Motivation: concept and application

Azmi Banibaker MHP

 ABSTRACT

Motivation is the cause of behavior. Motivation is though to have three key tasks: a
directing or steering function that steers an individual’s behavior towards or away from particular
objective, an activating function that energies action to achieve the goals and a control function
that influence the combination of behavioral components into consistent, goal-oriented
behavioral order. Psychological study of motivation searches for theories that describe the role of
motivation in natural systems such as humans and animals. Process based motivation theories for
artificial systems focus on a particular aspect of causation in order to create artificial systems that
exhibit some particular desired form of behavior. Techniques of motivation are related to the
theories of motivation aim to satisfy the needs of employees in order to affect their production to
achieve the goals of the organization
 Introduction

This report covers the definitions of motivation, the importance, and impacts of
motivation. Also it covers the sources of motivation both intrinsic and extrinsic, types of
theories of motivation: need- based theories Maslow's need hierarchy Herzberg's two-factor
theory, Alderfer's ERG theory,Edward Deci and Richard Ryan,McClelland's need theory,
McGregor's theory, and X and Y theory, And Process-based theories: Equity theory,
Expectancy theory, Goal-setting theory, Reinforcement Theory, and Attribution theory, and
recent motivational theories Sheila Ritchie and Peter Martin and Job design theory. It
presents methods and techniques of motivation, and it shows an example from a university
hospital environment about techniques of motivation
 Motivation

Motivation is an internal state that activates behavior and gives it direction. Motivation is the
driving force behind all actions of human beings, animals, and lower organisms.
The main question facing managers in an organization is motivation, how does it work, when to
apply and to whom they should apply on. In today’s organization, motivation plays an important
role in determining whether a company will succeed or not. Motivation is a set of attitudes and
values that influence a person to act in a specific goal directed manner. It is an invisible inner
state that energizes the human goal-directed behavior, which can be divided into two components
which are the direction of a behavior working to reach a goal and the strength of the behavior.
Within an organization the desired goals are often clearly defined, the manager tries to achieve
the goals of the organization through employees. For this a manager normally seeks to change or
maintain certain environmental factors so as to influence the inner drives which may change or
sustain the behaviors of the subordinates.

Motivation is different things to different people. In today’s business environment, managers

must employ an organizational culture, where motivation is the key to their mission as leaders.
In an organization, different employees have different needs and different priorities, therefore,
managers must be able to establish their needs and be able to apply different motivational tools
to satisfy different needs. At the core of motivation is human needs satisfaction. The inner drives
within an individual are believed needs to be activated to give rise to appropriate behavior, where
such behavior could lead to the fulfillment of the needs.

Motivation in Organization

Motivation is a process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior induced by the

expectation of satisfying individual needs. The motivation process is a circular dimension starts
with an unsatisfied need and ends with new an unsatisfied and mostly higher needs.

Unsatisfied need => Tension => Drives => Search Behavior => Satisfied needs => Reduction of
tension => new unsatisfied needs

To apply motivation, we need to understand the needs of human. There are numerous theories
that try to explain the human needs, address different outcome and motivation sources, these
theories are different in their approach, predictive strength, and explanation.

Theories of human needs

(A) Need-based theories

1- Maslow's need hierarchy

2- Herzberg's two-factor theory.

 3- Alderfer's ERG theory

4- Edward Deci and Richard Ryan

5-McClelland's need theory

6-McGregor's Theory X and Theory

1-Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of human needs theory is the most widely discussed
theories of motivation.

Maslow in 1954 developed a “hierarchy of needs” or an order of needs that need to be fulfilled in
each person. If a manager embraces Maslow’s hierarchy, he/she will motivate employees,
keeping the order of needs in mind. The needs, listed from complex or high level to basic or low
level are as follows

1. Self actualization – need to grow and use abilities to the fullest; highest need
2. Esteem – need for respect, prestige, and recognition from others as well as self esteem and
personal sense of competence
3. Social – need for love, affection, and belongingness in one’s relationships with others
4. Safety – need for security, protection, and stability in the personal events of everyday life
5. Physiological – most basic of human needs; need for food, water, and sustenance
Using this theory, managers can use the hierarchy to motivate people by satisfying the most
important needs. The theory can be summarized as follows:

Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior, only unsatisfied needs can
influence behavior, satisfied needs cannot.

