ENERGY LEVELS AND FEED PRESENTATION FOR LAYING HENS: EFFECTS ON PERFORMANCE AND INTAKE

Introduction
It is generally acknowledged that a laying hen adapts its intake relatively well to the energy value of its feed. This regulation is however far from perfect. The hen is influenced by the form in which the feed is presented, notably by particle size or granulation. Energy regulation is modified by the presence of fat in the feed, which modify its form and palatability. Inversely, the cellulose content of the feed can be a limiting factor for intake when cellulose content is high, but it seems to play an important role in the behaviour of hens, notably feather pecking, and by its effect on the digestive tract and the digestibility of the feed. Moreover, the genotypes currently used have evolved considerably over the past 40 years. It seems necessary to look once more at energy regulation. The aim of this summary is to give an overview of experiments carried out over recent years. Good knowledge of the factors regulating energy intake is essential for realising genetic potential and lowering production costs.

1. Effect of feed dilution on performance 1.1. Materials and methods

In order to make a distinction between the effect of diluting feed and the effects of adding oil, we have taken up those experiments carried out over recent years where the fat content was comparable. Diets where the increase in energy level resulted from an increase in fat content are studied further below. We have taken up experiments carried out by Walker (1991), Peguri (1991), ISA, Joly (1997), Grobas (1999), Balnave (2000), Leeson (2001), Harms (2000) and van der Lee (2001). The principal characteristics of the diets are given in table 1. The majority of these experiments were carried out with ISA brown hens. For each experiment, a regression method was used to determine the effect of a 100 kcal energy level change on variations in energy consumption, laying rate and egg weight. Walker (1991) used diets where the energy level varied between 2560 and 2799 kcal, without added fat, and between 2775 and 2990 kcal with a level of 3% added fat. Peguri (1991) compared 4 energy levels at different temperatures; the feeds were diluted with sand and cellulose. The results obtained between 16C and 27C were used for this study. In the experiment carried out by ISA, 3 energy levels were used: 2208, 2460 and 2712 kcal. The 2208 kcal diet contained 9% bran and 22% sunflower meal. The 2460 kcal diet was a mixture of the 2712 and 2208 kcal diets. The 2798 kcal diet was diluted with sand to give a level of 2519 kcal in the Harms experiment. Balnave (2000) used rice husk to make up 8.3% of the 2535 kcal diet. In an early experiment, Leeson (2001) diluted the diets with a 50/50 mix of sand and cellulose (alphafloc).

1.2. Results
Energy consumption seems largely influenced by the type of diet and dilution methods used. For this reason, the principal characteristics of the feeds are shown in table 1. The zoo technical results are shown in table 2 of the appendix. Variations in performance observed for a 100 kcal change in energy level are given in table 3. Variations have been expressed as percentages.

Energy levels and feed presentation for laying hens

2009-10 Page | 1

Energy consumption: Between 2200 and 3000 kcal, an average drop in energy consumption of 1.2% is seen when the energy level decreases by 100 kcal, with a variance of 0 to 3%. These results agree with those obtained by Morris in a 1968 overview. The experiments showing the greatest reduction in consumption seem to be those where pure cellulose was used to dilute the feed, either through the addition of pure cellulose, sunflower meal or rice husk, which led to a great reduction in intake. In fact, the addition of cellulose contributes to a reduction in feed density and therefore to a considerable increase in the volume which has to be ingested. The greatest reductions in energy intake were obtained by Balnave (2000), with a reduction of 2.96% for 100 kcal, due in all likelihood to his use of 8.3% rice husk in his 2535 kcal diet. In the experiment carried out by ISA, (Joly, 1997) the cellulose content of the feeds was 4%, 5.9% and 7.8%. The 2200 kcal diet contained 22% sunflower cake and 8.9% bran. As for Leeson (2001), dilution was carried out with a mixture of pure cellulose and sand, with incorporation levels of 2.5%, 5% and 7.5% pure cellulose (alphafloc). The Peguri (1991) 2702 kcal diet also contained 2.9% pure cellulose. These results show that feed density plays an important part in energy regulation. Inversely, dilution with sand has much less effect. This was only 0.8% in the trial carried out by Harms, where all dilution was by means of sand. Walker (1991) observed no variation in energy intake between 2560 and 2800 kcal because none of his diets contained added fat. The same is true of diets with 3% added fat where the energy level ranged from 2775 to 2990 kcal. Table n3: Effect of feed dilution on variations in intake, rates of lay and weight of eggs, expressed as a % for an increase of 100 kcal in feed energy level. Authors Walker 0 % (1991) Walker 3 % (1991) Peguri (1991) a ISA Joly (1996) Grobas (1999) Balnave (2000) a Harms (2000) Leeson (2001) a Van Der Lee (2001) Average Variation as a percentage per 100 kcal Intake Rate of lay Egg weight +0.17 +0.30 -0.06 +0.68 +2.75 +0.30 +0.83 +1.98 +0.27 +0.64 -0.24 +0.09 -0.47 +2.96 +0.55 +0.24 +0.82 +0.08 -0.37 +1.41 -0.36 +0.71 +0.82 -0.73 +0.68 +1.18 +0.03 +0.36 Energy levels used (kcal) 2560-2679-2727-2799 2775-2822-2895-2990 2702-2812-2912 2208-2460-2712 2680-2810 2535-2725 2519-2798 2465-2610-2755-2900 2644-2763

Reduction in energy intake levels varies by 0% to 3% per 100 kcal and depends upon the raw materials used, the average working out at 1.2%. This largely depends upon the way in which dilution has been carried out. The amount of the energy intake seems to depend upon the feed density. This observation was already made by Gleaves (1965) who concluded that the quantity of the energy intake was in relation to the feed density. Performances: Number of eggs: This is largely unaffected by the feed energy level and in all cases, the difference being less than 1%. With a variation of the energy level from 2560 to 2800 kcal, Walker (1991) observed no difference in production. In the ISA experiments (Joly, 1997) no significant differences were seen. The observed reductions in performance were only 0.2% with the 2460 kcal diet and 1.3% with the 2208 kcal diet. The lay was only reduced by 1% with the 2535 kcal diet in Balnaves experiments (2000). The 2465 kcal diet diluted with the sand/cellulose mixture gave

Energy levels and feed presentation for laying hens

2009-10 Page | 2

better performance (+2.7%) than that of the 2755 kcal diet in the experiment carried out by Leeson (2001). Egg weight: Egg weight reduces in line with the reduction of the feed energy level. The reduction can be estimated at about 0.4% for an energy level variation of 100 kcal. This represents only about 0.2 grams. This reduction in egg weight can be explained by a reduction in energy intake and a reduction in the weight of the hen when diluted diets are used. The mass of egg produced would reduce by about 0.36% for a reduction of 100 kcal in the feed energy value. Energy efficiency: The energy efficiency, expressed in kcal per gram of egg production, shows constant improvement with dilution of the feed. The gain is about 0.8% per 100 kcal. This efficiency gain can be attributed in part to a reduction in body weight, to an improvement in plumage and perhaps (Hetland 2003) to improved digestibility of the feed. In the ISA experiments carried out in 1996, we noted that the hens on the 2208 kcal diet had plumage which was generally in better condition than did those on the other diets at the age of 52 weeks. Van der Lee (2001) observed an improvement in plumage where a diluted diet was used. Castaing et al (1995), using diets at 2 energy levels, 2740 and 2900 kcal with either 0, 1 and 2% animal fat or 3, 4 and 5% maize oil did not observe any difference in productivity nor in the consumption index expressed in kcal per gram of egg production. This was due to the fact that the hens were rationed to maintain energy intake at identical levels. The improvement in the index is therefore the result of the effect that the energy level can have on feed consumption. Table n4: Effect of energy level on body weight Peguri, 1991 Weight at 36 Energy, kcal wks. 3010 1582 2928 1574 2812 1530 2702 1518 Joly, 1997 Energy, kcal 2712 2460 2208 Weight gain 225 179 87 Balnave, 2000 Energy, kcal 2920 2727 2535 Weight 2226 2189 2142

Effect on digestibility: Soluble non-starch polysaccharides have been the subject of much research in recent years. The insoluble fraction used to be considered as performing an exclusively dilutionary role. Recently, some work has been dedicated to them. In addition to their effect on energy consumption and consumption time, it was shown by Hetland et al (2003) that the insoluble fibres improved the digestibility of the starch by increasing the gastro-intestinal reflux of bile salts, with both crushed and whole wheat, and increased retention times in the gizzard (Hetland and Choct, 2003). Gizzard size was very significantly improved by the distribution of 20g of wood shavings from 15 to 25 weeks and 30g thereafter. Measurements were carried out at 29 weeks. The same results were obtained for broiler chickens with shavings or oat hull. Effect on liveability: Dilution of the feed obliges hens to increase the volume and quantity of feed intake and so to increase feed consumption times (Vilarino, 1995). This leads to an improvement in plumage (Van der Lee 2001) and a reduction in actual feather pecking. This could explain the reduction in mortality observed in certain trials using diluted diets. In Hartini's view (2003), the reduction in pecking and of mortality could be linked to the non-starch polysaccharide content. The author has noted an increase in feed consumption time and a reduction in pecking (cf table n6

Energy levels and feed presentation for laying hens

2009-10 Page | 3

and 10). This aspect will be mentioned again in examining the impact of the form in which the feed is presented on liveability and plumage. Another trial confirms the importance of consumption time. The trial was carried out on ground pens with a litter of wood shavings (Steenfelt et al, 2001) and using un-debeaked hens. It consisted of comparing the performance and behaviour of hens receiving a commercial feed, with or without access to maize silage, pea-barley silage or carrots. At 54 weeks, the mortality was 15.3% for the control group and 1.5%, 2.5% and 0.5% respectively for the other diets. Table n5 Effect of feed energy dilution on mortality Balnave (2000) Mortality, % 2920 7.29 b 2727 4.69 ab 2535 1.04 a ISA - Joly (1997) Energy, kcal Mortality, % 2712 4.7 2460 5.7 2203 3.7

Energy, kcal

Hetland and Choct (2003) consider that there is a specific need for insoluble fibre. The opportunity to consume insoluble fibre afforded to hens raised on litter explains why the weight of their gizzard is higher than in hens housed in cages. According to them, the presence of feathers in the gizzard would depend on the nature of the feed. These authors assume that feather pecking is connected to a need for fibre, since in their experiments, the hens were housed in individual cages. Table n6: Effect of fibre type on the mortality of hens of which half un- debeaked Type of diet Standard feed (corn) Insoluble fibre (mill run) Soluble fibre (barley) Soluble fibre (barley) + enzyme Mortality in % 17-20 wks. 21 to 24 wks. 13.2b 28.9b 3.9a 14.3a 5.8a 15.9a 4.1a 17.8a

Effect on consumption at onset of laying: 3 trials mention changes in consumption at the onset of laying (cf. table n7). In each of the 3 trials, the reduction in intake is greatest over the course of the 4 weeks following the change of feed. In the Peguri and Balnave trials, the reduction in intake was greater than the rate of reduction in the feed energy level. Table n7 : Changes in energy consumption at start of production according to feed energy level Energy Level ( kcal ) 19-23 wks 23-27 wks 27-31 wks 31-35 wks 35-39 wks Joly (1997) 2460 96.7 98.2 97.8 96.2 97.5 Peguri (1991) 2755 2645 100 94.6 100 97.1 100 96.1 100 96.9 Balnave (2000) 2727 2536 100 92.4 100 94.9 100 94.4

2712 100 100 100 100 100

2208 86.9 89.8 90.9 90.5 90.3

Period 19-35 wks 35-63 wks 63-83 wks

Energy levels and feed presentation for laying hens

2009-10 Page | 4

The limitation of the energy intake is due to the decrease in feed density. Balnave (2001) notes that the respective volume of feed intake for each diet was 219 ml (2536 kcal), 160 ml (2727 kcal) and 140 ml (2920 kcal). This difficulty in adapting largely explains the body weight differences observed at the onset and at the end of laying.

2. Effect of the addition of fat

2.1. Materials and methods
We took up the same experiments and studied the diets where the increase in energy level resulted from an increase in fat content. We also took up other experiments looking at the effect of fats at a constant energy level. This involved experiments carried out by Halle (1996) and Whitehead (1981, 1991 and 1993). The main characteristics of the diets are shown in table 1. For each of the experiments, we used a regression method to determine the effect of a 100 kcal change in energy level on variations in energy consumption, rates of lay and egg weights. 2.2. Results The addition of fat increases the palatability of the feed, increases the feed energy density and consequently the quantity of energy intake. The zoo technical results are shown in table 2 of the appendix. Variations in performance observed for a 100 kcal change in energy level are given in table 7. Variations have been expressed as percentages. Table 8: Effect of addition of fats on variations in intake, rates of lay and weight of eggs, expressed as a % for an increase of 100 kcal in feed energy level. Authors Walker (1991) Peguri (1991) ISA Joly (1997) Harms (2000) Halle (1996) Average Fat added, % 0 -3 2 3.8 0-1-2 0-6 2.5 - 5 Intake +1.12 -0.44 +1.33 +3.00 +2.20 +1.44 Rate of lay n/a -0.44 0 0 +0.48 0 Egg weight +0.56 +0.04 +0.12 +1.51 +0.58 +0.56 Energy levels used (kcal) 2775-2990 2928-3010 2700-2800-2900 2798-3078 2556-2687

Effect on feed consumption: Consumption appears to depend on the quantity of added fat. Harms (2000) on introducing 6% fat into the feed at 36 weeks, observed an increase in energy consumption of 8.4% over the following 8 weeks. For Halle (1996) when the level of added fat rose from 2.5% to 5%, feed consumption increased by 3%. The experiments carried out by Grobas et al (2001) allow the energy level effect to be separated from the added fat effect. For this, 2 energy levels were compared, 2680 and 2810 kcal each one incorporating either 0% or 4% fat. The quantity of energy intake was not affected by the energy level but only by the incorporation of fats. At an equal energy level, the energy intake increases by 2.8% with the addition of 4% fats. This effect was also observed by Walker (1991). No increase in intake was observed when the feed energy level increased at a constant fat level. However, the addition of 3% fats brought

Energy levels and feed presentation for laying hens

2009-10 Page | 5

about an increase of 2.0% in daily energy intake. The results obtained by Peguri (1991) and Whitehead (1991) seem to disagree with the other results, but also with many earlier results. Table n9: Effect of addition and nature of fats on variations in intake, laying rates and egg weight expressed as % in the absence of variation in the energy level Nature of fats used Energy Level used (kcal) ca. 4 %(1) 2727 +1.9 % (2) 2745 +2.63 %(3) 2632 +4.28 % 2713 +1.39 % " -1.95 % " +1.11 % " + 0.35 % " +1.04 % " +5.16 % " 2687 65.71g " 65.51g " 64.79g Egg weight

Authors

Fat level %

Intake

Laying rate

n/a n/a 0 - 5.5 Maize oil Whitehead +2.80 +2.05 0-4 1.15% linoleic (1991) -0.35 -0.54 0.4 - 3 acid Grobas (1999) -1.04 0-6 0.88% linoleic Whitehead +0.30 0-6 acid (1981) - 8.40 0-6 Maize oil Whitehead -0.73 0-6 Coconut oil (1993) 0-1 Fish oil # 0-2 Tallow # 0-4 Maize oil # 5 Maize oil # 5 Maize oil # 5 Maize oil # Soya oil Halle (1996) Coconut oil # # (1) i.e. 2.5 grammes (2) i.e. 1.2 grammes - (3) i.e. 1.5 grammes

In many experiments, the addition of fats seems to have a specific effect on energy consumption due to better palatability and physical form of the feed. It is equally possible that the lipids energy density tends to cause over consumption. Such results are shown in table 9. These experiments attempt to determine the effect of fats at a constant energy level. The results obtained by Harms (2000), Halle (1996) and Grobas (1999) lead one to suppose that the increase in intake depends on the quantity of lipids added and their unsaturated fatty acid content. Performances Number of eggs: The number of eggs produced does not seem to be affected by the use of fats. Only Grobas (1999) observed a statistically significant increase in rates of lay. Egg weight: The egg weight increases with increasing feed energy levels. The increase can be estimated at about 0.6% for an energy level change of 100 kcal. This represents about 0.4 grams. This increase in egg weight is linked with an increase in the energy intake and weight of the hens. The mass of egg produced increases by the same proportions. When the effect of the oil is studied at a constant energy level, a relatively large increase in egg weight is observed. This increase depends equally on the type of fats used. This has been studied by Whitehead (1993) and by Halle (1996). Whitehead (1991) gives the change in egg weight after 5 weeks of use. Oils rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids are responsible for a large increase in egg weight. This effect seems to be an indirect effect linked to the increase in the quantity of energy intake and their energy value. Castaing (1995) allocated the same quantity of energy to different batches of hens receiving different fats at varying levels and having varying levels of linoleic acid. He observed no difference in egg weight between the different treatments. It is possible to conclude that the oils improve the palatability of the feed, bringing

Energy levels and feed presentation for laying hens

2009-10 Page | 6

about an increase in energy consumption, and as consequently an increase in the weight of the hen and the egg weight. Energy efficiency: The energy efficiency, expressed in kcal per gram of egg production, falls away when the energy level of the feed is increased. This fall in the efficiency can be attributed in part to an increase in body weight, and in part to a fattening of the hens as witnessed in the trial carried out by Harms (2000).

