(some
books use 0). Furthermore, the voltage is specified at the slack bus and, hence, equation 1.17 is not
applied to the slack bus.

In load flow analysis, both generation and load are specified. However, the system losses will
depend on the exact solution found by the load flow study. The slack bus is used to ensure that
generation exactly equals load plus losses.






11


Example 1.5
Find the voltages at busbars 2 and 3 of figure 1.4 after one iteration of the Gauss method.

Busbar Voltage Generation(p.u.) Load(p.u.)
1
o
0 99 . 0 Z
? 2 j 1+
2 ? 1 . 0 j 3 . 0 1 . 0 j 2 . 0 +
3 ? 1 . 0 j 7 . 0 + 0

1 2
3
? V =
2
? V =
3
0 99 0
1
j . V + =
4 2
12
j Y =
2 1
23
j Y = 2 1
13
j Y =
1 0 7 0 . j . +
1 0 2 0 . j . + 2 1 j +
? S = 1 0 3 0 . j .

Fig 1.4 A three-bus power system

Solution
First of all we will construct the admittance matrix from the admittance values given in figure 1.4.
(
(
(

(
(
(

+ +
+ +
+ +
=
(
(
(

3
2
1
3
2
1
4 2 2 1 2 1
2 1 6 3 4 2
2 1 4 2 6 3
V
V
V
j j j
j j j
j j j
I
I
I
Eqn. 1.18

We will begin by assuming that
2
V and
3
V are both set to
o
0 1Z . Hence, applying equation 1.17 to this
problem for
1
V and
2
V gives us:

( )
(

=
3 23 1 12
2
2 2
22
2
1
V Y V Y
* V
jQ P
Y
V Eqn. 1.19
and
( )
(

=
2 23 1 13
3
3 3
33
3
1
V Y V Y
* V
jQ P
Y
V Eqn. 1.20

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 2 . 0 1 . 0 1 . 0 2 . 0 1 . 0 3 . 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
j j j jQ P jQ P jQ P
D D G G
= + = + + = +

2 . 0 1 . 0
2 2
j jQ P + =


Try to obtain
3 3
jQ P


Substituting in actual values results in the following equations:
( )( ) ( )( ) | |
(

+ + + + +

= 0 1 2 1 0 99 . 0 4 2
0 1
2 . 0 1 . 0
6 3
1
2
j j j j
j
j
j
V Eqn. 1.21



12


( )( ) ( )( ) | |
(

+ + + + +

= 0 1 2 1 0 99 0 2 1
0 1
1 0 7 0
4 2
1
3
j j j . j
j
. j .
j
V Eqn. 1.22

Note: In calculating
3
V in eqn. 1.22, we continued to use the initially assumed values of
2
V and
3
V
even though eqn. 1.21 will give a new
2
V . This is a major distinguishing factor between the Gauss
iterative method and other iterative methods. Working out equations 1.21 and 1.22 give:

027 0 973 0
2
. j . V + = and 130 0 085 1
3
. j . V + =

Additionally, from equation 1.18,

( ) ( ) ( )
3 2 1 1
2 1 4 2 6 3 V j V j V j I + + + + = Eqn. 1.23

and so

( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) 130 0 085 1 2 1 027 0 973 0 4 2 0 99 0 6 3
1
. j . j . j . j j . j I + + + + + + + =
062 . 0 429 . 0 j = Eqn. 1.24
Hence, power injected at slack bus 1 is
( )( ) 061 0 425 0 062 0 429 0 0 99 0
1 1
. j . . j . j . * I V S + = + + = = Eqn. 1.25

Note that the solution as shown above is referred to as the Gauss method.

However, another slightly different method can be used in which, after evaluating
2
V from
equation 1.21, this new value is then used to calculate
3
V from equation 1.22. This approach is
called the Gauss-Seidel method and is a slight improvement on the Gauss method.

Example 1.6
Recalculate busbar voltages
2
V and
3
V using the Gauss-Seidel iterative method.

Solution
2
V is calculated the same way as in the Gauss-Seidel iterative method.
( )( ) ( )( ) | |
(

+ + + + +
+

= 027 . 0 973 . 0 2 1 0 99 . 0 2 1
0 1
1 . 0 7 . 0
4 2
1
3
j j j j
j
j
j
V
New V
2

1435 0 0715 1 . j . + =













13



Example 1.7
(b) Using the Gauss-Seidel iterative method, determine the voltages of busbars 2 and 3 after
one iteration. Assume the following initial voltages
0
2 3
1 0 V V = = Z .
3 6 2 4 1 2
2 4 3 6 1 2
1 2 1 2 2 4
j j j
Y j j j
j j j
+ + (
(
= + +
(
( + +



Busbar Voltage Generation(p.u.) Load(p.u.)
1
o
0 99 . 0 Z
? 2 j 1+
2 ? 0 25 0 1 . j . 1 . 0 j 2 . 0 +
3 ? 0 4 0 1 . j . + 0

Solution
2 . 0 05 . 0
2 2
j jQ P + =
1 . 0 4 . 0
3 3
j jQ P =
( )( ) ( )( ) | |
(

+ + + + +

= 0 1 2 1 0 99 . 0 4 2
0 1
2 . 0 05 . 0
6 3
1
2
j j j j
j
j
j
V
02 . 0 97 . 0 j + =
( )( ) ( )( ) | |
(

+ + + + +

= 02 . 0 97 . 0 2 1 0 99 . 0 2 1
0 1
1 . 0 4 . 0
4 2
1
3
j j j j
j
j
j
V
08 . 0 04 . 1 j + =

1.4.3 Limitations of the Gauss iterative method
A drawback to using the Gauss method is the sometimes excessive number of iterations that are
needed before a solution is found. Part of the problem is that this method takes no account of sign
or magnitude of the error existing between iterations. This problem can be met part way by
applying an acceleration factor which multiplies the difference between iterations by a constant in
the range 1 to 2. However, the best solution is to use a technique which takes account of the error
and uses it to modify the next iterative cycle. The Newton-Raphson technique is an example of this
and takes far fewer iterative cycles to reach the solution than Gauss method.

In the Gauss method, the calculation of the values at a new iterative step depends solely on
previous values and the iterative formula. However, in the Newton-Raphson method, the
calculation of a new iterative step also makes use of an estimate of the error from the previous step.
This enables the Newton-Raphson method to converge upon the solution using fewer iterative steps
than the Gauss method.

1.5 The Newton-Raphson method
1.5.1 Theory
The Newton-Raphson method differs from the Gauss-Seidel method in that new iterative updates of
the required busbar voltages are based upon the rate of change of the solution. Initially, we will
simplify the theory in order that the basic principle of this method of iteration is fully understood.
We will begin by considering the d.c. system of figure 1.2. We learned that the relationship
describing voltages, power and line resistance is given by equation 1.10 which is repeated here in a
slightly different form:



14


( ) 0 V F RS V V V
B 1 B A
2
B
= = + Eqn. 1.26
Equation 1.26 shows equation 1.10 as a function, F
1
, of V
B
. Of course, when we have found the
correct value of V
B
to fit our parameters in V
A
, R and S, then F
1
(V
B
) will be zero. Using, as before,
the index k to refer to successive iterations of V
B
, we can write:
( ) 0 V V F
k
B
k
B 1
= A + Eqn. 1.27
where
k
B
V A is the error between the correct value of V
B
and its estimate on the kth iteration. In
order to update the value of
1 k
B
V
+
A , we will try to estimate the value of
k
B
V A by using the Taylor
series expansion of F
1
:

( ) ( ) ( ) ...
1
1 1 1
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
A + = A + =
k
B
k
B
k
B
k
B
k
B B
dV
dF
V V F V V F V F Eqn. 1.28

Equation 1.28 shows the first two terms in the Taylor series expansion where ( )
k
B 1
dV dF is the
derivative of F
1
with respect to V
B
evaluated
k
B
V . Since equation 1.28 equates to zero, we may
evaluate
k
B
V A as:
( )
k
B
1
k
B 1 k
B
dV
dF
V F
V
|
|
.
|

\
|

= A Eqn. 1.29
Note that equation 1.29 only approximates to
k
B
V A since only the first two terms in the Taylor
series expansion of equation 1.28 were considered.

Example 1.8
Using the same data of example 1.4, calculate the first iterative value of
1 k
B
V
+
starting with
A
k
B
V V = initially.

Solution
For kV 231 V V
A
k
B
= = , MW 400 S = and line resistance O = 5 . 15 , F
1
evaluates to:

( ) ( ) RS V V V V F
k
B A
k
B
k
B 1
+ =
( ) ( )
6
2
3
2
3
10 400 5 . 15 10 231 10 231 + =
9
10 2 . 6 = Eqn. 1.30
and

3 3 3
A
k
B
k
B
1
10 231 10 231 10 231 2 V V 2
dV
dF
= = =
|
|
.
|

\
|
Eqn. 1.31
Hence,
( )
kV 84 . 26
10 231
10 2 . 6
dV
dF
V F
V
3
9
k
B
1
k
B 1 k
B
=

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

= A Eqn. 1.32
Therefore the updated value of
B
V is:
kV 16 . 204 84 . 26 231 V V V
k
B
k
B
1 k
B
= = A + =
+
Eqn. 1.33

Further iterative cycles reveal:
k 1 2 3


15


) kV ( V
B

204.16 200.10 200.00
These results prove the worth of the Newton-Raphson method. Comparing the above table with the
table for the Gauss method shown in example 1.4, it is clear that the correct solution is reached with
fewer iterative cycles using the Newton-Raphson method (3 iterations compared to 5). Note,
however, that there is a price to be paid for quicker convergence: a more complicated algorithm.

1.5.2 Application to a.c. systems
When applied to a.c. power systems, the equivalent of F
1
is a function of two direct variables. In
the Gauss-Seidel case, we saw that the governing equation, equation 1.17, is solved for a real and
imaginary component of V
k
, or alternatively, a magnitude and an angle of V
k
but in either case there
are two variables to be found.

We will proceed by deriving the equations necessary to solve figure 1.4, the 3 bus power system.
We will take all complex values in the equations to be in polar coordinate form:
k k k
V V o Z =
n n n
V V o Z =
kn kn k
Y n Y u Z = Eqn. 1.34

From equation 1.4 we may write:

( )

=
o o + u Z =
N
1 n
k n kn kn n k k k
Y V V jQ P Eqn. 1.35

Equation 1.35 may be separated into its real and imaginary components:

( )

=
o o + u =
N
1 n
k n kn kn n k k
cos Y V V P Eqn. 1.36

( )

=
o o + u =
N
1 n
k n kn kn n k k
sin Y V V Q Eqn. 1.37

Similar to the Gauss-Seidel case, the slack bus (taken to be bus 1 in figure 1.4) is not considered in
the system equations. Beginning with initial values for the busbar voltages, values for P
k
and Q
k
are
evaluated from equations 1.36 and 1.37. The calculated value for real power, P
k(calc)
, corresponds to
the term ( )
k
B 1
V F on the right hand side of equation 1.28 (note, of course, that we will have two
equations of the form of equation 1.28 in the a.c. case, the extra equation being in Q
k
). Similarly,
the specified value of real power, P
k(spec)
, corresponds to the left hand side of equation 1.28. Thus,
an equation in P

of the form:

k
k
k
) calc ( k ) spec ( k
V
V
P
P P A
c
c
+ = Eqn. 1.38

may be derived. Notice that the derivative of equation 1.29 becomes a partial derivative in equation
1.38 since P
k
is a function of all busbar voltages. An equation similar to equation 1.38 may be
derived for Q
k
. denoting
k
P A as the difference between the specified and calculated power:
) calc ( k ) spec ( k k
P P P = A Eqn. 1.39
and similarly
) calc ( k ) spec ( k k
Q Q Q = A Eqn. 1.40
We can write the final expression relating P
k
, Q
k
and V
k
for busbars 2 and 3 of figure 1.4:


16



(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

A
A
o A
o A
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

c
c
c
c
o c
c
o c
c
c
c
c
c
o c
c
o c
c
c
c
c
c
o c
c
o c
c
c
c
c
c
o c
c
o c
c
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

A
A
A
A
3
2
3
2
3
3
2
3
3
3
2
3
3
2
2
2
3
2
2
2
3
3
2
3
3
3
2
3
3
2
2
2
3
2
2
2
3
2
3
2
V
V
V
Q
V
Q Q Q
V
P
V
Q Q Q
V
P
V
P P P
V
P
V
P P P
Q
Q
P
P
Eqn. 1.41

The 4 4 matrix of partial derivatives is referred to as the Jacobean matrix. By considering the
derivatives of equations 1.36 and 1.37 with respect to the relevant variables (in this case
2
o ,
3
o ,
2
V
and
3
V ), expressions for each element of the Jacobean may be derived. Numerical values of the
Jacobean can then be evaluated using the initial values of the busbar voltages.

Thus far, initial values of busbar voltages have enabled us to calculate P A , Q A and the Jacobean
matrix. In order to solve for o A and V A , the Jacobean needs to be inverted and then multiplied by
the column vector P A and Q A . When o A and V A are found, they are added to the initial values for
o Z V to form a more accurate estimate. The iterative process may then be repeated until the correct
busbar voltages are found.

It will be apparent that load flow calculations using the Newton-Raphson method cannot easily be
performed by hand calculation and are better entrusted to a computer.

When written as a computer programme, it is necessary to apply a test which stops the iterative
process when V A is less than some preset value which is indicative of the accuracy required. Unlike
the Gauss-Seidel method, the Newton-Raphson method is sensitive to initial values that are far
removed from the correct solution. However, since in power systems busbar voltages are usually
close to 1p.u. is taken as an initial guess.

Extra busbars may be incorporated into equation 1.41 to take account of power systems with
greater than 3 busbars. Each extra busbar will add an extra 2 elements to the column vectors and
add 2 extra columns and 2 extra rows to the Jacobean. Thus, for and N busbar system, the main
burden of the computation will be in evaluating the inverse of a ( ) ( ) 1 N 2 1 N 2 Jacobean
matrix.

For example, the following steps will be followed when applying Newton-Raphson a three-bus
system such as the one in figure 1.4

Step 1: Calculate
) calc (
P
2
,
) calc (
P
3
,
) calc (
Q
2
and
) calc (
Q
3
from the previous equations
Step 2: Calculate
2
P A ,
3
P A ,
2
Q A and
3
Q A
Step 3: For this system, relationship between P A , Q A and o A , V A is:


17


(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

A
A
o A
o A
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

c
c
c
c
o c
c
o c
c
c
c
c
c
o c
c
o c
c
c
c
c
c
o c
c
o c
c
c
c
c
c
o c
c
o c
c
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

A
A
A
A
3
2
3
2
3
3
2
3
3
3
2
3
3
2
2
2
3
2
2
2
3
3
2
3
3
3
2
3
3
2
2
2
3
2
2
2
3
2
3
2
V
V
V
Q
V
Q Q Q
V
P
V
Q Q Q
V
P
V
P P P
V
P
V
P P P
Q
Q
P
P


where the 4 4 matrix is called the Jacobean. Compute the elements of the Jacobean.

Step 4: Invert Jacobean to give
2
o A ,
3
o A ,
2
V A and
3
V A
Step 5: Update
2
o ,
3
o ,
2
V and
3
V
Step 6: Go to step 1 and repeat

Assignments
1. Obtain the admittance matrix of the 3-busbar system shown below.
3
13
0 1 0 2 Z . j . = +
23
0 05 0 15 Z . j . = +
12
0 2 0 4 Z . j . = +
0 5
c
X j . =
0 25
c
X j . =
2
1


2. Obtain the admittance matrix of a power system whose data is given below.
Line (bus to bus) Series admittance Shunt reactance
1-2 2 5 j 1 j
1-3 1 3 j 0 5 j .
2-3 1 2 j 0

3. Consider the diagram below.
0 99 . 0 j V + =
1 2
2 . 0 1 . 0
12
j Z + =
4 . 0 2 . 0
23
j Z + = 4 . 0 2 . 0
13
j Z + =
2 1 j + 1 . 0 3 . 0 j +
1 . 0 6 . 0 j +
1 . 0 4 . 0 j +
3

(a) Obtain the admittance matrix.
(b) Find the voltages at busbars 2 and 3 after one iteration, using the Gauss method. Take
the initial values of
1
V and
2
V to be
0
0 1Z .
(c) Find the generation at the slack bus.