Since needs are many, they are arranged in order of importance, from the basic to the complex.
The person advances to the next level of needs after only when the lower level need is at least
minimally satisfied. Further by the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness, and
psychological health a person will show.

2-Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

Frederick Herzberg's two factor theory concludes that certain factors in the workplace result in
job satisfaction, while others lead to dissatisfaction.

He distinguished between:

Motivators; (e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility) which give positive satisfaction,
they are mostly intrinsic factors such as achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility,
advancement, and growth and
Hygiene factors, (e.g. status, job security, salary, and fringe benefits) which do not give positive
satisfaction, although dissatisfaction results from their absence. These factors lead to the
prevention of dissatisfaction. They are mostly extrinsic factors such as

a- Company policy and administration, supervision, work condition, and salary

b- Management implications: job enlargement & enrichment, empowerment, and participative

management. The theory is sometimes called the Motivator-Hygiene Theory

3-Aldelfer’s ERG Theory

ERG theory: (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth).

Alderfer in 1972 proposed a conceptually simpler framework know as ERG theory. Alderfer’s
theory proposes only three basic needs: existence, relatedness, and growth.. Existence needs
correspond closely to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs. Relatedness needs correspond to
love needs. Growth needs correspond to Maslow’s esteem and growth needs.

1-Physiological and safety, the lower order needs, were placed in the Existence category.

2-Interpersonal relationships, Love and self esteem needs were placed in the Relatedness
category.

3-Growth needs: an intrinsic desire for personal development: the intrinsic component of esteem,
and self-actualization.
Alderfer asserts that multiple needs may operate simultaneously and that there is no specific
order in which needs are activated.

4-Self-Determination Theory

Self-Determination Theory (SDT), developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, focuses on the
importance of intrinsic motivation in driving human behavior. Like Maslow's hierarchical theory
and others that built on it, SDT reflects a natural tendency toward growth and development.
Unlike other theories, however, SDT does not include any sort of "autopilot" or self guidance for
achievement, but instead requires active encouragement from the environment. The primary
factors that encourage motivation and development are autonomy, competence feedback, and
relatedness.

5-McClelland's Achievement Motivation Theory

David McClelland’s achievement motivation theory predicts that a person has need for three
things but people differ in degree in which the various needs influence their behavior:
1-Need for achievement refers to an individual's desire for significant accomplishment,
mastering of skills, control, or high standards.

2-Need for power, referring to an individual's need to be in charge. There are two kinds of power,
social and personal. An example of personal power is what drives most corporate leaders to seek
those commands. For example, Nelson Mandela likely commands social power. People with
these needs are most satisfied by seeing their environment move to a certain direction due to
their involvements and

3-Need for affiliation referring to a person's need to feel like he needs to belong to a group, and
the desire to be liked and accepted by others

6- Douglas McGregor's Theory X and theory Y

Theory X

In this theory management assumes employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work if they
can. Because of this workers need to be closely supervised and comprehensive systems of
controls developed. A hierarchical structure is needed with narrow span of control at each level.
According to this theory employees will show little ambition without an enticing incentive
program and will avoid responsibility whenever they can. Theory X: assumes that lower-order
needs motivate individual behavior

Theory Y

In this theory management assumes employees are ambitious, self-motivated, anxious to accept
greater responsibility, and exercise self-control and self-direction. It is believed that employees
enjoy their mental and physical work activities. It is also believed that employees have the desire
to be imaginative and creative in their jobs if they are given a chance. Theory Y: assumes that
higher-order needs motivate individual behavior

(B). Process-based theory

1-Equity theory

Equity theory is the perception of fairness involved in rewards given. A fair or equitable
situation is one in which people with similar inputs experience similar outcomes. Employees will
compare their rewards with the rewards received by others for their efforts. If employees
perceive that an inequity exists, they are likely to withhold some of their contributions, either
consciously or unconsciously, to bring a situation into better balance. Worker may compare his
reward to others inside the group, inside his organization or outside the organization.