3. Effect of the form in which feed is presented

3.1. Presented in crumb or pellet Presentation of the feed in granular or crumb form theoretically allows feed consumption to increase, but this assumes that the feed is actually presented in crumb or granular form in the feeder. In practice, feed granulation also leads to problems with shell quality. To resolve this, it would be necessary to be able to incorporate carbonate particles after feed granulation. Presentation of the feed as pellets or crumbs is known to reduce feed consumption time with an increase in the frequency of feather pecking and mortality as a consequence. Poor quality pellets or crumbs can often lead to under consumption due to the accumulation of fine particles in feeders or because of their unpalatability. Newcombe and Summers (1985) have shown that consumption by pullets was reduced with an increase in the amount of cellulose added to the feed, whether presented finely milled or as crumbs. However, feed granulation, increasing the feed density, allowed the reduction in energy intake to be limited. Many studies have been undertaken in recent years on the relationship between feed presentation and feather pecking. Savory et al (1997) observed that for hens raised on the ground, consumption times are significantly lower when the feeds are presented in pellet or crumb form, and that the frequency of feather pecking by peers is significantly lower when feeds are presented in finely-milled form. Their observations were carried out at the age of 21 weeks (i.e. 6 weeks after the change of feed) in the first experiment (in cages) and from 21 to 23 weeks in the second study (on the ground, with litter). These authors noted that presentation of the feed as pellet provoked feather consumption. These results have been confirmed by other studies. Walser et al (1996) considered that feather pecking behaviour could be influenced by feed structure. Hens receiving a feed in finely-milled form spent longer eating, pecked less and had better plumage. However these results were not confirmed by Wahlstrm et al (2001). Neither plumage quality, nor wound percentage, nor mortality percentage at 80 weeks were affected by the feed type presented (pellet or finely-milled). The hens were on litter, with perches available. It is however possible that the lack of results was due to the fact that the feed used was rich in fibre and had a very low energy level (2490 kcal). Aerni et al (2000) also noted a reduction in consumption time when the feed was in pellet. This leads to an increase in feather pecking and plumage degradation for laying hens without access to a straw litter. Comparing the effects of feed dilution and feed presentation, Hartini et al (2003) observed a reduction in consumption time when the feed was low in fibre. The authors also noted that the frequency of feather pecking depended both on the form of the feed and its fibre content. This is corroborated by Vilarino et al (1996) who noted that consumption times depended upon the feed density and presentation. They concluded that feeding behaviour was affected by the feeds physical characteristics. Mortalities observed in the 2 experiments carried out by Hartini et al (2003) are shown below (table 10). The hens were housed in cages, subjected to raised light intensity, not debeaked, and aged 70 weeks in experiment 1 and 54 weeks in experiment 2.

Energy levels and feed presentation for laying hens

2009-10 Page | 7

Table n10: Effect of feed fibre content along with presentation on mortality Fibre content Low High Low High Presentation Pellet Pellet Finely-milled Finely-milled Mortality in % Exp.1 Exp.2 19 44 c 12 17 b 11 22 bc 6 11 a

In conclusion, the consumption time by hens depends on the form in which the feed is presented and leads to an increase in feather pecking where the environment is unfavourable. It seems that feather pecking is not observed when hens have litter available or when the feed is low in energy. Aerni et al (2000) concluded that hens with no access to litter should be fed with finely milled feed, and that litter becomes indispensable when feed is presented in pellet form. When egg production is in cages, presentation of the feed in crumb form increases the risks of feather pecking. This can be reduced by the careful control of light intensity and duration. There is no question that presentation in crumb or pellet form leads to improved energy consumption with diets which are diluted or where particle size is unsuitable.

3.2. Effect of granulometry

Feed consumption is highly dependant upon granulometry. Chickens have a marked preference for grains. They are easy to pick up and do not lead to beaks becoming clogged. A hen will always tend to leave fine particles. We (ISA, 1999) carried out the following trial: a commercial feed, of good particle size, was remilled through a finer screen. The feeds were distributed from 19 weeks of age. The results are shown in table n10. Table n11: Influence of feed granulometry on performance of laying hens between 23 and 51 weeks Particle size < 0.5 mm > 3.2 mm 0.5 to 3.2 mm > 1.6 mm Laying, % Egg weight, g Egg mass, g/j Consumption, g/j Consumption Index Weight at 33 wks (g) Standard 9% 10 % 81 % 65 % 93.9 63.3 59.41 118.1 1.989 1.930 Fine 31 % 0% 69 % 21 % 90.7 62.7 56.85 114.2 2.008 1.883 - 3.4 - 0.9 - 4.3 - 3.4 + 0.9 Difference in %

Energy levels and feed presentation for laying hens

2009-10 Page | 8

Feed consumption is reduced by about 4 g when the feed is finely ground. This leads to a reduction in rate of lay of 3.4% (6.3 eggs), a reduction in egg weight of about 1%, and the egg mass is reduced by 2.6 g/day. Distribution of fine feed is equivalent to rationing for hens. The laying rate proves to be affected more than the egg weight. Currently, feed restrictions always translate into lower rates of lay.

4. Conclusions and practical applications

Variation of the feed energy level within the 2400 to 3000 kcal range has no effect on egg production. However, when the energy level rises by 100kcal, the quantity of energy intake increases by 1.2% leading to an increase of 0.2 grams in egg weight and about 25 g in body weight of the hen. The energy efficiency expressed in kcal per gram of egg produced becomes higher in line with the increase in the feed energy level. When the feed is diluted, the reduction in consumption is most noticeable at the time the change of feed takes place. The hens increase their consumption level gradually over several weeks. Energy regulation depends upon the dilution methods used. Feed density (g per litre) seems to be the limiting factor in intake regulation. By increasing the intake volumes and consumption times, dilution leads to a reduction in energy intake, an improvement in plumage and viability. Feed consumption is highly dependent upon the volume to be ingested. The presence of insoluble fibre appears indispensable, causing an increase in gizzard size, improving starch digestibility and limiting feather pecking by reducing the need to ingest feathers. Inversely, the addition of fat leads to an improvement in the palatability of the feed and therefore to an increase in energy intake which can be quite considerable. An increase in egg weight is just one consequence of this. The increase in quantity of energy intake and the effect on egg weight depend upon the quantity and nature of the added fats. The principal applications and recommendations are: Pullet feed: this must have an energy level lower than or equal to that of feed for laying hens and must be of lower density, to encourage consumption at the onset of laying. Feed for laying hens: At the onset of laying, it is desirable to encourage feed consumption and quickly to obtain eggs of marketable size. For this, a feed enriched in fat and incorporating a minimum of insoluble fibre is recommended. After the onset of laying, a slightly lower energy level, richer in cellulose, will allow a good energy efficiency to be obtained (expressed in kcal) and plumage to be maintained. This strategy could be particularly beneficial for alternative production (free range, organic), especially in the absence of ground litter. From the practical point of view, the effect of raw materials which are rich in cellulose (insoluble fibre) and of low density can be compensated by the use of fat. Feed granulometry also affects energy consumption. Particles which are too fine lead to a reduction in consumption. It appears therefore that the following 3 factors need to be controlled: feed presentation, cellulose content and oil content. A balance between these 3 criteria needs to be researched to allow the fullest expression of the genetic potential at the lowest cost. The hens consumption time depends on the cellulose content of the feed. Feather pecking is inversely proportional to consumption time. Where hens are reared on the ground or in henhouses, it is best therefore to avoid energy levels which are too high, and to incorporate a minimum of cellulose. The use of a minimum of litter in the runs is recommended.

Energy levels and feed presentation for laying hens

2009-10 Page | 9

REFERENCES
AERNI, V., EL-LETHEY,H. and WECHSLER, B. (2000). Effect of foraging material and food form on feather pecking inlaying hens. British Poultry Science, 41, 16-21 BALNAVE, D. and ROBINSON, D. (2000) . Amino Acid and Energy Requirements of Imported Brown Layer strains. RIR DC publications N : 00/179 CASTAING, J. and BOUVAREL, I. (1995). Influence du taiux de mas et du niveau dacide linolique dans laliment pondeuses. Sciences et Techniques Avicoles. 10, 10-13 GLEAVES, E.W., and al. (1965) . The action and interaction of physiological food intake regulators in the laying hens. Poultry Science, 45 : 38-67 GROBAS, S., MENDEZ, J., DE BLAS, C., and MATESS, C.G. (1999). Laying hen productivity as affected by energy, supplemental fat, and linoleic acid concentration of the diet. Poultry Science, 78, 1542-1551 HALLE, I. (1996). Effect of dietary fat on performance and fatty acid composition of egg yolk in laying eggs. Arch. Geflglek, 60, (2), 65-72 HARMS, R.H, RUSSEL, G.B and SLOAN, D.R. (2000). Performance of four strains of commercial layers with major changes in dietary energy. J. Appl. Poultry Res. 9 : 535 541 HARTINI, S., CHOCT, M., HINCH, G. and NOLAN, J., (2003) . Effect of diet composition, gut microbial status and fibre forms on cannibalism in layers. A report for the Australian Egg Corporation Limited. April 2003. HARTINI, S., CHOCT, M., HINCH, G., KOCHER,A. and NOLAN, J., (2002) . Effect of light during rearing and beak trimming and dietary fiber sources on mortality, egg production and performances of ISA Brown laying eggs. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 11:104-110 HETLAND, H. and CHOCT, M. (2003). Role of non starch polysaccharides in poultry nutrition. Proceedings of the 14th Eur. Symp. Poult. Nut., Aug. 2003 (Lillehammer, Norway) HETLAND, H., SVIHUS, B.and KROGDAHL, A. (2003). Effects of oat hulls and wood shavings on digestion in broilers and layers fed diets based on whole or ground wheat. British Poultry Science, 44, 275-282 JOLY, P., and BOUGON, M. (1997). Influence du niveau nergtique sur les performances des pondeuses oeufs roux et volution de lingr en fonction de lge. 2me journe de la Recherche Avicole- 8-9-10 avril 1997, 2, 115-120 LEESON, S., SUMMERS, J.D., and CASTON, L.J. (2001). Response of layers to low nutrient density diets. J. Appl. Poultry Res., 10, 46-52 MORRIS, T.R. (1968). The effect of dietary energy level of the voluntary calorie intake of laying birds. British Poultry Science, 9, 285- 295 NEWCOMBE, M., and SUMMERS, J.D. (1985). Effect of increasing cellulose in diets fed as crumbles or mash non the food intake and weight gains of broiler and leghorn chicks. British Poultry Science, 26, 35-42 PEGURI, A. and COON, C., (1991). Effect of temperature and dietary on layer performance. Poultry Science, 70, 126-138 SAVORY,C.J. and HETHERINGTON, J.D. (1997). Effects of plastic anti-pecking devices on food intake and behaviour of laying hens fed on pellets or mash. British Poultry Science, 38, 125-131 STEENFELT,S., ENGBERG,R.M. and KJAER, B., (2001). Feeding roughage to laying hens affects egg production, gastrointestinal parameters and mortality. Proceedings of the 13th Eur. Symp. Poult. Nut., Oct. 2001 (Blankenberge, Belgium) VAN DER LEE, A.G., HEMKE, G., and KWAKKEL, R.P. (2001). Low density diets improve plumage condition in non-debeaked layers. 13 th European Symposium on Poultry Nutrition. Blankenberge, Belgium. Sept 30 oct 04. p244-245. VILARINO, M., PICARD, M.L., MELCION, J.P. and FAURE J.M., (1996). Behavioural adaptation of laying hens to dilution of diets under mash and pellet form. British Poultry Science, 37, 895-907 WAHLSTRM, A., TAUSON, R. and ELWINGER, K. (2001). Plumage condition and health of aviary-kept hens fed mash or crumbled pellets. Poultry Science, 80, 266-271

Energy levels and feed presentation for laying hens

2009-10 Page | 10

WALKER, A.W. , TUCKER, S.A and LYNN, N.J (1991). Effect of nutrient density and fat content on the performance of laying hens . British Poultry Science, 32, 1138-1139 WALSER,P.,PFIRTER, H.P. and WENK, C., (1996). Effect of feed structure and feed composition on performance and feather pecking in two strains of white leghorn hens. Proceedings of the World Poultry Congress. New Delhi, India. Vol-IV p 259 WHITEHEAD, C.C.(1981). The response of weight to the inclusion of different amounts of oil and linoleic acid in theee diet of laying hen. British Poultry Science, 22, 525-532 WHITEHEAD, C.C, BOWMAN, A.S. and H.D. GRIFFIN.(1991). The effects of dietary fat and bird age on the weights of eggs and egg components in the laying hen. British Poultry Science, 32, 565-574 WHITEHEAD, C.C, BOWMAN, A.S. and H.D. GRIFFIN.(1993). Regulation of plama oestrogen by dietary fats in the laying hen: relationships with egg weight. British Poultry Science, 34, 9991010

Energy levels and feed presentation for laying hens

2009-10 Page | 11

FEEDING DURING THE PRODUCTION PERIOD AMINO ACIDS RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PARENT STOCKS
Daily amino acid requirements during production depend on the level of lay and growth. Grandparent and Parent Stock requirements do not differ from commercial layers. The safety margins have been increased (5%) so as to avoid any nutritional deficiency. (1) From a practical point of view, we estimate that it is necessary to increase the concentration of amino acids by about 6 % during the 18-28 weeks period in relation to the feed consumption observed after 28 weeks. Total or digestible amino acids levels are established for a production of 59,5 g per day.