18


4. (a) Compare Gauss-Seidel and Newton Raphson iterative methods for load flow studies.
(b) What does
nn
Y and
nm
Y signify in an admittance matrix?
(c) Two busbars with generators, interconnected by an overhead line have the following loads
1
20 15 S j pu = + and
2
10 5 S j pu = + . The desired voltages are . pu V V 1
2 1
= = The
impedance of the overhead line is 0 002 0 03 . j . pu + . Determine the load flow solution of
the system if the generator at busbar 1 can generate a maximum real power of 18pu.




19


2. FAULT ANALYSIS

Aims
(a) To introduce the concept of fault analysis, including the usefulness and importance of such
analysis, in electrical power systems.
(b) To convey an understanding, both mathematically and intuitively of how power system
faults are analyzed.
(c) To apply the understanding to some simple power systems.


2.1 Introduction
An essential part of the design of a power supply network is the calculation of the system voltages
and currents which flow in the components when faults of various types occur. The magnitude of
the fault currents gives the engineer the current settings for the protection to be used and the ratings
of the circuit breakers. The idea is to be able to rescue the system from the abnormal conditions
within minimum time.

The main objectives of fault analysis can be summarised as follows:
(a) To determine maximum and minimum three-phase short-circuit currents.
(b) To determine the unsymmetrical fault current for single and double line-to-earth, line-to-
line faults and open-circuit faults.
(c) Investigation of the operation of protective relays.
(d) Determination of rated rupturing capacity of breakers.
(e) To determine fault-current distribution and busbar-voltage levels during faults.


2.2 Types of Faults
Faults are undesirable, unpredictable and unavoidable incidents in a power network which have the
capability of changing system values and also destroying power system equipment. If the insulation
of the system should fail at any point, or if a conducting object should come in contact with a bare
power conductor, a will occur. Electrical failure generally implies: insulation failure resulting in a
short-circuit condition and/or conducting-path failure resulting in an open-circuit condition.
Insulation failure is by far the more common type of electrical failure.

The causes of faults are many: they include lightning, wind damage, trees falling across lines,
vehicles colliding with towers or poles, birds shorting out lines, aircraft colliding with lines,
vandalism, small animals entering switchgear, and line breaks due to excessive ice loading. The
principal types of faults are discussed below.

2.2.1 Short-circuited phases
Faults of this type are caused by insulation failure between phase conductors or between phase
conductors and earth, or both, the result being the short-circuiting of one or more phases to earth or
to one another or both. The faults which fall under this category are: three-phase-to-earth fault,
three-phase clear of earth fault, phase-phase fault, double-phase-to-earth fault and Single-phase-to-
earth fault. The most common of these is the single-phase-earth fault (70-80%) followed by phase-
phase and then double-phase-earth. Although a 3-phase fault is the least common, it constitutes the
most severe fault and is also the most amenable to calculations. Figure 2.1 illustrates these faults.


20


Single-phase-earth
Double-phase-earth
Phase-phase
Three-phase
Three-phase-earth

Fig 2.1 Short-circuited phases

2.2.2 Open-circuited phases
This type of fault is the failure of one or more phases to conduct. The more common cause of this
type of fault are joint failures on overhead lines and cables, and the failure of one or more phases of
a circuit-breaker or isolator to open or close. Single-phase open-circuit, Double-phase open-circuit
and Three-phase open-circuit are the faults which fall under this category. These are illustrated in
figure 2.2. The single-phase and two-phase conditions are of particular interest because they both
tend to produce unbalance of power system currents and voltages with the consequent risk of
damage to rotating plant.

Single-phase open-circuit
Double-phase open-circuit
Three-phase open-circuit

Fig 2.2 Open-circuited phases

2.2.3 Simultaneous faults
A simultaneous fault condition, sometimes termed a multiple fault condition, is defined as the
simultaneous presence of two or more faults of similar or dissimilar types at the same or different
points on the power system. Such conditions may result from a common cause, from different but
consequential causes or, extremely rarely, from quite separate and independent causes. The
commonest simultaneous fault condition is undoubtedly the double-circuit overhead-line ( a
double-circuit system is that in which a single tower is made to carry two different three-phase
circuits ) fault in which a common cause (for example lightning or accidental contact) results in a
fault on each of the two circuits (each of the two three-phase circuits) concerned. These two faults,
although possibly geographically coincident, will be electrically separate to an extent determined
by the point of fault and the particular power system configuration.

A simultaneous fault condition of particular interest is that known as the cross-country earth-fault,
in which a single-phase-to-earth fault a one point in the power system occurs coincidentally with a
second single-phase-to-earth fault on another phase and at some other point in the system. This
condition is most commonly experienced on impedance-earthed systems where the second earth-


21


fault may be initiated by the increased healthy-phase voltage resulting from the neutral
displacement produced by the first. As already stated, a simultaneous fault condition may consist of
two different types of fault at the same point, and one example of this is the open-circuit-with-
earth-fault condition in which two faults, namely a single-phase open-circuit and a single-phase-to
earth fault occur coincidentally on the same phase and at the same point in the power system. Such
a condition can occur on an overhead line for example, due to a phase conductor breaking at a point
near to a tower, the conductor on the tower side of the break being held by the suspension insulator
and that on the other side falling to earth.

2.2.4 Winding faults
The types of fault which can occur on machine and transformer windings consist mainly of short-
circuits, from one phase winding to earth, from one phase winding to another or from one point to
another on the same phase winding. The last mentioned condition is known as a short-circuited
turns fault, and is of particular interest from the protection standpoint in that the fault current in the
short-circuited turns may be very large and that in the remainder of the winding very small. The
open-circuited winding condition is quite rare in practice and is usually the result of damage to the
winding as a consequence of a preceding winding short-circuit at or near the point of fault. Open
circuits in transformers may also occur as a result of failure of the tap-change equipment.

2.2.5 Other categories of faults
(a) Changing fault conditions: The types of faults which have been mentioned above can all
be regarded as fixed fault conditions, in that the type of fault remains unchanged for the duration of
the fault. The great majority of fault conditions are of this type but there are others, known as
changing-fault conditions, in which the type of fault changes during the course of the fault. Such
changing-fault conditions can result from a number of causes, the most common being the
spreading of a fault arc, or of the ionised gases from a fault arc, to other phases and even to other
circuits. A typical example is a single-phase-to-earth fault which develops into a two-phase-earth
fault and possibly, later, into a three-phase fault. The analysis of a changing fault condition presents
no particular difficulty, since the condition can be considered as a succession of fixed fault
conditions, each of which can be analysed individually.

(b) Symmetrical faults: These are faults which affect all phases equally, i.e. three-phase-to-earth
and three-phase clear of earth.

(c) Unsymmetrical faults: These are faults which produce varying effects on some or all phases,
i.e. phase-phase fault, double-phase-to-earth fault and single-phase-to-earth fault

(d) Permanent faults: Faults which do not die out on their own. Such fault occurs when for
example a tree falls on a transmission line.

(e) Transient faults: Faults which die out on their own. For example, a short-circuit caused by
wind.

2.3 Factors affecting fault severity
The severity of a power system fault condition may be assessed in terms of the disturbance
produced and the damage caused, the magnitude of the fault current and its duration being of
particular interest, especially in relation to the design and application of power system protection.
The factors which affect fault severity must therefore be given due consideration in all aspects of
power system analysis in order to ensure results which are truly representative of the conditions
which can occur in practice. The factors which normally require to be considered are:



22


(a) Source conditions: These relate to the amount and disposition of all connected generation
(including all other power sources such as interconnections with other systems), the two extremes
of minimum and maximum connected plant being of particular interest. The minimum and
maximum plant conditions are normally those corresponding to the conditions of minimum and
maximum connected load.

(b) Power system configuration: This is determined by the items of plant, namely generators,
transformers, overhead-line and cable circuits etc., assumed to be in service for the particular
condition being investigated and by such other factors as have a bearing on the topology of the
equivalent system network. The system configuration may change during the course of a fault with
consequent changes in the magnitude and distribution of the fault current, typical causes being the
sequential tripping of the circuit-breakers at the two ends of a faulted transmission line and the
sequential clearance of multiple fault conditions

(c) Neutral earthing: Faults which involve the flow of earth current (for example a single-phase
or two-phase fault to earth, a single-phase or two-phase open-circuit) may be influenced
considerably by the system neurtral-earthing arrangements, particularly by the number of neurtral
earthing points and the presence or absence of neutral earthing impedances. Power systems may be
single-point or multiple-point earthed and such earthing may be direct (that is, solid earthing) or via
impedance. Earthing impedance can be used to limit the earth-fault current to a very low and even
negligibly small value, as in the case of a system earthed through a Petersen coil.

(d) Nature and type of fault: From what has already been said, it will be evident that the type of
fault and its position in the power system may have a considerable effect on the magnitude and
distribution of the system fault current this being particularly the case in respect of earth-faults as
compared with phase faults, open-circuits as compared with short-circuits and faults within
machine and transformer windings as compared with similar faults at winding phase-terminals.
Similarly, the effects of a given fault condition may be considerably modified by the simultaneous
presence of one or more other fault conditions as, for example, in the combination of a short-circuit
and an open-circuit phase condition. A further factor which may require consideration is the
possible effect of fault impedance (for example, fault-arc resistance and the ohmic resistance of any
metallic or non-metallic fault path, etc), this being of particular importance in matters relating to
the design and application of distance protection.

The wide range of possible system fault conditions and the many factors which influence them
result in a wide range of possible levels of fault severity, ranging from extremely low levels up to
the maximum levels possible for the system being considered. It is therefore of value, in referring
to fault severity generally, to be able to refer to a standard fault condition, namely the three-phase
short-circuit, and to the level of fault severity produced by this particular fault condition, namely
the three-phase fault level. This level may be expressed in amperes or, as is more usual, in three-
phase MVA (this is obtained from the expression
6
F L
10 I V 3

, where
L
V is the nominal line
voltage of the faulted part and
F
I is the fault current) corresponding to the rated system voltage and
the symmetrical value of the three-phase fault current. The three-phase short-circuit can normally
be regarded as the most severe condition from the point of view of fault severity, and it is
accordingly the maximum possible value of the three-phase fault level which normally determines
the required short-circuit rating of the power system switchgear. A factor which may also have to
be taken into account is the maximum value of the single-phase-to-earth fault current which, in a
solidly-earthed system, may exceed the maximum three-phase fault current.





23


ANALYSIS OF BALANCED THREE-PHASE FAULTS
2-2.1 Balanced three-phase faults
A three-phase fault is a condition of either: (a) all three phases of the system are short
circuited to each other or (b) all three phases of the system are earthed as show in figure 4.
The three-phase short-circuit can normally be regarded as the most severe condition from
the point of view of fault severity, and it is accordingly the maximum possible value of the
three-phase fault level which normally determines the required short-circuit rating of power
system switchgears.
During a three-phase fault, the reactance of a generator is a time varying quantity. It is

d
X
in the sub-transient period (one to four cycles),
'
d
X in the transient period (about 30
cycles), and the synchronous reactance
d
X after that. The purpose of a study determines the
one used. It must be kept in mind that the sub-transient currents can be very large due to the
small size of

d
X . Due to symmetry, the three phase currents during a symmetrical fault can
be solved using ordinary circuit theory. If the fault has zero impedance to ground, it is
called a solid fault or bolted fault (all three lines shorted to ground with zero impedance).
2-2.2 Modelling of system components
The main components of power systems which are considered are:
(a) Synchronous machine
It is represented by a constant voltage source behind transient or subtransient reactance.
Normally, both generator and motor subtransient reactance is used to determine the
momentary current flowing on occurrence of a short-circuit. To decide the interrupting
capacity of circuit breakers, subtansient reactance is used for generators and transient
reactance for motors

(b) Transformers
All transformers are considered to be at their normal tap

(c) Lines
Line charging capacitances and other shunt connections to earth are neglected. This is due
to the fact that voltages dip very low and currents drawn by them are small in comparison to
fault current. If the resistances of the lines are smaller than the reactances by a factor of six
or more, the resistances are neglected to obviate the need for complex arithmetic.

(d) Loads
Normally, loads are neglected for the same reason given for case (c).
2-2.3 Analytical tools for three-phase faults
In a balanced three phase circuit, since the information relating to one single phase gives the
information relating to the other two phases as well, it is sufficient to do calculations in a
single phase circuit. There are two common forms used. These are (i) to take any one single
phase of the three phase circuit and (ii) to take an equivalent single phase circuit to
represent the full three phase circuit.
(a) Single phase circuit
Figure 1 shows one single phase AN of the three phase circuit ABC N. Since the system
is balanced, there is no current in the neutral, and there is no potential drop across the


24


neutral wire. Thus the star point S of the system would be at the same potential as the
neutral point N.
as p
I I =
as p
V V =
3
T
P
S
A
N
s
Z
a
E
Z

Figure 1: Single phase circuit
Also, the line current is the same as the phase current, the line voltage is 3 times the phase
voltage, and the total power is 3 times the power in a single phase.
L p
I I I = = , 3 /
L p
V V V = = and 3 /
T p
S S S = =

Working with the single phase circuit would yield single phase quantities, which can then
be converted to three phase quantities using the above conversions.

(b) Equivalent single phase circuit
Of the parameters in the single phase circuit shown in figure 6, the line voltage and the total
power (rather than the phase voltage and one-third the power) are the most important
quantities. It would be useful to have these quantities obtained directly from the circuit
rather than having conversion factors of 3 and 3 respectively. This is achieved in the
equivalent single phase circuit, shown in figure 2, by multiplying the voltage by a factor of
3 to give Line Voltage directly.
S
A
N
s
Z
a L
E E 3 =
as L
I I I 3 3 = =
as L
V V 3 =
T
P
Z

Figure 2: Equivalent single phase circuit
The Impedance remains as the per-phase impedance. However, the Line Current gets
artificially amplified by a factor of3. This also increases the power by a factor of ( )
2
3 ,
which is the required correction to get the total power.

Thus, working with the equivalent single phase circuit would yield the required three phase
quantities directly, other than the current which would be
L
I 3 .

