School Organization and Management

Written by

Jamaluddin
M.A (Urdu, History, Pashto), M.Ed. M.Phil Principal Government Higher Secondary School No. 1, Peshawar Cantt.

February, 2006

Available at

Taj Kutab Khana, Qissa Khawani, Peshawar.

Price Rs. 75/-

Preface
The world has changed around our organizations. Organizations are now being forced to redesign themselves to ensure their prosperity in the new global order. School organizations are no exception and this is serious business. This book is basically the result of 28 years of teaching and administration experience. In attempting to bridge theory and practice, the book was written with several audiences in mind. First, it was written for teachers and administrators, another major audience for which this book is intended is made up of those professors, graduate students, and researchers in the field of education, who have an interest in the area of school organization and management. I also hope that the book will be helpful to those readers with a more general interest in learning about areas of current development relative to the school organization and management Education is widely regarded as the route to economic prosperity, the key to scientific and technological advancement, the means to combat unemployment, the foundation of social equity, and the spread of political socialization and cultural vitality. While progress has been made in increasing the number of children enrolled in schools, there are still many more who are not enrolled and who do not complete. There are many reasons for this. The evidence showed that the strategies needed to tackle schooling problems will vary and needs to be area specific. While many lessons can be got from the experiences to date, there is need for an increased number of studies that should shape policies aimed at making education inclusive, responding to the diverse needs and circumstances of learners and giving appropriate weight to the abilities, skills, and knowledge they bring to the teaching learning process. The major concern of most teachers in education today is how to improve student discipline. This concern is also shared by parents... Administrators have also experienced similar difficulties. If the school system is to survive, efforts must be initiated to solve the problems. This book is an attempt to assist teachers and managers in identifying and developing a plan to individually understand and control their actions and environment directed at changing student behaviour in a positive direction and run the schools smoothly. I am very thankful to my colleagues, Officers and Teachers who helped me, Among many others, I wish to thank Jamshid Khan Tanooli, Nisar, Nadar Khan, Amjid Reba, Iqbal Hussain, Iqbal Khan, Samia, Rabia, Shamim Akhter, Haroon, Shoukt, Zubair and Hakimullah for their significant contribution. A special role was played by Ghulam Mustafa and Fazal

Manan. I am also thankful to Serwat Jehan for highlighting female schools management problem. The honourable professors in the City University Peshawar, Dr.Muhammad Israr Khattak, Prof: Ibrahim Khattak and Dr.Himayatullah have extended help. The willingness of the University to provide the services to me has been responsible for these results as much as any other factor.

Jamal ud Din
Principal

Government Higher Secondary School No 1 Peshawar Cantt.

In every class however large, a teacher must spark the excitement of learning and this spark must light the individual's imagination and individual poetry. This love of and for learning, once kindled, carries forward.

TABLE OF CONTENT
Preface....................................................................................................................................3 TABLE OF CONTENT.........................................................................................................6 CHAPTER 1 ..............................................................................................................................1 Philosophy of education.........................................................................................................1 1.2 Student-centred philosophies of education: ...........................................................1 1.3 Major philosophies of education............................................................................1 1.4 Reflection of philosophies in school practices.......................................................2 1.5 Psychological and cultural factors influencing education. ....................................2 1.6 Contributions of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle......................................................3 1.7 Branches of philosophy of education.....................................................................3 CHAPTER 2 ..............................................................................................................................5 Nature and Scope of School Organization.............................................................................5 2.1 Objectives of School as a Social Institution ..........................................................5 2.2. The ideal School Plant-building,.........................................................................5 2.3 Ideal School Building ............................................................................................5 2.4 Characteristics of an effective school. ..................................................................6 2.5 Programme for promoting national integration .....................................................6 2.7 Bulletin Boards ......................................................................................................7 2.8 Library....................................................................................................................8 2.9 Laboratories ...........................................................................................................8 CHAPTER 3 ..............................................................................................................................9 School Administration ...........................................................................................................9 3.1 Role of Headmaster as teacher, administrator, coordinator and leader in the school system;....................................................................................................................9 3.2 Teacher Council and its function........................................................................10 3.3 Role of Teacher....................................................................................................10 3.4 Responsibilities as a teacher?.................................................................................12 3.5 Approaches to moral education. ..........................................................................12 3.6 Students................................................................................................................13 3.7 School Discipline .................................................................................................14 3.8 Responsibility of Teacher/ Principal/Headmaster ...............................................14 3.9 Individual Personal Traits ....................................................................................15 3.10 Summary school discipline ..................................................................................16 CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................................................................17 School services.....................................................................................................................17 4.1 Co curricular activities.........................................................................................17 4.2 Community relation- (Parent- Teacher Association)...........................................18 4.3 PTA ......................................................................................................................19 4.4 Community Participation. ....................................................................................19 CHAPTER 5 ............................................................................................................................21 Instructional Method and Evaluation...................................................................................21 5.1 Significance of Methodology,..............................................................................21 5.2 Quality Education ................................................................................................21 5.3 Academic Excellence...........................................................................................23 CHAPTER 6 ............................................................................................................................24 The Timetable ......................................................................................................................24 6.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................24 6.2 Principles of timetable design..............................................................................24

6.3 Factors affecting timetable design .......................................................................25 6.4 Timetable preparation steps in secondary and Middle schools ...........................26 6.5 Timetable compilation .........................................................................................27 6.6 . The time frame Length of periods ...........................................................................27 6.7 Summary ..............................................................................................................27 CHAPTER 7 ............................................................................................................................28 Appraisal of school work .....................................................................................................28 7.1 EVALUATION....................................................................................................28 7.2 The instructional objectives .................................................................................28 7.3 Use a variety of testing methods..........................................................................29 7.4 Write questions that test skills other than recall. .................................................29 7.5 Type of tests.........................................................................................................30 7.7 What is assessment?.............................................................................................37 7.8 School inspection. ................................................................................................37 CHAPTER 8 ............................................................................................................................40 General.................................................................................................................................40 8.1 Four Principles of Learning ...................................................................................40 Glossary of Education Terms...............................................................................................41 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................44

