Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Amended
August 1996
March 1988
Issue 1.0 June 1999 Revision 1.1 Feb 2000 Issue 1.0 May 1999 Revision 1.1 Jan 2000 February 1989
SECTION 4: INTERSECTIONS AT GRADE SECTION 5: DRAFT DESIGN OF EARTH STRUCTURES SECTION 6: SAFETY BARRIERS FOR ROADS AND BRIDGES SECTION 7: DRAFT DRAINAGE SECTION 8: EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION SECTION 9: MISCELLANEOUS 9.1 Auxiliary Lanes
WITHDRAWN - September 2003 - (If information required on this SECTION Contact sender)
May 1996
August 1988
CONTENTS 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 SIGHT DISTANCE HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT VERTICAL ALIGNMENT CO-ORDINATION OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
2.1
2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.1.4 2.1.5 2.1.6 2.1.7 2.1.8 2.1.9 2.1.10 2.1.11 2.1.12 2.1.13 2.1.14 2.1.15 2.1.16 2.1.17 2.1.18 2.1.19 2.1.20 2.1.21
SIGHT DISTANCE
General Sight Distances Constants assumed for determination of sight distances Stopping sight distance Effect of grade on braking distance Overtaking sight distance Intermediate sight distance Summary of sight distances Sight distance at night Sight distance at vertical sags Sight distance at vertical crests Sight distance at horizontal curves Benching for visibility on horizontal curves Sight distance at combined horizontal and vertical curves Sight distance at intersections Sight distance on undivided roads Sight distance on divided roads Sight distance through underpasses Sight distance at interchanges Other restrictions to visibility Effect of no-overtaking zone markings
Page No.
2.2
2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5 2.2.6 2.2.7 2.2.8 2.2.9 2.2.10 2.2.11 2.2.12 2.2.13 2.2.14 2.2.15 2.2.16 2.2.17 2.2.18
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
General Straight alignment Curved alignment Horizontal curve radius Length of curved roadway Circular arc Deflection angle Vehicular movement on a circular path Transverse friction Superelevation - general Desirable superelevation Maximum values of superelevation Minimum values of superelevation Adverse crossfall Superelevation on bridges Superelevation on steep grades Superelevation at road junctions Superelevation development
a. b. c. d. e. Length of superelevation development Procedure Rate of Rotation Relative grade Length of superelevation development to satisfy relative grade
Page No.
2.2.19
Plan transition
a. Clothoid spiral b. Cubic parabola
2.2.20 2.2.21
2.3
2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5 2.3.6 2.3.7 2.3.8 2.3.9 2.3.10 2.3.11 2.3.12 2.3.13 2.3.14 2.3.15 2.3.16
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
General Grading Grading at intersections Vertical curves Length of vertical curves for appearance Length of vertical curves for comfort Length of vertical curves for sight distance requirements Sight line constant for crest curves Length of crest curves Sag vertical curves Sight line constant for sag curves Determination of lengths for sag curves Overhead obstruction at sag curves Vertical curves on undivided roads Vertical curves on divided roads Calculation of parabolic vertical curves
Page No.
2.4
2.4.2
CO-ORDINATION OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENT (This subject is more fully covered in Section 6) General
Page No.
SECTION 2
NOTATION
A a B C Ca Cl CL Dh Dm Do Ds d dr E e f fl G Gr g H h h1 h2 K L Le Lh Lp
Algebraic difference of vertical grades (%). Vertical component of acceleration (m / sec2). Benching offset (m). Sight line constant for vertical curves. Length of circular arc (m). Lateral clearance between vehicles in adjacent lanes (m). Base control line. Headlight illumination distance (m). Intermediate sight distance (m). Overtaking sight distance (m). Stopping sight distance (m). Braking distance (m). Distance travelled during reaction time (m). Superelevation (%). Superelevation (m / m or tangent of angle). Assumed value of transverse friction demand. Assumed coefficient of longitudinal friction demand. Longitudinal grade (%). Relative grade (%). Acceleration due to gravity (9.8m / sec2). Clearance of overhead obstructions (m). Mounting height of headlight (m). Height of eye above road (m). Object cutoff height above road (m). Measure of vertical curvature. Length of vertical curve (m). Length of superelevation development (m). Length of horizontal curve (m). Length of plan transition (m).
S.C. Spiral curve, common point of spiral and circular curve. S.S. Start of superelevation transition. T.P. Tangent point, common point of tangent and circular curve. T.S. Tangent spiral, common point of tangent and spiral. V v Vm W Wa Wb Wd We Wl Wn Wr Ws x y Speed (km / h). Speed (m / sec). Distance between adjacent T.S. points on broken-back or reverse curves (m). Lane widening (m). Distance rear wheels track inside front wheels on curve (m). Extra width allowance for difficulty of driving on curve (m). Additional width of front overhang on curve (m). Distance from inside lane line to driver position (m). General lane width (m). Width of pavement on tangent (m). Width from axis of rotation to outside edge of running lanes (m). Width of inner travel lane and adjacent shoulder (m). Distance of offset from either the T.S. or S.C. end of plan transition (m). Intermediate offsets of plan transition (m). Elevation angle of headlight beam (+ upwards). Deflection angle (degrees).
RTA of NSW
Reaction Time
-- 1.5 secs for design speeds 100 km/hr -- 2.5 secs where design speed is 100 km/hr and access is controlled. -- 1.15m Passenger Car. -- 1.8m Commercial Vehicle. -- 1.15m Approaching Vehicle. -- 0.2m Stationary object on road. -- 0.6m Vehicle tailstop light.
Object Height
= Rt v =
Rt V 3.6
2.1.3
The following values are used in calculating stopping distances and sight distances (see Figure 2.1.1).
Road Design Guide
RTA of NSW
CREST
Sight Distance
Vertical Clearance
Sight Distance
Figure 2.1.1
Table 2.1.1
Stopping Sight Distances on Level Bituminous or Concrete Surfaces. DISTANCE (m) TRAVELLED DURING* REACTION TIME Rr TOTAL STOPPING DISTANCE (m) BRAKING 1.5 Secs 20 25 30 35 40 45 2.5 Secs 25 35 50 65 80 105 135 165 210 1.5 Secs 45 60 80 100 120 150 2.5 Secs
CO-EFFICIENT OF LONGITUDINAL FRICTION DEMAND fl 0.50 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.39 0.37 0.35 0.33
70 75 85 90
Total Distances given are approximately 5m to 8m longer than calculated distances to provide extra distance for stationary between vehicle and object.
RTA of NSW
2.1.5
Effect of Distance
Grade
on
Braking
The distance a vehicle travels while being braked is longer on downhill grades and shorter on uphill grades. The braking distance component of the stopping sight distance formula (Section 2.1.4) when adjusted to take into account the effect of grade is :-
d=
V2 254( f l 0.01G )
terrain and cost of construction. It is an essential safety measure and to a large degree will influence both the location and design of a road. In undulating or flat country, it should occur frequently or continuously; at other locations minor modifications to alignment or grading may provide the sight distance necessary at little or no additional cost. As a general rule if overtaking sight distance cannot be economically provided at least once in each 2km of road, (depending on road type and volume), consideration should be given to the installation of auxiliary lanes in accordance with Section 8.1. (ii) Length of continuing overtaking sight distance
Where: d = braking distance (m). V = speed (km/h). fl = assumed coefficient of longitudinal friction demand for design speed (see Table 2.1.1). G = longitudinal grade per cent (+ uphill, - downhill)
Isolated sections of roadway that have only minimum overtaking sight distance, are of little value if oncoming traffic prevents the utilisation of any overtaking opportunity provided. After overtaking sight distance has been established, it needs to be maintained continuously along a length of roadway to maximise overtaking opportunities and to enable an overtaking manoeuvre, once commenced, to be either completed or abandoned with safety. This length should be as long as economically practicable, and on roads with high traffic volumes should be equal to at least half the overtaking sight distance for the design speed. (iii) Vertical alignment
The provision of minimum overtaking sight distance at crests is usually uneconomical and may not be used since many drivers are reluctant to overtake in these circumstances. Shorter crest curves with stopping sight distance often result in longer sections with overtaking sight distance. (iv) Auxiliary lane option
The provision of overtaking sight distance at some locations on two lane roads may not be cost effective and in these cases, a section of auxiliary lane construction with stopping sight distance is generally more economical than two lanes with overtaking sight distance.