2-2.4 Calculation of three-phase short-circuit quantities
Two conditions will be studied.
Case 1: System is unloaded (i.e. generators are not loaded)
Example 2.1


25


In the radial network shown in the figure below, a three-phase fault occurs at point F.
Determine the fault current and the line voltage at the kV 11 bus under fault conditions.
G1
G2
T1 T2
kV 11
Overhead line Cable
kV 33 kV 6 . 6
F

Generator 1: MVA 10 , 15% reactance
Generator 2: MVA 10 , 12.5% reactance
Transformer 1: MVA 10 , 10% reactance
Overhead line: km L 30 = , ( ) km j Z O + = 36 . 0 27 . 0

Transformer 2: MVA 5 , 8% reactance
Cable: km L 3 = , ( ) km j Z O + = 08 . 0 135 . 0

Solution
Selecting a system base of MVA 100 and base voltages of kV 11 in generators, kV 33 for
overhead line and kV 6 . 6 for cable, and using the formula:
) (
) (
) ( ) (
old base
new base
old pu new pu
S
S
X X =
Reactance of generator 1 pu j
j
5 . 1
10
100 15 . 0
=

=
Reactance of generator 2 pu j
j
25 . 1
10
100 125 . 0
=

=

Reactance of transformer 1 pu j
j
1
10
100 1 . 0
=

=

Reactance of transformer 2 pu j
j
6 . 1
5
100 08 . 0
=

=

Overhead line impedance
( )
2
3
6
2
10 33
10 100
) 36 . 0 27 . 0 ( 30 ) (

+ = O = j
V
S
Z
base
base


( )pu j 99 . 0 744 . 0 + =


Cable impedance ( )pu j j 55 . 0 93 . 0
) 10 6 . 6 (
10 100
) 08 . 0 135 . 0 ( 3
2 6
6
+ =

+ =

The equivalent circuit is shown below
1 G
X
2 G
X
1 T
X
L
Z
E
2 T
X
C
Z
F
I


(a) Total impedance, Z
T
F C T L T G G
I Z X Z X X X + + + + + =
2 1 2 1
//


26



( ) ( )
0
8 . 70 1 . 5
82 . 4 674 . 1
55 . 0 93 . 0 6 . 1 99 . 0 744 . 0 1 25 . 1 // 5 . 1
Z =
+ =
+ + + + + + =
j
j j j j j j


pu
Z
E
I
T
F
0
0
0
8 . 70 196 . 0
8 . 70 1 . 5
0 1
Z =
Z
Z
= =


A
V
S
I
base
base
base
8750
10 6 . 6 3
10 100
3
6
6
=


= =
( )
A I I I
base pu actual F
1715 8750 196 . 0 = = =

(b) Total impedance between F and kV 11 bus, Z
( ) ( )
0
8 . 76 43 . 4
14 . 4 674 . 1
99 . 0 744 . 0 6 . 1 55 . 0 93 . 0 1
Z =
+ =
+ + + + + =
j
j j j j

Voltage at kV 11

bus pu Z I
F
0 0 0
6 88 . 0 8 . 76 43 . 4 8 . 70 196 . 0 Z = Z Z = =


kV kV 68 . 9 11 88 . 0 = =







Example 2.2
In the network shown below, a three-phase fault occurs at point F. Calculate the fault MVA
at F. All given reactance values have been referred to a base of 100MVA. Resistances have
been neglected.
5 . 0 j
3 . 0 j 3 . 0 j
5 . 0 j
1 . 0
' '
= X
1 . 0
' '
= X
1 . 0
' '
= X 1 . 0
' '
= X
1 2
3 4
F

Solution
The equivalent single-phase network of the generator and line reactances is shown below:


27


1
2 3 4
F
5 . 0 j
5 . 0 j
3 . 0 j
3 . 0 j
1 . 0 j 1 . 0 j 1 . 0 j
1 . 0 j
a
b
c
d
e
f


1
2 3 4
F
5 . 0 j
5 . 0 j
3 . 0 j
1 . 0 j
1 . 0 j
a
b
c
e
d
f
02 . 0 j
06 . 0 j
06 . 0 j
1
2 3 4
F
3 . 0 j
1 . 0 j
1 . 0 j
a
c
d
f
02 . 0 j
56 . 0 j
56 . 0 j
(a) (b)

F
3 . 0 j
1 . 0 j
d
56 . 0 j
082 . 0 j
003 . 0 j
016 . 0 j


Total reactance ( ) ( ) | | ( ) 07 . 0 1 . 0 // 03 . 0 082 . 0 3 . 0 // 016 . 0 56 . 0 j j j j j j j X = + + + =
The fault level at point F MVA
Zpu
S
base
1430
07 . 0
10 100
6
=

= =

Example 2.3
A generating station is laid down as shown below. The ratings and percentage reactances of
different elements are as indicated. Calculate the kVAs and currents at bus bar D and at the
distance end of the feeder at I.


28


D
H
F
A B C
E
I
X
X
X
kV 6 . 6
kV MVA 11 , 5 %, 5

Generator reactance: 30% at 10MVA
Reactor X: 10% at 10MVA
Feeder has 8% reactance and 6% resistance at 5MVA

Solution
(a) Referring all values to a base of 5MVA
Generator reactance % 15
10
5
% 30 = =
MVA
MVA

The equivalent circuit is shown below
% 15
% 15 % 15
% 5 % 5
% 5

Total reactance ( ) ( ) | | { } % 5 . 7 15 // 5 5 15 // 5 15 = + + + =

Fault level kVA
Zpu
S
base
66700
075 . 0
10 5
6
=

= =

Fault current A
V
level Fault
base
5830
10 6 . 6 3
10 66700
3
3
3
=


=

=


(b) The equivalent circuit is shown below


29


% 15
% 15 % 15
% 5 % 5
% 5
% 5
8 6 j +

Total impedance ( ) ( ) | | { } | | 8 6 5 15 // 5 5 15 // 5 15 j j + + + + + + =


( ) 7 . 73 % 4 . 21 % 5 . 20 6
8 6 5 5 . 7
Z = + =
+ + + =
j
j j j


Short-circuit level (i.e. fault level) kVA 23400
214 . 0
10 5
6
=

=

Short-circuit current A 1240
10 11 3
10 23400
3
3
=


=




Case 2: System is loaded
The voltage behind the sub-transient reactance for the generator is obtained as

+ =

d g g g
X jI V E
0 0

g
E
0
g
V

d
X

0
g
I
and for synchronous motors, the voltage behind the subtransient and transient reactances are
given respectively by:
X0
I0
E1
X1
I1 I2
X2
V1 V0 V2

'
=
'
m m m m
X jI V E
0 0

d
X

m
E
0
m
V

0
m
I


Where
0
V and
0
I are the respective prefault bus voltages and currents.



30


In the above examples, the bus voltages were used to represent the synchronous machines.
These voltages according to the above equations for

g
E and

m
E or
'
m
E are the voltages
behind the subtansient or transient reatances when the synchronous machines are not
loaded. i.e.

0
0 0
= =
m g
I I .

Example 2.4
A synchronous generator rated 25MVA and a synchronous motor each rate 25MVA, 11kV
having 15% subtransient reactance are connected through transformers and line as shown in
the figure below. The transformers are rated 25MVA, 11/66kV and 66/11kV with leakage
reactance of 10% each. The line has a reactance of 10% on a base of 25MVA, 66kV. The
motor is drawing 15MW at 0.8pf leading and a terminal voltage of 10.6kV when a
symmetrical 3-phase fault occurs at the motor terminals. Find the subtransient current in the
generator, motor and fault path.
M
Generator
Motor
T
1
T
2
Line

Solution
The prefault circuit is shown below

g
E

m
E
M
15 . 0 j 15 . 0 j
1 . 0 j 1 . 0 j 1 . 0 j


kV V
m
6 . 10
0
=
pu 9636 . 0
11
6 . 10
= = at a base voltage of kV 11
Load pf MW 8 . 0 , 15 = leading

pf pu 8 . 0 , 6 . 0
25
15
= = leading at a base of 25MVA
Prefault current,
0 1 1 0
9 . 36 7783 . 0 8 . 0 cos
8 . 0 9636 . 0
6 . 0
cos
cos
Z = Z

= Z =

u
u V
P
I
( )
28 . 0 7536 . 0
9 . 36 7783 . 0 1 . 0 1 . 0 1 . 0 15 . 0 0 9636 . 0
0 0
0 0
j
j
I jX V E
d m g
+ =
Z + + + + Z =
+ =

0934 . 0 0337 . 1
9 . 36 7783 . 0 15 . 0 0 9636 . 0
0 0
0 0 0
j
j
I jX V E
m m m
=
Z Z =
=


The post fault circuit is shown below


31

g
E

m
E
M
15 . 0 j 15 . 0 j
1 . 0 j 1 . 0 j 1 . 0 j

g
I

m
I
f
I

Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law,
( )
674 . 1 6222 . 0
45 . 0
28 . 0 7536 . 0
01 . 0 1 . 0 1 . 0 15 . 0
j
j
j
j j j j
E
I
g
g
=
+
=
+ + +

8915 . 6 6224 . 0
15 . 0
0934 . 0 0337 . 1
j
j
j
X
E
I
m
m
m
=

( ) ( ) 5653 . 8 0002 . 0 8915 . 6 6224 . 0 674 . 1 6222 . 0 j j j I I I
m g f
= + =

=


Self Assessment 2-2

1. For the system in the figure below, the ratings of the various components are:
Generator: 25MVA, 12.4kV, 10% subtransient reactance
Motor: 20MVA, 3.8kV, 15% subtransient reactance
Transformer T
1
: 25MVA, 11/33kV, 8% reactance
Transformer T
2
: 20MVA, 33/3.3kV, 10% reactance
Line: 20 ohms reactance
M
Generator
Motor T
1
T
2
Line


1. The system is loaded so that the motor is drawing 15MWat 0.9 lagging power factor, the
motor terminal voltage being 3.1kV. Find the subtransient current in generator and
motor for a fault at generator bus. ANS: kA kA 93 . 4 , 87 . 8
2. Two synchronous motors are connected to the bus of a large system through a short
transmission line as shown below. The ratings of various components are:
Motors (each): 1MVA, 440V, 0.1 pu transient reactance
Line: 0.05 ohm reactance
Large system: Short circuit MVA at its bus at 440V is 8.
When the motors are the operating at 440V, calculate the short circuit current
(symmetrical) fed into a three-phase fault at motor bus.

M
M
Motor bus
Line
Bus
Large system

ANS: 29.96kA



32


3. A synchronous generator rated 500kVA, 440V, 0.1pu sub-transient reactance is supplying
a passive load 400kW at 0.8 lagging power factor. Calculate the initial symmetrical rms
current for a three-phase fault at generator terminals. ANS: 6.97kA

4. The system shown below is delivering 50MVA at 11kV, 0.8 lagging power factor into a
bus which may be regarded as infinite. Particulars of various system components are:
Generator: 60MVA, 12kV,
'
d
X = 0.35pu
Transformers (each) 80MVA, 12/66kV, X = 0.08pu
Line: 12-ohm Reactance, negligible resistance.
Calculate the symmetrical current that the circuit breaker A and B will be called upon
to interrupt in the event of a three-phase fault occurring at Y near the circuit breaker
B. ANS: 8.319kA








































33


2.4 Method of symmetrical components
A power system is normally treated as a balanced three-phase network. In general, when a fault
occurs, the symmetry of a balanced network is upset, resulting in unbalanced currents and voltages
appearing in the network. The exception to this rule is the three-phase fault, which because it
involves all three phases equally at the same time and location, is described as a symmetrical fault.
These unsymmetrical fault conditions can be analysed using the symmetrical component theory.

This method symmetrical components formulates a system of three separate phasor systems which
when superposed give the true unbalance conditions in the circuit. It must be emphasised that the
three phasor systems are essentially artificial and used merely as an aid to calculation. The various
sequence-component voltages and currents do not exist as physical entities in the network.

The method postulates that a three-phase unbalanced system of voltages and currents may be
represented by the following three separate system of phasors:

(a) a balanced 3-phase system (equal in magnitude but 120
o
degrees apart) in the normal a-b-c
sequence, called the positive phase sequence (pps) system.
(b) a balanced 3-phase system of reversed sequence i.e. a-c-b called the negative phase
sequence (nps) system.
(c) three phasors equal in magnitude and phase revolving in the positive phase rotation called
the zero phase sequence (zps) system.

It is common practice to assign 1, 2, and 0 to the pps, nps and zps components respectively.

Figure 2.3 shows an unbalanced system of voltages (the angular displacement between the three
phases is not 120
o
) with the corresponding system of symmetrical components
V
a
V
b
V
c
+ +
V
a0
V
c1
V
b1
V
a1
V
c2
V
b2
V
a2
V
c0
V
b0
system Actual system pps system nps
system zps

Fig 2.3 Symmetrical components of an unbalanced system

0 0 0 c b a
V V V = =
If
1 1
V V
a
= , then
0
1 1
120 Z =V V
b
(anticlockwise angle is negative) and


0
1 1
120 Z =V V
c
(clockwise angle is positive).
Similarly, If
2 2
V V
a
= , then
0
2 2
120 Z =V V
b
(clockwise angle is positive) and


0
2 2
120 Z =V V
c
(anticlockwise angle is negative).

It is normal practice to take the a-phase as reference and express the other two phases in terms of
the a-phase quantities. Thus:
2 1 0 2 a 1 a 0 a a
V V V V V V V + + = + + =

(Phase a voltage is the sum of the phase a voltage of all the three separate phasors)

2 1
2
0 2 b 1 b 0 b b
hV V h V V V V V + + = + + =
Eqn. 2.1



34


2
2
1 0 2 c 1 c 0 c c
V h hV V V V V V + + = + + =
where 866 . 0 5 . 0 120 1 j h + = Z = and 866 . 0 5 . 0 120 1
2
j h = Z =

In a matrix form, we can write equation 2.1 as:
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
(
(
(

2
1
0
2
2
1
1
1 1 1
V
V
V
h h
h h
V
V
V
c
b
a
Eqn. 2.2a
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
(
(
(

c
b
a
V
V
V
h h
h h
V
V
V
1
2
2
2
1
0
1
1
1 1 1
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
c
b
a
V
V
V
h h
h h
2
2
1
1
1 1 1
3
1
Eqn. 2.2b

Similarly,
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
(
(
(

2
1
0
2
2
1
1
1 1 1
I
I
I
h h
h h
I
I
I
c
b
a
or
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
(
(
(

c
b
a
I
I
I
h h
h h
I
I
I
1
2
2
2
1
0
1
1
1 1 1
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
c
b
a
I
I
I
h h
h h
2
2
1
1
1 1 1
3
1

Eqn. 2.3

Note the new positions of h and
2
h in the matrices.

Additionally, 1 h
3
= , 1 h h
2
= + , 0 h h 1
2
= + + , 0 h h h
3 2
= + +

.
2.4.1 Representation of plants in the phase-sequence networks
In order to apply symmetrical components to a power system, the various components of the power
system (generators, transformers, lines, etc) must be given impedances which reflect the three
phasor systems. For example, a generator must have a pps impedance, nps impedance and zps
impedance in other for it to be factored into a fault analysis using the method of symmetrical
components.

(a) The synchronous machine
The pps impedance Z
1
of the stator winding is the normal transient or sub-transient value, the latter
being about th
10
1
of the synchronous impedance of the machine. The nps impedance Z
2
is normally
quite close to the pps impedance under fault conditions. The zps impedance Z
0
depends upon the
nature of the connection between the star point of the windings and the earth. Resistors or reactors
are frequently connected between the star point and earth for reasons usually connected with
protective gear and the limitation of over-voltages. Figure 2.4 shows the connection of earthing
impedance.


35


Z
0
, Z
1
, Z
2
E
1
h
2
E
1

hE
1
Earthing
impedance, Z
n


Figure 2.4 Earthing impedance connection to a synchronous machine

Normally, the only voltage sources appearing in the sequence networks are the pps voltages, as the
generators only generate pps emfs. This is because it is the pps whose sequence is the same as that
of a generator. Whenever earthing impedance is present, three times (3X) its value is added in
series with the zero sequence impedance. The sequence networks representing a synchronous
generator are thus shown in figure 2.5.
3Z
n
Z
0
I
0
E
1
Z
1
I
1
nps
I
2
Z
2
pps zps

Fig 2.5 Symmetrical components of a synchronous machine

(b) Lines and cables: The pps and nps impedances are the normal balanced values. The zps
impedance depends upon the nature of the return path through the earth. It is also modified by the
presence of an earth wire on the tower which protects the lines against lightning surges. The
following rough guide to the value of Z
0
may be used. Typically for an underearth cable pps and
nps impedances are identical but the ratio 5 3 /
1 0
= Z Z for a 3-cored cable and 1 1.25 for a single
core cable.

(c) Transformers: The pps and nps impedance are the normal balanced ones. The zps
connection of transformers is however complicated and depends on the connection of the winding.
Table 2.1 presents the zero-sequence representation of transformers for various winding
arrangements. Zero-sequence currents in the windings on one side of a transformer must produce
the corresponding ampere-turns in the other. The table can be understood by first understanding
figure 2.6.



36


Although in practice, a number of different connections are used, the most common type is the
delta-star connection. In such an arrangement, if there are zps currents present, then they simply
circulate around the delta winding and cannot flow in the lines (or other plant) outside it. This is so
because of the absence of a neutral on the delta side. Zero sequence currents will flow only when
there is a connection to earth.