Those requirements are based on the European Amino acids Table (WPSA, 1992) of raw materialcomposition and expressed as digestible amino acids by using the digestibility coefficients mentioned in the Tables de composition et de valeur nutritive des matires premires destines aux animaux dlevage (INRA editions 2002).

Feeding during the production period

2010-03 Page | 1

FEED PRESENTATION FOR COMMERCIAL LAYERS

Importance of the feed particle size Mixing difficulties, inappropriate particle size and separation problems have been resolved by milling the raw materials relatively fine. However, diets, which are too finely ground, often seriously reduce feed intake. Low consumption has been avoided by using diets presented as crumbs or pellets. In effect, the ease of eating and the reduction in feeding time, due to pelleting, leads to an increase in the number of feeds taken by the birds and in their growth. This effect is observed in both laying hens and broiler chickens. Birds are grain eaters and their feed consumption depends on feed presentation. Pelleted or crumbled diets for layers In theory, presenting a diet in crumb or pellet form will give higher feed consumption. That presupposes that the feeding systems in operation and the raw materials used are providing the laying hen with a good quality pellet or crumb. Very often, the difficulties in obtaining a good quality crumb are responsible for under consumption and some technical problems because of: - the breaking down of the crumb in the feed distribution system - the build up of fine feed particles in the feeders - more shell quality problem related to the difficulties to use a granular limestone - more feather pecking due to a shorter feeding time - the increased cost of manufacture. To develop a good digestive system it is necessary to have coarsely milled feed. With the intention of keeping good shell quality one can: - use granular limestone if the diameter of the diet is adapted - add some of the limestone after pelleting - distribute 3 to 4 g per bird of granular limestone (2 to 4mm) in the poultry house each afternoon. Mash diets of good texture During rearing, with the exception of the first 4 or 5 weeks, when the diet should be crumbs, a good particle size will allow good growth and the development of a robust digestive system. During the laying period, a good textured diet will allow the birds to increase their feed consumption, their production and their growth.

Feed presentation for commercial layers

2009-10 Page | 1

The table below shows the results of Summers and Leeson (1979) when they were comparing a fine mash with a diet 60 % cracked maize and whole barley grains.

In hot climates, a good textured feed can reduce the under consumption experienced in summer. That's why, we advise having at least 75 to 80 % of the particles between 0.5 and 3.2 mm. This type of diet is in fact easier and cheaper to produce, because the rate of output from the grinder is increased. particle sizes less than 0.5 mm : 15 % maximum particle sizes above 3.2 mm : 10 % maximum These recommendations also apply to the rearing diets after the age of 4 or 5 weeks. The attractiveness of the diet improves markedly if the fine particles are sticking together. That can be achieved by the addition of 1.5 to 2.5 % vegetable oil. The choice of raw materials. One should avoid raw materials, which are too dusty, and not grind ingredients, which dont need grinding. When the diet does not contain meat meal 60 to 70% of the calcium carbonate should be supplied as granules of 2 - 4 mm diameter. When meat meal is included the proportion in granular form should be increased to 80%. The phosphates should be supplied as micro-granules. The technique of grinding. A good textured mash can be obtained by observing the following rules. The speed at the periphery of the hammers should be 50 to 55 m/sec. This speed corresponds to about 1500 rpm for a grinder of 65 cm diameter. We recommend using grill mesh screens in preference to those with round perforations. They have a higher proportion of spaces and allow higher throughputs. The hole diameters should be the following: for wire screens = 8 mm minimum, for screens with round perforations: 8 mm minimum, 10 mm maximum. It also depends on the raw materials being used. Using worn hammers gives an increase in the percentage of fine particles and reduces the output of the grinder. We advise milling only those raw materials, which need it. The texture of the ground materials should be checked at least twice a week.

Feed presentation for commercial layers

2009-10 Page | 2

FEATHER PECKING: IMPORTANCE OF CONSUMPTION TIME AND INSOLUBLE FIBRE OF LIGNIN

Introduction
Feather pecking is a problem within poultry populations. Breeding companies have worked for many years on feather pecking and reduced mortality due to reduced feather pecking. However poor nutrition and mismanagement will always have an impact on feather pecking. Risk factors, like over density of flocks, high light intensity are well known. For a long time, it was known that amino acids and some minerals deficiencies could provoke feather pecking. During the last 10 years, we acquire and learn more about the relation between the time spent to eat (feed consumption time) and feather pecking and the relation between feather consumption and the level of insoluble fibre in the feed. The recent experiments confirm 2 key facts: - Feather pecking is related to the feed consumption time. Lower feed energy level increase consumption time and reduce the feather pecking. At the opposite, feather pecking and mortality is increased if the feed is presented in pellet or crumble form. - Feather pecking can be the result of a lack of coarse insoluble fibre (lignin).

Effect of the feed presentation and effect of the feed energy level 1. Feed presented in crumb or pellet
Presentation of the feed as pellets or crumbs is known to reduce feed consumption time with an increase in the frequency of feather pecking and mortality as a consequence. Poor quality pellets or crumbs can often lead to under consumption due to the accumulation of fine particles in feeders or because of their unpalatability. Many studies have been undertaken in recent years on the relationship between feed presentation and feather pecking. Consumption times are significantly lower when the feeds are presented in pellet or crumb form, and the frequency of feather pecking by peers is significantly lower when feeds are presented in finely-milled form. Mortalities observed in the 2 experiments carried out by Hartini et al (2003) are shown below. Table 1: Effect of feed fibre content along with presentation on mortality. Hartini et al (2003) Fibre content Low High Low High Presentation Pellet Pellet Finely-milled Finely-milled Mortality in % Exp.1 Exp.2 19 44 c 12 17 b 11 22 bc 6 11 a

In conclusion, the consumption time by hens depends on the form in which the feed is presented and leads to an increase in feather pecking where the environment is unfavourable. It seems that feather pecking is not observed when hens have litter available or when the feed is low in energy. Aerni et al (2000) concluded that hens with no access to litter should be fed with finely milled feed, and that litter becomes indispensable when feed is presented in pellet form (table 2). When egg production is in cages, presentation of the feed in crumb form increases the risks of feather pecking.

Feather Pecking

2009-12 Page | 1

Table 2: Effect on the food form and litter on the layer activities. Aerni et al (2000) Behaviour (% of birds) Foraging Feeding Preening Dustbashing Moving Perching Housing condition MashPelletStraw No Straw 22.4 10.3 29.3 18.2 1.7 4.8 3.1 0.2 1.6 4.7 13.3 34.2

PelletStraw 31.3 17.1 2.1 2.1 2.0 16.4

MashNo Straw 8.8 32.3 2.8 0.3 2.7 19.7

2. Effect of the energy level

Dilution of the feed obliges hens to increase the volume and quantity of feed intake and so to increase feed consumption times. This leads to an improvement in plumage and a reduction in actual feather pecking. This could explain the reduction in mortality observed in certain trials using diluted diets (table 3). Balnave et Robinson (2000) notes that the respective volume of feed intake for each diet was 219 ml (2536 kcal), 160 ml (2727 kcal) and 140 ml (2920 kcal). Table 3: Effect of feed energy dilution on mortality. Balnave et Robinson (2000) Energy, kcal 2920 2727 2535 Volume of feed ingested, ml 140 160 219 Mortality, % 7.29 b 4.69 ab 1.04 a

The following trial confirms once again the importance of consumption time and its effect on liveability and plumage. The trial was carried out on ground pens with a litter of wood shavings (Steenfelt et al, 2001) and using un-debeaked hens. It consisted of comparing the performance and behaviour of hens receiving a commercial feed, with or without access to maize silage, pea-barley silage or carrots (table 4). At 54 weeks, the mortality was 15.3% for the control group and 1.5%, 2.5% and 0.5% respectively for the other diets. The results show that hens fed roughage had better plumage due to a lower rate of feather pecking. Table 4: Influence of rouhage on performances and mortality from 20 to 54 wks on floor with wood shavings. Stenfeldt et al (2001) Energie, kcal Egg nb Lay % Mortality % Feed intake kg Sillage kg Dry Matter intake kg Plumage condition Feed in pellet 214ab 89.9ab 15.3 31.0 28.0 13.9 Feed + Maize sillage 218a 91.4a 1.5 28.2 14.1 30.0 18.3 Feed + barleypea sillage 208b 87.2b 2.5 25.5 13.8 26.0 19.2 Feed + carrots 219a 92.0a 0.5 27.2 25.6 26.7 16.3

Feather Pecking

2009-12 Page | 2

Van Krimpen et al, (2005) concluded in reviewing nutritional factors affecting feather pecking, a low energy diet seems to reduce feather pecking behaviour and to improve plumage condition. In modifying the consumption time, the feed energy level has an effect on the feather pecking and consequently on liveability. But, the reduction in pecking and of mortality could be linked to the non-starch polysaccharide content. Coarse Insoluble Fibre Comparing the effects of feed dilution and feed presentation, Hartini et al (2003) observed a reduction in consumption time when the feed was low in fibre. The authors also noted that the frequency of feather pecking depended both on the form of the feed and its fibre content (table1). This is corroborated by Vilarino et al (1996) who noted that consumption times depended upon the feed density and presentation. They concluded that feeding behaviour was affected by the feeds physical characteristics. Mortalities observed in the 2 experiments carried out by Hartini et al (2002) are shown below (table 5). The hens were housed in cages, subjected to high light intensity, not debeaked, and aged 70 weeks in experiment 1 and 54 weeks in experiment 2. Table 5: Effect of fibre type on the mortality of hens of which half un- debeaked. Hartini et al (2002) Type of diet Standard feed (corn) Insoluble fibre (mill run) Soluble fibre (barley) Soluble fibre (barley) + enzyme Mortality in % 17-20 wks. 21 to 24 wks. 13.2b 28.9b 3.9a 14.3a 5.8a 15.9a 4.1a 17.8a

Hetland and Choct (2003) consider that there is a specific need for insoluble fibre. The opportunity to consume insoluble fibre afforded to hens raised on litter explains why the weight of their gizzard is higher than in hens housed in cages. According to them, the presence of feathers in the gizzard would depend on the nature of the feed. These authors assume that feather pecking is connected to a need for fibre, since in their experiments, the hens were housed in individual cages. Coarse insoluble fibre is difficult to grind and consequently increases the gizzard size (table 6). Coarse insoluble fibre stays a longer time in the gizzard. Feeds having a low coarse insoluble fibre provoke feather consumption. Table 6: Relative weight of empty gizzard in 36-wk-old pullet fed pellet with ground wheat or oats in conventional 3-hen cages or litter floor. Hetland et al (2005) Cages Ground Ground Whole Wheat Oats Wheat Empty Gizzard weight, g/kg of live weight 11.7 13.3 11.6 Litter Floor Ground Ground Whole Wheat Oats Wheat 18.4 15.6 17.9

Whole Oats 16.0

Whole Oats 16.8

Hetland et al (2005) said, Coarse fibre structures were shown to accumulate in the gizzard. In the absence of fibre, the birds indicating they may eat feathers to compensate for the lack of structural components in the feed. Coarse insoluble fibre increases the gizzard size, decreases the ph in the gizzard and it improves the starch and feed digestibility;

Feather Pecking

2009-12 Page | 3

For Harlander-Matauscheck (2006) feathers in the speed of feed passage have a similar than insoluble fiber. The dietary effect of increasing feathers may be a crucial factors in the development of feather pecking and the related damages to the feather cover in laying hens. Sunflower appears to be the ideal raw materials, lowering the energy level, increasing the volume to ingest and having a high percentage of coarse fibre or acid detergent lignin. Maximum limit to use are unknown but, as we know it is likely to be over 30%. Countries using sunflower have generally few problem of feather pecking and mortality. Conclusion and practical applications In conclusion, the consumption time by hens depends on the form in which the feed is presented and leads to an increase in feather pecking where the environment is unfavourable. It seems that feather pecking is not observed when hens have litter available or when the feed is low in energy. Aerni et al (2000) concluded that hens with no access to litter should be fed with finely milled feed, and that litter becomes indispensable when feed is presented in pellet form. When egg production is in cages, presentation of the feed in crumb form increases the risks of feather pecking. Plumage quality and feather pecking are also related to the feed density (specific weight) in determining the volume to ingest. By increasing the intake volumes and the feed consumption times, dilution leads to an improvement in plumage and viability. The presence of coarse insoluble fibre appears indispensable, causing an increase in gizzard size, improving starch digestibility and limiting feather pecking by reducing the need to ingest feathers. The principal applications and recommendations are: Feed for laying hens: a minimum of insoluble fibre is recommended to limit the feather pecking. High feed energy level provokes feather pecking, reduces the feed efficiency. Feed lower in energy, richer in coarse insoluble fibre, will allow a good energy efficiency to be obtained (expressed in kcal) and plumage to be maintained. This strategy could be particularly beneficial for alternative production (free range, organic), especially in the absence of ground litter. The hens consumption time depends on the fibre content of the feed. Feather pecking is inversely proportional to consumption time. Floor system: Where hens are reared on the ground or in henhouses, it is best therefore to avoid energy levels which are too high, and to incorporate a minimum of cellulose. The use of a minimum of wood shavings on floor is recommended.