When applying the overtaking sight distances given in Table 2.1.2, the following factors should also be considered : (i) Frequency
The frequency at which overtaking sight distance should be provided is related to the travel speed, traffic volume, traffic composition,
Road Design Guide June, 95 Issue 1.0 3
RTA of NSW
Table 2.1.3
Intermediate Sight Distances. DESIGN SPEED INTERMEDIATE (km/h) SIGHT DISTANCE (m) [1.15m-1.15m] 50 140 60 180 70 220 80 260 90 300 100 380 110 450 120 530 130 600
2.1.10
Sag vertical curves may be designed to provide acceptable standards of comfort or to allow adequate headlight sight distance, with the latter usually being the governing criterion. Where a sag vertical curve is on a straight, Figure 2.3.7 (page 2-37) gives the length of vertical curve which provides for headlight sight distance (to a maximum of 150m) with an angle of beam 1above the horizontal axis.
2.1.11
The minimum sight distance to be provided at vertical crests is stopping sight distance for the specified design speed and an object height of 0.2m. The provision of overtaking sight distance at vertical crests is usually uneconomical and a
4 16/09/98 Issue 1.0 Road Design Guide
RTA of NSW
more satisfactory option is the adoption of intermediate sight distance. Figures 2.3.3 and 2.3.4 (pages 2-33 & 2-34) give the length of vertical curve required to obtain stopping sight distance for eye height of 1.15m to zero pavement level and to an object height of of 0.2m for given design speeds and algebraic differences in grade. Figures 2.3.5 and 2.3.6 (pages 2-35 & 2-36) give the length of vertical curve required to obtain overtaking and intermediate sight distances (1.15m to 1.15m) for given design speeds and algebraic differences in grade.
0.3m under the sight line to allow for obstructions such as small boulders and grass growth. Where a horizontal and crest vertical curve overlap, the line of sight between approaching vehicles may not be over the top of the crest but to one side and in part may be off the formation. Cutting down the crest on the pavement will not increase visibility if the line of sight is clear of the pavement, and the bottom of the bench may be lower than the shoulder level. In these cases, as well as in the case of sharp horizontal curves, a better solution may be to use a larger radius curve so that the line of sight remains within the formation. This will increase the 85th percentile speed and an iteration is necessary to ensure that stopping sight distance requirements are met.
2.1.12
at
Horizontal
Where an obstruction off the pavement (such as a bridge pier, building, batter or natural growth) restricts sight distance, the minimum radius of curvature is determined by the stopping sight distance for the adopted design speed. On twolane, two-way roads however, it is preferable to provide for intermediate sight distance so as to minimise the use of barrier lines. The relation of a drivers line of sight to the sight distance measured around the curve and the curve radius is shown as Figure 2.2.6 (page 226). Also shown are the formulae to calculate the offset distance required from the pavement centreline to the line of sight obstruction and the minimum radius which avoids benching. Table 2.2.2 gives calculated offsets for stopping and intermediate sight distances for various curve radii.
2.1.14
Where sag and crest vertical curves are combined with horizontal curves, the sight distance requirements of Sections 2.1.10, 2.1.11 & 2.1.12 should be amalgamated to ensure continuous provison of the appropriate sight distance.
2.1.15
(To be read in conjunction with Section 4.3.2) At all intersections, the following sight distance requirements should be satisfied: (i) Stopping sight distance (1.15m to zero), should be available on each approach of the intersection, so that drivers may appreciate the layout of the intersection by having clear visibility to pavement markings and channel?isation. (ii) A driver stopped in the minor road should have sufficient sight distance (1.15m to 1.15m) to react to an acceptable gap, start up and enter or cross the major traffic stream, without causing major disruption. (iii) Vehicles in the major road should have sufficient sight distance (1.15m to 1.15m) to observe a vehicle from the minor road move into the intersection, and in the event of a stall, be able to decelerate to a stop prior to collision. This sight distance is numerically equal to: the distance travelled during the observation time (3 secs) plus, the stopping distance of the vehicles on the major road (see Section 4.3.2).
2.1.13
Benching is the widening of the inside of a cutting on a curve to obtain the specified sight distance. It usually takes the form of a flat table or bench over which a driver can see an approaching vehicle or an object on the road. In plan view, the benching is fixed by the envelope formed by the lines of sight. The driver and the object being approached are assumed to be in the inner lane. The sight distance is measured around a line 1.5m from the driver's side of the lane line and is the path the vehicle would follow in braking. Benching adequate for inner lane traffic satisfies visibility requirements for the outer lane (see Section 2.1.12). Where sight benches in cuttings are required on horizontal curves or on combinations of horizontal and vertical curves, the extent of sight benching is best obtained graphically. The level of the sight bench should be fixed at least
Road Design Guide June, 95 Issue 1.0
RTA of NSW
2.1.16
on
Undivided
2.1.20
The minimum sight distance to be provided at all points in a two-lane or multi-lane road is stopping distance. Where barrier lines are to be avoided and cost associated with heavy earthworks is not a primary consideration, intermediate sight distance may be used. It satisfies many overtaking requirements though it does not comply with all the requirements assumed for overtaking sight distance. In undulating country where overtaking opportunities are few, and auxiliary lanes for overtaking are inappropriate, consideration should be given to providing intermediate sight distance at regular intervals. In cases where barrier lines are necessary at crests, shoulders should be wide enough for a stationary vehicle to stand well clear of the pavement, so that moving vehicles are not forced to cross the centreline of the road (see Section 3). Care should be taken to avoid dips in the roadway which could hide an opposing vehicle and cause an overtaking driver an unexpected hazard.
There are other minor constraints on sight distance that must be kept in mind by the designer: In avenues of trees, visibility can be curtailed at a sag owing to the line of sight being interrupted by the foliage. The same may happen where a bridge crosses a sag and the line of sight is cut by the structure. Guard fencing, bridge handrails, median kerbs and similar obstructions can restrict the visibility available at horizontal and vertical curves. There is a considerable difference between the sight distance available to a driver depending on whether the curve ahead is to the left or to the right.
2.1.21
Reference is made the Department's publication, "Interim Guide to Signs and Markings", Section 7.4, for the practices of marking no-overtaking zones on two lane roads.
2.1.17
At least stopping sight distance is to be provided at all points on a divided road. Generally intermediate sight distance should be adopted where economically practicable.
2.1.18
through
Where economically feasible, overtaking sight distance should be maintained as the highway passes under a structure. If this cannot be achieved, intermediate sight distance will suffice. The absolute minimum sight distance which must be provided at underpasses is stopping sight distance.
2.1.19
Mutual sight must be available between the drivers of converging vehicles at interchanges. This is particularly important at the merge of onload ramps and beneath grade separations where piers or abutment walls may obscure visibility.
RTA of NSW
2.2.1 General
The speed adopted on an open road is affected more by the driver's perception of the horizontal alignment of the road than by any other single design feature. For this reason, whenever curves are used to change the direction of travel or to suit the topography, the radii must be large enough to permit travel speeds commensurate with those expected on adjoining straights or along the whole of the section being designed. Generally, the adopted alignment should be as direct as possible, with curve radii as large as practicable. An alignment without straight sections is described as curvilinear. Curvilinear alignment is suitable for dual carriageway roads but is undesirable for two-lane, two-way roads, as it does not provide sufficient length for overtaking. As with other elements of design, horizontal alignment should generally provide for safe and continuous operation at a uniform travel speed. Sudden reductions in standard, such as isolated curves of small radius (particularly at the end of long straights), introduce an element of surprise to the driver and should be avoided. Where physical restrictions on curve radius cannot be overcome and it becomes necessary to introduce curvature of lower standard than the design speed of the project, the design speed of successive geometric elements should not change by more than 10km/h (on two way roads both directions of travel need to be considered).
In flat country, long straights on roads may have to be accepted. If curves are deliberately introduced into the design to break the monotony, they should have long arc lengths or else they will look like kinks. Unless the change in alignment is considerable, oncoming headlights will remain a nuisance to drivers.
Table 2.2.1
Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves Design Speed Radii (km/h) (m) 50 50 or more 60 90 or more 70 150 or more 80 240 or more 90 340 or more 100 460 or more 110 600 or more 120 800 or more 130 1000 or more
Accident records suggest that curves with radii between 300m and 440m should be avoided for design speeds greater than 70km/h. They are deceptive to the driver as it appears that they can be safely travelled at higher speeds than is actually possible. Wherever possible, curves are to be selected to give stopping sight distance for the adopted design speed, with the line of sight contained within the formation (see Section 2.2.24).