The following simple rule can be followed to represent zero sequence networks:
Shunt switch
Series switch
0
Z
Primary side Secondary side

Fig 2.6 Zero sequence representation

Close the shunt switch on a side, if the connection on that side is delta. Close the series switch on a
side if the connection on that side is star earthed. Otherwise, leave the switches open. It must be
noted that on the primary side the series switch is before the shunt but on the secondary side, the
series is after the shunt. Additionally, for generators and motors, a side is closed when it is star
earthed and opened when is star clear of earth.
Table 2.1 Zero-sequence representation of various transformers
imary Pr Secondary
0
Z
0
Z
0
Z
0
Z
0
Z
Zero-sequence currents free to flow in
both primary and secondary circuits
No path for zero-sequence currents in
primary circuits
Single-phase currents circulate in the
delta but not outside it
No flow of zero-sequence currents
possible
No flow of zero-sequence currents
possible
Tertiary winding provides path for
zero-sequence currents
CONNECTION OF WINDINGS REPRESENTATION PER PHASE COMMENTS






37


Example 2.1
For the power system whose one-line diagram is shown below, sketch the zero sequence network.
m n u v
1 T 2 T 1 G 2 G
n Z


Solution
1 og
Z
1 0T
Z
L
Z
0 2 0T
Z
2 0g
Z
n
Z 3


A reference line is initially placed (usually at the top) and starting from the left, the first element
encountered is a generator. Since it is star earthed, its impedance is closed to the reference line. The
impedance value of the generator is
1 0g
Z and since the neutral is earthed through a impedance, 3
times its value (
n
Z 3 ) is added in series with the
1 0g
Z . The next component encountered is the
transformer, the primary side is delta and so the series which is left open and the shunt switch is
closed, the zeros sequence impedance of the generator
1 0T
Z is then introduced. We then proceed to
the secondary side which is star earthed, so the series switch is closed and the shunt is left open
(there is no need to indicate this opened shunt switch). We then introduce the impedance overhead
line and proceed to the second transformer. The primary side is star earthed so the series switch is
closed and the shunt opened. The impedance of the transformer is introduced and we proceed to the
secondary side where we encounter a delta, so the shunt switch is closed and the series is opened (it
is necessary to indicate an opened series switch). The next component is the second generator
whose impedance is shown but will not be closed to the reference line because it is star clear of
earth.


Example 2.2
Repeat example 1, interchanging the positions of transformer 1 and 2. Generator is replaced with a
star solid-earthed one.

Solution
1 og
Z
1 0T
Z
L
Z
0 2 0T
Z
2 0g
Z
n
Z 3






38


Example 2.3
What would be the total zero sequence impedance for the network in example 2 if an earth fault
occurred between
1 0T
Z and
2 0g
Z ?

Solution
The circuit to be used to solve this problem is as indicated below. A line assumed to be carrying
current is dropped on the reference line and is made to exit at the point where the fault occurred.
The total zero sequence impedance is then the impedance encountered by this current as it goes
through the circuit. From the diagram, the impedance encountered is a parallel combination of
2 0T
Z
and
2 0g
Z . The remaining impedances are not included because they have all been open-circuited.
1 og
Z
1 0T
Z
L
Z
0 2 0T
Z
2 0g
Z
n
Z 3
i
i

2 0 1 0
2 0 1 0
2 0 1 0 0
//
g T
g T
g T
Z Z
Z Z
Z Z Z
+

= =

Self assessment 2.1
What is the total zero sequence impedance in example 1 if a fault occurred at the input (primary)
point of transformer 1?
























39



2.4.2 Analysis of various faults
In general, we can say that the three sequence networks are as shown in figure 2.7 in which the
sequence impedances are the total impedances which can comprise generators, lines and
transformers. Depending upon the type of fault, the three networks can then be connected in order
to determine the fault currents, voltages, etc. The impedances
0
Z ,
1
Z and
2
Z are the total
impedances obtained from the respective sequence networks such as in examples 3 and self
assessment 2.1. You may have realised that you have not been introduced to how to produce the
pps and nps networks as well as finding their impedances. This is because the pps and nps networks
are the normal one-line diagrams (you studied this in EE 365). Their sequence impedances are
found the same way you will find the total zero sequence impedance from a zps network. Do not
worry; the examples below will help you.
Z
0
I
0
zps
E
1
Z
1
I
1
pps nps
I
2
Z
2
V
1
V
0 V
2

Fig 2.7 Unsymmetrical fault components

The next thing we would want to do is develop circuit models for the various fault cases so that
each time such a fault occurs, we will reproduce the appropriate model, substitute the values, and
halleluiah!!!, we are almost through with the analysis.

(a) Single-phase-earth faults: Consider an a-phase-earth fault at point F on a single-end-fed
system as shown in figure 2.8
I
fc
I
fb
I
fa
V
fa
V
fb
V
fc
F

Fig 2.8 A single-phase-earth fault

Note: In the diagram, the three generators and three transformers are just being used to indicate that
each phase is being supplied. In actual fact, it is one three-phase generator, one three-phase
transformer and three separate lines.



40


For this fault, the constraints are:
0 V
fa
= , 0 I I
fc fb
= =
Note: the subscripts f are just being used to denote the fact that the values being sought for are
faulted values. 0 V
fa
=

because the voltage at the fault point is the same as earth voltage which is
zero. 0 I I
fc fb
= = since phase b and c will not be feeding any fault. It must however be noted that
the load currents in these phases will not be zero. It is just that these load currents do not have any
fault component in them.

Using equation 2.3, we then get

fa 3
1
2 f 1 f 0 f
I I I I = = = Eqn. 2.4
i.e. from

.
3
1
0
0
1
1
1 1 1
3
1
2
2
2
1
0
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

=
=
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

a
a
a
c
b
a
I
I
I
I
I
I
h h
h h
I
I
I

Once again note that the presence or absence of the subscript f does not change anything.

This result shows that all the sequence networks are in series since they have the same current (i.e.

fa 3
1
2 f 1 f 0 f
I I I I = = = ). The network connection diagram is thus:

Z
0
I
f0
E
1
Z
1
I
f1
I
f2
Z
2

I
f1
Z
1
Z
2
Z
0
I
f2
I
f0
E
1

Fig 2.9 Sequence network representation of single-phase-earth faults

From figure 2.9, it can be seen that the fault current is given by (by applying Kirchhoffs voltage
law):
2 1 0
1
2 f 1 f 0 f fa
Z Z Z
E 3
I 3 I 3 I 3 I
+ +
= = = = Eqn. 2.5
The fault point voltages can be likewise obtained. Fig 2.8 is thus the model for single-phase to earth
faults and one of the associated equations is eqn. 2.5.




41




(b) Phase-phase fault: Consider a b-c phase fault as shown in figure 2.10.
I
fc
I
fb
I
fa V
fa
V
fb
V
fc

Fig 2.10 Phase-phase fault

For this fault, the constraints are:
0 I
fa
= ,
fc fb
I I =
Since the fault is not linked to earth, 0 V I
0 f 0 f
= = . From the matrix relationship of equation 2.3, we
get
( ) ( )
fb
2
3
1
fc
2
fb 3
1
1 f
I h h I h hI I = + =
( ) ( )
fb
2
3
1
fc fb
2
3
1
2 f
I h h hI I h I = + = Eqn. 2.6
i.e. 0 I I
2 f 1 f
= +
Also
2 f 1 f
2
fb
hV V h V + =

2 f
2
1 f fc
V h hV V + =
And since for this fault
fc fb
V V = , it thus follows that
2 f 1 f
V V = . The network connection is thus:
E
1
Z
1
I
f1
I
f2
Z
2 V
f1
V
f2

Fig 2.11 Sequence network connection of phase-phase fault

It should be noted that for this fault condition, the zps quantities are zero and this is true for any
fault clear of earth.




42




(c) Double-phase-earth fault: Consider a b-c-earth fault as shown in figure 2.12.
I
fc
I
fb
I
fa V
fa
V
fb
V
fc

Fig 2.12 Double-phase-earth fault

Here, the constraints are: 0 I
fa
= , 0 V V
fc fb
= = .
Again, using the matrix relationship of equation 2.3a, we get
3
V
V V V
fa
2 f 1 f 0 f
= = =
By matrix manipulation, it can also be shown that
0 I I I
2 f 1 f 0 f
= + +
The required sequence network is thus:
Z
0
I
f0
E
1
Z
1
I
f1
I
f2
Z
2
V
f1
V
0
V
f2

Fig 2.13 Sequence network connection of double-phase-earth fault














43




(d) Three-phase-earth fault: Consider the faulted system as shown in figure 2.14.
I
fc
I
fb
I
fa V
fa
V
fb
V
fc

Fig 2.14 Three-phase to earth fault

For this fault, the constraints are:
0 V V V
fc fb fa
= = = and
0 I I I
fc fb fa
= + +
By using the above constraints in conjunction with the matrix relationships, it can be shown that
0 V V V
2 f 1 f 0 f
= = = , 0 I I
2 f 0 f
= = and
fa 1 f
I I =
It can thus be seen that for this type of fault, only the pps network exist and this is true because as
mentioned before, this is a symmetrical fault. The network is thus:
E
1
Z
1
I
f1
=I
fa
V
f1
=0

Fig 2.14 Sequence network connection of three-phase fault












44




Example 2.4
A three-phase star-connected alternator with its neutral point solidly earthed is excited in such a
way as to give 3.3kV on open circuit. Its positive, negative and zero sequence impedances are j6.0,
j2.0 and j1.2 ohms/phase respectively. A resistive fault occurs between a single line and earth at the
alternator terminals on phase a. The resistance R
f
of the fault is . 5 . 0 O

Show that the fault resistance can be represented by a resistor of value 3R
f
in series with the zero
sequence impedances and calculate:
(a) the fault current
(b) the voltage of phase b-earth at the fault point.

Solution
The voltage across the fault resistance

is given by:
f f f
I R V =


fa f
I R = But 5 . 2 . 3
0 3
1
0
eqn from I I I I
fa fa
= =
( )
0 f
I 3 R =

0 f
I R 3 =
Note:

ie., the fault current in the resistance is the phase a fault current.

The sequence network connection is
Z
0
I
0
E
1
Z
1
I
1
I
2
Z
2
3R
f
V
1 V
2
V
0

Note: 3

is inserted in series with the zero sequence branch. This will be done whenever a fault
resistance or impedance is present.

(a)
f 0 2 1
1
0 2 1
R 3 Z Z Z
E
I I I
+ + +
= = =

5 . 0 3 2 . 1 j 2 j 6 j
3 / 3300
+ + +
=

o
74 . 80 4 . 204 Z =
But fault current
0 2 1 f
I I I I + + =
4 . 204 3 I 3
1
= =


45


A 2 . 613 =
(b)
2 1 1
2
0 b
V h V h V V + + =
( )
1 1 1
2
1
2
Z I E h V h =
( )
o o o
90 6 74 . 80 4 . 204 3 / 3300 120 1 Z Z Z =
07 . 503 3 . 518 j =
( )
2 2 2
Z I h hV =
( )
o o o
90 2 74 . 80 4 . 204 120 1 Z Z Z =
53 . 316 71 . 258 j =

0 0 0
Z I V =
( )
o o
90 2 . 1 74 . 80 4 . 204 Z Z =
47 . 39 08 . 242 j =

( ) ( ) ( ) 47 . 39 08 . 242 53 . 316 71 . 258 07 . 503 3 . 518 j j j V
b
+ + =
V j
o
29 . 120 84 . 994 07 . 859 7 . 501 Z = =
Note:
0
is not the voltage across both
0
and 3

but only
0
.

Example 2.5
A 100km, 400kV transmission line is subjected to an a phase to earth fault at 80km. if the fault
resistance is O 10 , calculate the fault current.
O + = = ) 6 1 (
2 1
j Z Z
G G
, O + = ) 8 j 5 . 0 ( Z
0 G
,
O + = = ) 31 j 8 . 1 ( Z Z
2 L 1 L
and O + = ) 88 j 10 ( Z
0 L


Solution
80km
100km
Z
G
3
kV 400

It has been assumed that there was no load prior to the fault. The impedances given are for the
entire length ie. 100 of the line and since the fault occurred at 80, then the impedance to be
used in the analysis must be
80
100
.


46


kV
3
400
E
1
= and 8 . 0
100
80
= = o
( ) ( ) 4 . 78 j 5 . 8 88 j 10 8 . 0 8 j 5 . 0 Z Z Z
0 L 0 G 0
+ = + + + = o + =
( ) ( ) 8 . 30 j 44 . 2 31 j 8 . 1 8 . 0 6 j 1 Z Z Z
1 L 1 G 1
+ = + + + = o + =
( ) ( ) 8 . 30 j 44 . 2 31 j 8 . 1 8 . 0 6 j 1 Z Z Z
2 L 2 G 2
+ = + + + = o + =
Thus,
f 2 1 0
1
2 1 0
R 3 Z Z Z
E
I I I
+ + +
= = =

( ) 10 3 8 . 30 j 44 . 2 8 . 30 j 44 . 2 44 . 78 j 5 . 8 3
10 400
3
+ + + + + +

=

( ) 160 j 38 . 43 3
10 400
3
+

=
71 . 1504 11 . 466 j =
Hence, the fault current
0
0
79 . 72 76 . 4725 14 . 4514 34 . 1398 ) 71 . 1504 11 . 466 ( 3 3 Z = = = = j j I I
a
A

Example 2.6
A synchronous machine A generating 1p.u. voltage is connected through a star-star transformer of
reactance 0.12p.u. to two lines in parallel. The other ends of the lines are connected through a star-
star transformer of reactance 0.1p.u. to a second machine B, also generating 1p.u. voltage. For both
transformers,
0 2 1
X X X = = . Calculate the current fed into the double-line-to-earth fault on the
line-side terminals of the transformer fed from A.
The relevant per unit reactances of all plant, referred to the same base, are as follows: For each line
30 . 0 X X
2 1
= = , 70 . 0 X
0
= . For machine A, 30 . 0 X
1
= , 20 . 0 X
2
= , 05 . 0 X
0
= . For machine B,
25 . 0 X
1
= , 15 . 0 X
2
= , 03 . 0 X
0
=
The star points of machine A and of the two transformers are solidly earthed.
A B
F

Solution


47


1
F
30 . 0
12 . 0
30 . 0
30 . 0
10 . 0
25 . 0
A
E
B
E
network sequence Positive
42 . 0 50 . 0
1
E
1
F


2
F
20 . 0
12 . 0
30 . 0
30 . 0
10 . 0
15 . 0
network sequence Negetive
32 . 0 40 . 0
2
F


0
F
12 . 0
70 . 0
70 . 0
10 . 0
03 . 0
network sequence Zero
05 . 0
. C . O
17 . 0 48 . 0
2
F
. C . O

From the sequence diagrams, . u . p 23 . 0 j
50 . 0 j 42 . 0 j
50 . 0 j 42 . 0 j
X
1
=
+

= , . u . p 18 . 0 j
40 . 0 j 32 . 0 j
40 . 0 j 32 . 0 j
X
2
=
+

= and
. u . p 17 . 0 j X
0
=
The a phase is taken as reference phasor and the b and c phases are assumed to be shorted at
the fault point. From the equivalent circuit for a line-to-line fault,
X
0
I
0
E
1
X
1
I
1
I
2
X
2
V
1
V
0
V
2



48


( ) | |
u . p
X X X X X
1
I
2 0 2 0 1
1
+ +
=

( ) | | { }
u . p
18 . 0 17 . 0 18 . 0 17 . 0 23 . 0 j
1
+ +
=
. u . p 15 . 3 j =
2 0
0
1 2
X X
X
I I
+
=

. u . p 53 . 1 j
18 . 0 17 . 0
17 . 0
15 . 3 j
=
+
=

2 0
2
1 0
X X
X
I I
+
=

u . p 62 . 1 j
18 . 0 17 . 0
18 . 0
15 . 3 j
=
+
=

2 1
2
0 b
hI I h I I + + =

( )( ) ( )( )
u . p 72 . 4 . u . p 43 . 2 j 05 . 4
53 . 1 j 866 . 0 j 5 . 0 15 . 3 j 866 . 0 j 5 . 0 62 . 1 j
= + =
+ + + =

2
2
1 0 c
I h hI I I + + =
( )( ) ( )( ) 53 . 1 j 866 . 0 j 5 . 0 15 . 3 j 866 . 0 j 5 . 0 62 . 1 j + + + =
. u . p 72 . 4 u . p 43 . 2 j 0 . 4 = + =

( ) ( ) pu j j j I I I
c b f
86 . 4 05 . 0 43 . 2 0 . 4 43 . 2 05 . 4 + = + + + = + =

Example 2.7
An 11kV synchronous generator is connected to a 11/66kV transformer which feeds a 66/11/3.3kV
three-winding transformer through a short feeder of negligible impedance. Calculate the fault
current when a single-phase-to-earth fault occurs on a terminal of the 11kV winding of the three-
winding transformer. The relevant data for the system are as follows:
Generator: . u . p 15 . 0 j X
1
= , . u . p 1 . 0 j X
2
= , . u . p 03 . 0 j X
0
= , all on a 10MVA base; star point of
winding earthed through a O 3 resistor.
11/66kV transformer: . u . p 1 . 0 j X X X
0 2 1
= = = on a 10MVA base; 11kV winding delta connected
and the 66kV winding star connected with the star point solidly earthed.
Three-winding transformer: A 66kV winding, star connected point solidly earthed; 11kV winding,
star connected, star-point earthed through a O 3 resistor; 3.3kV winding, delta connected; the three
winding of an equivalent star connection to represent the transformer have sequence impedances,
66kV winding ., u . p 04 . 0 j X X X
0 2 1
= = = 11kV winding ., u . p 03 . 0 j X X X
0 2 1
= = = 3.3kV winding
., u . p 05 . 0 j X X X
0 2 1
= = = all on a 10MVA base. Resistance may be neglected throughout.