REFERENCES
AERNI, V., EL-LETHEY,H. and WECHSLER, B. (2000). Effect of foraging material and food form on feather pecking inlaying hens. British Poultry Science, 41, 16-21 BALNAVE, D. and ROBINSON, D. (2000) . Amino Acid and Energy Requirements of Imported Brown Layer strains. RIR DC publications N : 00/179 HARTLANRER-MATAUSCHEK,A., PIEPHO, H.P. and BESSEI,W. (2006). The effect of feather eating on feed passage in laying hens. Poultry Science,85 : 21-25 HARTINI, S., CHOCT, M., HINCH, G. and NOLAN, J., (2003). Effect of diet composition, gut microbial status and fibre forms on cannibalism in layers. A report for the Australian Egg Corporation Limited. April 2003. HARTINI, S., CHOCT, M., HINCH, G., KOCHER,A. and NOLAN, J., (2002) . Effect of light during rearing and beak trimming and dietary fiber sources on mortality, egg production and performances of ISA Brown laying eggs. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 11:104-110 HETLAND, H. and CHOCT, M. (2003). Role of non starch polysaccharides in poultry nutrition. Proceedings of the 14th Eur. Symp. Poult. Nut., Aug. 2003 (Lillehammer, Norway) HETLAND, H., SVIHUS, B.and CHOCT, M. (2005). Role of Insoluble Fiber on gizzard Activity in Layers. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 14:38-46

Feather Pecking

2009-12 Page | 4

JOLY, P. (2005), Energy levels in feeds for laying hens: effects on performance and intake. XIX Congresso Latino Americano. Panama SAVORY,C.J. and HETHERINGTON, J.D. (1997). Effects of plastic anti-pecking devices on food intake and behaviour of laying hens fed on pellets or mash. British Poultry Science, 38, 125-131 STEENFELT,S., ENGBERG,R.M. and KJAER, B., (2001). Feeding roughage to laying hens affects egg production, gastrointestinal parameters and mortality. Proceedings of the 13th Eur. Symp. Poult. Nut., Oct. 2001 (Blankenberge, Belgium) VAN DER LEE, A.G., HEMKE, G. and KWAKKEL, R.P. (2001). Low density diets improve plumage condition in non-debeaked layers. 13 th European Symposium on Poultry Nutrition. Blankenberge, Belgium. Sept 30 oct 04. p244-245. VAN KRIMPEN, M.M. and al, (1995). Impact of feeding management on feather pecking in laying hens. Worlds Poultry Sci. Journa,vol.6l VILARINO, M., PICARD, M.L., MELCION, J.P. and FAURE J.M., (1996). Behavioural adaptation of laying hens to dilution of diets under mash and pellet form. British Poultry Science, 37, 895-907 WAHLSTRM, A., TAUSON, R. and ELWINGER, K. (2001). Plumage condition and health of aviary-kept hens fed mash or crumbled pellets. Poultry Science, 80, 266-271 WALSER,P.,PFIRTER, H.P. and WENK, C., (1996). Effect of feed structure and feed composition on performance and feather pecking in two strains of white leghorn hens. Proceedings of the World Poultry Congress. New Delhi, India. Vol-IV p 259

Feather Pecking

2009-12 Page | 5

FEED SPECIFICATIONS DURING THE REARING PERIOD FOR COMMERCIAL LAYERS

Those requirements are based on the European Amino acids Table (WPSA, 1992) of raw materials composition and expressed as digestible amino acids by using the digestibility coefficients mentioned in the Tables de composition et de valeur nutritive des matires premires destines aux animaux dlevage (INRA editions 2002). Diet Starter Grower Pullet Pre - lay Between 18 & 24 C Units 0 - 4 weeks 4 - 10 weeks 10 - 16 weeks 112 days to 1 - 28 days 28 - 70 days 70 - 112 days 2 % lay Metabolisable energy kcal/kg 2950-2975 2850-2875 2750 2750 MJ/kg 12.3-12.4 11.9-12.0 11.5 11.5 Crude protein % 20.5 19 16 16,8 Methionine % 0.52 0.45 0.33 0,40 Methionine + Cystine % 0.86 0.76 0.60 0.67 Lysine % 1.16 0.98 0.74 0.80 Threonine % 0.78 0.66 0.50 0.56 Tryptophan % 0.217 0.194 0.168 0.181 Digestible amino acids Dig. Methionine Dig. Meth. + Cystine Dig. Lysine Dig. Threonine. Dig. Tryptophan Major minerals Calcium Available Phosphorus Chlorine minimum Sodium minimum

% % % % %

0.48 0.78 1.00 0.67 0.186

0.41 0.66 0.85 0.57 0.166

0.30 0.53 0.64 0.43 0.145

0.38 0.60 0.71 0.48 0.155

% % % % Diet Units

1.05 - 1.10 0.48 0.15 0.16 Starter 0 - 5 weeks 1 - 35 days 2950-2975 12.3-12.4 20.5 0.52 0.86 1.16 0.78 0.217

0.90 - 1.10 0.42 0.15 0.16 Grower 5 - 10 weeks 35 - 70 days 2850-2875 11.9-12.0 20.0 0.47 0.80 1.03 0.69 0.207

0.90 - 1.00 (1) 0.36 0.14 0.15 Pullet 10 - 16 weeks 70 - 112 days 2750 11.5 16.8 0.35 0.63 0.78 0.53 0.175

2 - 2.10 (1) 0.42 0.14 0.15 Pre - lay 112 days to 2 % lay 2750 11.5 17.5 0.42 0.70 0.84 0.59 0.190

Above 24 C

Metabolisable energy Crude protein Methionine Methionine + Cystine Lysine Threonine Tryptophan

kcal/kg MJ/kg % % % % % %

Feed specifications during the rearing period

2009-10 Page | 1

Digestible amino acids Dig. Methionine Dig. Meth. + Cystine Dig. Lysine Dig. Threonine. Dig. Tryptophan Major minerals Calcium Available Phosphorus Chlorine minimum Sodium minimum

% % % % %

0.48 0.78 1.00 0.67 0.195

0.43 0.69 0.89 0.61 0.175

0.32 0.56 0.67 0.45 0.152

0.40 0.63 0.74 0.50 0.163

% % % %

1.05 - 1.10 0.48 0.16 0.17

0.95 - 1.10 0.44 0.16 0.17

0.95 - 1.05 (1) 0.38 0.15 0.16

2.1 - 2.2 (1) 0.44 0.15 0.16

(1): To avoid falls in food consumption, 50% of the calcium should be supplied in granular form (diameter = 2 to 4 mm)

Feed specifications during the rearing period

2009-10 Page | 2

FEEDING DURING THE GROWING PERIOD SPECIFICATIONS FOR PARENT STOCKS Those requirements are based on the European Amino acids Table (WPSA, 1992) of raw materials composition and expressed as digestible amino acids by using the digestibility coefficients mentioned in the Tables de composition et de valeur nutritive des matires premires destines aux animaux dlevage (INRA editions 2002).

(1) : To avoid falls in food consumption, 50% of the calcium should be supplied in granular form (diameter = 2 to 4 mm)

Feeding during the growing period

2010-03 Page | 1

FEEDING DURING THE PRODUCTION PERIOD AMINO ACIDS RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PARENT STOCKS
Daily amino acid requirements during production depend on the level of lay and growth. Grandparent and Parent Stock requirements do not differ from commercial layers. The safety margins have been increased (5%) so as to avoid any nutritional deficiency. (1) From a practical point of view, we estimate that it is necessary to increase the concentration of amino acids by about 6 % during the 18-28 weeks period in relation to the feed consumption observed after 28 weeks. Total or digestible amino acids levels are established for a production of 59,5 g per day.

Those requirements are based on the European Amino acids Table (WPSA, 1992) of raw materialcomposition and expressed as digestible amino acids by using the digestibility coefficients mentioned in the Tables de composition et de valeur nutritive des matires premires destines aux animaux dlevage (INRA editions 2002).

Feeding during the production period

2010-03 Page | 1

FEEDING DURING THE PRODUCTION PERIOD, FEEDING PROGRAM

Basic rules of our Feeding Program
Feeding the birds has to be simple, to reduce the risk of errors at varying levels in the manufacturing and delivery process. There are also additional reasons which are related to the birds directly. For example, birds are very sensitive to the feed presentation and the introduction of new raw materials, for this reason we recommend a limited number of feed changes. Amino acids requirements depend of the productivity of the flocks and from the uniformity of the productivity. Our amino acids recommendations are based on an average productivity of 60 g per day. At 50 weeks, the egg mass produced is around 58 g. A lot of birds are able to produce more than 60g of egg mass over a period of 50 65 weeks. This is the reason why is difficult to reduce the amino acids levels after 50 weeks without affecting the productivity. A deficiency in amino acids reduces in a first time egg weight and in a second time the persistency, around 4 or 5 weeks later.

Pre- lay Feed or Layer 1

Medullary bone is developed in long bone before the first ovulation. The total calcium contained in this medullary is around 1.5 to 2 grammes. A pre-layer feed with a higher calcium level is needed to establish this bone reserve. It has to be used from approximately 16 weeks. Its characteristics are similar to the layer 1, but with a level of calcium of 2 2.2%. Dont forget to use the Layer 1 before 2% lay. If the change is realized later, the earliest birds ingest around 1,8g of calcium and need to produce a shell with 2g of calcium. They will stop or reduce laying for some days and will produce eggs without shell. These birds will exhibit cage layer fatigue later and osteoporosis at end of lay. We think that the risk will be reduced by using a layer 1 instead of a pre-lay feed. However, if the limestone is in 2-4 mm particles form, it is possible to use the layer 1 at 16 weeks. The main reason for the use of pre-lay feed was the risk of under consumption when the limestone used was in powder form. Dont forget to use the Layer 1 before 2% lay.

Layer 1
Layer 1 has to be satisfying the amino acids requirements for growth and production at a moment where the feed consumption is lower. At start of lay feed consumption is lower because the birds have not yet reached their adult body weight. Growth is not completely finished by 28 weeks. With regard to protein, a requirement for growth is added to the requirement for production. From a practical point of view, we have estimated that it is necessary to increase the concentration of amino acids by about 6 % during the 18-28 week period in relation to the feed consumption observed after 28 weeks. This feed has to be used until the moment that the feed consumption is normal or an average egg size of 60-61g is obtained or around 26-28 weeks. At the onset of lay, it is desirable to encourage feed consumption and quickly to obtain eggs of marketable size. For this, a feed enriched in fat allows to improve the presentation of diet which gives an increase in feed consumption. Oils rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids are responsible for a large increase in egg weight.

Feeding during the production period, feeding program

2010-01 Page | 1

Layer 2
This feed has to be used from 26-28 weeks until 50 weeks or end of lay. If it is possible, it will be good to increase the limestone level at 50 weeks to reduce the percentage of seconds. Birds have daily requirements for amino-acids and minerals, consequently, the percentage of nutrients has to be defined according to the feed consumption observed. The feed consumption depends mainly of the energy requirement and of the temperature

Layer 3
Amino acids requirement: Taking into account persistency in lay, individual variability and egg weight, the requirement for amino acids does not fall throughout the laying period. In an economic context, it may be worth reducing the safety margins slightly. However, the best results, in terms of productivity and feed conversion ratio, are obtained, when one maintains the intake level of amino acids. Any deficiency of amino acids, no matter, which type of amino acid, shows up as a reduction in performance, of which 2/3 is due to a reduction in rate of lay and the remaining 1/3 is a decrease in mean egg weight. It is, therefore, not possible to reduce egg weight towards the end of lay by reducing the amino acid concentration without bringing about a reduction in rate of lay. Persistency in lay has improved considerably (30 to 35 weeks above 90% lay). An analysis of the individual performance over the period 40-66 weeks shows that 66 % of the birds had performance above average. The 40 % best layers had laid 177 eggs in 182 days and /or 63.2 g of egg mass per day. Productivity of a sample of 694 pullets hatched in 2001 during the period 40-66 weeks Rate of lay Egg Mass/day 98.2 % 65.0 g 96.3 % 61.4 g 94.1 % 59.1 g 90.1 % 56.0 g 76.6 % 47.8 g 91.0 % 57.8 g 66.3 % 60.4 % Hendrix Genetics 2002 Egg weight: A reduction of the oil percentage and energy level is a way to get a stabilization of the egg weight. Shell quality: Shell weight increases with age throughout lay. For that reason, we advise increasing the calcium concentration in the diet from 50 weeks of age. Eggshell Number of eggs weight controlled (g) g g g g 923 909 807 732 6,25 6,39 6,32 6,51 Hendrix Genetics 2002 Quintile 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Mean % of pullets above the mean

Age of the control Shell Weight at 30 weeks Shell Weight at 42 weeks Shell Weight at 50 weeks Shell Weight at 60 weeks

Feeding during the production period, feeding program

2010-01 Page | 2

FEEDING DURING THE REARING PERIOD

Energy Level
During the first few weeks of life, meat type chickens just like young pullets are incapable of regulating their energy intake according to the energy concentration of the diet. It takes weeks to develop the digestive tract. During the first 8-10 weeks, any increase in the energy level is accompanied by an increase in growth. When given the feed in a crumb form, young pullets are able to increase their feed intake. The table below shows the influence of energy level and presentation method on the bodyweight of pullets at 5 weeks of age. Presentation. Dietary Energy Level 3100 kcal 2790 kcal Mash Bodyweight at 5 weeks 375 g 345 g Crumbs Bodyweight at 5 Weeks 412 g 405 g Newcombe (1985) After 10 weeks of age, pullets correctly regulate their energy intake according to the energy level of the diet in both hot and temperate climates. Under consumption during that period is often the result of a poor grit size. The objective is to develop the pullet's ability to eat feed, so that it can increase its consumption by approximately 40% in the first few weeks of lay. During the period 10 - 17 weeks, it is important to develop the digestive system by using diets with an energy concentration less than or equal to that of the layer's diet.

Protein Requirements
The amino acid requirements are to a large extent dependent on the feed conversion ratio and, therefore on age; that is why, when young the requirements expressed in mg of amino-acids per g of growth are the same as a broiler. The table below shows the influence of amino acid content on the weight of pullets at 4 weeks Ration (in % of the recommendations) Protein (%) Digestible Lysine (%) Digestible Methionine+Cystine (%) Weight at 4 weeks (g) 100 % 90 %

20 18 1.01 0.91 0.76 0.69 335 302 Bougon 1997

Any delay in growth during the first few weeks will be reflected in a reduced bodyweight at 17 weeks and in later performance. It is, therefore, extremely important to use a starter diet for the first 4 or 5 weeks, which has an amino acid/protein ratio similar to that of the broiler.

Feeding during the rearing period

2010-01 Page | 1

Any amino acid deficiency will result in a reduction in growth rate and an increase in the FCR Amino Acid content of diets (in % of the recommendations) Bodyweight at 28 days (g) Bodyweight at 118 days (g) Feed consumption (g) Feed conversion ratio 100 % 335 1685 6951 4.12 90 % 302 1630 6904 4.24 Bougon, 1997

In hot climates, the amino acids and minerals concentrations should be slightly higher than in temperate climates. That results in a reduction in the maintenance requirement, and, therefore in the feed conversion ratio.

Feed Presentation
Feed consumption is determined to a large extent by the form of presentation and the stage to which the digestive tract has developed. Presenting feed in crumb form makes it easier for the chicken to eat it, reduces the time taken in eating, and encourages growth. The energy cost of eating, thus saved, gives an improvement in feed conversion ratio. Form of Dietary Presentation Weight at 70 days (g) Weight at 99 days (g) Weight at 123 days (g) Mash 984 1344 1589 Crumbs Difference 1016 + 32 g 1405 + 61 g 1664 + 75 g Source: ISA/CNEVA, 1996

This benefit of feeding crumbs will only be obtained when the birds have access to good quality crumbs in the feeders. A poor quality crumb can lead to a build up in fine particles in the feeders and, therefore have the opposite effect to that sought. From 0 to 4/5 weeks, we recommend using a crumbed diet, after which mash, with a good particle size, should be used. It is, however, possible to use a granular feed later, where the grinding is coarser, or even as crumbs, if need be. However, we recommend using a mash diet from 12 weeks to avoid a risk of under consumption at the beginning of the sexual maturity if the change is made later. The bird's appetite for feed depends to a large extent on its particle size. After 4 weeks, we recommend the following particle sizes: Particles below 0.5 mm: 15 % maximum Particles above 3.2 mm: 10 % maximum At least 75 to 80 % of the particles should be between 0.5 and 3.2 mm. If this standard cannot be achieved, it is preferable to use a diet of good quality crumbs.

Feeding during the rearing period

2010-01 Page | 2

Development of the digestive system

The achievement of good growth and a rapid increase in feed consumption at start of lay depends on the chicken having a well-developed digestive system, especially a good strong gizzard. Using feed of good particle size, giving grit during rearing and/or using limestone granules from 10 weeks will all contribute towards good gizzard development. Between 3 and 10 weeks, we recommend that 3 g per pullet per week (particle size 2 to 3 mm) are offered. After 10 weeks this can be increased to 4 to 5 g (particle size 3 to 5 mm). It is also possible from 10 weeks onwards to use a diet 50 % of the calcium is supplied in carbonate form with a particle size of 2 - 4 mm.