CHAPTER 1

Philosophy of education

Philosophy searches for truth and realities about nature of universe. Philosophy is a set of ideas and beliefs about man, God and Universe. Philosophy of education. Behind every school and every teacher is a set of related beliefs that influences what and how students are taught. The philosophy of education represents answers to questions about the purpose of schooling, a teacher's role, and all about what and how the learners should be taught. 1.1 Teacher-centered philosophies of education: Teacher-centred philosophies tend to be more authoritarian and conservative, and emphasize the values and knowledge that have survived through time. The major teacher-centred philosophies of education are Essentialism and Perennialism. 1.2 Student-centred philosophies of education: Student-centered philosophies are more focused on the individual needs, contemporary relevance, and preparing students for a changing future. School is seen as an institution that works with youth to improve society or help the students realize their individuality. Progressivism, social Reconstructionism, and Existentialism place the learner at the center of the educational process: Students and teachers work together on determining what should be learned and how best to learn it.

1.3

Major philosophies of education. 1.3.1 Essentialism focuses on teaching the essential elements of academic and moral knowledge. Essentialists urge that schools get back to the basics; they believe in a strong core curriculum and high academic standards. 1.3.2 Perennialism focuses on the universal truths that have withstood the test of time. Perennialists urge that students read the Great Books and develop their understanding of the philosophical concepts that underlie the human knowledge.

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1.3.3

Progressivism is based largely on the belief that lessons must be relevant to the students in order to learn. The curriculum of a progressivist school is built around the personal experiences, interests, and needs of the students.

1.3.4

Social Reconstructionists separated from progressivism because they desired more direct and immediate attention to societal ills. They are interested in combining study and social action, and believe that education can and should go hand in hand with ameliorating the social problems.

1.3.5

Existentialism is derived from a powerful belief in human free will, and the need for individuals to shape their own futures. Students in existentialist classrooms control their own education. Students are encouraged to understand and appreciate their uniqueness and to assume responsibility for their actions

1.4

Reflection of philosophies in school practices. Following are some reflection of philosophers: 1.4.1 Essentialism and perennialism give teachers the power to choose the curriculum, organize the school day, and construct the classroom activities. The curriculum reinforces a predominantly Western heritage while viewing the students as vessels to be filled and disciplined in the proven strategies of the past. Essentialists focus on cultural literacy, while Perennialists work from the Great Books. 1.4.2 Progressivism, social Reconstructionism, and existentialism view the learner as the central focus of classroom activities. Working with student interests and needs, the teachers serve as guides and facilitators in assisting them to reach their goals. The emphasis is on the future, and on preparing students to be independent-thinking adults. Progressivists strive for relevant, hands-on learning. Social Reconstructionists want students to actively work to improve society. Existentialists give students complete freedom, and complete responsibility, with regard to their education.

1.5

Psychological and cultural factors influencing education. 1.5.1 Constructivism has its roots in cognitive psychology, and is based on the idea that people construct their understanding of the world. Constructivist teachers gauge a student's prior knowledge, then carefully orchestrate cues, classroom

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activities, and penetrating questions to push them to higher levels of understanding. 1.5.2 B. F. Skinner advocated behaviourism as an effective teaching strategy. According to Skinner, rewards motivate students to learn material even if they do not fully understand why it will have value in their futures. Behaviour modification is a system of gradually lessening extrinsic rewards. 1.5.3 The practices and beliefs of peoples in some parts of the world, such as informal and oral education, offer useful insights for enhancing their own educational practices, but their insights too rarely considered, much less implemented. 1.6 Contributions of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle 1.6.1 Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle are the three most legendary ancient Greek philosophers. Socrates is hailed today as the personification of wisdom and the philosophical life. He gave rise to what is now called the Socratic method, in which the teacher repeatedly questions students to help them clarify their own deepest thoughts. 1.6.2 Plato, Socrates pupil, crafted eloquent dialogues that present different philosophical positions on a number of profound questions. Plato believed that a realm of externally existing ideas," or forms," underlies the physical world. 1.6.3 Aristotle, Plato's pupil, was remarkable for the breadth as well as the depth of his knowledge. He provided a synthesis of Plato's belief in the universal, spiritual forms and a scientist's belief in the physical world we observe through our senses. He taught that the virtuous life consists of controlling desires by reason and by choosing the moderate path between extremes. 1.7 Branches of philosophy of education. 1.7.1 Metaphysics deals with the nature of reality, its origin, and its structure. Metaphysical beliefs are reflected in curricular choices: Should we study the natural world, or focus on spiritual or ideal forms? 1.7.2 Epistemology examines the nature and origin of human knowledge. Epistemological beliefs influence teaching methods. How we know" is closely related to how we learn and therefore, how we should teach.

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1.7.3 Ethics is the study of what is good" or bad" in human behaviour, thoughts, and feelings. What should we teach about good" and bad," and should we teach that directly, or by modelling? 1.7.4 Political philosophy analyzes how past and present societies are arranged and governed and proposes ways to create better societies in the future. How will a classroom be organized, and what will that say about who wields power? How will social institutions and national governments be analyzed? 1.7.5 Aesthetics is concerned with the nature of beauty. What is of worth? What works are deemed of value to be studied or emulated?