1
RTA of NSW
Speed
Curve Radius
B* C*
Benching Offset
(m)
(m)
Lh
Relative Super Grade Trans % (m) Gr Le Relative Super Plan C'line 2 Grade Trans. Trans. Offset % (m) (m) (m) Le Lp Gr S 1.3 60 1.3 80 0.6 40 80 0.6 60 60 0.9 1.3
Plan Relative Super Plan C'line 2 C'line 2 Trans. Offset Grade Trans Trans. Offset (m) % (m) (m) (m) (m) Lp Gr Le Lp S S
60
100
0.6
0.8
0.2
180
0.5
80 0.8
0.4
0.2
80
230
0.4
0.3
100
280
110
340
120
400
130
470
(m) (m) S.S.D. I.S.D. O.S.D. S.S.D. I.S.D. 6.6 43.5 6.1 39.9 180 60 300 5.7 36.8 5.3 34.1 5.0 31.8 4.8 29.8 6.6 38.2 80 220 350 6.0 34.4 5.6 31.2 5.2 28.6 6.8 36.1 6.4 33.5 450 6.0 31.3 100 260 5.7 29.4 5.5 27.7 6.8 34.2 6.5 32.5 200 120 6.3 30.9 600 6.0 29.4 5.8 28.1 5.6 26.9 7.7 40.3 380 750 7.2 37.3 150 6.7 34.1 10.7 43.3 10.0 40.2 450 900 210 9.4 37.5 12.0 48.0 530 1100 11.3 45.1 250 10.2 40.3 12.8 46.3 300 600 1400 7.2 24.0 5.3 16.5 300 600 1400 A Normal two-lane roadway with control on centreline. B Two-lane roadway with control along one edge. Four-lane roadway with control on centreline. Two-lane roadway with climbing lane and control on the centreline of the basic two lanes. C Multi-lane roadway with more than two lanes between the control and the edge of the travelled way.
130
R 90 100 110 120 130 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 900 1000 2000 3000 over 3000
470
3#
NOTES:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. # *
For design speeds grater than 70 km/h, curve radii within the shaded box are only to be used in exceptional circumstances. A Plan transition (Lp) is not required if the calculated maximum offset (S) from the base control line is less than 300mm. Lane widening is not required if the calculated widening is less than 200mm. Adoption of 2.8, 3.0 and 3.25m lane widths is not recommended for design speeds of 80, 90 and 100 km/h respectively. S.S.D, I.S.D, O.S.D = Stopping, Intermediate and Overtaking Sight Distances. Use is optional. For transition and widening offsets, see Table 2.2.3.
RTA of NSW
TS 20 0.3 -3.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 2.0 -3.3 .04 .22 .17 .15 .10 .07
TP 40 3.7 -4.3 .30 .45 .35 .30 .20 .15 50 5.3 -5.7 .56 .67 .53 .45 .30 .23
SC 60 6.7 -6.7 .60 .90 .70 .60 .40 .30 70 7.0 -7.0
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
Nominal Width
TS 20 0.3 -3.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 2.0 -3.3 .03 .20 .15 .12 .07 .05
TP 40 3.7 -4.3 .20 .40 .30 .25 .15 .10 50 5.3 -5.7 .37 .60 .45 .38 .23 .15
SC 60 6.7 -6.7 .40 .80 .60 .50 .30 .20 70 7.0 -7.0
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
Nominal Width
TS 20 -0.5 -3.0 0 0 0 0 0 30 0.8 -3.0 .01 .12 .08 .07 .03 40 2.0 -3.0 .07 .23 .17 .13 .07
TP 50 3.3 -3.3 .25 .35 .25 .20 .10 60 4.5 -4.5 .43 .47 .33 .27 .13 70 5.8 -5.8 .49 .58 .42 .33 .17
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
Nominal Width
SC 60 3.7 -3.9 70 4.9 -4.9 80 5.8 -5.8 .40 .70 .40 .30 90 6.0 -6.0
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
Nominal Width
-3.0 -3.0 .06 .01 .23 .12 .13 .07 .10 .05
.34 .39 .47 .58 .27 .33 .20 .15 .20 .25 Widening Not Required
RTA of NSW
TABLE 2.2.3
(Continued) (Control other than centreline of normal two-lane roadway, refer Table 2.2.2)
TYPE A
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
Nominal Width
-3.0 -3.0 .06 .01 .23 .12 .13 .07 .10 .05
.39 .34 .58 .47 .27 .33 .20 .15 .25 .20 Widening Not Required
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
Nominal Width
-3.0 -3.0 -3.0 -3.3 -4.0 Offset Not Required .30 .20 .10 .50 .40 .13 .20 .07 .27 .33 .10 .05 .15 .20 .25 Widening Not Required
TP 50 1.4
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
Nominal Width
-3.0 -3.0 -3.0 -3.2 -3.5 Offset Not Required .30 .20 .10 .40 .50 .13 .20 .07 .27 .33 .10 .15 .05 .25 .20 Widening Not Required
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
Nominal Width
-3.0 -3.0 -3.0 -3.0 -3.0 Offset Not Required .08 .17 .25 .42 .33 .05 .10 .15 .20 .25 .03 .07 .10 .13 .17 Widening Not Required
RTA of NSW
TABLE 2.2.3
(Continued) (Control other than centreline of normal two-lane roadway, refer Table 2.2.2)
TYPE B
TS 20 -0.5 -3.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 0.8 -3.0 .03 .15 .12 .10 .07 .05 40 2.0 -3.0 .19 .30 .23 .20 .13 .10
TP 50 3.3 -3.3 .65 .45 .35 .30 .20 .15 60 4.5 -4.5 70 5.8 -5.8
SC 80 6.7 -6.7 1.30 .90 .70 .60 .40 .30 90 7.0 -7.0
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
1.11 1.27 .60 .75 .47 .58 .40 .27 .20 .50 .33 .25
Nominal Width
TS 20 -0.5 -3.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 0.8 -3.0 .02 .13 .10 .08 .05 .03 40 2.0 -3.0 .12 .27 .20 .17 .10 .07
SC 60 4.5 -4.5 .68 .53 .40 .33 .20 .13 70 5.8 -5.8 .78 .67 .50 .42 .25 .17 80 6.7 -6.7 .80 .80 .60 .50 .30 .20 90 7.0 -7.0
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
Nominal Width
TS 20 -0.8 -3.0 30 0.3 -3.0 0 0 0 0 0 40 1.4 -3.0 .01 .12 .08 .07 .03
TP 50 2.5 -3.1 .09 .23 .17 .13 .07 60 3.7 -3.7 .30 .35 .25 .20 .10 70 4.8 -4.8 .51 .47 .33 .27 .13
SC 80 5.9 -5.9 .59 .58 .42 .33 .17 90 6.7 .60 .70 .50 .40 .20 100 7.0
-6.7 -7.0
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
Nominal Width
SC 80 5.0 -5.0 .39 .58 .33 .25 90 5.8 -5.8 .40 .70 .40 .30 100 6.0 -6.0
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
Nominal Width
.20 .35 .20 .13 .27 .10 .15 .20 Widening Not Required
RTA of NSW
TABLE 2.2.3
(Continued) (Control other than centreline of normal two-lane roadway, refer Table 2.2.2) SS 10 -3.0 -3.0 -3.0 0 -3.0 10 -3.0 20 -1.0 -3.0 -2.8 -2.0 TS 30 0.0 -3.0 0 0 0 0 40 1.0 -3.0 .01 .10 .07 .05 50 2.0 -3.0 .04 .20 TP 60 3.0 -3.2 SC 70 4.0 -4.0 80 5.0 -5.0 .29 .50 .33 .25 90 5.8 -5.8 .30 .60 .40 .30 100 6.0 -6.0
TYPE B
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
Nominal Width
.26 .15 .40 .30 .20 .27 .13 .10 .20 .15 Widening Not Required
TS 30 0.3
SC 90 4.8
-3.0 -3.0 0 0 0
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
Nominal Width
-3.0 -3.0 -3.0 -3.3 Offset Not Required .30 .20 .10 .40 .13 .07 .20 .27 .15 .10 .05 .20 Widening Not Required
TS 30 -0.7
40 0.1
50 0.9
TP 60 1.7
70 2.4
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
Nominal Width
-3.0 -3.0 -3.0 -3.0 -3.2 Offset Not Required .40 .30 .10 .20 0 .07 0 .27 .13 .20 .10 .15 .05 0 .20 Widening Not Required
TP 50 0.3
SC 60 1.0 70 1.7 80 2.3 -3.0 .42 .25 .17 90 2.8 -3.0 .50 .30 .20 100 3.0 -3.0
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
Nominal Width
-3.0 -3.0 -3.0 -3.0 Offset Not Required .17 .25 .33 .08 .10 .15 .20 .05 .07 .10 .03 .13 Widening Not Required