For example, if someone thinks he or she is not getting enough pay (output) for his or her work
(input), he or she will try to get that pay increased or reduce the amount of work he or she is
doing. On the other hand, when a worker thinks he or she is being paid too much for the work he
or she is doing, he or she tends to increase the amount of work. Not only do workers compare
their own inputs and outputs; they compare their input/output ratio with the input/output ratio of
other workers. If one work team believes they are doing more work than a similar team for the
same pay, their sense of fairness will be violated and they will tend to reduce the amount of work
they are doing. It is a normal human inclination to want things to be fair.

2-Expectancy theory or Vroom's Expectancy Theory

Vroom in his 1964 book Work and Motivation presents a theory, which appears more
comprehensive than other theories and is applicable to employees at work as well as humans in
general. Briefly, the expectancy theory states that motivation to behave or perform depends on
three variables: Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence.

Expectancy refers to the linkage between effort and performance; it represents the strength of
one's belief that specific effort will result in related specific performance outcome.
Instrumentality refers to the linkage between performance and reward; that is, the strength of
one's belief that certain kind and level of performance will lead to a particular reward. Valence
refers to the attractiveness or utility of the reward to the individual.

This theory states that a person will expend the required effort, i.e., he will be motivated to
perform, if he believes that his effort will result in the desired performance, which will get him a
reward that is important to him.

3-Goal-setting theory

In 1960s, Edwin Locke proposed that goal is a major source of work motivation, specific and
hard goals with feedback produce higher level of productivity than generalized goals. According
to this theory, self-efficacy affects the behavior, the higher self efficacy produce more confidence
in abilities, also this theory is cultural-bound, that is, it is well adapted to the culture.

4- Reinforcement Theory.

This theory is a counterpart to goal- setting theory. Reinforcement theory takes a behavioristic
approach. It argues that reinforcement conditions behavior. Reinforcement theory: involves four
types of consequence.1) Positive reinforcement creates a pleasant consequence by using rewards
to increase the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated.2) Negative reinforcement occurs when
a person engages in behavior to avoid unpleasant consequences or to escape from existing
unpleasant consequences.3) Punishment is an attempt to discourage a target behavior by the
application of negative outcomes whenever it is possible. 4) Extinction is the absence of any
reinforcement, either positive or negative, following the occurrence of a target behavior.
Employees who do an exceptionally good job on a particular project should be rewarded for that
performance. It will motivate them to try to do an exceptional job on their next project.
Employees must associate the reward with the behavior. In other words, the employee must
know for what specifically he or she is being rewarded! The reward should come as quickly as
possible after the behavior. The reward can be almost anything, but it must be something desired
by the employee. Some of the most powerful rewards are symbolic; things that cost very little
but mean a lot to the people who get them. Examples of symbolic rewards are things like plaques
or certificates.

5-Attribution theory

Attribution theory attempts to specify the processes that are involved when an individual
develops an explanation for the behavior of others or themselves. Heider introduced the idea that
people follow specifiable rules in interpreting the causes of behavior. Heider’s proposed that,
along with professional psychologists, naïve perceivers share the belief that there are two classes
of causes: personal forces and environmental forces. Heider further subdivided each of these
forces into two categories: ability and trying, task difficulty and luck respectively. He proposed
that the relationship between ability and task difficulty is additive. That is, environmental forces
could oppose or support the personal force and thus increase or reduce its effectiveness. Further
he proposed that the personal force trying is made up of two components: intention and exertion.
Successful action depends on the presence of both can and exertion. (K. Merrick)

Recent Theory

1-Sheila Ritchie and Peter Martin

Motivation management theory

Ritchie and Martin developed their motivation management theory in the late 1990’s.The basic
assumption is that “‘the task of the manager is to find out what motivates people’ and to make
them ‘smile more and carp less.’” From literature and their own observations, they identified
twelve “motivational drivers.” These include human needs for 1-interesting work, 2-
achievement, 3-self development, 4-variety, 5-creativity, 6- power, 7-influence, 8-social contact,
9-money and tangible rewards, 10-structure and rules, 11- long-term relationships, and 12- good
working conditions. They then developed a motivational profile survey with thirty-three
questions. After scoring, a unique pattern of the individual’s motivational drivers is revealed that
can be compared to the data of the original one thousand three hundred fifty-five respondents.