Feeding during the rearing period

2010-01 Page | 3

FROM 4 TO 16 WKS BUILDING THE POTENTIAL OF THE FUTURE LAYER

After a good starting, the objective of the 4-16 weeks period is to prepare the birds for egg production with an ideal development of : - the frame - the bodyweight - the uniformity - the digestive tract. These objectives could be achieved by providing: - a correct stocking density and housing conditions - a lighting programme adapted to rearing conditions - a good standard of beak trimming - a good management of the feeding programme and feeding techniques

Housing and equipment

Floor Age (wks) Ventilation Stocking densities Minimum per hour / kg Birds / m2 Birds / m2 (hot climate) cm2 / Bird Birds / drinker Birds/drinker (hot climate) Birds / nipple cm of trough feeders Birds / Round feeder 5 10 4 m3 15 12 100 75 9 5 25 10 17 4 m3 10 9 100 75 8 7 23 Cages 5 10 10 17 4 m3 4 m3 15 10 12 9 200 350

Water supply

Feed supply

10 (1) 4 25

10 (1) 6 23

(1) : Make sure that all the birds have at least an access to 2 nipples

Feeding program
The range of diet advised for the rearing period could be adapted to the real evolution of the frame and bodyweight development of the pullets. Starter diet recommended from day old till 4 weeks old could be extended to 5 or 6 weeks to secure the frame development. Frame development occurs mainly during the first 8 weeks of the rearing period. Grower diet recommended from 4 weeks till 10 weeks old could be extended to 11 or 12 weeks of age in order to secure growth. As the rearing period objective is also to develop the digestive tract, this grower diet is usually high in energy content could not be given after 12 weeks of age. The risk of using too high energy content feed is the reduction of the development of the digestive tract and the feed intake at start of lay by. The distribution of a developer diet till 16 weeks of age will help the development of the crop capacity because of a lower energy level than grower feed and slightly lower than the pre-lay or layer feed. In order to secure the development of the medulary bone which acts as a reservoir of mobilisable calcium for egg shell formation, we advise the to use a pre lay feed from 17 weeks of age till the first eggs appear.

From 4 to 16 wks building the potential of the future layer

2010-01 Page | 1

The details of the specifications for each of those diets are developed in a following section.

Feeding technique
The feeding techniques used between 4 and 16 weeks are designed to: - avoid the build up of fine particle residues - encourage crop development by having rapid feed consumption - The Build Up of Fine Particle Residues Birds are by nature grain eaters. They always start by eating the larger particles and leave the finer ones. The accumulation of fine particles in the feeding system leads to underconsumption. Therefore, it is essential that the feeders are emptied every day. This rule applies equally to pullets and layers. - Rapid Feed Intake The crop is a storage organ. It allows the bird to eat enough feed in the evening to satisfy its energy needs throughout the night. The increase in consumption at start of lay is dependent on the development of the crop and on the feeding behaviour acquired during rearing Rapid feed consumption during rearing leads to the development of the crop. The speed with which feed is eaten depends on when it is fed and on the form in which it is offered. - Feeding Times and rapid feed intake Birds naturally eat more in the morning and evening. For that reason the feeders ought to be empty in the middle of the day. To encourage rapid consumption, we recommend that the complete daily ration should be given about 2 to 3 hours before the lights go out. The actual time of feed issued should be chosen so that about 50 % is eaten the following morning. At "lights on", because the digestive system is empty, the birds will eat up the finer particles better. This feeding routine can be started between 4 and 8 according to the feeding equipment. The length of time, during which the feeders are empty, should be gradually increased, so that by around 10-12 weeks of age the feeders are empty for a minimum of 2 to 3 hours per day. It is, however, possible according to the feeding equipment to give either a single feed distribution in either the morning or evening, or two 2 distributions, provided that the feeding periods are kept short. Weekly bird weighing is essential, so that the appropriate quantity of feed to issue can be calculated. The gizzard development could be encouraged by a good feed presentation and the use of insoluble grit. You will find more details on these points in the nutrition in rearing bulletin.

From 4 to 16 wks building the potential of the future layer

2010-01 Page | 2

MINERALS AND OIL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR COMMERCIAL LAYERS DURING THE LAYING PERIOD
(1): We advise using these values when the calcium is supplied in powder form. (2): When coarse limestone is supplied as particles of 2 to 4 mm, it is possible to use these values. (3): Vegetable oil rich in unsaturated fatty acid improve egg weight, according to the requirement of the market and the appetence a level of 2 to 3% is required. To avoid egg size becoming too large at the end of lay, we advise reducing the quantity of vegetable oil being used.

DAILY REQUIREMENT
Available phosphorus mg

From 17 to 28 wks
400 440 g g g mg mg % 3.9 4.1 2.0 2.6

From 28 to 50 wks
380 420 4.1 4.3 2.1 2.7

From after 50 wks

340 380 4.3 4.6 2.2 2.9

(2)

Available phosphorus (1) mg Total Calcium White birds: Coarse Calcium (2 to 4mm) Brown birds: Coarse Calcium (2 to 4mm) Sodium minimum Chlorine mini-maxi Oil Mini-maxi (3) Fibre

180 180 180 170 - 260 170 - 260 170 - 260 2-3 1-2 0.5 1.5 A minimum of coarse fibre or lignin is required to prevent feather pecking and improve the feed digestibility

Average feed intake observed after 28 weeks in g / day

105

110

115

120

125

FROM 2 % LAY TO 28 WEEKS OLD

Available phosphorus (1) Available phosphorus (2) Total Calcium Sodium minimum Chlorine mini-maxi % % % % % 0.41 0.45 3.9 - 4.1 0.18 0.17 - 0.26 0.39 0.43 3.8 4.0 0.17 0.16 - 0.25 0.37 0.41 3.6 - 3.8 0.16 0.16 - 0.24 0.35 0.39 3.4 3.6 0.16 0.15 - 0.23 0.34 0.37 3.3 3.5 0.15 0.15 - 0.22

FROM 28 WEEKS TO 50 WEEKS

Available phosphorus (1) Available phosphorus (2) Total Calcium Sodium minimum Chlorine mini-maxi % % % % % 0.36 0.40 3.9 - 4.1 0.17 0.16 - 0.25 0.34 0.38 3.7 - 3.9 0.16 0.16 - 0.24 0.33 0.37 3.6 - 3.8 0.16 0.15 - 0.23 0.32 0.35 3.4 - 3.6 0.15 0.14 - 0.22 0.31 0.34 3.3 - 3.5 0.14 0.14 - 0.21

FROM 50 WEEKS TO THE END OF LAY

Available phosphorus (1) Available phosphorus (2) Total Calcium Sodium minimum Chlorine mini-maxi % % % % % 0.32 0.36 4.1 4.3 0.17 0.16 - 0.25 0.30 0.34 3.9 4.1 0.16 0.16 - 0.24 0.29 0.33 3.8 4.0 0.16 0.15 - 0.23 0.28 0.32 3.6 3.8 0.15 0.14 - 0.22 0.27 0.30 3.5 3.7 0.14 0.14 - 0.21

Minerals and oil recommendations

2009-12 Page | 1

MINERALS RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PARENT STOCKCS DURING THE LAYING PERIOD DAILY REQUIREMENT
Available phosphorus (1) Available phosphorus (2) Total Calcium White birds: Coarse Calcium (2 to 4mm) Brown birds: Coarse Calcium (2 to 4mm) Sodium minimum Chlorine mini-maxi Oil Mini-maxi (3) Fibre mg mg g g g mg mg %

From 17 to28 Weeks

400 440 3.9 4.1 2.0 2.6

From 28 to50 WeekS

380 420 4.1 4.3 2.1 2.7

After 50 WeekS
340 380 4.3 4.6 2.2 2.9

180 180 180 170 - 260 170 - 260 170 - 260 2-3 1-2 0.5 1.5 A minimum of coarse fibre or lignin is required to prevent feather pecking and improve the feed digestibility

Average feed intake observed after 28 weeks in g / day

105

110

115

120

125

FROM 2 % LAY TO 28 WEEKS OLD

Available phosphorus (1) Available phosphorus (2) Total Calcium Sodium minimum Chlorine mini-maxi % % % % % 0.41 0.45 3.9 - 4.1 0.18 0.17 - 0.26 0.39 0.43 3.8 4.0 0.17 0.16 - 0.25 0.37 0.41 3.6 - 3.8 0.16 0.16 - 0.24 0.35 0.39 3.4 3.6 0.16 0.15 - 0.23 0.34 0.37 3.3 3.5 0.15 0.15 - 0.22

FROM 28 WEEKS TO 50 WEEKS

Available phosphorus (1) Available phosphorus (2) Total Calcium Sodium minimum Chlorine mini-maxi % % % % % 0.36 0.40 3.9 - 4.1 0.17 0.16 - 0.25 0.34 0.38 3.7 - 3.9 0.16 0.16 - 0.24 0.33 0.37 3.6 - 3.8 0.16 0.15 - 0.23 0.32 0.35 3.4 - 3.6 0.15 0.14 - 0.22 0.31 0.34 3.3 - 3.5 0.14 0.14 - 0.21

FROM 50 WEEKS TO THE END OF LAY

Available phosphorus (1) Available phosphorus (2) Total Calcium Sodium minimum Chlorine mini-maxi % % % % % 0.32 0.36 4.1 4.3 0.17 0.16 - 0.25 0.30 0.34 3.9 4.1 0.16 0.16 - 0.24 0.29 0.33 3.8 4.0 0.16 0.15 - 0.23 0.28 0.32 3.6 3.8 0.15 0.14 - 0.22 0.27 0.30 3.5 3.7 0.14 0.14 - 0.21

(1): We advise using these values when the calcium is supplied in powder form. (2): When coarse limestone is supplied as particles of 2 to 4 mm, use these values. (3): Vegetable oil rich in unsaturated fatty acid improve egg weight and appetence of the feed and the appetence a level of 2 to 3% is required at beginning of production. To avoid egg size becoming too large and to maintain the hatchability, we advise reducing the quantity of vegetable oil being used.

Minerals and oil recommendations for parent stocks

2010-01 Page 1

AMINO ACIDS REQUIREMENTS FOR COMMERCIAL LAYERS

Genetic progress and nutritional consequences Just as for the other species, genetic progress has a considerable influence on dietary amino acid concentrations. Over the last 30 years, production to a constant age has increased by more than 40 %, while feed consumption has been reduced by about 10 %. An important consequence of this genetic progress has been a change in the daily amino acid requirements. It has also called into question the practice of phase feeding, since productivity remains high over longer and longer periods. The best units nowadays have daily egg outputs of over 60g/bird right up to 52 weeks of age. The implication of genetic change in deciding amino acid levels is, therefore, considerable. It can be approached in the following way: Feed conversion ratio over the period 30-50 weeks: 1971: 2.87 g of feed / g of egg 1981: 2.36 g of feed / g of egg 2005: 1.95 (-17%) g of feed / g of egg Classically, daily nutrient requirements have been expressed in mg / day. While this type of expression may be very easy for the formulator to use, it does not allow for genetic progress, nor for genotypic differences. Those genotypes, which produce large eggs, have larger daily requirements than those, which produce small eggs. Most Researchers agree to the expression of nutrient requirements in mg of amino acids per gram of eggs produced. This method enables us to tackle the requirement starting from numerous experimental data sources. It is more precise. The synthesis that we have carried out according to this method shows it to be an excellent way of determining requirements. Ideal protein and amino acids requirements The concept of ideal proteins is a means of expressing the requirements for amino acids as a percentage of the requirement for LYS. There is a limited interest in applying this concept to layers. It implies that a balance between the different amino acids is necessary for optimizing requirements. That would suggest that high protein or amino acid levels would have a negative effect on performance. In fact the formulator should make a point of satisfying the requirement for the following amino acids: MET - CYS - LYS - THR - TRP - ISO and VAL. This is only valid for diets and raw materials in common usage. Those requirements, which need to be defined by comparison with reference tables, have been expressed from the European Amino acids Table WPSA, 1992, of raw materials composition. These results have been expressed as digestible amino acids by using the digestibility coefficients mentioned in the Tables de composition et de valeur nutritive des matires premires destines aux animaux dlevage INRA editions 2002. Digestible Tryptophan value are not given by the INRA tables, consequently we used values given in the Rhodimet Nutrition Guide 2003, from Adisseo). Giving the expression in the digestible form has enabled to reduce the variability of the results observed.

Amino acids requirements

2009-12 Page | 1

Recommendations for amino acids expressed in total or digestible and ideal proteins established for a production of 59.5 egg mass per day.

Limiting amino acids

Requirements in mg per g Daily Requirements Ideal Protein based on European table based on European table 2002based on European table 2002 2002 Dig. AA Dig. AA Total AA Total AA 100 54 86 22,2 90 96 70 13.5 7.3 11.45 3.00 12.2 13.0 9.4 15,2 7.7 12.9 3.50 13.35 14.35 11.0 805 435 690 178 725 775 560 905 460 765 208 795 855 655

LYS MET MET + CYS TRY ILE VAL THR UPDATED 10/2008

Feed formulation Digestible Amino Acids: Bird requirements and formulation of diets should be made in terms of digestible amino acids. By formulating in digestible Amino Acids we are better able to satisfy the requirements of the birds, to reduce the necessary safety margins and assess the raw materials according to their true biological value. Formulation according to total amino acids leads to the same nutritional value being given to all raw materials irrespective of their digestibility. That leads naturally to increasing the safety margins in order to guarantee fully meeting the requirements of the birds. Protein Requirements: When diets are formulated by taking into account the need to satisfy the requirement for each of the 7 essential amino acids, it doesn't seem to be necessary to introduce a minimal constraint for protein. The requirements for the limiting amino acids are generally enough. On the other hand, if all the essential amino acids are not taken into account when formulating, it is necessary to use a constraint for minimum protein, so as to reduce the risk of a deficiency. Limiting factors: The experience acquired during the last decades in the feeding of layers, especially the use of synthetic lysine, has enabled us to assert that ISOLEUCINE and VALINE are becoming the limiting factors in layers feeds when meat products are excluded from the feed or when they are used in formulae based on wheat. TRYPTOPHAN is the limiting factor in formulae, where the base consists of maize, soybean meal and meat products. THREONINE and still less ARGININE do not appear to be limiting in the diets used nowadays. These last two amino acids need to be studied still further. When the requirements for ISO, VAL and TRY are covered, the requirements for the other essential and non-essential amino acids are always satisfied when 300 mg of protein per gram of egg is supplied. When the feed formula takes into account the requirements ISOLEUCINE and VALINE, it is not necessary to impose a constraint for a minimum protein level.

Amino acids requirements

2009-12 Page | 2

Feed consumption and formulation: The amino acid concentration of the diets, therefore, depends on: the potential of egg mass produced, which itself determines the daily requirements the daily feed consumption which determines the amino acid concentration the feed efficiency at peak of production given the amino acid concentration in dividing the requirement expressed

Amino acids recommendations for commercial layers

Formulation of layer's diets can be carried out by introducing ISOLEUCINE and VALINE as nutritional constraints replacing protein as a constraint. If this is not possible, we give hereafter some indications for a minimum of protein for feed containing or not Meat and Bone Meal (MBM). (1) From a practical point of view, we estimate that it is necessary to increase the concentration of amino acids by about 6 % during the 18-28 weeks period in relation to the feed consumption observed after 28 weeks. Total or digestible amino acids levels are established for a production of 59.5 g egg mass per day.