49


F
O 3
O 3
11/66kV
p
t
s
o/c
I
f

Solution
15 . 0 j
05 . 0 j
03 . 0 j
diagram sequence Positive
32 . 0 j
pu 1
1
F
1 . 0 j 04 . 0 j
1
F
pu 1


1 . 0 j
05 . 0 j
03 . 0 j
diagram sequence Negetive
27 . 0 j
2
F
1 . 0 j 04 . 0 j
2
F



1 . 0 j
05 . 0 j
03 . 0 j
diagram sequence Zero
0 067 j .
0
F
1 . 0 j 04 . 0 j
25 . 0 3
25 . 0 3
25 . 0 3
0
F


The positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence networks are shown in the figures above. Much care is
needed with the zero-sequence network owing to the transformer connections. Using the same base
MVA, the O 3 earthing resistor will have the following pu value:
( )
( )
25 . 0
10 11
10 10 3
2
3
6
2
=

= =
base
base
actual pu
V
S
R R
For a line-to-earth fault, the equivalent circuit in figure 2.8 is used, but with a slight modification.
From this figure,
f 0 2 1
1
2 1 0
R 3 Z Z Z
E
I I I
+ + +
= = =

0
3 1
3
0 32 0 27 0 067 0 75
3
0 75 0 66
3
3 41
1 41
f
o
o
I I
j . j . j . .
. j .

= =
+ + +
=
+
= = Z
Z

A I
f
1575
11000 3
10 10
3
6
=

= i.e.
base
base
base pu actual
V
S
I I I
3
3 = =



50


Example 2.8
A synchronous generator with terminal voltage 11.8kV, rating 20MVA and pps transient reactance
. u . p 08 . 0 X1
'
= is subjected to a 3-phase short circuit. Calculate the fault current.

Solution
base
base
S
V u p X
X
2 '
'
) .( .
) ( = O
( )
O =

= 557 . 0
10 20
11800 08 . 0
6
2

Taking E
1
to be
3
kV 8 . 11
, and from figure 2.14, the fault current
kA
X
E
Z
E
I I
f
2 . 12
557 . 0 3
10 8 . 11
3
1
1
1
1
1
=

= = = =

Example 2.9
A 25MVA, 11kV generator supplies two motors through two transformers. The one-line diagram of
the system is shown below. If a double-line-earth fault occurs between phases b and c at point
G, find the fault current given a fault path reactance of j0.1p.u. The system has the following data:
Generator: . . 2 . 0
2 1
u p j X X = = , . . 06 . 0
0
u p j X =
11/121kV Transformer: . . 0805 . 0
0 2 1
u p j X X X = = =
121/11kV Transformer: . . 0805 . 0
0 2 1
u p j X X X = = =
Transmission line: 164 . 0
2 1
j X X = = 494 . 0
0
j X =
Motor A: . . 345 . 0
0 2 1
u p j X X X = = =
Motor B: . . 69 . 0
0 2 1
u p j X X X = = =
M
M A
B
516 . 0 j
G



Solution
Note: A motor is represented by a constant voltage source behind sub-transient or transient
reactance just like a generator.

2 . 0 j
0805 . 0 j 164 . 0 j 0805 . 0 j
345 . 0 j 69 . 0 j

+ +
+
g
E
1 m
E
2 m
E
G

Positive sequence network



51



2 . 0 j
0805 . 0 j 164 . 0 j 0805 . 0 j
345 . 0 j 69 . 0 j
G

Negative sequence network

516 . 0 j 3
0805 . 0 j 494 . 0 j 0805 . 0 j
345 . 0 j 69 . 0 j 06 . 0 j
G

Zero sequence network

( )
1
2 1
0
0 2 0 0805 0 164 0 0805 0 345 0 69 0 16
0 16
0 69
Z j . j . j . j . // j . // j . j . p.u.
Z Z j . p.u.
Z j . p.u
= + + + =
= =
=


The equivalent network of a double-line-to-earth with fault impedance is as shown.

Z
0
I
f0
E
1
Z
1
I
f1
I
f2
V
1
V
0
V
2
3Z
f
Z
2

( )
f
Z Z Z Z
E
I
3 //
0 2 1
1
1
+ +
=
( )
. . 359 . 3
1 . 0 3 69 . 0 // 16 . 0 16 . 0
1
u p j
j j j j
=
+ +
=

u p j j
j j
j
I
Z Z Z
Z Z
I
f
f
. 892 . 2 359 . 3
99 . 0 16 . 0
99 . 0
3
3
1
0 2
0
2
=
+
=
+ +
+
=



52


467 . 0 359 . 3
99 . 0 16 . 0
16 . 0
3
1
0 2
2
0
j j
j j
j
I
Z Z Z
Z
I
f
=
+
=
+ +
=

2 1
2
0
hI I h I I
fb
+ + =

( )( ) ( )( )
u p u p j
j j j j j
. 63 . 172 459 . 5 . .. 7005 . 0 . 0 413 . 5
892 . 2 866 . 0 5 . 0 359 . 3 866 . 0 5 . 0 467 . 0
Z = + =
+ + + =

2
2
1 0
I h hI I I
fc
+ + =

( )( ) ( )( )
u p u p j
j j j j j
. 73 . 7 459 . 5 . .. 07005 . 0 413 . 5
892 . 2 866 . 0 5 . 0 359 . 3 866 . 0 5 . 0 467 . 0
Z = + =
+ + + =

Fault current ( ) ( ) pu j j j I I
fc fb
401 . 1 7005 . 0 413 . 5 7005 . 0 413 . 5 = + + + = + =
Assignments

1. For the 400kV system of the figure below, calculate the following:
(a) V
a
, V
b
, V
c
, I
a
, I
b
and I
c
for a phase a to earth fault with no fault resistance.
(b) V
b
, V
c
and I
b
for a b to c fault with no fault resistance
(c) V
b
, V
c
, I
b
and I
c
for a b to c to earth fault with a fault resistance of O 5 .
O + = = 16 j 0 . 1 Z Z
2 s 1 s
, O + = 8 . j 5 . 0 Z
0 s
; O + = = 32 j 8 . 1 Z Z
2 L 1 L
, O + = 88 j 10 Z
0 L
.
[Assume no prefault load flow]
80%
Z
s
V


2. Deduce the sequence network connections for the following system under a resistive a phase
to earth fault.
A B
f
Z


3. Two 11kVA, 20MVA three-phase, star-connected generators operate in parallel. The positive,
negative and zero sequence reactances of each being

18 . 0 j ,

15 . 0 . 0 j and 1 . 0 j respectively.
The star point of one of the generators is isolated and that of the other is earthed through a O 2

resistor. A single-line-earth fault occurs at the terminals of one of the generators. Estimate (i)
the fault current, (ii) current in earthing resistor and (iii) the voltage across earthing resistor.







53


3. Operation and Control
Aims
- To know the importance of frequency and voltage control
- To understand the control of power system frequency and voltage
- To perform simple calculations on frequency

3.1 Introduction
The function of an electric power system is to convert energy from one of the naturally available
forms to the electrical form and to transport it to the points of consumption. Energy is seldom
consumed in the electrical form but is rather converted to other forms such as heat, light and
mechanical energy. The advantage of the electrical form of energy is that it can be transported and
controlled with relative ease and with a high degree of efficiency and reliability. A properly
designed and operated power system should therefore meet the following fundamental
requirements:
(a) The system must be able to meet the continually changing load demand for active and
reactive power. Unlike other types of energy, electricity cannot be conveniently stored in
sufficient quantities. Therefore, an adequate spinning reserve of active and reactive power
should be maintained and appropriately controlled at all times.
(b) The system should supply energy at minimum cost and with minimum ecological impact.
(c) The quality of power supply must meet certain minimum standards with regard to the
following factors:
i. constancy of frequency
ii. constancy of voltage; and
iii. level of reliability

Several levels of control involving a complex array of devices are used to meet the above
requirements.

In power systems, both active and reactive power demands are never steady. Continuous regulation
of the following is therefore required in the operation of the power system:
(a) Steam input to turbogenerators or water input to hydrogenerators to match the active power
demand. Failing this, the machines speed will vary with consequent change in frequency.
The maximum permissible change in power frequency is Hz 5 . 0 .
(b) Excitation of generators to match the reactive power demand with reactive generation.
Failing this, voltages at various system buses may go lower than or beyond the prescribed
limits.

In modern large interconnected systems, automatic generation and voltage regulation equipment are
installed on each generator. The controllers are set for a particular operating condition and they take
care of small changes in load demand without frequency and voltage exceeding the prescribed
limits. With the passage of time, as the change in load demand becomes large, the controllers must
be reset either manually or automatically.

Load frequency and excitation controls can be modelled and analysed independently for the
following reasons.
(a) Small changes in power depend on the change in the internal angle, o , of the machine and is
independent of the machine bus voltage whereas the bus voltage depends on machine
excitation but is independent of machine internal angle.
(b) The load frequency controller is slow acting because of the large time constant contributed
by the turbine and generator moment of inertia, and excitation controller is fast acting
because the time constant of the field winding is relatively smaller.


54


3.2 Load-Frequency control
When a consumer connects a new load to a power system, it is initially supplied by the kinetic
energy stored in the rotating masses of the turbine-generators. As the kinetic energy is released, the
rotational speed of the generators falls and the system frequency throughout the interconnected
network begins to drop.

Because there are many generators supplying power into the system, some means must be provided
to allocate the change in demand to the generators. A speed governor on each generating unit
provides the primary speed control function, while supplementary control originating at a central
control centre allocates generation.

In an interconnected system with two or more independently controlled areas, in addition to the
control of frequency, the generation within each area has to be controlled so as to maintain
scheduled power interchange. The control of generation and frequency is commonly referred to as
load-frequency control (LFC).

Load frequency control is important for the following reasons:
(a) Load-frequency control is required so that the numerous power stations-small and large-
connected to the system will run satisfactorily in parallel.
(b) Considerable drop in frequency could result in high magnetizing currents in induction
motors and transformers.
(c) Constancy of speed of motors is important for satisfactory performance.
(d) Constancy of frequency is important for satisfactory performance of electric clocks and
other electric time keeping instruments.

3.2.1 Governor operation and characteristics
The control of frequency and load depends on the turbine speed governor. The traditional governor
control system uses the watt centrifugal governor as a speed sensing device and a hydraulic servo-
system to operate the main supply valve. Thus the control system has high dead band (or zone), i.e.
the speed must change by a certain amount before the main valve begins to open. Additionally,
such systems have a low speed response (0.2-0.3s). Large modern turbogenerators use electro-
hydraulic governing systems. This governing system has high speed response, low dead band, and
accuracy in speed and load control.

An imbalance in mechanical power into, and electrical power out of, the generator is seen as an
acceleration or deceleration of the shaft and hence as a change in rotor speed from its nominal
value. The turbine governor acts upon this variation in speed to regulate the steam or water flow
into the turbine such that when the rotor speed falls below its nominal value, more steam or water is
admitted to the turbine to increase mechanical power, and vice versa on an increase in rotor speed.
The control characteristics of governors are set so that a given change in speed results in a specific
change in turbine power, as described by equation 3.1
f
R
1
P P
ref m
A A = A Eqn 3.1

where = A
m
P Change in mechanical power
= A
ref
P Change to power reference setting,
ref
P
= Af Change in speed expressed in Hz or per unit
= R The regulation constant or droop



55


With the reference speed constant, so that 0 P
ref
= A , the change in mechanical power is directly
proportional to the change in speed i.e.
f
R
1
P
m
A = A Eqn 3.2
This characteristic is shown graphically in figure 3.1 for . u . p 04 . 0 R = (i.e. 4% droop) with
ref
P set
to give . u . p 0 . 1 P
m
= at . u . p 0 . 1 f = i.e. full load at nominal frequency.

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
1.00
O.99
0.98
1.01
1.02
1.03
1.04
Power Output (p.u.)
S
p
e
e
d
/
f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

(
p
.
u
.
)
m
P A
f A

Fig 3.1 Governor characteristic for pu . R 04 0 =

The reference value
ref
P is set via equipment called the speed changer motor, or speeder gear, which
acts upon the governor valves to change the operating point (i.e. valve opening) about which the
governor effects the changes
m
P A in response to frequency deviation f A . The effect of changing the
speed gear setting (i.e.
ref
P ) upon the governor characteristic is illustrated in figure 3.2. Effectively,
a family of characteristics is achieved, on any one of which the turbine may be set to operate, by
altering the setting of the speeder gear. In figure 3.2,
1
P ,
2
P and
3
P represent different outputs at
various speeder gear settings but for the same speed.
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
1.00
O.99
0.98
1.01
1.02
1.03
1.04
Power Output (p.u.)
S
p
e
e
d
/
f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

(
p
.
u
.
)
1 P 2 P 3 P
Alternative speeder
settings

Fig 3.2 Governor characteristic showing effect of speeder motor settings



56


The governor characteristics only completely decide the outputs of the machines when a sudden
change in load occurs or when machines are allowed to vary their outputs according to speed within
a prescribed range in order to keep the frequency constant. This latter mode of operation is known
as free-governor-error action.

The basic concepts of speed governing are best illustrated by considering an isolated generating
unit supplying a local load as shown in figure 3.3. When there is a load change, it is reflected
instantaneously as a change in the electrical torque
e
T output of the generator. This causes a
mismatch between the mechanical torque
m
T and the electrical torque
e
T which in turn results in
speed variations. The governor senses the speed variations and sends actuating signals to the valve
or gate to regulate the steam or water flow into the turbine.

Governor
Turbine G
Load P
L
Generator
Valve/gate
Steam or water
Speed
P
e
P
m
T
m
T
e

Fig 3.3 Generator supplying isolated load

T
m
= mechanical torque T
e
= electrical torque P
L
= load power
P
m
= mechanical power P
e
= electrical power

Example 3.1
A MW 500 generator supplies an isolated load of 450MW at a nominal frequency of 50Hz. The
governor operates with a 4% droop. If the load falls to 350MW, what is the new frequency?

Solution
On a base of 500MW, the load of 450MW is . u . p 9 . 0
500
450
=
On the same base, the load of 350MW is . u . p 7 . 0
500
350
=
. u . p 2 . 0 9 . 0 7 . 0 P
m
= = A
From Equation 3.2,

m
P R f A = A

Hz 4 . 0
Hz 50 008 . 0
. u . p 008 . 0
2 . 0 04 . 0
=
=
=
=

Hence, the new frequency Hz f f f
new
4 . 50 4 . 0 50 = + = A + = Hz 4 . 50 4 . 0 50 = +







57


Example 3.2
Two generators operate in parallel to supply a common load of 750MW. The first has a full load
capacity of 600MW, a governor droop of 5% and is currently generating 450MW. The second has a
full load capacity of 500MW, a governor droop of 4% and is currently generating 300MW. The
initial frequency is 50Hz. What is the new frequency immediately following a load rise of 100MW
and what is the load distribution before supplementary control is applied?