RTA of NSW
TABLE 2.2.3
TYPE C
TS 20 -0.5 -3.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 0.8 -3.0 .03 .15 .12 .10 .07 .05 40 2.0 -3.0 .19 .30 .23 .20 .13 .10
TP 50 3.3 -3.3 .65 .45 .35 .30 .20 .15 60 4.5 -4.5 1.11 .60 .47 .40 .27 .20 70 5.8 -5.8 1.27 .75 .58 .50 .33 .25
SC 80 6.7 -6.7 1.30 .90 .70 .60 .40 .30 90 7.0 -7.0
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
Nominal Width
TS 30 0.3 -3.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 40 1.4 -3.0 .02 .13 .10 .08 .05 .05 50 2.5 -3.1 .12 .27 .20 .17 .10 .07
TP 60 3.7 -3.7 .40 .40 .30 .25 .15 .10 70 4.8 -4.8 .68 .53 .40 .33 .20 .13 80 5.9 -5.9 .78 .67 .50 .42 .25 .17
SC 90 6.7 -6.7 .80 .80 .60 .50 .30 .20 100 7.0 -7.0
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
Nominal Width
TS 30 -0.3 -3.0 0 0 0 0 0
TP 40 0.6 -3.0 .01 .09 .06 .05 .02 50 1.5 -3.0 .06 .17 .12 .10 .05 60 2.5 -3.1 .19 .26 .19 .15 .07 70 3.4 -3.5 .45 .35 .25 .20 .10 80 4.3 -4.3 .71 .44 .31 .25 .13 90 5.2 -5.2 .84 .53 .38 .30 .15
SC 100 110 120 6.1 6.8 7.0 -6.1 -6.8 -7.0 .89 .90 .61 .70 .44 .50 .35 .40 .18 .20
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
Nominal Width
TS 20 -1.4 -3.0 30 -0.5 -3.0 0 0 0 0 40 0.3 -3.0 .01 .09 .05 .04
SC 60 1.9 -3.0 .15 .26 .15 .11 70 2.7 -3.1 .35 .35 .20 .15 80 3.5 -3.6 .55 .44 .25 .19 90 4.4 100 110 120 5.2 5.8 6.0 -5.8 -6.0 .70 .70 .40 .30
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
Nominal Width
-4.4 -5.2 .65 .69 .53 .61 .30 .35 .23 .26
RTA of NSW
TABLE 2.2.3
(Continued) (Control on multilane road, refer Table 2.2.2) SC 60 1.9 -3.0 .11 .22 .15 .11 70 2.7 -3.1 .25 .30 .20 .15 80 3.5 -3.6 .39 .38 .25 .19 90 4.4 -4.4 .47 .45 .30 .23 100 110 120 5.2 5.8 6.0 -5.2 .49 .53 .35 .26 -5.8 -6.0 .50 .60 .40 .30
TYPE C
TS 20 -1.4 -3.0 30 -0.5 -3.0 0 0 0 0 40 0.3 -3.0 .01 .07 .05 .04
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
Nominal Width
SC 60 1.4 -3.0 .08 .22 .15 70 2.1 -3.0 .20 .30 .20 80 2.8 -3.1 .32 .38 .25 .19 90 3.5 100 110 120 4.3 4.8 5.0 -4.8 -5.0 .40 .60 .40 .30
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
Nominal Width
-3.7 -4.3 .37 .39 .45 .53 .30 .35 .23 .26
SC 60 0.8 -3.0 .06 .22 .15 70 1.5 -3.0 .15 .30 .20 80 2.1 -3.0 .24 .38 .25 .19 90 2.7 100 110 120 3.4 3.8 4.0 -3.8 -4.0 .30 .60 .40 .30
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
Nominal Width
-3.2 -3.6 .28 .29 .45 .53 .30 .35 .23 .26
TP 50 -0.3
SC 60 0.3 70 0.8 80 1.4 90 1.9 -3.0 .38 .23 .15 100 110 120 2.5 2.8 3.0 -3.0 -3.0 -3.0 .44 .50 .26 .30 .18 .20
Offset to True Control Plan Transition and Widening Widening Per Lane
Nominal Width
-3.0 -3.0 -3.0 -3.0 Offset Not Required .25 .31 .12 .06 .19 .04 .15 .19 .07 .11 .05 .10 .13 .02 .07 Widening Not Required
RTA of NSW
For a given radius and speed, a set force is required to maintain the vehicle in this path. In road design, this is provided by the transverse friction demand, developed between tyre and pavement, and by superelevation. For small values of superelevation, the following approximation may be accepted:
v2 V2 e+ f = or gR 127 R
Where: e = pavement superelevation (m/m or tangent of angle). This is taken as positive if the pavement falls towards the centre of the curve f = assumed value of transverse friction demand between vehicle tyres and road pavement. (Table 2.24) Taken as positive if the frictional force on the vehicle acts towards the centre of the curve. g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8m/sec2) v = speed (m/sec) V = speed (km/h) R = radius (m) Where f equals zero in the formula, the whole of the centripetal force is exerted by the superelevation. This condition can occur on large radius curves with positive superelevation or for slow moving vehicles on curves of any radius. At low speeds, f can be negative, and the curve is then over-superelevated for that speed. Curves are generally designed, so that a positive f is obtained for the range of vehicle speeds likely to occur. Figure 2.2.1 illustrates the relationship of speed, radius and superelevation based on the assumed coefficients of transverse friction demand listed in Table 2.2.4.
Lh =
V 1000 V V 2 = 3600 10 36
Where:
Appropriate lengths of curved roadway for various radius curves are given in Table 2.2.2.
2.2.8
on
As a vehicle travels on a circular curve, a centripetal force must be applied to balance the inertial forces associated with the circular path.
Road Design Guide June, 95 Issue 1.0
10
RTA of NSW
10 140 160 180 200 300 350 400 500 600 250
60
70 80 90 100 120
8 700
6 800
4 1000
3 1100 1200 1300 70 80 90 100 Speed (km / h) 110 120 130 140
50
60
Note: The grey boxed areas define the recommended "E" to be adopted for the ranges of radii indicated. For "E" less than 3%, adopt 3%.
Figure 2.2.1
RTA of NSW
A driver's attitude, when driving, varies in relation to the road environment, terrain, surface conditions and the traffic density on the road. For instance, drivers will use higher values of transverse friction when traffic density is low and/or the road surface is dry, than when the opposite conditions apply. The maximum values of assumed transverse friction demand (f) to be adopted for the design of horizontal curves, for various conditions, are given in Table 2.2.4; they are a guide for average conditions and should be used cautiously.
Table 2.2.5
radius 50-330 330-550 550-750 750-950 >950
Figure 2.2.1 illustrates typical combinations of superelevation, curve radii and friction demand.
2.2.12
The maximum value of superelevation is limited by heavily laden or slow moving vehicles and by conditions of ice and snow. In rural areas the maximum value of superelevation to be adopted is 10% with the desirable maximum being 7%. In certain situations it may be desirable to increase the superelevation to the maximum as an additional safety feature. The development of a steep superelevation may create difficulties with drainage on the inside of a curve and it may be necessary to slightly increase the grade. In urban areas superelevation exceeding 4% is undesirable because of pedestrian traffic.
2.2.13
2.2.10
Superelevation - General
The minimum value of superelevation should not be less than the slope of the normal crossfall adopted for the adjacent straight road alignment. This is normally 3% but can be 4% in flat country areas where near level longitudinal alignment is unavoidable. In urban situations, although 3% is the recommended minimum superelevation, lower superelevation values may be adopted in difficult circumstances.