Amino acids requirements

2009-12 Page | 3

Average feed intake observed after 28 wks in g / day

105

110

115

120

125

FROM 2 % LAY TO 28 WEEKS OLD (1) Protein w/o MBM Protein with MBM Total amino acids % : Lysine Methionine Methionine + Cystine Tryoptophan Threonine Isoleucine Valine Digestible amino acids % : Lysine Methionine Methionine + Cystine Tryoptophan Threonine Isoleucine Valine % % (18.2-18.7) (17.7-18.2) (17.2-17.6) (16.7-17.2) (19.5-20.0) (18.9-19.4) (18.2-18.8) (17.9-18.4) 0,90 0,45 0,73 0,210 0,66 0,80 0,86 0,80 0,43 0,66 0,180 0,57 0,73 0,78 0,86 0,43 0,69 0,201 0,63 0,77 0,82 0,77 0,41 0,63 0,172 0,54 0,70 0,75 0,82 0,42 0,66 0,192 0,60 0,73 0,79 0,73 0,39 0,60 0,165 0,52 0,67 0,71 0,79 0,40 0,64 0,184 0,58 0,70 0,75 0,70 0,37 0,57 0,158 0,49 0,64 0,68 (16.2-16.7) (17.4-17.9) 0,76 0,38 0,61 0,177 0,56 0,67 0,72 0,67 0,36 0,55 0,151 0,47 0,62 0,66

FROM 28 WEEKS TO THE END OF LAY Protein w/o MBM Protein with MBM Total amino acids % : Lysine Methionine Methionine + Cystine Tryoptophan Threonine Isoleucine Valine Digestible amino acids % : Lysine Methionine Methionine + Cystine Tryoptophan Threonine Isoleucine Valine % % (17.4-17.9) (16.9-17.4) (16.4-16.9) (15.9-16.4) (18.7-19.2) (18.1-18.6) (17.6-18.1) (17.1-17.6) 0,85 0,43 0,69 0,198 0,62 0,76 0,81 0,76 0,40 0,62 0,170 0,53 0,69 0,74 0,81 0,41 0,66 0,189 0,59 0,72 0,78 0,72 0,38 0,59 0,162 0,51 0,66 0,70 0,78 0,39 0,63 0,181 0,56 0,69 0,74 0,69 0,37 0,57 0,155 0,49 0,63 0,67 0,74 0,38 0,60 0,174 0,54 0,66 0,71 0,66 0,35 0,55 0,149 0,47 0,61 0,65 (15.4-15.9) (16.6-17.1) 0,71 0,36 0,58 0,167 0,52 0,64 0,68 0,64 0,34 0,52 0,143 0,45 0,58 0,62

UPDATED 10/2008 Those requirements are based on the European Amino acids Table (WPSA, 1992) of raw materials composition and expressed as digestible amino acids by using the digestibility coefficients mentioned in the Tables de composition et de valeur nutritive des matires premires destines aux animaux dlevage

Amino acids requirements

2009-12 Page | 4

REEVALUATION OF AMINO ACIDS REQUIREMENTS FOR LAYING HENS

PART 1: METHIONINE AND CYSTINE REQUIREMENTS UPDATED IN 2007 FROM 15 EXPERIMENTS Abstract: The results of 15 experiments realized from 1990 have been used to define more precisely the requirement in Methionine and Sulfur Amino Acids. Results show that the daily requirement for Methionine is related to the bird productivity. If the requirement is expressed in mg per gram of egg mass produced, the requirement appeared independent of the daily egg mass produced. From this analysis, we conclude that the Methionine requirement is not related to the Cystine level. The Methionine requirement is estimated to 7.56 mg in total or 7.11mg in digestible per gram of egg mass produced. The requirement in Sulfur Amino Acids depends mainly of the Cystine level. Excess of Cystine increases the requirement in SAA. Without knowledge of a minimum requirement for the Cystine, we suggest to retain a requirement fixed at 12.10mg in total Sulfur Amino Acids or 10,90mg in digestible Sulfur Amino Acids per gram of egg mass produced. 1. Introduction Diet formulation and the reduction in dietary protein levels, rendered essential for the achievement of economic goals, and to protect the environment, necessitate a better understanding of amino acid requirements. The concept of ideal protein for layers is limited by our understanding of the requirements. The determination of a daily Sulfur amino acid and Methionine requirements has been made by many researchers. The results obtained were dependant on the productivity of the birds. Just as for the other species, genetic progress has a considerable influence on dietary amino acid concentrations. Over the last 30 years, production to a constant age has increased by more than 30 %, while feed consumption has been reduced by about 10 %. An important consequence of this genetic progress has been a change in the daily amino acid requirements. It has also called into question the practice of phase feeding, since productivity remains high over longer and longer periods. The best birds nowadays have daily egg outputs of over 60g/bird right up to 70 weeks of age and over 58 g/bird for the best flocks at 60 weeks. As a consequence, the recommendations for daily requirements (table 4) are very variable since they do not take into account the evolution of the bird's productivity.

Reevaluation of amino acids requirements for laying hens

2010-01 Page | 1

Table 1: Different Sulfur Amino Acids Recommendations Methionine Meth. + Cystine mg/day Dig. Total Dig. Total ISA, * 2005 420 445 680 755 ISA, ** 1996 390 430 670 760 Joly, ** 1995 385 435 685 775 NRC 1994***Leghorn 300 580 Brown 330 645 Degussa 390 420 690 780 AEC 1978 360 650 RPAN 1993 360 380 575 670 INRA 1984 340 610 * For 59.5 g daily egg mass, ** for 58 g daily egg mass and *** for 90% lay. A review of all the research carried out on amino acid requirements enables us, to specify more precisely the requirements in mg per gram of egg produced and to define the requirement in Sulfur Amino Acids. This method permits us to keep abreast of genetic change while limiting protein wastage and allows the comparison of results from different authors irrespective of the level of production obtained. 2. Materials and Methods 15 experiments realised from 1990 to 2005 with a daily production more than 50 g of egg mass have been used to define the requirement in Sulfur Amino Acids. The conclusion of each researcher has been used to define a requirement in mg per gram of egg mass produced. Each value obtained has been expressed as mg of amino acid per gram of egg produced. Most of experiments are based on values in amino acids analysed for the total value. To express the results in digestible values, we have recalculated the Methionine and Cystine values according to the European Amino Acid Table (WPSA, 1992) for the Sulfur Amino Acids content, and the INRA raw materials table (2002) for the digestible values, to obtain the digestible amino acid values. In the case of Zollitschs experiment, the total amino acid values have been recalculated. The results and the requirement in Amino Acids obtained by each author are mentioned in annex (table 2, 3and 4). On average, the comparison between the Sulfur Amino Acids content calculated with European Amino Acid Table show few differences with the values used or analysed by each author. For Methionine and for Methionine+Cystine the difference is less than 0.2% on average. Average Digestible values recalculated from the INRAs coefficient (Raw Materials Table 2002) are the following: Methionine 0.9403% Cystine 0.840% Methionine+Cystine 0.9004% The effect of a Methionine deficiency on the production cost has been studied in considering that the feed during the laying period represents 60% of the cost of production. We consider also, that the egg mass produced reduces all the other expenses. The impact could be estimated at 40% of the cost of production. This, without including the Methionine supplementation cost.

Reevaluation of amino acids requirements for laying hens

2010-01 Page | 2

We have established the cost of production in each experiment for each Methionine level according to the following formula: Production Cost of the diet (in %) = 60*EMopt/EMlevel + 40*FCRlevel/FCRopt With: EMopt: daily egg mass obtained with the optimal diet (result expressed by the author) EMdiet: daily egg mass obtained with the different level of Methionine studied FCRopt: FCR obtained with the optimal diet FCRdiet: FCR obtained with the different level of Methionine studied. 3. Results obtained by each researcher The conclusion of each researcher (table 5) is synthesised in the following table giving the conclusion of their experiment. Table 5: Conclusion of the researchers

Egg Mass Authors g/day

Martinez et al, 2005 Narvaez-Solarte, 2003 Ahmad et Roland, 2002 cool: 15.6 to 23.3C warm: 21.1 to 28.9C Dnner et Bessei, 2002 Balnave et al, 2000 Zollitsch et al, 1996 Narvaez, 1996 Brown Bertram et al, 1995a Bertram et al, 1995b energy: 11.72MJ energy: 10.88MJ Schutte et al, 1994 (1+2) Bertram and Schutte, 1992 Cao et al, 1992 50.0 56.6 51.4 50.7 58,35 55.2 50.25 53.7 57.7

Methionine total mg/day

Meth. digestible mg/g

Met+Cys total mg/day

605 737 620 653 -

Met+Cys digestible digestible

553

430 7.04mg/g 687 825 (1) 11.02mg/g 675

57.5 670-700 57.6 670-700 57,25 440 740 56,2 755 54,28 424 785 364 670 50,75 (1) estimated from a exponential curve (777mg with the highest Methionine consumption)

Most researchers expressed a requirement in Sulfur Amino Acids and claimed for a requirement in Sulfur Amino Acids while other researchers looked at the Methionine level. The main objective in studying the Sulfur Amino Acids requirement is to answer to these questions. Is Cystine a limiting factor in a standard feed? Which quantity of Methionine is used to satisfy a Cystine requirement? The objectives of this study are to answer to these questions and to define more precisely the Sulfur Amino Acids requirement.

Reevaluation of amino acids requirements for laying hens

2010-01 Page | 3

Cystine Requirement A semi-essential amino acid Cystine is a semi-essential amino acid, synthesized from Methionine. This can be illustrated (table 6) by an experiment conducted Bertram et al (1992). L-cystine was added to a deficient diet without any effect, demonstrating that Cystine cannot replace Methionine. Table 6: Effect of DL-Methionine and/or L-Cystine supplementation to a low protein Diet on performance of laying hens, 25-37 weeks of age.
DL-met added (%) L cys added (%) Met level (%) Cys level (%) Met+Cys level (%) Egg Mass (g/day) Feed Efficiency (g/g) Met intake (mg/day) Cys intake (mg/day) 0.25 0.25 0.50 52.0b 2.157a 280 280 0.04 0.12 0.29 0.37 0.66 56.0c 1.926c 315 400 0.08 0.08 0.33 0.33 0.66 57.4d 1.902c 360 360 0.12 0.04 0.37 0.29 0.66 56.3cd 1.922c 400 315 0.16 0.41 0.25 0.66 57.0cd 1.918c 400 275

0.16 0.25 0.41 0.66 49.7a 2.128b 265 435

An experiment, by Harms and Russel (1996), shows that birds respond at an increase in the Cystine level and also to a higher level in Methionine (table7). This experiment shows clearly a requirement for Cystine and also for Methionine. However the egg mass produced by the birds in this experiment was quite low. Table 7: Egg mass produced (g/hen/day) when hens are fed diets with varying levels of Methionine and Cystine. (Exp. 5 from R.H. Harms and G.B. Russel, 1996)
Methionine Level (%) 0.28% 0.30% 0.32% Cystine level % 0.18% 30.5 37.7 -

0.16% 24.5 32.5 34.3

0.20% 37.1 42.3 44.0

In another experiment, Cao et al (1995), obtained the same poor result with 0.148% and 0.416% of digestible Cystine at same digestible Methionine level 0.143%. The result of their experiment is given in the table 8. Hens need a high requirement in Methionine with a low Cystine level to avoid a body weight loss. Methionine is converted in Cysteine on a molecular basis; consequently 1g of Methionine is converted in 0,8g of Cystine on a weight basis. Zollitsch et al (1996), tried to define the requirement in Cystine. Their estimation of the digestible requirement is 244 mg of Cystine for a production of 54g. This would give a requirement of 4,52 mg of digestible Cystine per g of egg mass produced (or around 5.3 mg expressed in total in total).

Reevaluation of amino acids requirements for laying hens

2010-01 Page | 4

Table 8: Effects of dietary digestible Methionine and digestible Cystine levels on laying performance.
Egg Mass g/hen/day 55.9 23,4 47,8 54,3 52 55,4 22,9 50,2 54,1 56,5 56,6 Feed Efficiency Body weight gain g/g EM g/hen/day 2.02 -0.3 3,88 2,25 2,06 2,08 2,05 3,32 2,22 2,06 2 2,06 -5.6 -3.2 -0.9 -0.5 0 -7.5 -1.7 0.4 0.2 0.1

Control diet (Met 0.5%) %dig. Met + 0.148% dig. Cys 0,143 0,24 0,337 0,434 0,531 %dig. Met + 0.416% dig. Cys 0,143 0,231 0,317 0,407 0,495

Effect of the Cystine level on the Methionine and Sulfur Amino Acids Requirement Requirements in Methionine and Methionine plus Cystine obtained by each author are given in the table 3 in the annex. We have expressed these results in mg per gram of egg mass produced (table 3) to establish a relation between the total Cystine level and the total Methionine level and between the total Cystine level and the total Methionine+Cystine level (table 4). The correlation (figure 1) obtained for the requirement between the Cystine level and Methionine and Methionine+Cystine are: Total M+C requirement (mg/g) = +1.09* Cys. + 7.07 (R = 0.83) Total Meth. requirement (mg/g) = -0.096* Cys. + 7.08 (R = 0.04) With Cys. expressed in mg of total Cystine per gram of egg mass produced. These results show clearly the absence of relation between the requirement in Methionine and the Cystine level. This is due to the fact that in most experiments the level of Cystine was sufficient to cover the requirement in Cystine. High feed Cystine values were found in the experiments of Balnave et al (2000), Bertram et al (1995) and Cao et al (1992) without effect in the Methionine requirement expressed in mg per gram of egg. Conversely, the Sulfur Amino Acids requirement appear correlated to the feed Cystine level used in the different experiments.

Reevaluation of amino acids requirements for laying hens

2010-01 Page | 5

Figure 1: Effect of the total Cystine Level on the total Methionine and Sulfur Amino acids requirement expressed in mg per g of egg mass produced by each author in 15 experiments made from 1990 to with a daily egg mass produced above 50g.
15 14
Total Met and Met+Cys Requirement (mg/g)

Met+Cys (mg/g)= 1,09*Cys + 7,07 R2 = 0,83

13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 4,5 5 5,5 6 6,5 7

Total Met Req.in mg/g EM Total Met+Cys Req.in mg/g EM

Met (mg/g) = 0,096*Cys + 7,07 R2 = 0,04

Total Cystine level expressed in mg per gramme of egg produced

A feed high in Cystine can contribute to a Methionine deficiency if the constraints in formulation are based only on Methionine+Cystine. The absence of a relationship between the Methionine requirement and the level of Cystine forces the nutritionist to impose a minimum constraint on Methionine. A feed low in Cystine increases the requirement in Methionine and obliges the nutritionist to use a minimum constraint on Sulfur Amino Acids. 4. Methionine Requirement Results The average of the 15 experiments in the annex (table 4) gives a requirement expressed in mg per gram of egg mass for: Total Methionine: 7.56mg 0.37 Dig. Methionine: 7.11mg (mean of the digestibility 0.940) The absence of correlation between the Cystine level and the Methionine leads to the conclusion that the nutritionist has to formulate feed on this constraint (figure 1). Expression of the requirement in mg of gram of egg mass and the study of a lot of experiments allow us to close the debate on the interest to formulate the feed in using Methionine as a constraint.