Solution
On a common base of 1100MW

Ignoring losses in the transmission system and assuming that the system load is independent of
frequency, the total load change will be met by the changes in generation of the individual
machines, that is:
. u . p 091 . 0
1100
100
MW 100
P P P
2 m 1 m L
= =
=
A + A = A

With no change in
ref
P for either machine,
2 1
2 m 1 m L
R
f
R
f
P P P
A

A
= A + A = A

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ A =
2 1
R
1
R
1
f
Hz 204 . 0
Hz 50 0041 . 0
. u . p 0041 . 0
088 . 0
1
0917 . 0
1
091 . 0
R
1
R
1
P
f
2 1
L
=
=
=
+
=
+
A
= A

Hence the new frequency is Hz 796 . 49 204 . 0 50 = + .

MW .
MW .
. u . p .
.
.
R
f
P
m
95 48
1100 0445 0
0445 0
0917 0
0041 0
1
1
=
=
=
=
A
= A

088 . 0 1100
500
04 . 0
R
0917 . 0 1100
600
05 . 0
R
2
1
= =
= =


58


MW .
MW .
. u . p .
.
.
R
f
P
m
26 51
1100 0466 0
0466 0
088 0
0041 0
2
2
=
=
=
=
A
= A


Note: MW . . . P P
m m
21 100 26 51 95 48
2 1
= + = A + A is not exactly 100MW due to approximations
made during calculation.

Example 3.3
Two synchronous generators operate in parallel and supply a total load of 200MW. The ratings of
the machines are 100MW and 200MW and both have governor droop characteristics of 4% from no
load to full load. Calculate the load taken by each machine, assuming free governor action.

Solution
Load supplied by machine A, MW x 100
04 . 0
=
o

Load supplied by machine B is ( ) MW MW x 200
04 . 0
200 =
o

From the above equations,
x x
x x
=

= =
200 2
200
200
100 04 . 0
o

MW x 67 . 66
3
200
= =
Hence load on machine B MW 33 . 133 67 . 66 200 = =

3.2.2 Generator-Load model
The increment in power input to a generator-load system is
D G
P P A A where
t G
P P A = A is the
incremental turbine power output, assuming generator incremental loss to be negligible.
D
P A is the
increment in load.

The increment in power input to the system is accounted for in two ways:
(a) Rate of increase of stored KE in the rotating mass of the generator. At scheduled frequency
f
0
, the stored energy is
r ke
P H W =
0
kW-sec.
Where
r
P is the KVA rating of the generator and H is its inertia constant. Kinetic energy is
proportional to the square of speed (frequency). Therefore, the kinetic energy at frequency
f f f A + =
0
is given by:
|
|
.
|

\
| A
+ ~
|
|
.
|

\
| A + A +
=
|
|
.
|

\
| A +
=
0 2 0
2 0 2 0
0
2
0
0
0
2
1 Pr
) (
) ( 2 ) (
f
f
H
f
f f f f
W
f
f f
W W
ke ke ke

The rate of change of kinetic energy is
f
dt
d
f
HP
W
dt
d
r
ke
A =
0
2

(b) As frequency changes, load that is frequency sensitive (motor load) changes. The rate of
change of load with respect to frequency can be regarded as constant for small changes in
frequency. Hence, change in load with frequency can be expressed as


59


f B f
f
P
D
A = A
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

B is positive for a predominantly motor load. Writing a power balance equation, we have
f B f
dt
d
f
HP
P P
r
D G
A + A = A A
0
2

Dividing throughout by
r
P , we obtain
f pu B f
dt
d
f
H
pu P pu P
D G
A + A = A A ) (
2
) ( ) (
0

Taking, the Laplace transform, we obtain
s
f
H
B
s P s P
s F
D G
0
2
) ( ) (
) (
+
A A
= A

( )
(
(

+
A A =
(

+
A A
=
s T
K
s P s P
B
s
Bf
H
s P s P
ps
ps
D G
D G
1
) ( ) (
1
.
2
1
) ( ) (
0

Where
0
2
Bf
H
T
ps
= i.e. power system time constant.

B
K
ps
1
= i.e. power system gain.

The figure below shows a complete block diagram of load frequency control of an isolated area.
S T
K
sg
sg
+ 1
S T
K
t
t
+ 1
S T
K
ps
ps
+ 1
R
1
) ( ) ( s P s P
G t
A = A
) (s P
D
A
+ +
) (s P
c
A
Speed changer
command
Generator load
Speed governor system
Turbine
) (s F A


Fig 3.4: Block diagram of load frequency control of an isolated area











60


Example 3.4
A 100MVA synchronous generator operates on full load at a frequency of 50Hz. The load is
suddenly reduced by 50MW. Due to time lag in governor system, the main supply valve begins to
close after 0.4s. Determine the change in frequency that occurs in this time. kVA kW H sec/ 5 = of
generator capacity. Neglect change in load due to change in frequency, i.e. . 0 = B

Solution
) (
2
0
pu P f
dt
d
f
H
D
A = A or

H
f pu P
f
dt
d
D
2
). (
0
A
= A
5 . 0
100
50
) ( = = A
MVA
MW
pu P
D

5 . 2
5 2
50 5 . 0
=

= A

f
dt
d

Hz dt f 1 0 ) 4 . 0 ( 5 . 2 5 . 2 5 . 2
4 . 0
0
4 . 0
0
= = = = A
}
and
Hz f f f 51 1 50
0
= + = A + =

3.2.3 Control area
It is possible to divide an extended power system into sub-areas in which the generators are tightly
coupled together so as to form a coherent group, i.e. all generators respond in unison to changes in
load or speed changer settings. Such a coherent area is called a control area. In a control area, the
frequency is assumed to be the same throughout, in static as well as dynamic conditions.

In practice, a control area may consist of a single large private company, a government-operated
system such as VRA, or several investor-owned companies bonded together in a power pool. A
control area has a single control centre which operates it.

For purposes of developing a control strategy, a control area can be reduced to a single speed
governor, turbo-generator and load system.

Example 3.5
Determine the drop in the frequency of an unregulated isolated control area because of sudden
increase in load demand. The control area has no inter-ties and no automatic regulation. The
dispatcher is absent. The kinetic energy of the rotating mass before the disturbances is 25,000MWs.
The load demand increases from 5000MW to 5200MW. Assume that . / 3 . 83 Hz MW B = System
frequency = 60Hz.

Solution
f B f
dt
d
f
H
P P
D G
A + A = A A
0
2

f f
dt
d
A + A

= 3 . 83
60
25000 2
200 0

0 24 . 0 1 . 0 = + A + A f f
dt
d
By using one of the methods of solving differential equations:
( ) 1 4 . 2
1 . 0
= A
t
e f


61


The time constant, s t 10
1 . 0
1
= = . Therefore in about 5 times the time constant, s t 50 = .
( ) 38 . 2 99 . 0 4 . 2 1 4 . 2
5
= = = A

e f
Hence, the final value of the frequency
Hz f f f 62 . 57 38 . 2 60
0
= + = A + =



Self Assessment 3.1
Repeat example 3.5 if by inter-ties, kinetic energy available is MW 000 , 25 10 and load before the
disturbance is MW 5000 10 . Note that B was estimated as 1% load reduction per 1% frequency
reduction Hz MW
Hz
MW
/ 33 . 83
%) 1 ( 60
%) 1 ( 5000
=

= . Thus, with a load of MW 5000 10 the new
Hz MW B / 3 . 833 = . Comment on your answer.


Self Assessment 3.2
Obtain the transfer function (figure 3.4)
D
P
F
A
A
for 0 ) ( = A s P
C
, 1 =
t sg
K K , 100 =
ps
K , 3 = R ,
s T
sg
4 . 0 = , s T
t
5 . 0 = and s T
ps
20 = .
D
P A is in per unit. (a) Use the final value theorem to obtain the
final value of f A when pu P
D
01 . 0 = A . (b) Determine the dynamic response of F A to a step change
in load pu P
D
01 . 0 = A .


3.2.4 Proportional load frequency control
The use of a regulating factor, or gain, in the feedback branch, here known as
R
1
is called
proportional-feedback control. It does not completely restore the frequency to 50Hz, but does
reduce the deviation.

The steady state load-frequency characteristic of a speed governor system is obtained from the
transfer function in self assessment 3.2 for the free governor action. The droop of the characteristic
curves
( )
R
B
1
1
+
= , i.e.
( )
P K P
B
f
D
R
A ~ A
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
= A
1
1
[see figure 3.1]. When
R
1
represents the total
regulation factor for a system and B represents the system (control area) load change with
frequency, then
R
B
1
+ is known as the area frequency response characteristic(AFRC). AFRC of a
system is determined experimentally.


Example 3.6
Two power systems, A and B, are interconnected through a tie-line and are initially at 60Hz. If there
is a 100MW load change in system A, calculate the change in the steady-state values of frequency
and power transfer. The parameters of the system are as follows:
System A: Stiffness Hz MW B / 1500 =
Regulation MW Hz R /
1500
6
=

System B: Stiffness Hz MW B / 1000 =


62


Regulation MW Hz R /
1000
6
=

Solution
B B B
P P f A = A
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
= A
7000
6
1000
1
6
1000

( ) ( )
B B A
P P f A = A
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
= A 100
500 , 10
6
100
1500
1
6
1500

the changes in frequency in each system must be equal as they are electrically connected. Hence,
( )
B B
P P A = A 100
500 , 10
6
7000
6


B
P A |
.
|

\
|
+ =
7000
6
500 , 10
6
500 , 10
600


B
P A
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
7000
500 , 10
1 100
MW P
B
40
500 , 17
7000 100
=

= A
40
7000
6
= A
B
f
Hz 034 . 0 =


3.2.5 Proportional plus integral control
To restore a system completely to its normal frequency, the speed changer setting is adjusted
automatically by feeding a signal from f A through an integrator to the speed changer. A block
diagram of integral controller has been shown in figure 3.5.
S
K
1

) (s P
c
) (s F A

Fig 3.5 Integral controller

3.3 Reactive power and voltage control
For efficient and reliable operation of power systems, the control of voltage and reactive power
should satisfy the following objectives:
(a) Voltages at the terminals of all equipment in the system are within acceptable limits. Both
utility equipment and consumer equipment are designed to operate certain voltage ratings.
Prolonged operation of an equipment at voltages outside the allowable range could
adversely affect their performance and possibly damage them.
(b) System stability is enhanced to maximize utilization of the transmission system. Voltage
and reactive power control have a significant impact on system stability.
(c) The reactive power flow is minimized so as to reduce R I
2
and X I
2
losses to a practical
minimum. This ensures that the transmission system operates efficiently, i.e., mainly for
active power transfer.



63


The problem of maintaining voltages within the required limits is complicated by the fact that the
power system supplies power to a vast number of loads and is fed from several generating units. As
loads vary, the reactive power requirements of the transmission system vary. Since reactive power
cannot be transmitted over long distances, voltage control has to be effected by using special
devices dispersed throughout the system. This is in contrast to the control of frequency which
depends on the overall system active power balance. The proper selection and coordination of
equipment for controlling reactive power and voltage are among the major challenges of power
system engineering.

3.3.1 Production and absorption of reactive power
(a) Synchronous generators can generate or absorb reactive power depending on the excitation.
When overexcited, they supply reactive power, and when underexcited, they absorb reactive
power. The capability to continuously supply or absorb reactive power is however limited
by the field current, armature current, and end-region heating limits. Synchronous
generators are normally equipped with automatic voltage regulators which continually
adjust the excitation so as to control the armature voltage.
(b) Overhead lines, depending on the load current, either absorb or supply reactive power. At
loads below the natural load (surge impedance), the lines produce net reactive power; at
loads above the natural load, the lines absorb reactive power.
(c) Underground cables, owing to their high capacitance, have high natural loads. They are
always loaded below their natural loads, and hence generate reactive power under all
operating conditions.
(d) Transformers always absorb reactive power regardless of their loading; at no load, the shunt
magnetizing reactance effects predominate; and at full load, the series leakage inductance
effects predominate.
(e) Loads normally absorb reactive power. A typical load bus supplied by a power system is
composed of a large number of devices. The composition changes depending on the day,
season, and weather conditions. The composite characteristics are normally such that a load
bus absorbs reactive power. Both reactive power and active power of the composite loads
vary as a function of voltage magnitudes. Loads at low-lagging power factors cause
excessive voltage drops in the transmission network uneconomical to supply. Industrial
consumers are normally charged for reactive as well as active power; this gives them an
incentive to improve the load power factor by using shunt capacitors.
(f) Compensating devices are usually added to supply or absorb reactive power and thereby
control the reactive power balance in a desired manner.

3.3.2 Methods of voltage control
The control of voltage levels is accomplished by controlling the production, absorption, and flow of
reactive power at all levels in the system. The generating units provide the basic means of voltage
control; the automatic voltage regulators control field excitation to maintain a scheduled voltage
level at the terminals of the generators. Additional means are usually required to control voltage
throughout the system. The devices used for this purpose may be classified as follows:
(a) Sources or sinks of reactive power, such as shunt capacitors, shunt reactors, synchronous
condensers, and static var compensators(SVCs)
(b) Line reactance compensators, such as series capacitors
(c) Regulating transformers, such as tap-changing transformers and boosters.

3.3.2.1 Shunt capacitors
Shunt capacitors supply reactive power and boost local voltages. They are used throughout the
system and are supplied in a wide range of sizes. The principal advantages of shunt capacitors are
their low cost and their flexibility of installation and operation. The principal disadvantage


64


associated with shunt capacitors is that their reactive power output is proportional to the square of
the voltage. Consequently, the reactive power output is reduced at low voltages when it is likely to
be needed most.

3.3.2.2 Shunt reactors
Shunt reactors are used to compensate for the effects of line capacitance particularly to lime voltage
rise on pen circuit or light load. During heavy loading conditions, some of the reactors may have to
be disconnected. They are usually required for EHV overhead lines longer than 200km.

3.3.2.3 Series capacitors
Series capacitors are connected in series with the line conductors to compensate for the inductive
reactance of the line. This reduces the transfer reactance between buses to which the line is
connected, increases maximum power that can be transmitted, and reduces the effective reactive
power ( X I
2
) loss. Although series capacitors are not usually installed for voltage control as such,
they do contribute to improved voltage control and reactive power balance. The reactive power
produced by a series capacitor increases with increasing power transfer; a series capacitor is self-
regulating in this regard.

3.3.2.4 Synchronous condensers
A synchronous condenser is a synchronous machine running without a prime mover or a
mechanical load. By controlling the field excitation, it can be made to either generate or absorb
reactive power. With a voltage regulator, it can automatically adjust the reactive power output to
maintain constant terminal voltage. It draws a small amount of active power from the power system
to supply losses.


3.3.2.5 Static var compensators
Static var compensators are shunt-connected static generators and/or absorbers whose outputs are
varied so as to control specific parameters of the electric power system. The term static is used to
indicate that SVCs, unlike synchronous compensators, have no moving or rotating main
components.

3.3.2.6 Tap-changing transformers
Transformers with tap-changing facilities constitute an important means of controlling voltage
throughout the system at all voltage levels. The taps on these transformers provide a convenient
means of controlling reactive power flow between subsystems. This in turn can be used to control
the voltage profiles, and minimize active and reactive power losses.

The table below summarizes the various voltage control devices and their control action.

Table 3.1 Control action of voltage control devices
Voltage control device Control action
1 Shunt capacitors Generate reactive power
2 Shunt reactors Absorb reactive power
3 Synchronous condensers Generate or absorb reactive power
4 Static var compensators Generate or absorb reactive power
5 Series capacitors Reduce reactive power consumption in lines
6 Tap-changing transformers Raise or lower voltage levels





65


3.4 Excitation systems
The basic function of an excitation system is to provide direct current to the synchronous machine
field winding. In addition, the excitation system performs control and protective functions essential
to the satisfactory performance of the power system by controlling the field voltage and thereby the
field current. Excitation systems have taken many forms over the years of their evolution. They
may be classified into the following three broad categories based on the excitation power source
used: DC excitation systems, AC excitation systems and Static excitation systems.

The control functions include the control of voltage and reactive power flow, and the enhancement
of system stability. The protective functions ensure that the capability limits of the synchronous
machine, excitation system, and other equipment are not exceeded.

3.4.1 Excitation system requirements
The performance requirements of excitation systems are determined by considerations of the
synchronous generator as well as the power system.