Horizontal curves are superelevated to balance the effects of centrifugal force. The amount of superelevation will depend on vehicle speed, curve radius and pavement surface characteristics. The rate to be adopted is chosen for the aspects of safety, comfort and appearance. Curves of 3000m radius and over may be superelevated but this is not generally necessary except for appearance reasons. Superelevation gives the curve a more natural appearance in certain situations, especially in flat open terrain, and helps define the outer edge of pavement
2.2.14
Adverse Crossfall
In rural situations all curves under 3000m radius should be superelevated. However, to improve pavement drainage on very flat longitudinal grades, or in the design of temporary roadways, sidetracks and temporary connections, consideration may be given to the use of up to 3% adverse crossfall. The curve radius with adverse crossfall can be calculated with the same formula used for positive crossfall (See Section 2.2.8). However the e value for superelevation is negative and the f value for the assumed transverse friction demand is 2/3 of the rural values listed in Table 2.2.4.
June, 95 Issue 1.0 11
2.2.11
Desirable Superelevation
RTA of NSW
In urban situations where drivers are more adaptable to changes in radius, superelevation and transverse friction, the use of adverse crossfall on small radii curves is tolerable.
2.2.16
2.2.15
Superelevation on Bridges
Where a bridge structure is proposed near a horizontal curve and intrusion of the normal application of the superelevation transition onto the deck is unavoidable, it is preferable to maintain a uniform section on the bridge deck by continuing the rate of curve superelevation along the full length of the bridge.
The adoption of the maximum values of super?elevation on very steep grades may increase the longitudinal grade on the outer lanes unacceptably . Usually the superelevation is the only geometric element which can be varied and it sometimes becomes necessary to either reduce the superelevation or extend the length of the eases at the end of the superelevation development . It is recommended that designers profile the outer edges of pavement to ensure acceptable drainage design and aesthetics.
Superelevation Development L e Plan Transition L p 20m Ease (min) Outer Edge of Pavement 20m Ease (min) Control n Relative grade Axis of Rotation E 20m Ease (min) Inner Edge of Pavement 20m Ease (min) Not to Scale S.S. Notes 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. T.S. T.P. S.C. E
T.S. = Tangent Spiral, common point of tangent and spiral. T.P. = Tangent Point, common point of tangent and curve S.S. = Start of Superelevation Transition. S.C. = Spiral Curve, common point of spiral and circular curve n = Normal crossfall (%) E = Superelevation (%) All longitudinal measurements are made along the pegged control line. All lateral measurements are made at right angles to pegged control line.
12
RTA of NSW
2.2.17
(b)
Procedure
Where a side road junctions on the outside of a small radius curve, a compromise is necessary between adequate superelevation on the through road and safe conditions for vehicles turning against the adverse crossfall. The situation worsens if the curve is located on a steep grade. If the intersection cannot be relocated, the superelevation should be modified to ensure safe turning conditions. Generally, if the side road is important or the curve has a steep longitudinal grade over 5%, the superelevation should not exceed 4% and should preferably be limited to 3%. The same problem does not exist where the junction is on the inside of the curve as the super?elevation then favours the turning movements.
The procedure to be adopted to determine the required superelevation development for a curve is as follows: (i) Calculate the required length for rotation development ( r ) [see (c) over]. L (ii) Calculate the relative grade Gr ) ( [see (d) over]. (iii) If calculated value of Gr is less than the values given inTable 2.2.6 (over), the calculated figure should be adopted. If it is greater, the tabulated figure should be used. (iv) The selected value of Gr should be substituted in the formula given in e) over, to ( calculate the length of super-elevation development (Le) required to satisfy the relative grade criterion. (v) In most cases the length of superelevation development required for the relative grade criteria Le) will be the one ( adopted, however if the length of rotation development (Lr) exceeds Le then Lr should be selected. Superelevation is applied as shown on Figure 2.2.3. (c) Rate of Rotation
2.2.18
Superelevation Development
A profile of a typical superelevation development is shown on Figure 2.2.2. It can be seen from the diagram that the superelevation development is introduced ahead of the Plan Transition to ensure that a driver does not have to cope with adverse crossfall when beginning to turn. 60 - 70 percent of the super?elevation development is normally located in advance of the tangent point. This is regardless of the presence of a plan transition. (a) Length of Superelevation Development
Satisfactory riding quality is determined by the distance required to uniformly rotate the crossfall from normal to full superelevation. In low speed environments or in mountainous terrain where design speed of the alignment is less than 80km/h, the rate of rotation adopted is 3.5% per second of design travel time. For design speeds of 80km/h or more the desirable rate of rotation should not exceed 2.5% per second of design travel time. Length of Rotation Calculation Design Speed <80km/h:
The desirable length of superelevation development is the length required to uniformly rotate the crossfall from normal to full superelevation with adjustment for the requirements of relative grade. The length of superelevation development [from near normal crossfall at the S.S. point to near full superelevation at the S.C. point (with allowance made for eases as described below)] should be adequate to give satisfactory riding qualities and to ensure good appearance. The higher the design speed or wider the carriageway the longer the superelevation development. To improve the appearance a 20m minimum ease is provided that spans the start and end of the superelevation development.
Lr =
Lr =
( E1 E2 )V ( E1 E2 )V = 2.5 3.6 9
Where: Lr = Length of rotation (m) E1,E2 = Crossfall at ends of superelevation development (%) V = Design Speed (km/h)
13
RTA of NSW
The length of rotation and length of superelevation development are similar, however the latter incorporates the consideration of relative grade [See (e) below].
(d)
Relative Grade
Good appearance in relation to superelevation development refers to a satisfactory relative grade. Relative Grade is the difference in grade between the grade of the outside edge of pavement and the grade of the axis of rotation. The axis of rotation, or control line, is usually the centre line but may be the inner edge of pavement.
S.S.
T.S.
T.P.
Inner edge of pavement True Control Line Pegged Base Control Line Not to Scale
S.C.
Offset (S)
Note:
The transitions as shown, refer to a cubic parabola. In computer aided design, the plan transition is usually a clothoid spiral, set out without reference to a Pegged Base Control Line (See Section 2.2.19b)
14
RTA of NSW
Relative Grade Calculation Relative Grade as derived from the formulas for Length of Rotation is: Design Speed < 80km/h : Where: Le =Length of superelevation development (m) E1, E1 =Crossfall at ends of superelevation development (%) (E1 - E1) =Algebraic difference in crossfall Gr =Relative grade as calculated or from Table 2.26 (%) Wr =Width from axis of rotation to outside edge of running lanes (m)
Gr =
12.6Wr V
Gr =
9Wr V
2.2.19
Plan Transition
Where: Gr = Relative Grade (%) Wr = Width from axis of rotation to outside edge of running lanes (m) V = Design speed (km/h) A reasonably smooth appearance of the superelevation development will result if the relative grade is not more than the values shown in Table 2.2.6 These values are subjective and should not be regarded as precise criteria.
The curve inserted to transition from a straight to a circular arc is known as a Plan Transition. The general arrangement of a plan transition and its relationship to superelevation development is shown on Figure 2.2.3. The radius reduces from infinity at the end of the straight to that of the circular curve at the beginning of the arc. The plan transition curve provides a uniform rate of change of radial acceleration for a vehicle travelling from a straight to a circular curve and vice versa. It also serves to improve the appearance in approach to the curve by eliminating the abrupt change of direction which would otherwise be present at the tangent point of smaller radii curves. If a plan transition is not provided, some drivers will cut into adjoining lanes to enter and leave curves. The provision of a plan transition reduces this tendency. The plan transition, if provided, should be positioned equally on each side of the T.P. and should occupy that portion of the superelevation development (see Section 2.2.18) from the T.S. point, to the S.C. point, where full superelevation is reached (see Figure 2.2.3). The length of plan transition is therefore related to the length of the superelevation development and is calculated using the following formula, which is based on rate of rotation (see Section 2.2.18)
Table 2.2.6
Superelevation Development Maximum Relative Values for Appearance Criterion. DESIGN SPEED (km/h)
Grade
40 or under 60 80 100 120 or over A* normal two-lane roadway with control on centreline B*
two-lane roadway with control along one edge, four-lane roadway with control on centreline, two-lane roadway with climbing lane and control on centreline of basic two lanes. multi lane roadway with more than lanes between the control and the edge of the running lanes.