Learner-centered teaching in Education as envisaged by various philosophers

1. Piaget: Knowledge constructed through assimilation/accommodation 2. Dewey: 3. Bruner 4. Ausubel: 5. Vygotsky: 6. Sternberg: 7. Gardener: 8. Wiggins: Active learning Developing thinking Rote and discovery learning Metacognition/Zone of Proximal Development Learning styles Multiple Intelligences Performance based Assessment

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CHAPTER 2

Nature and Scope of School Organization.

2.1

Objectives of School as a Social Institution The following are the main objectives of school as social institution i) A school must provide effective and affordable quality education with a holistic approach. ii) The school should provide a congenial atmosphere to develop the talents of the children to learn uninhibitedly. Apart from imparting formal education, there should be emphasizes on the importance of inculcating love and respect for our rich culture and heritage. iii) Preparing man power for economic development of the country.

2.2.

The ideal School Plant-building, A school should begin with the recitation from the holy Quran when all the children assemble in the lawn of the school, It should followed by National anthem after singing the National Anthem the children march to their classes. The children and the teachers feel refreshed and are ready to begin the days proceedings. Quality in education consists of happy teachers, a motivated, appropriate class size ,teaching aids adequate space and classroom facilities.

2.3

Ideal School Building A well designed school should have modern aids and teaching devices. A school

should be a centre for excellence. It should inculcate habits of neat environment Above all it should be managed by a dynamic Principal and competent, humane teachers. Schools should not be granted as commercial shop or teaching shop. Teachers should be well read and inspired . They should read about education, love the children they teach and have all round personalities. They should acquaint themselves with the modern information system and should be able t use it in the teaching learning process.

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2.4

Characteristics of an effective school. Researchers such as Ron Edmonds have set forth a five-factors theory" of an

effective school. These factors can be summed up as: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Strong administrative leadership, clear school goals shared by faculty and administration, A safe and orderly school climate, Frequent monitoring and assessment of student progress, and High expectations for students performance.

2.5

Programme for promoting national integration Various religious festival like Eid-milad, Ramzan, Muhram and National and

International festivals like Pakistan day, Independence Day, Teachers Day, Childrens' Day, Inter National Literacy day, Polio Day etc., can be celebrated in the school. Thus the children learn the significance of Religion , National and International Integration. 2.6 Managing Classroom Space and Materials The classroom should be arranged to promote efficient learning and minimize behaviour problems. Students must be able to see and hear instructions and have access to learning materials. The teacher should be able to easily monitor students and provide feedback. The classroom should also be flexible to allow for different types of learning activities. This chapter provides suggestions for making the classroom a good place of learning.

2.6.1

Classroom Arrangement . Students should be seated so that their attention is directed toward the teacher. Students should be able to clearly see chalkboards, screens, presentations and displays.

Students should be seated away from windows. Students should be seated so that teachers can see all students at all times. Students should be seated so that teachers can easily move among students to monitor work and behaviour.

Classroom rules should be clearly posted.

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The teacher should have a place in front of the student so that learning materials can be organized and be available prior to the lesson.

Areas should be established to display student work. Students should be able to quickly and easily find their work and begin working.

2.6.2 Flexible Arrangement Classrooms are used for a wide variety of activities. The flexibility to accommodate both large group and small group activities and to adjust the room to meet the needs of the particular activity is an advantage. Portable room dividers are one way of creating work or study areas when needed. Work areas can be set up for specific activities and then removed. Care should be taken not to create areas where students cannot be monitored. 2.7 Bulletin Boards Maintaining bulletin boards in the School is the responsibility of the head of the

institution he may assign it to some one. A bulletin board may be used for a variety of purposes: displaying student work, serving as an activity board for students, posting rules, posting announcements, or decorating the School. Some suggestions for creative use of bulletin boards for the teacher in charge are as follow. 1. Take advantage of all the bulletin board space in the School You would be surprised as to how many ways bulletin boards can be used as real space-savers. 2. When constructing a bulletin board, ask yourself if the students will be interested in it. Strive to create a bulletin board that sparks student interest. 3. Bulletin boards may be used to aid in instruction. . 4. Bulletin boards are a good place to post reminders or frequently used concepts such as rules, steps for beginning a lesson, or a schedule of activities. 5. Consider titles for bulletin boards that explain the theme or purpose of the display. Make sure these attract attention. 6. From the artistic point of view, think of colours that harmonize and balance one another. Think of a variety of materials that could be used to enhance the bulletin boards (crepe paper, construction paper, bright coloured markers, cloth, etc.). There are many commercially prepared materials available for teachers, but try not to rely to heavily on these materials.

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7. Use illustrations that are current, relevant, and interesting to the students. Be careful of using too many illustrations as this will make the board look cluttered. 8. After all the work of putting together a bulletin board, make sure all students can see the bulletin board. Sometimes bulletin boards can become covered up by other furniture, etc. in the classroom. 2.8 Library. The school library should be well equipped with teachers reference books. Time Life series, Child Craft books, World Book Encyclopaedia, Science magazines; Story books, Readers Digest and other weekly magazines. Students of all the classes including the preprimary section should be encouraged to use these books. Books should be lent to the students every week. 2.9 Laboratories Well-equipped Physics, Chemistry and Biology laboratories to carry out experiments, demonstrations are made available. Students be trained in using the laboratory properly. Computer laboratory be established in schools. Skills oriented training in the use of computer is provided. The computer literacy be popularized amongst the students. The use of computer in the teaching will help the teacher t explain the concept and learning well be promoted.