The basic requirement is that the excitation system supply and automatically adjust the field current
of the synchronous generator to maintain the terminal voltage as the output varies within the
continuous capability of the generator. In addition, the excitation system must be able to respond to
transient disturbances with field forcing consistent with the generator instantaneous and short-term
capabilities. The generator capabilities in this regard are limited by several factors: rotor insulation
failure due to high field voltage, rotor heating due to high field current, stator heating due to
excessive flux (volts/Hz). The thermal limits have time-dependent characteristics, and the short-
term overload capability of the generators may extend from 15 to 60 seconds. To ensure the best
utilization of the excitation system, it should be capable of meeting the system needs by taking full
advantage of the generators short-term capabilities without exceeding their limits.

From the power system viewpoint, the excitation system should contribute to effective control of
voltage and enhancement of system stability. It should be capable of responding rapidly to a
disturbance so as to enhance transient stability, and of modulating the generator field so as to
enhance small-signal stability (explained in chapter 4).

To fulfil the above roles satisfactorily, the excitation system must meet the following requirements:
- Meet specified response criteria.
- Provide limiting and protective functions as required to prevent damage to itself, the
generator, and other equipment.
- Meet specified requirements for operating flexibility.
- Meet the desired reliability and availability, by incorporating the necessary level of
redundancy and internal fault detection and isolation capability.














66


3.4.2 Elements of an excitation system
Figure 3.6 shows the functional block diagram of a typical excitation control system for a large
synchronous generator. The following is a brief description of the various subsystems identified in
the figure.
Limiters and
protective circuits
Generator
Power system
stabilizer
Terminal voltage
transducer and
load compensators
Regulator Exciter Ref.
To power
system
5
4
3
2
1

Fig 3.6 Functional block diagram of a synchronous generator excitation control system

(1) Exciter. Provides dc power to the synchronous machine field winding, constituting the
power system stage of the excitation system.
(2) Regulator. Process and amplifies input control signals to a level and form appropriate for
control of the exciter. This includes both regulating and excitation system stabilizing
functions.
(3) Terminal voltage transducer and load compensator. Senses generator terminal voltage,
rectifiers and filters it to dc quantity, and compares it with a reference which represents the
desired terminal voltage. In addition, load (or line-drop or reactive) compensation may be
provided, if it is desired to hold constant voltage at some point electrically remote from the
generator terminal (for example, partway through the step-up transformer).
(4) Power system stabiliser. Provides an additional input signal to the regulator to damp power
system oscillations. Some commonly used input signals are rotor speed deviation,
accelerating power, and frequency deviations.
(5) Limiters and protective circuits. These include a wide array of control and protective
functions which ensure that the capability limits of the exciter and synchronous generator
are not exceeded. Some of the commonly used functions are the field-current limiter,
maximum excitation limiter, terminal voltage limiter, volts-per-Hertz regular and
protection, and underexcitation applied to the excitation system at various locations as a
summing input or a gated input.










67


Assignments

1. Two synchronous generators operate in parallel and supply a total load of 240MW. The ratings
of the machines are 150MW and 200MW and both have governor droop characteristics of 5%
from no load to full load. Calculate the load taken by each machine, assuming free governor
action.

2. A 200MW generator supplies an isolated load of 120MW at a nominal frequency of 50Hz. The
governor operates with a 5% droop. If the load drops by 25%, what is the new frequency?

3. Two generators operate in parallel to supply a common load of 850MW. The first has a full
load capacity of 600MW, a governor droop of 5% and is currently generating 500MW. The
second has a full load capacity of 500MW, a governor droop of 4% and is currently generating
350MW. The initial frequency is 50Hz. What is the new frequency immediately following a
load rise of 100MW and what is the load distribution before supplementary control is applied?






































68


4. Stability
Aims
- To gain understanding of the types of rotor angle stability
- To know the conditions for transient and steady state stability
- To perform simple calculations on transient and steady state stability.

4.1 Introduction
All power systems, small or large, have synchronous generators, motors and condensers. A power
system in steady state has frequency
0
e and machine rotor angle
0
o with respect to a synchronous
rotating axis. After having been subjected to a random disturbance, it is required that it remains in a
state of operating equilibrium. Power system stability may be broadly defined as that property of a
power system that enables it to remain in a state of operating equilibrium under normal operating
conditions and to regain an acceptable state of equilibrium after being subjected to a disturbance.

Instability in a power system may be manifested in many different ways depending on the system
configuration and operating mode. Traditionally, the stability problem has been one of maintaining
synchronous operation. Since power systems rely on synchronous machines for generation of
electrical power, a necessary condition for satisfactory operation is that all synchronous machines
remain in synchronism or, colloquially, in step. This aspect of stability is influenced by the
dynamics of generator rotor angles and power-angle relationships.

Instability may also be encountered without loss of synchronism. For example, a system consisting
of synchronous generator feeding an induction motor load through a transmission line can become
unstable because of the collapse of load voltage. Maintenance of synchronism is not an issue in this
instance; instead, the concern is stability and control of voltage.

Power system stability problems may therefore be classified into rotor angle stability and voltage
stability. Only rotor angle stability is studied in this course.

4.2 Rotor angle stability
Rotor angle stability is the ability of interconnected synchronous machines of a power system to
remain in synchronism. Rotor angle stability may be categorized into Steady state(small-
disturbance) stability and Transient stability

4.2.1 Steady state stability
Steady state (small-disturbance) stability is the ability of a power system to maintain synchronism
when subjected to small disturbances as occur continually in normal operation due to small
variations in consumption and generation. Instability that may result can be of two forms: (i) steady
increase in rotor angle due to the lack of sufficient synchronizing torque, or (ii) rotor oscillations of
increasing amplitude due to lack of sufficient damping torque.

In steady state stability problem, we are basically concerned with the determination of upper limits
of machine loadings under condition of gradual changes in load.

4.2.1.1 The swing equation
Assuming that windage (effect of damper windings) and frictional torque is negligible, the motion
of the rotor of a synchronous generator is described by the equation:
e i
2
m
2
T T
dt
d
J =
u

Where J is rotor moment of inertia


69


i
T is shaft torque developed by turbine.

e
T is electromagnetic torque developed by synchronous machine.

m
u is angular displacement of rotor in mechanical radians.
We can derive from the above equation the following equivalent equation called the swing
equation.
e i
2
2
0
P P
dt
d H 2
=
o
e

Where
i
P is shaft input power in per unit.

e
P is electromagnetic power in per unit.
His inertia constant defined as the stored kinetic energy at synchronous speed in MJ or
MW-sec per unit MVA of machine rating.
MVA
MJ
P
J
H
r
6 0
10
2
=
e


radians in speed s synchronou rotor or mechanical
MVA in mechanice of rating P
r
=
=
0
e

o is the load angle, power angle, torque angle or internal angle.


4.2.1.2 Power transfer
Consider a single synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus through an external impedance
or reactance. Infinite bus is a system assumed to have large generating capacity so that change in
shaft power of the single machine operating to it does not affect its frequency and change in the
excitation of the single machine does not affect its voltage.
o Z E
e e e
jX R Z + =
R
I
o
V 0 Z
Infinite bus
Synchronous
machine

Fig 4.1 A simple power system

The complex power injected into the infinite bus(or the complex power at its receiving end) if
0 R
e
= is given by:

*
R R
I 0 V S Z =
(

o Z
=
(

o Z
=
(

Z
o Z
=
e e
*
e e
*
e
X
90 V
X
) 90 ( E
V
X
90 V
X
) 90 ( E
V
90 X
V E
V

and the active power injected is

e
R
X
sin VE
P
o
=




70


4.2.1.3 Steady state stability limit
The steady state stability limit of the simplest electrical system is defined as the greatest possible
power at its receiving end under a given condition of operation and excitation in the presence of
small disturbances.

We consider the stability limit of the system without excitation control i.e. the excitation is
constant. In this case, the synchronous machine is represented by a constant voltage behind its
synchronous reactance. For a salient machine, it is assumed that
d q
X X = .
o Z E
d
X
e
X
o
V 0 Z

The electromagnetic power is given as
o
+
= sin
X X
EV
P
e d
e

Suppose a small disturbance causes the rotor angle to vary by o A , i.e. o changes from
( ) o A + o o
0 0
to , the subscript 0 denoting steady state condition. Then the change in the
electromagnetic power will be
o A = o A |
.
|

\
|
o c
c
= A c
P
P
0
e
e

We suppose
i
P is constant because the governor is slow to act compared to the speed of energy
dynamics. Substituting the above equation into the swing equation we obtain
( )
e 0 e i
2
0
2
0
P P P
dt
) ( d H 2
A + =
o A + o
|
|
.
|

\
|
e


i 0 e e
2
2
0
P P for P
dt
d H 2
= A =
o A
e


0
2
2
H 2
M where C
dt
d
M
e
= o A =
o A

0 C
dt
d
M
2
2
= o A +
o A

The characteristic equation is
0 C Mp
2
= + and its roots are
M
C
p =

If 0 C > , the roots are pure imaginary and any small disturbance appearing in the system will result
in continuous oscillations. Line resistance and damper windings of machines ignored in the analysis
cause the system oscillations to decay. The system is therefore stable for a small disturbance so
long as 0
P
0
e
> |
.
|

\
|
o c
c
.
If 0 C < both roots are real and one of them is positive. In this case, any small disturbance results
in a periodic rise of the torque angle, and synchronism is soon lost. Thus the system is unstable if
0
P
0
e
< |
.
|

\
|
o c
c
.


71


At 0 cos
X
EV
C , 90
0
o
0
= o = = o . The angle
o
0
90 = o therefore determines the steady state stability
limit
m
P , i.e.
X
EV
90 sin
X
EV
P
o
m
= = .

Example 3.1
For the system where . u . p 20 . 1 E ., u . p 60 . 0 X ., u . p 0 . 1 V ., u . p 20 . 1 X
e d
= = = = ,
MVA MW H sec 4 = and the system frequency Hz 50 = , calculate the frequency of natural
oscillations if the generator is loaded to (a) 50% and (b) 80% of its maximum power limit.

Solution
(a) For 50% loading,
o
0
m
0 e
0
30 5 . 0
P
P
sin = o = = o
rad electrical / pu 577 . 0 30 cos
8 . 1
1 2 . 1
cos
X
EV
C
o
0
=

= o =
rad electrical / . u . p 0255 . 0
50 2
4 2
f 2
H 2 H 2
M
0 0
=
t

=
t
=
e
=
757 . 4
0255 . 0
577 . 0
j j
M
C
p = = =
Natural frequency of oscillations Hz 757 . 0
2
757 . 4
sec / rad 757 . 4 =
t
= =
(b) For 80% loading,
o
0
m
0 e
0
1 . 53 8 . 0
P
P
sin = o = = o
rad electrical / pu 4 . 0 1 . 53 cos
8 . 1
1 2 . 1
C
o
=

=
rad electrical / . u . p 0255 . 0 M = as before
961 . 3 j
0255 . 0
4 . 0
j
M
C
p = = =
(c) Natural frequency of oscillations Hz 637 . 0
2
961 . 3
sec / rad 961 . 3 =
t
= =

Example 3.2
For the system shown in the figure below, chalculate the limit of steady state power with and
without reactor switch closed.
M
pu . X
t
1 0 = pu X
t
1 . 0 =
pu X
dg
1 =
1 2
g
E . pu = pu E
m
0 . 1 =
1
mg
X pu =
pu X
c
1 =
pu X
L
25 . 0 =

Solution
It can be shown that the system is equivalent to the simplest electrical system.

Case A: Reactor switch is open
Total reactance between generator and motor,
dg t L t mg
X X X X X X = + + + +


72


. u . p . . . . 45 2 1 1 0 25 0 1 0 1 = + + + + =
. u . p 49 . 0
45 . 2
1 2 . 1
X
E E
P
m g
m
=

= =

Case B: Reactor switch is closed. The equivalent circuit is as follows
pu E
g
2 . 1 =
pu E
m
0 . 1 =
pu j1 pu j 1 . 0 pu j 25 . 0 pu j 1 . 0 pu j1
pu j1
a
b
c
M


This can be reduced to (by star-to-delta conversion)
pu E
g
2 . 1 =
pu E
m
0 . 1 =
X
M

This gives
c
b a
b a
X
X X
X X X + + =
where 35 . 1 j ) 25 . 0 1 . 0 1 ( j X
a
= + + =
1 . 1 j ) 1 . 0 1 ( j X
b
= + =
and 1 j X
c
=
Therefore
( )( )
. u . p 965 . 0 j 485 . 1 j 45 . 2 j
1 j
1 . 1 j 35 . 1 j
1 . 1 j 35 . 1 j X = =

+ + =
Steady state power limit, . u . p .
.
.
P
m
244 1
965 0
1 2 1
=

=

Self Assessment 3.1
Recalculate the power limit with the capacitive reactor replaced by an inductive reactor of the same
value.

In a generator with controlled field current, the emf, E remains constant for slow increases in the
load. This leads to a fall in the machine terminal voltage. In practice, the field current is controlled
so that the magnitude of the machine terminal voltage remains constant. Under this condition of
excitation, the maximum power is 50-80% higher (depending on the parameters of the generator
and transmission line) than in the case of a constant excitation.

We consider the steady state stability limit of the system where the excitation is controlled by a
regulator with a dead zone (i.e. with a delayed excitation control). Such a regulator acts only after
the voltage drop has exceeded a value called its dead zone. Both o and E change under this
condition but since the change in excitation takes place after the change in load, the stability limit is


73


determined from the condition = E Constant, i.e., o A |
.
|

\
|
o c
c
= A
0
e
e
P
P and the limiting value of the
torque angle o is
o
90 . Note that if the excitation is controlled with a fast-acting regulator then
E
E
P P
P
0
e
0
e
e
A |
.
|

\
|
c
c
+ o A |
.
|

\
|
o c
c
= A .

Example 3.3
For the system given below, determine the steady state power limit if the terminal voltage of the
generator is held constant at 1.2p.u. by an automatic voltage regulator which does not act fast
enough (i.e. it has sufficient dead zone).
pu j X
d
5 . 0 =
pu j 0 . 1
o
V 0 0 . 1 Z =
Infinite bus


Solution
o Z E
0
0 1Z = V
5 . 0 j X
d
= 0 . 1 j X
e
=
0
2 . 1 u Z =
t
V

Current injected into the infinite bus
1 j
0 . 1 2 . 1
jX
V V
I
e
t
u Z
=

=
The machine internal voltage
|
|
.
|

\
| u Z
+ u Z = + =
1 j
0 . 1 2 . 1
5 . 0 j 2 . 1 I jX V E
d t
or
( ) u + u = u Z = sin 8 . 1 j 5 . 0 cos 8 . 1 5 . 0 8 . 1 E
Steady state power limit is reached when
o
90 = o , i.e., the real part of E is zero, thus
o
87 . 73 0 5 . 0 cos 8 . 1 = u = u and

o
90 729 . 1 729 . 1 j 87 . 73 sin 8 . 1 j sin 8 . 1 j E Z = = = u =
Steady state power limit . u . p 152 . 1
5 . 1
1 728 . 1
X X
EV
P
e d
m
=

=
+
=

4.2.2 Transient stability
Transient stability is the ability the power system to maintain synchronism when subjected to a
severe disturbance such as short-circuit, the tripping of a heavily loaded line, the tripping of a
loaded generator and sudden drop of a large load. A system which is transiently stable may recover
to its original frequency or settle down to a new frequency. Among the problems of transient
stability is the determination of critical clearing time of circuit breakers which isolate the faulty
portion from the system. Knowledge of the critical clearing time helps system planner to coordinate
the relay system so that a given fault is cleared in time. A fault cleared before the critical clearing
time will result in a stable system and a fault cleared after the critical clearing time will result in the
loss of synchronism.



74


The behaviour of the rotor angle in the presence of large disturbance can be determined by solving
the swing equation.

4.2.2.1 Definition of
e
P in the swing equation
A generator is represented by a constant voltage ' E behind its transient reactance ' X
d
. The power
e
P in this case for the simplest system is given by o
+
= sin
X ' X
V ' E
P
e d
e

o Z ' E
d
X'
e
X
o
V 0 Z

Note that the internal angle of E' is not the same as that of E. Thus the angle o in the above
equation is an approximation of the torque or load angle.