RELATIVE SPEED (%) A* B* C* One lane Two Lanes More Than Two Lanes 0.9 1.3 1.7 0.6 1.0 1.3 0.5 0.8 1.0 0.4 0.7 0.9 0.4 0.6 0.8
C* (e)
Lp =
Le E ( E1 E 2 )
The length of superelevation development to satisfy relative grade requirements is derived from the following formula:
Where: Lp = Length of plan transition (m) Le = Superelevation development length (m) (E1-E2) = Algebraic difference in crossfall (%) E = Superelevation (%) Two types of plan transition may be used; the clothoid spiral, and an approximation of the cubic parabola.
June, 95 Issue 1.0 15
Le =
Road Design Guide
Wr ( E1 E 2 ) Gr
RTA of NSW
(a)
Clothoid Spiral
(ii)
A clothoid (or Euler) spiral has the intrinsic property that its curvature (or the reciprocal of the radius) varies at a uniform rate along the curve. As such, it closely approximates the action of steering a vehicle from a straight to a circular curve. The use of this form of transition is usually restricted to computer aided design due to the complexity of the mathematics involved. Transition curves formed by clothoid spirals are set out as a single control line without reference to a pegged base control. Clothoid spiral transition curves are generally not required for curve radii larger than 1000m, with normal superelevation. (b) Cubic Parabola
The following approximation of the cubic parabola formula may be used to calculate the curve offsets:
y=
x3 6 RL p
Where: y = Intermediate offsets (m) x = distance of offset from either the T.S. or S.C. end of the transition (m) R = Curve Radius (m) p = Length of transition (m) The transition offsets may be applied by either of the two methods detailed on Figure 2.2.4. The factors required to establish the offsets to be applied for the more common lengths of plan transition, as measured from the T.S., are given in the table on Figure 2.2.4. Transition offsets on curves of various radii are given in Tables 2.2.3
The cubic parabola has been the traditional means of providing a plan transition. It has been extensively used, primarily due to the ease of calculation by manual methods. The transition is set out using offsets to a true control line from a pegged base control line, as shown on Figure 2.2.4. These offsets may be calculated using the following formulae: (i) Maximum Offset to True Control line
The maximum offset (S) from the pegged base control line to the true control line, occurs over the length of constant superelevation between S.C. and C.S., on the circular curve. Its value is given approximately by:
S=
Lp 2 24 R
Where: Lp = Length of plan transition (m) R = Radius of circular curve (m) S = Maximum plan transition offset (m)
Where the calculated maximum offset is less than 300mm, it may be omitted because the contribution by the transition to positioning of vehicles or to appearance is negligible. Recommended lengths of plan transition are shown in Table 2.2.2, for recommended transition offsets see Tables 2.2.3
16
RTA of NSW
T.S. LP 2 x1 S 2 p
T.P.
LP 2 R
Where: R = Radius of Base Control Line (m) LP = Length of Plan Transition (m) S y x1 x2 = Maximum Plan Transition (m) = Intermediate offset (m) [Method 1] = Distance of offset from T.S. (m) S (p maximum) S.C. y x2
= Distance of offset from S.C. P = Offset adjustment factor from Table below p = Transition offset (m) [Method 2]
Factors for Calculating Offsets for Cubic Parabola Transitions [Method 2] LENGTH OF FACTOR P AT DISTANCE x1 FROM START OF TRANSITION (T.S.) TRANSITION 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 (LP ) 40 4 33 62 66 50 3 26 78 101 104 60 3 22 75 128 147 150 70 2 19 64 140 185 202 204 80 2 17 56 133 210 249 264
80
266
Application of Offset Method 1 The offsets (y) as calculated in Section 2.2.19(b), are measured from the tangent between the T.S.and T.P., and from the extension of the true control line between the S.C. and T.P. Method 2 The offsets (p), between the base and control lines (rounded to nearest 0.01m may be established by ), dividing the factor (P) from the table by the radius of the circular curve (R). Notes: 1. 2.
The transition is equally spaced (Lp /2) about the tangent point (T.P.) The offset at the T.P. is S/2
17
RTA of NSW
2.2.20
Lane Widening
Table 2.2.9
Widening is required on horizontal curves to: provide for the greater width required by a turning vehicle, allow for inaccuracies in steering a vehicle around a curve, particularly at high speed, cater for vehicle slippage When a vehicle turns on a horizontal curve, its rear wheels track inside the front wheels (see Figure 2.2.5). Each travel lane must therefore be widened, firstly by a distance which equals:
S.U. Vehicle Dimensions DIMENSION (m) Vehicle 2.5 Overall Length 11.0 Length Between Axles 7.3 Front Overhang 1.0
The width of lane widening on horizontal curves is therefore calculated with the formula:-
W = R
R 2 69 + 2.5 + Cl +
V = Wl 19 R
R 2 Lx 2
Where: R = Radius (m) Lx = Length of a vehicle between its rear axle and the limit of front overhang (m) At the same time it is desirable for a vehicle to maintain a clearance to each edge of its travel lane and a lateral clearance between vehicles (see Figure 2.2.5). The appropriate value of Cl which is used with varying lane widths (Wl) is given in Table 2.2.8:
Where: R = Radius (m) Cl = Lateral clearance between vehicles in adjacent lanes (m) V = Speed (km/h) Wl = Lane width (m) The calculated widening is applied to each lane. The total widening may be applied on the inside of plain circular curves, in which case the same effect as a plan transition is achieved. For curves with a radius of 30m or less, the actual paths of articulated vehicles should be determined from templates or vehicle path computer programs. If the calculated widening is less than 200mm per lane, it need not be applied. The transition to the widened curve is uniform and coincides with the plan transition. Where there is no plan transition, about half the widening is developed before the tangent point; the total widening being fully developed by the S.C. See Table 2.2.2 for recommended values of pavement widening for various lane widths and various radii of curves, and Table 2.2.3 for recommended widening offsets.
Table 2.2.8
Wl(m) 3.0 3.25 3.5 3.7
The lateral clearances in Table 2.2.8 assume that a vehicle, travelling at speed, can accurately negotiate the curved travel way. As this is not usual, further widening of the lane is required to allow for inaccuracies which occur in steering. These inaccuracies increase with speed of travel and the additional width is calculated with the formula:
2.2.21
(a) Radii
Compound Curves
Wb =
Where: R = Radius (m) V = Speed (km/h)
V 19 R
Although semi-trailers require most lane widening, the dimensions of the NAASRA single unit vehicle (S.U.), given in Table 2.2.9, have been assumed for the purpose of determining optimum lane widening.
Compound curves are curves of the same direction having a common tangent point. Compound curves which have radii <1000m are undesirable and should be considered only in cases of very difficult location where other alternatives, such as a simple curve, are not available. When their use is unavoidable in low speed design, the ratio of the larger radius to the smaller should not exceed 1:0.5, the more desirable ratio being 1:0.75. For high speed design, the design speed criteria given in Section 2.2.4 and not curve ratios should be satisfied.
June, 95 Issue 1.0 Road Design Guide
18
RTA of NSW
7.3 0.5C l Wa Cl Cl + Wb Wd R W
1.0
Wl
2.5
Wl
W + 2.5 + 19 0.5C l R V +
= R -
R 2 - 69 Cl Wl
Where:
W = Lane Widening (m). Wa = Width between front and rear wheel tracks on curve (m). Wb = Width allowance for difficult of driving on curve (m).
Wd = Width between tracks of front wheel and front overhang of vehicle on curve (m).
Cl = lateral clearance between vehicles in adjacent lanes (m) (Refer Table 2.2.8).
Figure 2.2.5
19
RTA of NSW
2.2.21
2.2.23
Reverse Curves
Curves with radii >1000m may be compounded at sites where existing controls (a bridge, utility service, adverse topography) make the provision of a single radius curve impracticable (see Section 2.4). A series of more than two compound curves of diminishing radii should not be used. (b) Length
Reverse curves are where adjacent curves are in the opposite direction. It is essential for driving comfort and safety that a length of straight alignment be provided between the two curves. The desirable minimum length measured between adjacent T.S. points should be equal to the Design Speed expressed as metres (Vm). Where location is difficult, reverse curves may have a common T.S. point, in which case the pavement at the common T.S. will be level. Where T.S. points are not common to both curves, and a section of straight alignment must be used which is less than 0.66 Vm , it will be necessary to design special superelevation transitions.