Reevaluation of amino acids requirements for laying hens

2010-01 Page | 6

Figure 2: Influence of the egg mass produced on the daily Methionine requirement and on the requirement expressed in mg to produce 100g of Egg Mass.
8,5 8 550

Methionine in mg per g of EM

7,5 7 6,5 6 5,5 5 4,5 4 3,5 3

49 51 53 55 57 59
Total Met (mg per g of EM) Total Met (mg per day)

Met (mg/g) = -0,007*EM+ 7,96 R2 = 0,004

510

470
Met (mg per day) = 7,06*EM + 27,8 R2 = 0,55

430

390

350

Daily egg mass produced (g/d)

The value of 7.56 mg/g appears independent of the egg mass produced. Figure 2 shows the relation between the birds productivity and the requirement to produce 1g of egg mass and also, with the daily requirement. The coefficients of regression obtained are 0.55 between the daily egg mass produced and the total Methionine requirement and 0.01 between the daily egg mass produced and the total Methionine requirement expressed in mg to produce 1g of egg mass. This result establishes clearly the necessity to express a requirement in Amino Acids in mg per gram of egg mass produced. The use of the results of 15 experiments allows us to define with a good precision the requirement in Methionine. The coefficient of variation obtained for the requirement is only 4.5%. Cost of Production The cost of production has been calculated according the formula given in the materials and methods chapter. Regression between the level of deficiency and the cost of production is high (over 0.8). Figure 2 shows the relation for a deficiency less 30%. The relation appears linear and a Methionine reduction of 1% increases the egg cost of production by 0.24%. For a level of Methionine comprised between 70 and 100%, we found this relation: Production Cost = -0.247x + 124.7 (r=0.88) with x= level of deficiency The cost of the Methionine added is not included, but could be considered low. A 10% variation of the Methionine level affects the cost of production by around 0.5 %, consequently the formula becomes: Cost = -0,20x + 120 (r=0.88) This means that a deficiency of 10% increases the cost of production by 2%.

Reevaluation of amino acids requirements for laying hens

2010-01 Page | 7

Methionine in mg per day

Figure 3: Relation between the cost of production and the Methionine level of deficiency.
150 145 140 Cost of Production in % 135 130 125 120 115 110 105 100 95 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Methionine Level in Percentage of the requirement defined by each author

Figure 4: Relation between the cost of production and the Methionine level of deficiency with a deficiency less than 30%.
110,0
y = -0,247x + 124,7 R2 = 0,88

107,5 Cost of Production in %

105,0

102,5

100,0

97,5 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 Methionine Level in Percentage of the requirement defined by each author

Influence of a Methionine deficiency on performances A Methionine deficiency affects all production parameters, egg weight, egg number and feed efficiency. It is interesting to see the relation between the feed consumption and the Methionine deficiency (figure 5). Birds increase generally their consumption in case of Methionine deficiency; consequently a deficiency has a strong effect on the feed consumption ratio (figure 6). This effect has been observed in a previous study, (Joly, 1995) and has not been observed for other amino acids. Egg weight and percentage of lay seem affected in the same proportion.

Reevaluation of amino acids requirements for laying hens

2010-01 Page | 8

Figure 5: Effect of the level of Methionine in percentage of the authors requirement on the Egg Mass produced and the daily feed consumption.
108
Egg Mass

106 104 Performances in % 102 100 98 96 94 92 75 80 85 90

Feed Cons Polynomial (Egg Mass)

y = -0,0007x + 0,316x + 75,6 2 R = 0,70 95 100

Methionine Level in Percentage of the requirement defined by each author

Figure 6: Effect of the level of Methionine in percentage from 55 to 100% of the authors requirement on the Feed Conversion Ratio expressed in percentage
120 118

Feed Conversion Ratio in %

116 114 112 110 108 106 104 102 100 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 y = 0,0032x - 0,86x + 154,6 2 R = 0,84
2

Methionine Level in Percentage of the requirement defined by each author

It is well known that a Methionine deficiency is also responsible for feather pecking and cannibalism. This is illustrated in the Dnners experiment: Table 9: Effects of Sulfur Amino Acids level on feather pecking and liveability.

A uthor D nner et B essei 2002

DailyIntake M ortalities Plum age M ortalities Period Strain M ET M ET+CYS from condition g g ks cannibalism Score m (total) m (total) 22-45 w 22-45 LSL 240 534 2.93 16,0 12.2 609 2.50 305 7.6 4.5 354 2.42 649 3.8 1.9 409 703 2.29 1.9 1.3

Reevaluation of amino acids requirements for laying hens

2010-01 Page | 9

5. Methionine and Sulfur amino acids Requirement Is there a requirement in Sulfur Amino Acids? The main objective for the feed formulator is to produce a balanced feed at the least cost. Minimum of constraints is always costly. It is important to know if a minimum of constraint in Sulfur Amino Acids is need. We have found that the requirement in Methionine doesnt depend of the Cystine level (figure 1). However the coefficient of regression between the Cystine level in the feed and the requirement in Sulfur Amino Acids is very high (r=0.83). This means that the requirement for Sulfur Amino Acids depends of the feed Cystine level. It appears, there is only a Methionine requirement. To precise this point we compared the results of the experiments in which the Cystine level was under or above 5 mg per gram of egg produced (table5). The selection of the experiments according the Cystine level (mg/g) doesnt allow us to see any difference for the requirement in Methionine. It appears that the requirement for Cystine is lower than the value estimated by Zollitsch et al (1996). Table 5: Influence of the Cystine level on the Methionine and Sulfur Amino Acids requirement
SAA requirement number of exp Cys. level ( total mg/g) Methionine ( total mg/g) Met+ Cys ( total mg/g) Low Cystine Level 8 4.70 7.59 12.29 High Cystine Level 7 5.72 7.53 13.25

Which Sulfur Amino Acids level to use? To determine a requirement in Cystine, we made a regression between the Cystine level and the Methionine level (figure 7). From this result, it would be possible to conclude that the requirement in Cystine is fewer than 4.5 mg per gram of egg produced. Harms and Russel (1996) made the following conclusion: A corn-soybean meal diet would always furnish more Cystine than required by the commercial laying hen; therefore, it is not necessary to formulate for SAA requirement. However, Zollitsch et al (1996) have estimated the digestible Cystine requirement at 4.5 mg/g (approximately 5.3 mg/g expressed in total Cystine). The risk of a Cystine deficiency exits with the use of some specific raw materials having a low Cys./Met. ratio, like Fish Meal, Meat

and Bone Meal or Sunflower Meal. For this reason we think it is important to fix a minimum of Sulfur Amino Acids. Looking at the results of experiments in which the level of Cystine was low, we think reasonable to use a safety margin and to fix the minimum in total Sulfur Amino Acids at 12.10 mg per gram of egg produced. This value is the average of the 7 experiments having the lowest requirement in Sulfur Amino Acids.

Reevaluation of amino acids requirements for laying hens

2010-01 Page | 10

Figure 7: Effect of low total Cystine Level (above 5mg/g) on the total Methionine and Sulfur Amino acids requirement expressed in mg per g of egg mass.
15 Dig Met and Met+Cys Requirement (mg/g) 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4,3 4,5 4,7 4,9 5,1
Met (mg/g) = 1,30*Cys + 1,50 2 R = 0,51
Total Met Req.in mg/g EM Total Met+Cys Req.in mg/g EM

Met+Cys (mg/g) = 2,30*Cys + 1,50 2 R = 0,77

Cystine level expressed in mg per gramme of egg produced

6. Conclusions Requirement per gram of egg produced The estimated requirements given by each author of the 15 experiments, expressed in mg of amino acids per gram of egg mass are: Methionine (total): 7.56 mg/g Methionine + Cystine (total): 12. 1 mg/g The estimation of the digestible value has been made in using the digestible coefficient expressed in the raw material table published by INRA (2002). The digestible value (Methionine added included) from 12 experiments has been calculated and are 94.0 % for Methionine, 84.0 % for Cystine and 90.0 % for Sulfur Amino Acid. Consequently the estimation of the requirement in digestible values are: Dig. Methionine: Dig. Methionine + Cystine: Requirement per Day With a daily production at the peak of production fixed at 59.5g per day, the daily requirement could be estimated at: Methionine (total): 450 mg Methionine + Cystine (total): 720 mg Dig. Methionine: 420 mg Dig. Methionine + Cystine: 650 mg These results are similar at those found in our previous review, Joly (1999), for Methionine but lower for the Methionine plus Cystine requirement. 7.10mg/g 10.90 mg/g

Reevaluation of amino acids requirements for laying hens

2010-01 Page | 11

Requirement according to the Feed Efficiency Another way is to express the requirement in percentage of amino acids per kg of feed, according to the feed conversion ratio. The following table gives the percentage of Sulfur Amino Acids according to the feed conversion during the peak production period.
Percentage of SAA According to the FE Methionine (total) Met+Cys (total) Methionine (dig) Met+Cys (dig) Req. mg/g EM 7,56 12,10 7,10 10,9 Feed Efficiency between 30 and 50 weeks 1.90 0,398 0,637 0,374 0,574 1.95 0,388 0,621 0,364 0,559 2.00 0,378 0,605 0,355 0,545 2.05 0,369 0,590 0,346 0,532 2.10 0,360 0,576 0,338 0,519

Requirement at start of lay Due to a lower body weight and consequently a lower feed consumption, from 18 to 28 weeks, we advice to increase the amino acids by 6 % during this period to satisfy the birds requirement.

Reevaluation of amino acids requirements for laying hens

2010-01 Page | 12

References AEC, 1978. Alimentation Animale. nergie, acides amines, vitamins, minraux. Document n 4: VO6. Ahmad, H.A. and D.A. Roland, 2003. Effect of environmental temperature and total Sulfur Amino Acids on performance and profitability of laying hens: An Econometric approach. J. Appl. Poult.Res. 12: 476-482 Balnave, D. and D, Robinson, 2000. Amino Acid and Energy requirements of imported Brown Layer Strains. A report for the Rural Industries Research Development Corporation. RIRDC publication N00/179 Bertram, H.L. and J.B. Schutte, 1992. Evaluation of the Sulphur containing Amino Acids in laying hens. World s Poultry Congress. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 24-24 September 1992. volume 3: 606-609. Bertram, H.L., Dnner, E., Jeroch, K. and H. Jeroch, 1995. Effect of DL-methioinine in a cereal-pea diet on the performance of laying hens under heat stress. Arch. Geflgelk, 59: 103-107. Bertram, H.L., Schutte, J.B., and J., de Jong, 1995. Influence of DL-methioinine supplements on the performance of brown laying hens. Arch. Geflgelk Arch. Geglgelk. 59: 314-318. Cao, Z., Jeyne, C.J., and C.N. Coon, 1992. The Methionine Requirement of laying hens affected by dietary protein levels. Poultry Sci. 71: suppl. 1-39 Cao, Z, Cai, H and Coon, C, 1995. Methionine and Cystine requirements and metabolism for layers and broilers. 56th Minesota Nutrition Conference. Sept. 18-20, 1995. p. 257-289. Dnner, E.E. and W. Bessei, 2002. Effectiveness of liquid DL-methionine hydroxyl analogfree acid(DL-MHA-FA) compared to DL-methionine on performance of laying hens. Arch. Geglge, 66 (3): 97-101. Harms, R.H. and G.B. Russel, 1996. Evaluation of the Cystine requirement of the laying hen. J. Appl. Poultry Res. 5: 139-149 INRA, 1984. Lalimentation des animaux monogastriques: porc, lapin, volailles. INRA edition. p. 100 INRA, 2002. Tables de composition et de valeur nutritive des matires premires destines aux animaux dlevage, INRA ditions, ISA, 1996, ISABROWN Management Guide. ISA, 2005, Layer Management Guide. Joly, P., 2002. Estimation of the amino acids requirements of laying hens in relation to the genetic evolution. Technical Bulletin. ISA Joly, P., 1999. Besoins en methionine et cystine des pondeuses. 3mes Journes de la Recherche Avicole, 23-24-25 Mars 1999. Saint Malo. 201-204 Joly, P., 1995. An up date of the amino acids requirements of the laying hens. Worlds Poultry Science Association. 10th European Symposium on Poultry Nutrition. Oct, 5-19th 1995. WPSA proceedings. Antalya-Turkey, p 294 -299 Joly, P. 1995. Ractualisation des besoins en Acides Amins de la pondeuses, 1res Journes de la Recherche Avicole.28,29,30 mars 1995. Angers. p. 1-8. Martinez, F.M, Diaz Cruz, A., Lecumberri, J. and E. Gonzalez, 2005. Necesidades de lysina y aminoacidos azufrados digestibles en gallinas Leghorn Blancas. Vet. Mex., 36 (2): 135-145 Narvaez, W.V., 1996 cited by H.S.Rostagno, 1996.Nutrient requirements of poultry determinated in Brazil. International Symposium on nutritional requirements of Poultry and Swine. editor H.S. Rostagno Narvaez-Solarte, W., Rostagno, H.S., Soares, P.R, Silva, A. and L.M. Uribe Velasquez, 2005. Nutritional requirements in Methionine +cystine for White-Egg laying hens during the first cycle of production. Int. J. of Poultry Sci. 4 (12 ) 965-968 NRC, 1994. Nutrient requirements of poultry. Ninth Revised Edition. National Research Council.

Reevaluation of amino acids requirements for laying hens

2010-01 Page | 13

RPAN, 1993. Rhodimet Nutrition Guide. Rhne Poulenc Animal Nutrition. Schutte, J.B.,De Jong, H., and Bertram H.L., 1994. Requirement of laying hen for Sulfur Amino Acids. Poultry Sci. 73 : 274 - 280. WPSA,1992. European Amino Acid tables. Working Group nr. 2 (nutrition) of the WPSA. Zollitsch, W., Cao, Z., Peguri, A., and B. Zhang, 1996. Nutrient requirements of laying hens. International Symposium on nutritional requirements of Poultry and Swine. Editor H.S. Rostagno

Reevaluation of amino acids requirements for laying hens

2010-01 Page | 14

SUGGESTED PREMIX COMPOSITION FOR COMMERCIAL LAYERS

REARING PERIOD FOR COMMERCIAL LAYERS Added trace elements mg per kg of diet Manganese (Mn) Zinc (Zn) Iron (Fe) Iodine (I) Copper (Cu) Selenium (Se) Cobalt (Co) ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm 60 60 60 1 8 0.25 0.25 60 60 60 1 6 0.25 0.15 70 60 60 1 8 0.25 0.15 0 6 10 weeks 10 wks - 2 % Lay LAYING PERIOD

Added vitamins per kg of diet in IU or mg Vitamin A Vitamin D3 Vitamin E Vitamin K3 Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Vitamin B12 Nicotinic Acid (Niacin) Pantothenic acid Folic Acid Biotin Vitamin C in hot climate or during summer time IU IU mg mg mg mg mg mg mg mg mg mg mg 13.000 3.000 25 3 2 5 5 0.02 60 15 0.75 0.2 10.000 2.000 25 3 2 5 5 0.01 40 12 0.75 0.1 10.000 2.500 20 3 2 5 5 0.015 40 12 0.75 0.05 100

Total Choline requirement per kg of diet (raw materials included) mg ( Choline Choline mg/kg mg/day 1600 Add antioxidant 1400 1400 160

Mixing
Trace elements and vitamins should be correctly mixed before being added to the raw materials. Premixes have to be mixed at a minimum level of 3 kg per ton. Improper mixing or handling can be checked by dosing Manganese as a tracer.