Knowing an individual’s profile, a manager can then tailor a motivation method for that person.
For instance, if a manager is considering giving an employee a raise and their profile shows that
creativity and variety motivate this person, then the manager should reward accordingly, not with
a raise. Ritchie and Martin claim that each of the twelve drivers is independent of the others. The
motivation management theory of Ritchie and Martin would be classified as a content theory,
which suggests that motivation results from the individual’s attempts to satisfy needs. The order
of the twelve drivers listed above reflects the profile scores of the original sample. This is to say
that, among this group of managers, the needs for interesting work and achievement were most
2-Job design theory
This theory proposes that job design and the way the job is organized affects the effort of worker,
it shows that any job may have five core dimensions: 1) skill variety, where a job depends on
multi-skills worker, 2) task identity, where the job is a complete multi-steps to perfect the
product,3)task significance, where the job provides important effect on the lives or work of other
people.4)autonomy, where the job provides independence and freedom to the worker in
performing the job,5) feedback, where the product of the job provides information about the
efficiency of performance (S. Robbins)

Sources of motivation

In general motivation may be of intrinsic origin where the desire for the job comes from internal
motivation which occurs in the absence of external motivation such as, interesting, involving,
exciting, satisfying or personally challenging, and /or extrinsic origin in which the person works
for reasons other than internal desire, that includes, rewards ,benefits money, family and social
reasons,” Intrinsic motivation flourishes in an environment where employees feel like they are a
part of something larger than themselves.” Says A. Precht, some times the intrinsic desire needs
to find the right and suitable environment to be ignited. I think the needs can not be organized or
classified independently, for example if I need money, that doesn’t mean I don’t care about
recognition, growing, or security. Or as all of my female coworkers who are concerned about
security in the hospital at work environment during the late evening shift, they do not like this
late time, even with the pay rate difference of $3 per hour. After setting the right environment,
motivating may needs to be one-to one approach. A manager needs to uncover the employees
potential for example1) Ask the employee what she or he likes to do,2) Get co-workers’
thoughts, ,this may be achieved indirectly without discussing other coworker personalities, 3)
Look to history for clues, a manager needs to spend time concentrating on why he hired this
employee, what his resume and references told about strengths and weaknesses of that employee,
4) Allow the employee to test-drive a new role, This test-drive might spark new ideas about
increased value from the employee, and allow a manager to see where a role-shift may make
sense for the company. Internship may lead to valuable information for the company and the
individual. (J.walter)

Motivating employees

Effective managers have the ability to get things done through other people. This is
accomplished by motivating employees to accomplish specific tasks. A manager must be able to
delegate these tasks to employees. The technique a manager uses to motivate employees to work
for him, will either motivate or dissatisfy employees. Motivated employees will work with the
manager to achieve company goals. Those employees who are dissatisfied will work against
company goals

Motivation is based on how much someone wants something. Many managers are motivated by
personal factors that lead them to be managers. In a study on the needs or wants of managers and
employees from their job, the top three for both, managers and employees were their desire to
have job security (Jurkiewicz 1997, 370).

Regular employees said they also wanted a “chance to learn new things”,
managers can motivate employees by using good communications to show Approval, praise, and
recognition, Trust, respect, and his expectations, and giving Loyalty, Job enrichment and Cash
incentives. Manager who knows how to motivate the people around them are bound to be good
managers. Since there is no one true way to motivate employees. Managers must be flexible to
the needs of each individual employee. Managers must also feel comfortable with different styles
of motivation. Since there are no two people that are motivated by the same exact thing.