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CHAPTER 3

School Administration

There should be Total Quality Management to cater the needs of administration, curricular and co curricular activities of the school and the students. This can be achieved by perfect understanding and co-ordination between the school management, staff and parents. To make the work effective, efficient and easy, various school management committees be formed each committee should comprise. two or three members. These committees are examination committee, literary committee, cultural and sports committee etc. The chairperson will be responsible for framing the programme for each academic year at the beginning of the year and it proper execution as per schedule. 3.1 Role of Headmaster as teacher, administrator, coordinator and leader in the school system; Contribute effectively in the development and promotion of professional efficiency amongst the teachers. Promote a sense of commitment and belongingness. Assure optimal utilization of resources. Increase their general awareness about education and society. Establish institutional linkages with other institutions and the society. Make the system functional smoothly. Correlate education and manpower needs. Collaboration with different agencies engaged in human resource development and welfare activities. The Principal/Headmaster/head teacher Proves him/herself as an academician. Makes others feel that He/she is a leader to the teachers in all academic and related activities in the school. Proves He/she is a good planner and encourages participatory planning. Monitoring and supervision of the work of the school effectively.

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Keeps good relationship with the society. Keeps healthy relationship with the department of education.

3.2

Teacher Council and its function. The school must have well-qualified, trained and experienced teachers who are

devoted to their profession and have love for children.

They should update themselves by

attending seminars and workshops conducted by the school , Department of Education and other organizations. 3.3 Role of Teacher In the present day world, needless to say that the teachers role is nothing but his performance areas. In the context of the present day school realities and current discourse relating to the aims and objectives of education, a school teacher in Pakistan is expected to perform the Role of a: Manager of classroom instruction; Facilitator of learning; Mobiliser and Manager of resources; Designer and organizer of pupil evaluation; Researcher and innovator; Planner and organizer of co-curricular activities; Guide and counselor of children; Service provider for the community and parents; and Curriculum developer;

To perform his role a teacher shall require competencies to undertake pedagogical analysis of the content to be taught, to match the content delivery with the level of students cognitive development, to communicate effectively. He/She should be able to mobilize and appropriately use the requisite teaching learning material and to create and sustain students interest in learning. To perform the role of a learning facilitator, the teacher shall require the competencies to create the situations conducive for self-learning through dialogue, discussion, problem solving and investigation individually or in groups. To support the performance of the above mentioned roles, the teacher needs certain resources which He/She

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may acquire from different sources within the school such as school library, laboratory, museum, etc. He/She may also take certain resources from other institutions, local community and print as well as electronic media. In addition, He/She shall have to develop the competence to use appropriate learning material at proper time in the best possible manner. He/She should provide guidance relating to sources of information concerning the investigatory projects undertaken by students. To evaluate students learning and to use it as a feedback on the quality of his own instruction, the teacher should have the competency to frame suitable questions and activities, assignments, etc. for formative and summative evaluation. It is a known fact of our system that it is the type of examination, which sets the agenda for curriculum delivery in schools. Therefore, the teacher should have the competence to design such evaluation instruments which has the potential to promote self-learning and reflection on the part of students. A teacher may face certain difficulties in matters relating to his roles and the tasks He/She is supposed to carry out. In some cases, the problems may be specific to his situation and hence the textbook solutions based on the insights gained through the study of theoretical courses may not lead him for the resolution of the problems. Therefore, He/She shall have to develop the competence to systematically investigate the problem by using the methods and procedures generally used by the researchers. The context-specific problems relating to students' motivation, learning and behaviour may be investigated through inter-personal relations and classroom management. He/She may also develop innovative strategies and practices to solve his day-to-day problems. To ensure the child's integrated development, the teacher is bound to provide him varied educational experiences for which He/She needs to develop the competence to plan and organize a variety of co curricular activities including games, sports, excursions, etc. He/She should be in a position to meet the information needs and provide them assistance to develop life skills and tackle their personal problems on their own. Besides students, He/She is also expected to provide guidance to the parents and community, especially in relation to children's education and upbringing. In our country, curriculum development is generally considered a high level technical exercise, which can be taken up by experts only. This view allows the teachers to have a role in the transaction of given curriculum and does not consider them competent enough to participate in the development of curriculum and instructional material. On the other hand, there is a view, which allows a role to the teachers to participate

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actively in all the processes of curriculum development. It is rightly claimed that their participation in curriculum development shall go a long way in making it more relevant to the needs of the children and society. 3.4 Responsibilities as a teacher?

a teacher enjoys job security as long as the teacher's behaviour and personal life do not disrupt or interfere with teaching effectiveness, and that the teacher's right to academic freedom is not absolute. Academic freedom does not protect teachers who use obscene, irrelevant, inappropriate, or disruptive materials or instruction.

Teachers are protected to exercise freedom of speech , unless their statements are malicious, are intentionally inaccurate, disclose confidential material, or hamper teaching performance.

The following suggestions for teachers to serve as a basic guide: 3.5 Read school safety rules, regulations and handbooks Respect student confidentiality in records and forms Notify parents if curriculum materials might be objectionable Exercise forethought (due care) by anticipating accidents Report suspected incidents of child abuse Know and follow due process when penalizing students Keep your meetings with students public Separate your personal and professional life Avoid offensive, sexual, and off-color comments Know and follow policies regarding corporal punishment Seek medical assistance for student injuries or illness Follow copyright laws

Approaches to moral education. Teachers have an ethical responsibility to safeguard the health and well-being of students. From detecting and reporting suspected cases of child abuse to helping