4.2.2.2 The swing equation
Solution depends on the type of disturbance and also its location in the power system. The practical
approach to the transient stability problem is to simulate a disturbance in the system, obtain a
numerical solution of the swing equation (or equations for a multi-machine case) and then plot
delta against time curve called the swing curve. If delta starts to decrease after reaching a maximum
value, it is normally assumed that the system is stable and the oscillations of delta around the
equilibrium will decay and finally die out. If it is unstable, delta continues to increase.

In the simplest electrical system, large disturbance are generally reflected as the changes in the
transfer reactance. In the study of transient stability, the mechanical input power of the synchronous
generator is assumed to be constant.

4.2.2.3 Equal area criterion
In a system where one machine is swinging with respect to an infinite bus, we can study transient
stability without finding the function ) t ( f = o . The general stability criterion is that the system is
stable if at some time t, 0
dt
d
=
o
and is unstable if 0
dt
d
>
o
for a sufficiently long time (more than 1sec
will generally do)

0 =
dt
do
stable
time
0
o
max
o
0
o
Fig 4.2 A stable system



75


This stability criterion can be converted into a simple and easily applicable form for the simplest
electrical system. The swing equation can be restated as:
e i a a
0
2
2
P P P where P
H 2 dt
d
=
e
=
o

Multiplying both sides of the swing equation by
|
.
|

\
|
dt
do
2 , we get
|
.
|

\
| o e
=
|
|
.
|

\
| o
|
.
|

\
| o
dt
d
P
H dt
d
dt
d
2
a
0
2
2

2
0
a
d d d
P
dt dt H dt
(
e o o | |
= (
|
\ .
(


2
0
a
d
d P d
dt H
(
e o | |
= o (
|
\ .
(

Integrating, we obtain
0
2
0
a
d
d P d
dt H
o
o
(
e o | |
= o (
} }
|
\ .
(


}
o
o
o
e
=
|
.
|

\
| o
0
d P
H dt
d
a
0
2

2
1
0
d P
H dt
d
a
0
(

o
e
=
o
}
o
o


where
0
o is the initial rotor angle before it begins to swing due to disturbance.

From the stability condition, 0 =
dt
do
, the condition for stability can be written as:
0 0
0
2
1
0
0
= =
(

=
} }
o
o
o
o
o o
e o
d P d P
H dt
d
a a
. From the figure below,


a
b
c
d e
i
P
eII
P
2
A
1
A
eI
P
P
o
0
o
c
o
2
o

Fig 4.3 Equal area criterion

( ) 0 0
0 0
= =
} }
o
o
o
o
o o d P P d P
i a
This leads to:


76


( ) ( )
2 1 2 1
0 0
0
A A A A d P P d P P
c
c
eI i eII i
= = = o + o
} }
o
o
o
o


The condition of stability can therefore be stated as: the system is stable if the area under o
a
P
curve reduces to zero at some value of o . In other words, a power system will be stable in terms of
transient stability IF AND ONLY IF the accelerating area equals the decelerating area. Hence, the
name equal area criterion of stability.

Consider the figure below.


a
b
c
d e
, fault during
, postfault and prefault
P
o
0
o
c
o
2
o
f
P P
m
=
AD

o
t
.
.
.
g
eII
P
eI
P

Fig 4.4 Pre-fault, during fault and post fault o P and the movement of system operating
point when the system is stable

We assume that the fault is cleared with the faulty transmission line back in service. Hence the pre-
fault o P also represents the post-fault o P curve. Transient stability of the power system can
be analysed by discussing the movement of the system operating point on the o P curve, as
follows:

Point a is the initial operating point of the power system where P P
m
= when the generator rotates
at a synchronous speed
0
e and the rotor angle is
0
o . At the moment when the fault occurs, the
operating point drops from a to b, where
eII m
P P > . Therefore, the generator starts to accelerate and
the operating point moves along the during-fault o P curve. At
c
t t = , the fault is cleared at
operating point c with
c
o o = . The operating point on the post-fault o P curve jumps to point d.
due to the acceleration from point b to c, at this moment, the generator rotates faster than the
reference axis at speed
c
e .



77


At point d,
eI m
P P < . The generator starts to decelerate from speed
c
e . However, because
0
e e >
c
,
the rotor angle continues to increase. As a result, the operating point moves along the post-fault
o P curve towards point g until it arrives at point e. at point e, the rotor has decelerated to the
synchronous speed
0
e from
0
e e >
c
. However, at point e,
eI m
P P < and the generator continues to
decelerate from the synchronous speed. This results in a decrease in rotor angleo and the operating
point moves back along the o P curve towards the initial operating point a until it arrives at point
f. finally, the operating point comes back to its initial operating point a. The system is stable in
terms of transient stability.


a
b
c
d
e
, fault during
, postfault and prefault
P
o
0
o
c
o
2
o
f
P P
m
=
AD

o
t
.
.
eII
P
eI
P
.
h
b
P .
AP
g


Fig 4.5 The case in which the system is unstable in terms of transient stability

The analysis of the unstable condition is similar to that of the stable condition. At point d, (in figure
4.5) the generator starts to decelerate from speed(
c
e corresponding to
c
o ). If
c
e is so great that
generator takes a longer time to reduce its speed back to the synchronous speed, then the operating
point travels along the post-fault o P curve and does not stop until it passes point h, as shown in
figure 4.5. At any point under point h for example, at point e,
eII m
P P > - the generator starts to
accelerate again from a speed greater than the synchronous speed. Hence, the rotor angle o
continues to increase and the operating point moves towards point f and g in figure 4.5. The system
loses stability.

From the above analysis, if the system is unstable in terms of transient stability, then it loses
stability in the first swing of rotor angle. Hence, power system transient stability is also called first-
swing stability.







78


The following factors influence system transient stability:
(a) How heavily the generator is loaded
(b) The generator output during the fault. This depends on the fault location and type.
(c) The fault clearance time. The more slowly the fault is cleared, the closer point d is to point h
and the higher the chance that the system will lose transient stability, because the distance for
the operating point to decelerate from point d to h is shorter.
(d) The post-fault transmission reactance.
(e) The generator reactance. A lower reactance increases peak power and reduces initial rotor
angle.
(f) The generator inertia. The higher the inertia, the slower the rate of change in angle. This
reduces the kinetic energy gained during fault; i.e. area accelerating area is reduced.
(g) The generator internal voltage magnitude. This depends on the field excitation.
(h) The infinite bus voltage magnitude.


4.2.2.4 Application of equal area criterion
CASE 1: Sudden loss of one of two parallel lines.
o Z ' E
d
X '
o
V 0 Z
X
X S

Before switch off o o sin sin
mI
e d
eI
P
X X
V E
P =
+
'
'
= where
2
X
X
e
=
Immediately after switching off line,
o o sin sin
mII
d
eII
P
X X
V E
P =
+
'
'
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =

mI
i
mI i
P
P
P P
1
0 0
sin sin o o
The o P curves are shown below.


79




i
P
2
A
1
A
eI
P
e
P
o
0
o
2
o
1
o
eII
P
m
o


Accelerating area ( )
}
=
1
0
1
o
o
o d P P A
eII i

Decelerating area ( )
}
=
2
1
2
o
o
o d P P A
i eII

For the system to be stable, it should be possible to find angle
2
o such that
2 1
A A = . A limiting
condition is reached when
1
0
2
180 o o o = =
m
where
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

II m
i
P
P
1
1
sin o

CASE 2: A 3-phase short-circuit fault occurs at one end of a line, say at point S.
(a) Before occurrence of fault
o o sin sin
mI
e d
eI
P
X X
EV
P =
+
'
= where
2
X
X
e
=
(b) Upon occurrence of fault: 0 =
eII
P
(c) Circuit breakers at the two ends of the faulted line open at a time
1
t (corresponding to angle
1
o ), called the clearing time to isolate the faulted line.


i
P
eII
P
2
A
1
A
eI
P
o
0
o
1
o
2
o
m
o
III e
P
e
P

Fig 4.6 o P curves for normal operation and during a 3-phase short-circuit fault at one
end of a line.

( ) o o
o
o
o
o
d P d P P A
i eII i
} }
= =
1
0
1
0
1



80


( )
}
=
2
1
2
o
o
o d P P A
i eIII
o o sin sin
mIII
d
eIII
P
X X
EV
P =
+
'
=
Area
1
A depends upon the clearing time
1
t . This must be less than a certain value called critical
clearing time
c
t , for the system to be stable. The angle
1
o corresponding to
c
t denoted
c
o is called the
critical clearing angle. It is determined as follows:

( ) ( )
} } } |
|
.
|

\
|
= = =

m
c
c c
mIII
i
m i eIII i eII i
P
P
d P P d P d P P
o
o
o
o
o
o
t o o o o
1
sin ,
0 0

( )
} }
=
m
c
c
d P P d P
i eIII i
o
o
o
o
o o 0
0


( )
} }
= +
m
c
c
d P P d P
eIII i i
o
o
o
o
o o 0
0


} } }
= +
m
c
m
c
c
eIII i i
P d P d P
o
o
o
o
o
o
o o 0
0



| |
| |
c m mIII
m c mIII
mIII
mIII
mIII eIII
P
P
P
d P
d P d P
c
m
c
m
c
m
c
m
o o
o o
o o
o o o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
cos cos
cos cos
sin
sin
] cos [
=
=
=
=
=

}
} }
( ) ( ) 0
0
= o o + o o = o + o
} }
o
o
o
o
c
m
m
c m mIII c m i eIII i
cos cos P P d P d P
( )
mIII
m mIII o m i
c
P
cos P P
cos
o + o o
= o
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

I m
i
P
P
1
0
sin o and
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

mIII
i
m
P
P
1
sin t o

CASE 3: 3-phase short-circuit occurs in the middle of a line.
o Z ' E
d
X '
o
V 0 Z
X
2
X
2
X


This is equivalent to the circuit below (using a star-to-delta conversion)
o Z ' E
X X X
d II
+
'
= 3
o
V 0 Z
2
X


The circuit model of the system during fault is:
(a) Before occurrence of fault: As in case 2
(b) Upon occurrence of fault o o sin sin
mI
II
eII
P
X
V E
P =
'
=


57


(c) Post-fault
eIII
P as in case 2.


i
P
eII
P
2
A
1
A
eI
P
e
P
o
0
o
2
o
1
o

eIII
P
m
o

Fig 4.7 o P curves for normal operation, during a 3-phase short-circuit fault at the
middle of a line and after fault clearing

( )
}
=
1
0
1
o
o
o d P P A
eII i

( )
}
=
2
1
2
o
o
o d P P A
i eIII
, for critical clearing angle, we have
( ) ( )
} }
=
m
c
c
d P P d P P
i eIII eII i
o
o
o
o
o o
0

( ) ( ) 0
0
= +
} }
m
c
c
d P P d P P
eIII i eII i
o
o
o
o
o o
( ) 0
0 0
= o o + o o + o o
c mIII m mIII mII c mII m i
cos P cos P cos P cos P P
( )
mII mIII
m mIII mII m i
c
P P
P P P

+
=
o o o o
o
cos cos
cos
0 0

Where
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

I m
i
P
P
1
0
sin o and
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

mIII
i
m
P
P
1
sin t o

CASE 4: The circuit breakers of line 2 are reclosed successfully because the fault was
transient and so vanished.


i
P
eII
P
a
A
2
1
A
eIV eI
P P =
e
P
o
0
o
2
o
1
o

eIII
P
m
o
rc
o
b
A
2



58


Fig 4.8 o P curves for normal operation, during a 3-phase short-circuit fault at the
middle of a line and after a successful reclosure
We have o sin
mI eI eIV
P P P = =

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

mI
i
m
P
P
1
sin t o

( ) ( ) ( )
1
0 1
rc m
rc
i mII mIII i mI i
P P sin d P sin P d P sin P d
o o o
o o o
o o = o o+ o o
} } }


Example 3.4
A Hz 50 generator is delivering 50% of the power that it is capable of delivering
through a transmission line to an infinite bus. A fault occurs that increases the
reactance between the generator and the infinite bus to 500% of the value before the
fault. When the fault is isolated, the maximum power that can be delivered is 75% of
the original maximum value. Determine the critical clearing angel for the condition
described.

Solution
Curves are as shown in figure 4.7
( )
mII mIII
m mIII mII m i
c
P P
P P P

+
=
o o o o
o
cos cos
cos
0 0

Dividing the top and bottom by
mI
P , we obtain
( )
2 3
3 0 2 0 1
cos cos
cos
r r
r r r
m m
c

+
=
o o o o
o
where
mI
i
P
P
r =
1
,
mI
mII
P
P
r =
2
and
mI
mIII
P
P
r =
3

X
EV
P
mI
= ,
X
EV
P
mII
5
= ,
mI mIII
P P 75 . 0 =
From the data 75 . 0 , 2 . 0
5
1
, 5 . 0
3 2 1
= = = = r r r
Also ( )
o
II m
i
P
P
30 5 . 0 sin sin
1 1
0
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

o

o
mIII
mI
mI
i
III m
i
P
P
P
P
P
P
8 . 41
75 . 0
5 . 0
sin 1 sin sin
1 1
1
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

o

o o o o
m
2 . 138 8 . 41 180 180
1
= = = o o
Therefore,
( )
o
c
c
34 . 67
3853 . 0
2 . 0 75 . 0
2 . 138 cos 75 . 0 30 cos 2 . 0
180
30 2 . 138 5 . 0
cos
=
=

+
=
o
t
o


4.2.2.5 Methods of improving system transient stability
The following methods are often employed in practice
(a) Increasing system voltage during disturbance using modern high-speed
excitation systems.


(b) Reducing transfer reactance by reducing conductor spacing, by using series
capacitors(for lines >350km) and increasing the number of parallel lines
between transmission points.
(c) Using high-speed circuit breakers and reclosing breakers.
(d) Fast valving: This measure reduces the mechanical input to the generator after
the occurrence of a fault through fast action from the side of the prime mover.
The result is that the accelerating area is reduced and the decelerating area is
increased.

4.3 Dynamic stability
Dynamic stability has also been widely used as a class of rotor angle stability.
However, it has been used to denote different aspects of the phenomenon in different
literatures. In North American literature, it has been used mostly to denoted small-
signal stability in the presence of automatic control devices(primarily generator
voltage regulators) as distinct from the classical steady-state stability without
automatic controls. In the French and German literature, it has been used to denote
what is termed transient stability. Since much confusion has resulted from use of the
term dynamic stability, both CIGRE and IEEE have recommended that it is not used.



Assignments

1. A synchronous generator represented by a voltage of . . 15 . 1 u p in series with a
transient reactance is connected to a large power system with a voltage of . . 0 . 1 u p
through a power network. The equivalent transient transfer reactance X between
voltage sources in . . 50 . 0 u p j . After the occurrence of a three-phase-to-earth fault
on one of the lines of the power network, two of the line circuit breakers A and B
operate sequentially as follows with corresponding transient transfer reactance
given therein.
(a) Short-circuit occurs at
o
30
0
= o , A operates instantaneously to make
. u . p . X 0 3 =
(b) At
o
60
1
= o , A recloses, . . 0 . 6 u p X =
(c) At
o
75
2
= o , A reopens
(d) At
o
90
3
= o , B also opens to clear the fault making . . 60 . 0 u p X =
Check if the system will operate stably.

2. Calculate the limit of steady state power for the system below
M
pu . X
t
1 0 = pu X
t
1 . 0 =
pu X
dg
1 =
1 2
g
E . pu =
pu E
m
0 . 1 =
1
mg
X pu =
pu X
c
1 =
pu X
L
25 . 0 =
pu X
c
1 =



3. For the system given below, determine the steady state power limit if the terminal
voltage of the generator is held constant at 1.1p.u. by an automatic voltage
regulator which does not act fast enough(i.e. it has sufficient dead zone).
pu j X
d
4 . 0 =
pu j X
e
0 . 1 =
o
V 0 0 . 1 Z =
Infinite bus


4. A Hz 50 generator is delivering 40% of the power that it is capable of delivering
through a double-circuit transmission line to an infinite bus. A three-phase short-
circuit occurs at the generator terminal end of one feeder. Circuit breakers at the
ends of the faulted line trip, and the maximum power that can be transferred is
65% of the original maximum value.
(i) Determine the critical clearing angel for the condition described.
(ii) Find the accelerating and decelerating areas at this angle.