Motivation by managers is sometimes considered manipulation by employees, for this, manager

must be aware of the misinterpretation of his effort to motivate employees. Manager must be
loyal to his organization, by demonstrating fairness in treatment of employees; also manager
must be honest and trustworthy. The decisions a manager make, must be consistent and logical.
Mistreatment may lead to counter production for example, “If employees in an organization feel
that they are not being treated equitably on the job. They might start to demonstrate destructive
behavior on the job; some such behaviors might be excessive absences, lack of output, or
withdrawal. So when employees are demonstrating destructive behavior it is the manager
responsibility to negatively reinforce that behavior.” Employees want the same things managers
want, for this, managers must treat employees the same way they themselves want to be treated
by their superiors. They want opportunity, recognition, and praise. They can also be motivated by
money and incentives but those kinds of incentives aren’t always possible. In order to be able to
motivate others, a manager must be motivated himself, - tickets or lunch out, may have greater
impact with employee, even when motivating by money, it may need to be accompanied by a
personal touch, that help a manager to create the right atmosphere for his employees to be

motivated, for example a manger needs to achieve an environment of inclusion, where every one
feels that he is part or important part of the organization. Manger may achieve this environment
by:1- “Showing a dedication to the mission statement,2-Make sure all members believe in the
product and have had a chance to use it firsthand,3-Keep an eye open for rightness of fit of
employee to job,4-When hire and promote, people should be placed where their passions lie”.
(A. Precht),

Methods for Managers to Gauge Motivation Probability

1-Employee Selection
A manager’s ability to motivate starts with employee selection. The hiring of employees that are
self-motivated is crucial to the success of any business. If an employee is motivated from within,
then the “motivator” aspect of a manager’s job is less difficult
2-High Organizational Expectations

Another method that managers can utilize to help them motivate their employees is incorporating
high organizational expectations or standards. Some leaders and managers build important
productivity expectations into their organizational cultures. These expectations include a sense of
responsibility, high productivity, and quality of output. These expectations are impressed upon
new employees. Managers show this by having new employees watch “pace setters” to
demonstrate that these expectations are taken very seriously throughout the organization.
By employing these two methods, managers, more than likely, will not need to motivate their
employees as much or as often. This is not to say that motivation can be neglected at any point.
Managers must continually motivate their employees, but this can be made easier by attempting
to hire self-motivated employees and impressing high standards upon them and reinforcing the
standards on a daily basis.

Motivation techniques

The ability to motivate others has long been an accepted hallmark of the successful leader. This
is true of student leaders on college campuses, as well as CEOs of large company. In an
organization where people are motivated, there is maximum productivity, efficiency, and
enjoyment.

“Motivating others is a leadership skill you can learn” says Harvard U. Professor Roland Barth,
if you're willing to consistently apply the Seven Techniques of Motivation.

1: Delegating effectively

By wisely assigning responsibility, the majority of the membership will be involved.

2: Assigning incremental tasks

Everyone in an organization should be involved, even if it is in small ways at first. When

delegating even simple tasks, members are drawn into action on behalf of the organization. The
more they become involved, the more meaningful their commitment and the more successful the
organization.
3: Treating members equally
everyone enjoys being "in the know.” People want to have influence and feel as if they share
power within the organization. A manager should show that he or she values every person in the
organization. It'll translate into a more motivated membership.

4: Using praise and criticism

Inevitably, a leader, have to praise and/or criticize. Learning to do so effectively maximizes the
potential to act as a motivator. If possible, employ praise and criticism separately...

5: Generating enthusiasm

There's no substitute for genuine enthusiasm. Real enthusiasm generates real energy, which can
become an irresistible force if you focus it properly.

A manager should interact with members in a positive and energetic manner. Believe in the
organization and show some zest. Have confidence in members. And be enthusiastic.