The combined length of compound curve should be at least equal to the desirable lengths recommended by Section 2.2.5 with the length of the smaller radius curve being at least two thirds the length of the larger radius curve.
2.2.22
Broken Back Curves 2.2.24 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves (See Section 2.1.12)
Broken back curves are adjacent curves of the same direction which are separated by a short length of straight. On these curves lane discipline is poor, they are unsightly and should be avoided where possible. In most instances two similar curves can be replaced by a single curve, or if need be, a compound curve. When broken back curves cannot be avoided the minimum length of straight between the ends of the adjacent plan transitions should be equal to the Design Speed expressed as metres (Vm). For example, for a Design Speed of 80km/h, the minimum length of straight would be 80m. The direction of superelevation applied to the curves may be retained on the straight section.
Driver visibility on a horizontal curve may be limited by an obstruction off the pavement. The extent to which the curve should be adjusted, or the obstruction removed to provide adequate sight distance, is determined by the driver's line of sight while travelling the curve. Figure 2.2.6 illustrates drivers line of sight and the formula used to calculate the required offset distance. The sight distances adopted for the calculation should be at least Stopping Sight Distance and preferably Intermediate Sight Distance so as to avoid the necessity of providing barrier lines. Fig 2.2.6 also shows the formula used to calculate the required minimum curve radius to avoid obstruction to driver visibility. Section 2.1 gives the sight distances to be adopted for various design speeds and Table 2.2.2 provides calculated offsets for various curve radii.
20
RTA of NSW
Ws B Line of Sight
We
Obstruction
R (approx) =
Ds 8(Ws 15) .
(Radians) =
Ds R 15 .
1 B = R ( R 15) cos . 2
Where: R B Ds We Ws
= = = = = =
Angle subtended by line of sight (degrees) Outer radius of inner travel lane (m) Offset distance from radius R to the line of sight obstruction (m) Sight distance measured around the curve between two points 1.5m from the lane line (m) Distance from lane line to driver position (adopted as 1.5 metres) Width of inner travel lane and adjacent shoulder (m) LINE OF SIGHT FOR HORIZONTAL CURVES
Figure 2.2.6
21
RTA of NSW
Grading at crests affects the sight distances available to the driver and thus contributes to the safety of the road. Consequently, the prime aim in grading a new road, or regrading an existing road should be to provide a vertical alignment with sight distances as long as practicable. The lengths of crest curves should ensure that the sight distance ahead is never less than the stopping sight distance required to stop a vehicle travelling at the likely travel speed, (as assessed from consideration of the horizontal alignment). The lengths of sag curves may be fixed by the requirements of comfort, as related to vertical acceleration, by drainage requirements, headlight performance or overhead restrictions to the line of sight. When designing the grade line, compound and broken back curves should be avoided. Hidden dips should also be avoided. Where the horizontal alignment contains straights long enough to allow overtaking, the grading should not contain minor humps or hollows which would obstruct continuous overtaking sight distance.
+G 1
-G2 L 2
L -G1
+G2
+G 1 -G2
2.3.2 Grading The values listed in Table 2.3.1 are the desirable maximum grades that should be adopted for sealed roads.
Table 2.3.2
-G1 +G2
+G2
-G1
+G 1
-G2
60 80 100 120
Where: G1 and G2 = tangent grades (%) A = algebraic difference in grade (%) L = length of vertical curve (m) TYPES OF VERTICAL CURVES Figure 2.3.1 As with horizontal alignment, the grading of a road affects travelling speeds, road safety and the appearance of the road. The travel speed of cars is usually governed more by the horizontal alignment than the vertical grading and therefore in assessing likely travel speeds the effect of the grading can usually be ignored. However, for heavy vehicles the reverse is the case.
(a) Values closer to the lower figures are desirable (b) Grades over 10% should be used with caution. (c) For unsealed surfaces, the above values should be reduced by 1%.
Grades on roads in cuttings and at the super elevation transition of horizontal curves should be adequate for proper drainage of table drains (except at summits of vertical curves) should be 0.5%. If grades less than 0.5% are unavoidable, special design or treatment of the table drains is necessary to ensure efficiency. In very flat urban areas, it is preferable to design level or near level grades and provide additional gully pits or other gutter outlets rather than introduce artificial undulations in order to provide self draining gutters. This latter technique can result in unsightly appearance, suggesting faulty construction, particularly where the horizontal alignment is straight or nearly straight.
RTA of NSW
R = 100 K
Table 2.3.2 shows that K also facilitates selection of appropriate curve templates for various combinations of horizontal and vertical scales. Table 2.3.2 Selection of Curve Templates
SCALES Horizontal Vertical RADIUS OF TEMPLATE (mm)
2.3.4.
Vertical Curves
5xK 10 x K 20 x K 40 x K
There are various curve forms suitable for use as vertical curves; the parabola has been traditionally used due to its constant rate of change of grade and the ease of manual calculation. Other forms, particularly those more suited to computer calculation are equally satisfactory. Due to the properties of a simple parabola, the rate of change of grade per unit length is a constant:
2.3.5
At very small changes of grade, a vertical curve has little effect except to the appearance of the profile and may be omitted. At any significant change of grade, short vertical curves detract from the appearance. This is particularly evident on high standard roads and on sag curves. Table 2.3.3 gives minimum vertical curve lengths for satisfactory appearance; longer curves are preferred where they can be used without conflict with other design requirements, such as sight distance for overtaking. As the values in the table are subjective, the lack of precision is intentional. General ranges, not precise values, are relevant.
A =Q L
The reciprocal:-
L =K A
is the horizontal distance in metres which results in a 1% change in grade Where:L =Length of vertical curve A =Algebraic difference of vertical grades % K =Length of vertical curve (m) for 1% change of grade(m/unit%) Q =Rate of change of grade per unit length (% / m) Figure 2.3.2 illustrates the K value concept and Sections 2.3.7 and 2.3.8 show how to calculate K for various distances and sight lines. The K value concept is a simple and convenient method for measuring a vertical curve. For each design speed and sight line configuration a single value of K covers all combinations of A and L. For design purposes the K value concept also has the advantage of easily determining the approximate radius of large parabolic vertical curves:
2 June, 95 Issue 1.0
Table 2.3.3
DESIGN SPEED (Km/h)
40 60 80 100 120
RTA of NSW
(i) For a simple parabola, the rate of change of grade per unit length is a constant: A/L=Q(%/m) (ii) The reciprocal is the horizontal distance in metres which results in a one percent change in grade: L / A = K (m / unit % )
INSET
A = G 1 - G 2 = 4.0% A 1% G 1 = + 2.5% G 2 = - 15%
K= 62.5
R=100K (Approx.)
L = 250
EXAMPLE
Q= K=
Figure 2.3.2
RTA of NSW
2.3.6
2.3.7
Discomfort is felt by a human when subjected to rapid changes in vertical acceleration. When passing from one grade to another, it is usual to limit the vertical acceleration generated on a vertical curve to a value less than 0.05g, (where g is the acceleration due to gravity). On low standard roads, and at intersections, a limit of 0.10g may be used. The vertical component of acceleration normal to the curve, when traversing the path of a parabolic vertical curve at uniform speed is given by:
The length of a vertical curve for a given sight distance is given by the following expressions: Where length of curve is less than the sight distance:
L = 2 Ds
C A
(1)
L=
( Ds A) C
2
(2)
Where: L =Length of vertical curve (m) Ds =Stopping sight distance (m) A =Algebraic difference of vertical grading (%) C =Sight line constant for vertical curves (See Sections 2.3.8, 2.3.11 and 2.3.13) In equation (2) the vertical curve parameter
of
vertical
A to give:
(3)
K=
Values for K for specific design speeds and vertical accelerations of 0.05g and 0.10g are shown in Table 2.3.4. As this is a subjective criterion, values have been rounded.
Ds C
which is constant for a given sight distance and is a method of defining the sight line. The calculated length of vertical curve is usually rounded, and may be modified to comply with the subjective criteria of Sections 2.3.5 and 2.3.6. While equation (1) will always result in a lower K value than equation (2), it is often convenient to use the expression L = KA to determine the length of the curve in all situations, with K derived from equation (3). This is not appropriate in the case of overtaking provisions where the sight distance being used may be longer than individual vertical curves.