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students make ethical judgments, society expects teachers to provide a moral education to students. the public strongly supports moral and ethical education in schools, but rejects the notion of promoting a particular or narrow set of beliefs. the traditional approach to values education was inculcation, where traditional values were imparted in a didactic style. another approach to ethical education assumes values are best learned through personal reflection and individual analysis, and promotes a strategy called values clarification. Character education promotes a core set of values, including respect, responsibility, citizenship, caring, and fairness. Comprehensive values education is an attempt to combine both traditional and analytical approaches by directly teaching some values, like honesty and caring, while encouraging students to analyze their own positions on more controversial issues, like the death penalty. whatever program is taught, and even if no formal program is taught, what teachers do and say provides a model for students, serving as an "informal" curriculum on ethical behaviour 3.6 Students Education is the manifestation of the perfection already present in a man. The morning assembly provides opportunities for the children of all the age groups to come to the stage to perform which is an initial step in training children in public speaking so that they overcome stage fear, if any. Thus the students express and discover their inherent talents, capabilities and capacities. For all the school functions, children play the major role like welcoming the gathering, comparing, giving the vote of thanks etc., this makes them efficient in organizing functions, training in good team work and also helps in their personality development. 3.6.1 Students rights. Parents and guardians have the right to see their child's educational record.

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On reaching 18 years of age, the student is allowed to see the record, and he or she becomes responsible for providing permission for others to see it. Students have rights to due process before they can be disciplined or suspended from school. Although corporal punishment is rarely used, Government has upheld the school's authority to administer it as long as it is reasonable and not excessive. Schools must be unbiased with regard to religion. Students, like teachers, enjoy the right to freedom of the press. However, student publications can be censored if they are an integral part of the curriculum, such as part of a course, or if they are obscene, psychologically damaging, or disruptive. 3.7 School Discipline The major concern of most teachers in education today is how to improve student discipline. This concern is also shared by parents and Government. Effective school discipline evolves from a team concept. The team consists of the students, teachers, administration, and parents. These groups usually have significant differences in the background knowledge relating to school discipline problems. When all parties of the team understand the basic goals of education, discipline problems will decline. It is responsibility of school and administration and teachers to develop a working relationship with parents 3.8 Responsibility of Teacher/ Principal/Headmaster Inform and explain to the principal the teacher specific need to maintain an educational environment conducive to safe learning and to ask the administration to assist in identifying disruptive students and to prescribe suggestions for formulating activities to assist these children to change their behaviour. By addressing problems in advance, the administration can eliminate teacher frustration by knowing what specific administrative action will be initiated to correct certain discipline problems. Discipline problems can be reduced significantly by developing a cooperative attitude among students, parents and administrators. Students appreciate being treated as adults and an organized, professional approach by the disciplinary team usually eliminates a more serious, emotional confrontation at a later date.

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3.9

Individual Personal Traits Why do some teachers have discipline problems? The answer to this important

question rests with the individual teacher. Over the years, all teachers have developed distinct characteristics which moulded into their present personalities. Some personalities are readily accepted by students of all ages, and others are instantly rejected. Although significant research exists on determining personality types (authoritative, passive, etc.), little exists in explaining how individuals with these distinctly different personality traits can all succeed or fail in a classroom environment Some specific items that tend to create problems for inexperienced teachers: 1. Lack of self-confidence in working with adolescents and young adults can be a problem. Realizing that this is a normal reaction, the teacher will be less inclined to establish personal defence mechanisms which inhibit student/teacher

communications. 2. Appearance can be a problem. The teacher must realize that taken collectively, dress and poor personal health habits can create discipline problems through lack of respect. The individual can easily change personal behaviour characteristics associated with appearance if personal appearance is contributing to a student control problem. For this one should seek advice from other colleagues. Students often confide in other teachers and if doubts exist, one should consult a fellow worker or administrator for assistance. 3. Unrealistic educational expectations can create discipline problems. The Teacher should be realistic in establishing timelines. Remember that students are individuals and the inevitable will always happen--a student will forget the assigned work, do poor work, or even fail to complete the assignment. The Teacher should expect these normal problems and act in a positive manner to change the student's behaviour. 4. The Teacher should not attempt to embarrass a child. Peer group pressure will always work against the teacher. Making negative statements about an entire class or group of students will not gain the teacher respect. With some children, lines of communication are extremely difficult to establish. Teacher should realize this fact and seek assistance. Teacher should not ignore the problem, for in all probability, failure to communicate will lead to later classroom discipline problems.

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5. The Teacher should know how and when to make and enforce rules of behaviour associated with teacher personal communicative skills as a teacher. Rules are made to be broken, but don't make before-the-fact statements that threaten students or predetermine teacher course of action. Teacher should be prepared to adjust his behaviour to match the individual and situation. 6. Common sense is a term which is hard to define, but it is absolute necessity for a successful teaching career.(Some one said common sense which is not very much common) 3.10 Summary school discipline Classroom discipline begins with the teacher. There is absolutely no question that success in the classroom centres on self-discipline. Stress the positive aspects by referring to things a student can do rather than the things he or she cannot do. Negative behaviour can be eliminated through conscious effort by the classroom teacher. Discipline problems will not go away. State legislatures do not enact laws to make teaching easier. Only the teacher will accomplish this goal. The complex nature of our society will require the teacher to develop a vast arsenal of human skills to assist students in determining their own behaviour. Teaching will become more complex and require more highly skilled and dedicated individuals. We in the profession must begin to focus our attention to the major concerns of parents: "establishing a health environment for learning."

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CHAPTER 4

School services
Organization of co-curricular activities is not an easy task. Proper trained can help the administration to run these activities. 4.1 Co curricular activities. Participation in any co curricular activities is an important part of the educational process. A primary goal of these activities is to teach students character and self-discipline skills which will enable them to develop to their highest potential. As role models for their peers and younger students, students who participate in co curricular activities are held accountable for their actions at a higher standard than other students..