6: Promoting integrity

An essential part of your college development is forming your own set of principles. Practice
what is important. People model what a first person does. They don't necessarily do what he or
she says.
7: Maintain humor
Take work seriously, but self less so. A manger may keep sanity -- and friends, when maintain
sense of humor. (R. Barth)

From the real life this is an example from University Medical Center about how managers are
expected to behave in order to be valued as good managers. Managers at RUMC are expected to
1) Exceed standard by showing both initiative and leadership, or
2- Exceed standard by showing initiative, or
3- Meet standard which is the minimum.
Managers are expected to
1) identify the organization mission, vision and values,
2) identify the workplace behavior that exemplify the mission, vision and values, and
3)practice behaviors that support the values of the organization
Managers are expected to support Rush values which are: innovation, collaboration,
accountability, respect, and excellence.
Guidance for behavioralizing the organization values
A manager should
1-seek and support new and better methods to deliver high quality, cost effective, patient –
centered services by fostering an environment where employees can show innovation behavior
such as; A-create useful work methods or process, B- improve existing work methods or process,
C-enthusiastically embrace changes to work methods, policies and procedures initiated by others,
D-use creative ways when confronted by limited resources, and E- be active and eager to try new
approaches, concepts and techniques.
2- Go beyond supporting each others’ efforts to support (the organization), to seek out strategic
relationship that promote a whole that exceeds the sum of its parts. For this mangers are expected
to foster an environment where employees can create constructive synergies achieve mutually
positive business, clinical or service outcomes with peers, management, customers and with
other departments
3-accept ownership and responsibility for specific contributions to the success of the medical
center, to establish clear expectations, strive to meet these expectations, and accept responsibility
when expectations are not met, for this managers are expected to foster an environment where
employees can show accountability behaviors such as A-understanding of and commitment to
Rush mission and vision, B- complete work on time and up to standard, C-accept responsibility
for own decisions and those of the team, D-admit to mistakes and weaknesses instead of blaming
others, E-step in to fill gaps in workflow as needed, F-eagerly accept challenging assignment,
and G-accept responsibility for compliance with all rules and regulations.
4-recognize and value the efforts and contribution of employees in all positions, and of all
professional and cultural background, and seek to foster an inclusive climate where difference
are accepted, understood, and valued.
5- Strive to meet standards of excellence. These include externally established professional and
industry standards and internally organizational and departmental standards, to achieve these
goals managers are expected to foster an environment where employees can A-exceeds quality
standards, B-improve performance through deliberate effort, C-provide evidence of specific
accomplishments, D-create and maintain progress on individual professional development plan,
and E-make use of resources to support work performance
Conclusion
Motivating employees is never simple, but keeping staff motivated is an essential part of any
business. Unproductive staff can have a disastrous effect on a company's bottom line. A good
manager can understand the needs of employees and their priorities, then, the manager uses the
best motivation to fit each situation. Even though all people may share same needs, each one has
his own priorities. A positive corporate culture and a pleasant work environment are more
important than money to most good employees. Recognition and communication are among key
responsibilities of a manager. Screening new employment prospects to insure they fit in and buy
into organization culture will prevent future problems. Employees should be trusted, included,
and empowered to make decisions and act autonomously. They also need to be part of a
harmonious team working for the mutual benefit of the clients, the company and themselves.

References
1-Jukiewicz, Carole L. and Massey Jr, Tom K. “What Motivates Municipal Employees: A
Comparison Study of Supervisory vs. Non-Supervisory Personnel.” Health Care Supervisors.
(Fall 1997) http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&se=gglsc&d=5000556662.

2-A.Precht, www.thinkavenue.com/articles/hr/article14.htm

3- J.walter, http://www.inc.com/articles/2001/03/22371.html ,2001

4- Charles E. McCabe, http://www.cecunc.org/business/employee-motivate.html

5- Ronald Barth, http://studentorgs.unomaha.edu/Vbrochures/!motivat.htm

6-Stepen P. Robbins, Organizational behavior, 11th Ed. Prentice Hall 2005

7-Kathryn Merrick, Motivation Theories for Natural and Artificial Systems, National ICT
Australia & University of Sydney, www.cs.usyd.edu.au/~kkas0686/publications/MotiveTheory.pdf,