Curve
Comfort
Criterion K=LENGTH (m) OF VERTICAL CURVE FOR 1% CHANGE IN GRADE* a = 0.05g a = 0.10g 3 1.5 6 3 10 5 16 8 23 12
Values rounded as they are subjective approximations and should not be rgarded as having any precise basis.
RTA of NSW
2.3.8
Constant
for
Crest
2.3.10
For crest curves, the sight line constant C to be used with the expressions in Section 2.3.7 is given by :
C = 200( h1 +
Where:
h2 ) 2
On sag vertical curves, sight distance is not restricted by vertical alignment unless an overhead obstruction is present. At night on unlit roads, a vehicle's headlights, with the angle of beam 1? above the horizontal axis, limits the sight distance to between 120m and 150m, which is adequate for stopping sight up to 100km/h. On high standard roads not likely to be provided with roadway lighting, consieration should be given to providing 150m of headlight sight distance on sag vertical curves. Adjoining sag and crest curves should be provided with similar headlight sight distances. The resulting vertical alignment will provide near consistent night driving conditions on unlit roads. However, when the sag is combined with horizontal curvature which would cause the headlight beam to shine off the pavement (assuming a 3? lateral spread each way), little is gained by flattening the sag vertical curve. Figure 2.3.7 gives minimum lengths of sag vertical curve for stopping distance within headlight beam. When sag vertical curves cannot be flattened to provide desirable headlight stopping distance, they should be designed to provide adequate riding comfort based on the criterion of 0.05g vertical acceleration, although 0.10g may be adopted in difficult terrain. Figure 2.3.8 gives length of sag vertical curve for adequate riding comfort.
h1 = height of eye above road (m) h2 = object cut off height above road (m) Values for C , for an eye height of 1.15m (h1) and selected values of h2, are given in Table 2.3.5
2.3.9
For a particular design speed, the required length of crest curve is usually governed by sight distance requirements. However, for small changes of grade, appearance considerations (Section 2.3.5.) may require larger values. On two lane roads, extremely long crest curves over 750m, should be avoided for drainage reasons. Additionally, many drivers refuse to pass on such curves despite adequate sight distance. It is often more economical to use auxiliary lane construction on a short vertical curve than to obtain overtaking sight distance by the use of a long vertical curve. Further, the provision of a short vertical curve in conjunction with longer approach and departure grades will result in more usable overtaking opportunities. Values of K determined for the various sight distance design situations are given in Table 2.3.6. The K Value relationship to length of vertical curve and change in grade % for C values of 230, 461 and 920 are shown on Figures 2.3.3, 2.3.4, 2.3.5 and 2.3.6.
RTA of NSW
Table 2.3.6
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE (m) (a) (2) 45 60 80 100 120 150/175 210 250 300
K ( h1 = 115 . h2 = 0.2
K ( h1 = 115 . h2 = 0.2
C = 461)
C = 230)
(b) (3) 4.4 7.8 13.9 22.0 32.0 49.0 / 66.0 95.0 135.0 195.0
(c) (4) 8.8 15.7 27.8 43.5 63.0 98.0 /133.0 190.0 270.0 390.0
(5) 140 180 220 270 330 400 490 580 700
(7) 200 300 350 450 600 750 900 1100 1400
(a) Normal minimun sight distance. However, K values in design should be between values in columns (3) and (4). (b) In cases where zero object height may be considered appropriate, e.g at intersections, values in column (4) apply. (c) Intermediate values are those below which barrier line marking is normally required. When intermediate sight distances cannot be achieved economically, stopping sight distance, is to be adopted. Sight distance between intermediate and stopping may be adopted only when necessary to retain critical pre-determined grade levels .
2.3.11
Table 2.3.7 K
DESIGN SPEED (km/h) 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
To satisfy headlight sight distance, the sight line value C to be used with the expression in Section 2.3.7, is given by:
C = 200(h + Ds tan )
Where: h = Mounting height of headlight (m) Ds = Stopping sight distance (max 150m) = Elevation angle of headlight beam (+upwards ) A mounting height of 0.75m and an angle of beam 1 above the horizontal axis gives the sight C values shown in Table 2.3.7.
C
VALUE 307 359 429 499 569 673 673 673 673
K
6.6 10.0 14.9 20.0 25.3 33.4 33.4 33.4 33.4
2.3.12
For a given design speed, the length of a sag vertical curve will be determined by either the comfort criterion (Table 2.3.4), or the sight distance for headlight requirements ( up to 150m ) shown in Table 2.3.7. These values are brought together in Table 2.3.8 and Figures 2.3.7 and 2.3.8.
RTA of NSW
Table 2.3.8 K Values for Sag Curves Comfort and Headlight Criteria
DESIGN SPEED (km/h) K = LENGTH OF VERTICAL CURVE(m) FOR 1% CHANGE IN GRADE COMFORT CONSIDERATIONS * K K General Special Design Cases a=0.05 a=0.10g g 4 2 6 3 8 4 10 5 13 7 16 8 19 10 23 12 HEADLIGHT CONSIDERATIONS Sight Distance (m) K a
* As these are subjective values and theefore only considered as general approximation, exact values for every design speed are not given.
2.3.13
Table 2.3.9
Overhead obstructions, such as road or rail overpasses, sign gantries or even overhanging trees, may limit the sight distance available on sag vertical curves ( see Figure 2.1.1 ) The sight line constant C for this situation is given by:
C = 200( H h1 +
Where : H obstruction h1 h2 = Height of
H h2 ) 2
overhead
Using an eye height of 1.8m and an object height of 0.6m (commercial vehicle eye height to vehicle tail-light height), the sight line constants for a range of vertical clearances are given in Table 2.3.9. Intermediate values may be interpolated. The length of vertical curve required to give a particular sight distance may be found from Section 2.3.7. Generally 5.3m is to be used as the vertical clearance.
RTA of NSW
1.15
C = 230
1 1000 950 900 850 800
130V 300m 390K 2.5RT 120V 250m 270K 2.5RT
12
13
90V 120m 63K 1.5RT
14
15
16
M.O. = 10m 8m
750 700 Length of Vertical Curve in Metres (L) 650 600 550
4m 6m
13
14
15
16
KEY V m K M.O. R.T. Velocity (km/h) Stopping Sight Distance K value Mid Ordinate Reaction Time
Figure 2.3.3
RTA of NSW
1.15
C = 461
1 1000 950 900 850 800 750 700 650 600 550 Length of Vertical Curve in Metres (L) 500 450 400 350 300
130V 300m 195K 2.5RT
12
13
14
15
16
M.O. = 1m
4m
2m
70V 80m 13.9K 1.5RT 60V 60m 7.8K 1.5RT 50V 45m 4.4K 1.5RT
11
12
13
14
15
16
KEY V m K M.O. R.T. Velocity (km/h) Stopping Sight Distance K value Mid Ordinate Reaction Time
Figure 2.3.4
RTA of NSW
C = 920
1 2000 1900 1800 1700 1600 1500 1400 Length 1300 of Vertical Curve 1200 in Metres 1100 (L) 1000 900
100V 750m 620K 90V 600m 400K
12
13
70V 350m 140K
14
15
16
10m
800
8m
700
6m
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Figure 2.3.5
10
RTA of NSW
C = 920
1 2000 1900 1800 1700 1600 1500
4m 6m
4
130V 600m 400K 8m
12
13
14
15
16
1400 Length 1300 of Vertical Curve 1200 in Metres 1100 (L) 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100
60V 180m 35K 50V 140m 25K 2m 80V 260m 75K
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Figure 2.3.6
11
RTA of NSW
1 400 380 360 340 320 300 280 Length of Vertical Curve in Metres (L) 260
12
13
14
90V 569C 120m 25.3K 0.02g
15
16
4m 3m 2m
80V 499C 100m 20.0K 0.02g 70V 429C 80m 14.9K 0.03g
240 220
M.O. = 1m
2
KEY
13
14
15
16
V C m K g M.O.
Velocity (km/h) Sight line value Stopping Sight Distance K value Acceleration due to gravity Middle ordinate
Figure 2.3.7
12
RTA of NSW
1 400 380 360 340 320 300 Length of Vertical Curve in Metres (L)
12
13
14
15
16
4m
110V
280
3m
260
2m
240 220
M.O.=1m
100V
90V
40
60V
20
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Figure 2.3.8
13