We believe in high moral standards, integrity, discipline, character, sportsmanship, citizenship, the importance of teamwork, and the value of hard work and true dedication. It is to be noted that, participating in co curricular activities is a privilege and not a right, though it is an integral part of the school system. Although a voluntary part of school life, the co curricular activities has become a central part in the culture of schooling, with 80 percent of all students participating in such activities as athletics, and academic clubs. Proponents of the co curricular activities argue that it encourages student self-esteem and civic participation, improves race relations, and raises children's aspirations, Many remain sceptical, however, seeing extracurricular activities as having very little, if any, positive effect on achievement and personal development. The students should participate in all the inter school sports The entire school be divided into houses namely A, B, C and D etc (A for Allama Iqbal etc). Inter house competitions be held and all the children be encouraged to participate in the following. 1) 2) 3) Drawing Recitation from the Holy Quran Story telling
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4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) 17) 4.2

Debate Fancy dress Naat khawani Millie Naghmas Annual Model Exhibition Essays, Quiz. Young Scientists Talk by students. Weekly presentation of models, experiments and talks by different groups. Discussions on specific subjects. Excursion and visits. Holding of book exhibitions. Collection of paper cuttings to make their own libraries. Arranging lectures by eminent scientists on popular sciences. Prizes Shields and cash prizes be given to deserving and outstanding students.

Community relation- (Parent- Teacher Association) It should be realized that childrens education is the joint responsibility of the school,

parents and the community.

The school must have a panel of qualified, voluntary parents, to work as substitute for a teacher, in an emergency. The school should have good relationship with the parents for their suggestions for improving the school. They should be free to meet the

Principal/HM/Teacher to discuss the problems of their words. There should be a committee comprising school staff and parents, they should meet periodically to review and plan for future programmes to bring improvements in the quality of education .

Parents be called individually and in groups to counsel with respect to their wards. The institution should have a health centre to promote the well being of the children. Parents who are doctors should visit the school and conduct medical examination for the students periodically, and also see is Pure drinking water be available in plenty, Clean toilets be provided for girls or boys. There should be a cordial parent-teacher relationship and teacher-management relationship

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4.3

PTA About the School Organization Committee PTAs were established in 1996 in Government Schools in NWFP. It was named as

SMC (School Management Committee), VEC (Village Education Committee)in other provinces. The Education Departments of the respective provinces has notified the TORs for these committees. It includes:. 1) 2) 3) 4) School Inspection, Problem relating to school discipline the concept of self discipline, Enrolment and retention, Problems of low participation and high dropouts.

In Primary education, low participation and high dropouts are two major obstacles in achieving the goals/targets of EFA (Education For All). Wastage and stagnation have to be arrested in order to achieve UPE (Universal Primary Education) targets. The main contributory factors are poverty and opportunity cost; ignorance and lack of parents interest, lack of facilities in schools, uninteresting teaching learning process; unattractive school environment; teachers absenteeism and harsh attitude, social and cultural inhibitions, especially for female education; irrelevance of curricula to the local needs of the community; and defective evaluation and assessment system. 4.4 Community Participation. Community Experiences: Interaction between the institution and community is gaining importance in the modern context. One can think of several activities promoting school-community relationship, such as, 1) celebration of birthdays of children, 2) celebration of parents day, 3) activating parent- teacher association for the welfare of the schools, 4) organization of school and community , sports and other social functions, 5) celebration of national days in collaboration with the community. The community involvement in school activities may lead to promote community awareness It will help in mobilizing community resources for organizing mass literacy and continuing education programmes.. It is expected that organization of

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such activities will develop self confidence and initiative among student and teachers and also develop among them positive attitude towards plurality of cultures. Scientists, Mathematicians and Doctors be invited at frequent intervals to give talks, lectures and demonstrations linked to relevant school subjects and personal hygiene and health care respectively. Literary drive, Health services-school medical service, school sanitation, personal & community hygiene, common defects and diseases of school children their causes & prevention encourages the children to interact with intellectual people and widen their horizons. Children be encouraged to attend Science workshops, competitive exams conducted by various organizations to develop competitive spirit and gain more knowledge. Old Students Association It is fact that the old students take active part in the improvement of school.. Establishment of Old Students association will be beneficial for the school. The activities of the association will be help full in the promotion of school and the will act as resource moralizers.

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CHAPTER 5

Instructional Method and Evaluation

5.1 Significance of Methodology, Teachers should be given a free hand in using innovative methods in imparting knowledge. There should be ample audio and visual aids like charts, maps, audio and videocassettes to make teaching more effective and interesting. Every year, the talented and artistic teachers may make new flash cards for story telling, charts and maps etc., and the management should be liberal in providing funds to make these teaching aids. 5.2 Quality Education The quality in Education depends on; a) Education Policy (National Aims, Goals and Instructional objectives). b) Nature and scope of curricula at various tiers of education. c) Quality of Teacher Education a. Pre-Service b. In-Service d) Evaluation and assessment a. Objective b. Valid c. Reliable e) Learning Environment a. School b. Class-Room f) Monitoring and Instruction Supervision a. Principal/Headmaster b. EDOs c. DDOs d. ADOs School District Tehsil Circles

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5.2.1

Quality indicators The quality indicator in education is defined as the process of objective, valid and

reliable evaluation and assessment to measure the intended behaviour. In an Educational Setup the change in behaviour towards the desirable directions is based on curricula, scheme of studies and classroom activities organized by teachers. The quality indicators are classified;

a) Policy level Intellectual growth and development Social development and preservation of cultural identity Economic viability (GNP contribution) (Cognitive) (Affective) (Psycho-Motor)

b) Curricula and scheme of study Class level Tier level System level

The quality indicators at the system and curricula level have to be reduced into clearly defined instruction objectives/behaviour change. Once these behaviours are clearly stated then measuring instruments are designed. The instruments are characterized by; a) Validity b) Reliability c) Correctibility d) Objectivity e) Scorability f) Economical Measurement indicators (Statistical) 1. Percentage 2. Grade 3. Percentile rank 4. Range 5. Mean Score