Suggested premix composition

2010-01 Page | 1

Toxicity of some minerals Maximum admissible levels for different minerals could be estimated as followed: Potassium 2000 ppm Magnesium 5000 ppm Sodium 5000 ppm Chlorine 5000 ppm Iron 500 ppm Manganese 1000 ppm Zinc 2 000 ppm Copper 300-500 ppm Selenium 10 ppm Iodine 300-500 ppm Vanadium 10 ppm due to contamination from rock phosphates

Suggested premix composition

2010-01 Page | 2

SUGGESTED PREMIX COMPOSITION FOR PARENT STOCK DURING GROWING AND LAYING PERIOD
We advice to use vitamins with an excellent stability and the use of an antioxidant. However, the stability during the feed processing is influenced by many factors (conditioning, temperature, pelleting, expansion, extrusion). Some vitamins are more sensible than others. For these reasons, we have a specific recommendation for heat treated feed, taking in account the most recent knowledge. These recommendations could be used from day old to the end of the laying period

e Remark: Vitamin C is synthesized by poultry. This vitamin is not considered as essential but in some circumstances, like stress or in hot climate, it can interesting to add it.

Suggested premix composition for parent stock during growing and laying period

2010-03 Page | 1

WATER: THE MOST CRITICAL NUTRIENT

The water is the most critical nutrient for the poultry. A daily control of water consumption is essential. If an animal does not drink, it will not eat and cannot produce. Water quality Good quality drinking water is very important for (production) animals. Talking about poultry, the birds must always have easy access to the drinking water The water must be fresh and clean. Taste and smell seem to be of less importance to the birds but are indicators for the water quality. In detail : Good quality Do not use Parameter PH Ammonium mg/l Nitrite mg/l Nitrate mg/l Chloride mg/l Sodium mg/l Sulfate mg/l Iron mg/l Mangonese mg/l lime/chulk content in german degrees hardness mg/l H2S Coliform bacterials cfu/ml Total germ count cfu/ml Poultry Good quality 5 8,5 <2,0 <0,1 <100 <250 <800 <150 <0,5 <1,0 <20 <50 non detectable <100 <100.000

PH

Do not use <4 and >9 >10 >1,0 >200 >2000 >1500 >250 >2,5 >2,0 >25 >200 non detectable >100 >100.000

Monitoring Water Quality The value of any analysis depends on when, where, and how the sample has been taken, (where it enters the house or at the end of the system). One should not forget that an analysis only refers to the quality of the water at the time, when the sample was taken, and is never a guarantee of its quality at another time. Where farms have their own water supply, it is necessary to take a sample at least twice a year (one at the end of winter, the other at the end of summer). On farms using the mains supply an annual measurement should be adequate. It is important to realise that the sodium thiosulphate, contained in the flasks supplied by the laboratories carrying out bacteriological tests on water, only neutralises chlorine or bleach. It has no action on quaternary ammonium compounds. Cleaning the Pipe System During the Sanitary Break. Mineral and organic deposits in drinker pipelines give favourable conditions for bacterial growth and reduce the activity of chlorine. Therefore, it is essential to decontaminate the pipelines, when the birds have gone. The best solution is to use alkaline and acid cleaners in succession. A bacteriological test on the water at the end of the circuit should be carried out systematically before the new flock arrives as a means of evaluating the quality of the decontamination process. The water pipe should be rinse before pullets arrival.

Water: the most critical nutrient

2009-10 Page | 1

Treatment of Drinking Water Chlorination is still the best and most economic method of treating drinking water. The chlorine can be injected by means of a dosing pump. A contact time of 15 to 30 minutes between the water and the chlorine is necessary for good disinfection. It is essential to monitor the residual active chlorine at the end of the pipe system once a week. Only the test measuring the reaction to D.P.D. (diethyl phenylene diamine) allows us to do that. The colorimetric test using orthotoluidine does in fact measure chlorine in all its forms (active and inactive). The residual level of active chlorine at the end of the system should be 0.3 - 0.4 mg/litre (0.3 - 0.4 ppm). Chlorine becomes dissociated in water into hypochlorous acids and hypochlorite ions. The percentage of these two chlorine fractions depends on the ph of the water. Hypochlorous acid 120 times more active than the hypochlorite ion. I t is, therefore, desirable that the ph of the treated water stays below 7 so that chlorine disinfection can be effective. Cleaning the Drinkers The water system should be cleaned regularly, but must be cleaned after in water treatments, especially after antibiotic treatment and must be cleaned in between the flocks, as part of the cleaning and disinfection of the poultry house. The water in drinkers often becomes soiled with feed residues, and possibly with infections. To prevent the development of germs in the drinkers, they should be cleaned at least once a day during the first 2 weeks, and once a week thereafter. In a hot climate, the drinkers should be cleaned every day. The depth of water in the drinkers should be 15 mm. Water Consumption Water consumption depends on ambient temperature. Above 20C, consumption increases to enable the bird to maintain body temperature (respiratory evaporation). The actual consumption depends on temperature and humidity of the ambient air. The following table shows the relationship between water and feed consumption according to house temperature: Temperature 15C 20C 25C 30C
Temperature Rearing Prod

Rearing 1.6 1.7 2.3 3.0

Production 1.70 (210 ml) 1.80 (205 ml) 2.10 (230 ml) 3.10 (320 ml)

In hot periods it is essential to provide cool water for the birds. In a hot climate, cool water will improve productivity. It is extremely important to protect the water tanks from the direct sun's rays.

Water: the most critical nutrient

2009-10 Page | 2

WHICH ENERGY LEVEL DURING THE PRODUCTION PERIOD

Influence of the energy level on productivity We studied the results of many experiments on the effect of the feed energy level on the production made during the last 15 years with white or brown strains. Main conclusions are the following. Between 2400 and 3000 kcal, for an energy level reduction of 100 kcal, the energy consumption drops by an average of 1.2 % when the effect of diluting the feed is studied and by 1.4% when the reduction in fat levels is studied. The energy level of the feed has little effect on the number of eggs produced, and, in all cases, the differences are less than 1%. The egg weight reduces in accordance with the reduction in the feed energy level. The reduction can be estimated at about 0.5% or 0.3g for a variation of 100 kcal. The consumption rate, expressed in kcal per gram of egg produced, always improves with the dilution of the feed. The gain is about 0.8% for 100 kcal. This rate gain is a result of a reduction in body weight, an improvement in feather cover and an improvement in the digestibility of the feed. In many experiments the addition of fats seems to have a specific effect on the energy consumption due to an improvement in palatability and the physical form of the feed. When the feed is diluted, the reduction in consumption is particularly marked at the time of the change. Laying hens take several weeks to increase their level of consumption gradually. Influence of the fibre level on productivity Feed dilution forces hens to increase the volume and quantity of feed ingested and, therefore, to increase the feed consumption time. There is no longer any doubt that feed dilution brings about an improvement in plumage and a reduction in feather picking itself. This explains the mortality reduction observed in certain trials using diluted diets. Comparison between feed in meal or pellet form shows that the consumption times are lower when the feed is in pellet or crumb form. This explains why feed in pellet form causes deterioration in plumage and increases feather picking. Even though most researchers are in agreement over establishing a relationship between consumption time and feather picking, some very recent studies show a specific requirement for insoluble fibre. Indeed, it appears that there is a specific requirement for insoluble fibre. The absence of insoluble fibres in the feed is responsible for the consumption of feathers and their presence in the gizzard, even when hens are housed in individual cages. Some studies make it possible to conclude that insoluble fibres do have an effect on the quality of plumage and on mortality. The specific size of the fibres, mainly lignin, would seem to be important. We have noted that countries using sunflower meal in quite significant quantities have lower mortalities than those of countries that do not use it, whether using cages or floor systems. Very positive effects were observed after the introduction of sunflower meal to feed for freerange hens. Effect of granulometry Feed consumption is highly dependant upon granulometry. Chickens have a marked preference for grains. They are easy to pick up and do not lead to beaks becoming clogged. A hen will always tend to leave fine particles. We (ISA, 1999) carried out the following trial: a commercial feed, of good particle size, was re-milled through a finer screen. The feeds were distributed from 19 weeks of age.

Which energy level during the production period

2009-10 Page | 1

Influence of feed granulometry on performance of laying hens between 23 and 51 weeks

Particle size < 0.5 mm > 3.2 mm 0.5 to 3.2 mm > 1.6 mm Laying, % Egg weight, g Egg mass, g/j Consumption, g/j Consumption Index Weight at 33 wks (g)

Standard 9% 10 % 81 % 65 % 93.9 63.3 59.41 118.1 1.989 1.930

Fine 31 % 0% 69 % 21 % 90.7 62.7 56.85 114.2 2.008 1.883

Difference in %

- 3.4 - 0.9 - 4.3 - 3.4 + 0.9

Feed consumption is reduced by about 4 g when the feed is finely ground. This leads to a reduction of egg mass produced. Distribution of fine feed is equivalent to rationing for hens. In this experiment, the laying rate proves to be affected more than the egg weight. Sometimes in other experiments, the reverse is observed. Conclusion Energy regulation is not specific to a breed, white egg layers or brown egg layers, but depends on the dilution methods used. The feed density (gm per litre) seems to be the limiting factor in ingestion regulation. The presence of insoluble fibre appears to be essential. It increases gizzard size, improves starch digestibility and limits feather picking by reducing the need to ingest feathers. Conversely, the addition of fats brings about an improvement in feed palatability and thus an increase in energy ingestion in proportions which can be very significant. Increase in egg weight is only one result of this. These effects are dependent upon the quantity and type of fats added. From a practical point of view, the effect of low density, high cellulose (insoluble fibre) raw materials may be balanced by the use of fats. The feed presentation also has an effect on energy consumption. Too fine feed presentation causes a reduction in energy consumption. It thus appears that the 3 following factors must be controlled: the physical form of the feed, the cellulose content and the oil content. A balance between these 3 criteria must be sought in order to make possible the expression of genetic potential at a lower cost.

Which energy level during the production period

2009-10 Page | 2

Principal applications and recommendations At the onset of laying, it is desirable to encourage feed consumption and quickly to obtain eggs of marketable size. For this, a feed enriched in fat (1.5 to 2.5 % ) and incorporating a minimum of insoluble fibre is recommended. After the onset of laying, a slightly lower energy level, richer in cellulose, will allow a good energy efficiency to be obtained (expressed in kcal) and plumage to be maintained. This strategy could be particularly beneficial for alternative production (free range, organic), especially in the absence of ground litter. From the practical point of view, the effect of raw materials which are rich in cellulose (insoluble fibre) and of low density can be compensated by the use of fat. Feed granulometry also affects energy consumption. Particles which are too fine lead to a reduction in consumption.

Which energy level during the production period

2009-10 Page | 3

CALCIUM NUTRITION AND PARTICLES SIZE

Year after year, improvements in productivity are brought about by reducing the time taken to produce an egg. Nowadays, the time taken to produce the egg is close to 24 hours which enables us to achieve very high rates of production with eggs being laid early in the morning. Calcification of the eggshell takes about 12 hours being completed on average 2h - 2 h 30 min. before oviposition. Eggshell quality depends to a large extent on the quantity of calcium available in the digestive tract during the night and the form in which calcium carbonate is supplied play determining roles in deciding shell quality. Some differences exit between white and brown layers for a programme of 16 hours of light: In Average (hours after lights on) Beginning of large calcium deposit End of calcium deposit White Layers 15h30 (+/- 2hrs) 3h30 (+/- 2hrs) Brown Layers 12h30 (+/- 2hrs) 0h30 (+/- 2hrs)

Calcification of the shell is mainly realised during the night. A high percentage of brown birds stop calcification at lights on or just after while white layers finished their shell after lights on. Calcium absorption During shell formation the bird uses the calcium contained in the digestive tract, it is dissolved by abundant secretion of Hydrochloric acid. Regular gizzard contractions allow delivering calcium through intestine. When the quantity of calcium is insufficient, the bone reserves are used (the calcium is deposited and the phosphorus eliminated by the kidneys). It has been demonstrated many times that birds which are forced to use their bone reserves produce eggs of poorer shell quality. Sauveur (1988) said "the eggshells are thicker when the part played by the bones is small". Calcium deposition is slow during the first 5 hours after enter in the shell gland. After that and for approximately 10 hours, the rate of shell deposition is rapid and linear. Calcium absorption varies from approximately 30% to over 70% between periods without calcification and period of shell formation. For this reason, all increase in the quantity of calcium available at the end of the night lead to an improvement in shell quality. Importance of large limestone particle size Large size of calcium and retention: Large sizes of limestone (over 2 mm) are retained in the digestive tract and dissolved slowly during the shell formation providing a more regular release of calcium. The influence of particle size on the in vitro and in vivo solubility of calcium and its retention in the gizzard 5 hours after food withdrawal Diameter of Solubility (%) limestone particles In vitro In vivo Retention in the average size gizzard (g) (mm) A B A B A B 3.3 4.7 29.8 36.3 84.8 82.5 15.4 3.4 2.0 2.8 45.8 54.8 79.0 84.0 11.8 4.3 1.0 2.0 49.3 57.7 77.8 74.4 5.5 4.7 0.5 0.8 63.1 67.6 76.5 69.4 0.7 1.6
A = low solubility sample B = high solubility sample Zhang et al (1997)

Calcium nutrition and particles size

2009-10 Page | 1

Relation between particle size and calcium retention for a consumption of 3.75 g calcium Size of particles 0.5 to.8 mm 2 to 5 mm Particles Stored in the gizzard After 24 hours 0 10 %

Rejected in the faeces 44 % 16 %

Calcium retained g % 1.94 52 2.40 64 Rao and Roland (1989)

Large size of calcium and shell quality: The availability of calcium at the end of the night period is improved in using a coarse calcium source with a low solubility. In using a low solubility coarse limestone, the quantity of calcium available during the beginning of shell formation is reduced and improved at the end of the night. The most important parameter is the solubility, lower is solubility and better will be the shell quality. Chen and Coon (1990) found a very high coefficient of regression between Shell Index and solubility. Coarse limestone with a high solubility is not able to optimize the shell quality. There is no advantage to use oyster shell if the limestone size and solubility are correct. Av. Screen size (mm) 3.36 2.38 1.68 1.02 0.50 0.15 Shell index mg / cm 75.6 74.3 74.0 73.7 73.0 70.9 Shell weight g 5.27 5.21 5.23 5.16 5.05 4.97 Specific gravity Shell thickness m 1.0837 302 1.0839 290 1.0828 296 1.0825 294 1.0821 286 1.0802 280 Chen and Coon (1990)

Importance of soluble form of calcium At "lights-on", those birds, which have not completed calcification should have access to powdered calcium, which is very rapidly dissolved and absorbed. It takes no more than 30 minutes between the intake of calcium and the moment where calcium is incorporated into the shell. Koreleski et al, 2003, studied which percentage of coarse particles of limestone has to be used with brown birds. The best result is observed with 60% of large particles.

Calcium nutrition and particles size

2009-10 Page | 2

The effect of the percentage of limestone in particles of 2 to 4mm on the shell characteristics Percentage of Egg shell large particles breaking strength used N 0 33.6a 20 35.4ab 40 38.0d 60 38.2d 80 36.9cd 100 36.1bc Shell weight g 5.70 5.80 5.75 5.88 5.70 5.89 Shell Index mg per cm 78.3 78.9 79.7 80.8 79.1 81.4 Shell thickness m

365 365 368 374 364 370 Koreleski (2003)

Recommendations white layers: They finished their eggshell after lights on, consequently 50% of the calcium have to be in particles of 2 to 4 mm and 50% in a powder form. brown layers: Around 40% of birds have finished their eggshell at lights on, consequently 65% of the calcium have to be in particles of 2 to 4 mm and 35% in a powder form.

Calcium nutrition and particles size

2009-10 Page | 3