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6. Standard division 7. Gross Point Average (GPA)

The Gross Point Average formula can be used to compare the quality of system over years, institution, subject and tier/level. Formula GPA = 6(NA1)+5(NA)+4(NB)+3(NC)+2(ND)+1(NE)+0(NF) Total number of students Where; NA1 NA NB NC ND NE NF = = = = = = = No. of students securing A1 grade No. of students securing A grade No. of students securing grade B No. of students securing grade C No. of students securing grade D. No. of students securing grade E. No. of students Failed.

5.3

Academic Excellence

Suggestions to improve the school result Gifted students: Children should be trained for various District, Province and National level exams. It will give them good exposure to face public exams. Average students: More time be given for the enhancement of their performances. They should be encouraged to take part in Quiz, Science programme, Model exhibitions and interschool competitions. Slow learners: They should be separated after class hours or in the last period to provide individual attention to cater to their special needs. Repetition of explanation and answers etc., be taken up. Apart from the regular textbooks prescribed by the department, workbooks for each subject be used for reinforcing what is learnt. The teachers should prepare question bank book for the Students.

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CHAPTER 6

The Timetable
6.1 Introduction Timetabling is the device by which the curriculum is presented to the pupils. The head of a school has a number of resources at his or her disposal ie teachers, teaching areas, finance and time. A timetable is the means by which these resources are marshalled to provide the greatest possible educational opportunities and alternatives for pupils in the most cost-effective manner. The more efficiently these resources are utilized the quality of education for the greater number of children will be improved. A well designed school time table will go a long way to accomplish the objectives of the school. It will serve as useful management tool to run the school effectively. 6.2 1. Principles of timetable design In essence a timetable should be pupil-centered to maximize learning opportunities: arranged with a variety of activities, with subjects spaced to sustain the children's interests and motivation, and taking into account age, concentration span, ability range, single grouping, class sizes and pupil career ambitions. 2 The best and most efficient deployment of teachers can be achieved if: the teaching establishment of the school has been correctly determined all the subjects are fully covered there is a staffing equilibrium in term of experience. teaching loads are balanced across the timetable. 3 The pupil capacity of a school is controlled by its buildings; as far as possible all teaching stations should be fully utilized. An important decision has to be made whether teachers move from one teaching area to another teaching area. 4 Emergencies will lead to timetable adjustment. A good timetable should be flexible, allowing adjustments to be made with the minimum disruption to school life. 5 Provision is to be made within the timetable organization, including non-teaching time for: pupil registration, assemblies, pupil guidance and welfare staff development including departmental meetings, staff meetings and in-service workshops.

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Staff should be deployed vertically and horizontally across the timetable; this means that teachers should teach at different levels and not just be allocated completing or beginning classes.

7 8

Teachers should be assigned the subjects related to their qualification and experience. The timetable should have a psychological based for distribution of subjects. A difficult subject must follow an easy one

6.3

Factors affecting timetable design

Following are some of the factors which will limit freedom in designing the school timetable. Restricted time: It is the time indicated in the scheme of study of students over which the head of institution has no control, for example, the number of periods per day, the number of periods per subject, the length of a period, and the time of school Disposable time' is controlled by the school and reflected in the timetable, such as when a subject is taught, when registration occurs, the length of formal study time, the allocation of non-teaching time, and the use of double, single or triple periods. Teacher availability: A good and effective time table is dependent on the availability of teacher for implementation of scheme of studies for particular class and school. The shortage of teacher will cause a serious problem to work in the school as per time table. School buildings: The design, type and number of classrooms directly affect the timetable. The time table has to be devised so as to suit these parameters. Traditional attitudes: These can militate against the innovative use of resources which would add to the school's efficiency, such as how the school hall is used, and the time of registration and assembly. Lack of public utilities: This can restrict the timetable, for example, no electricity can mean no evening work; a lack of water can affect Art, Science, Agriculture and Home Economics classes.

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The timing of the school day: This is related to the size of the school's catchments area. Adhering to the timetable: If teachers do not adhere to the timetable this will reduce its effectiveness as the framework for planning the time available for learning. 6.4 Step 1: Step 2: Timetable preparation steps in secondary and Middle schools List the number of teaching areas in the school. Note any limiting factors: the teaching space can only accommodate half a class, cannot be used for academic work or examinations, or can only be used for certain types of lesson. Step 3: List the number of teaching subjects and identify each as either 'core' or 'optional'. Step 4: Ensure that the time allotments prescribed by the Ministry of Education are adhered to. Perhaps the most common pattern is 40 minute teaching period, eight period day, and five period on half working day covering 45 periods a week. Step 5: List teachers by name and subject. Include the classes to be covered and the expected teaching loads. Note any teacher shortages or surpluses. Step 6: Collect data on pupil preference in optional subjects, and modify in terms of step 5 above. Step 7: Meet subject department heads to find their timetabling needs with regard to: preferred teaching time during the day subject weekly timetable distribution study time requirements Step 8: Step 9: Involve all the teachers in timetable compilation whenever possible. Identify the amount of non-teaching time which should be timetabled, to allow for registration or extended registration, for student welfare and guidance, for assemblies and for meals.

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6.5 Timetable compilation School Time (K-XII) - No. of periods on full working day for Primary Schools - No. of periods on full working day for Middle/Secondary Schools - No. of periods on Friday - Duration of period - Assembly - Nazra-e-Quran - Break 6.6 . The time frame Length of periods The 40 minute period fits well with recent research that the attention span of the average secondary pupil begins to decline after 30/40 minutes. Double periods of 80 minutes reduce the amount of work for timetablers but their desirability must be carefully considered, taking into account the practical work in a subject. Multiple periods suit practical subjects but create problems when dealing with option blocks. 6.7 Summary = = = 07 08 05

= 40 Min = = = 10 Min 15 Min 20 Min

A school timetable should give full information in three distinct areas, namely: teaching stations, teaching staff and class distribution, and subjects taught at certain times for each teaching day. In order to compile a meaningful timetable the school head must be aware of the necessity to consult others so as to make full preparations and collect all the relevant data. He or she must command the expertise to direct the production of a timetable which will serve the needs of all categories, intellects and aptitudes among the school's pupils. Finally, the head must know and be able to apply such timetable devices as blocking, setting the extended day and week, and double sessions, in order to meet the special circumstances which may prevail in the school

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CHAPTER 7

Appraisal of school work

Concept of evaluation, 7.1 EVALUATION 1. Planning test 2. Constructing of the test 3. Administration 4. Scoring and Analysis 5. Reporting Evaluation: The success or failure of the curriculum transaction is ascertained by evaluation done by means of valid and reliable tools. Evaluation has to be continuous, formative and comprehensive to bring improvement in teaching learning process. Systematic evaluation will enable a teacher to select proper teaching strategies and effect suitable changes in the curriculum process. The evaluation of the pupil teachers at the elementary stage will not differ much from the primary stage and the same principles and similar practices, which have been adopted at the primary level, may be utilized at this stage. In the play center children should get their progress reports once after the 2nd term and again at the end of the final term. Their daily progress be observed and assessed by the class teachers. The first and second standard students must have work sheets for all the subjects and childrens progress be observed after each lesson. Unit tests after each lesson, and six tests and two exams be conducted for all the classes.

7.2

The instructional objectives The instructional objectives refer to the specific behaviours change that the students

have acquired through a course of study. For example a student will be able to name the different parts of a plant after studying a unit on plant. The instructional objectives refer to specific students performance which a teacher can observe and test.

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Criteria of a good test. What do we test when we want to test knowledge component?

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 7.3

Knowledge of terminology Knowledge of specific facts Knowledge of conventions Knowledge of trends and sequences Knowledge of classifications and categories Knowledge of criteria Knowledge of methodology Knowledge of Principles and generalization Knowledge of thesis and structures

Use a variety of testing methods. Research shows that students vary in their preferences for different formats, so using a

variety of testing methods will help students do their best. Objective type tests (Multiplechoice or short answer questions) are appropriate for assessing students' mastery of details and specific knowledge, while essay questions assess comprehension, the ability to integrate and synthesize, and the ability to apply information to new situations. A single test can have several formats. Try to avoid introducing a new format on the final exam: if you have given all multiple-choice quizzes or midterms, don't ask students to write an all-essay final. 7.4 Write questions that test skills other than recall. Research shows that most tests rely too heavily on students' recall of information (Milton, Pollio, and Eison, 1986). Bloom (1956) considers that it is important for tests to measure higher-learning as well. Fuhrmann and Grasha (1983, p. 170) have adapted Bloom's taxonomy for test development. Which is given below: To measure knowledge (common terms, facts, principles, procedures), ask these kinds of questions: Define, Describe, Identify, Label, List, Match, Name, Outline, Reproduce, Select, State. Example: "List the steps involved in titration."

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To measure comprehension (understanding of facts and principles, interpretation of material), ask these kinds of questions: Convert, Defend, Distinguish, Estimate, Explain, Extend, Generalize, Give examples, Infer, Predict, Summarize. To measure application (solving problems, applying concepts and principles to new situations), ask these kinds of questions: Demonstrate, Modify, Operate, Prepare, Produce, Relate, Show, Solve, Use. Example: "Calculate the deflection of a beam under uniform loading." To measure analysis (recognition of unstated assumptions or logical fallacies, ability to distinguish between facts and inferences), ask these kinds of questions: Diagram, Differentiate, Distinguish, Illustrate, Infer, Point out, Relate, Select, Separate, Subdivide. Example: "In the president's State of the Union Address, which statements are based on facts and which are based on assumptions?" To measure synthesis (integrate learning from different areas or solve problems by creative thinking), ask these kinds of questions: Categorize, Combine, Compile, Devise, Design, Explain, Generate, Organize, Plan, Rearrange, Reconstruct, Revise, Tell. Example: "How would you restructure the school day to reflect children's developmental needs?" To measure evaluation (judging and assessing), ask these kinds of questions: Appraise, Compare, Conclude, Contrast, Criticize, Describe, Discriminate, Explain, Justify, Interpret, Support. It is difficult to apply this six-level taxonomy, but some educators have simplified and collapsed the taxonomy into three general levels (Crooks, 1988): The first category knowledge (recall or recognition of specific information). The second category combines comprehension and application. The third category is described as "problem solving," transferring existing knowledge and skills to new situations. 7.5 Type of tests

Multiple-choice tests. Multiple-choice items can be used to measure both simple knowledge and complex concepts. Since multiple-choice questions can be answered quickly, a teacher can assess students' mastery of many topics on an hour exam. In addition, the items can be easily and reliably scored. Good multiple-choice questions are difficult to write-see

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"Multiple-Choice and Matching Tests" for guidance on how to develop and administer this type of test. True-false tests. Because random guessing will produce the correct answer half the time, true-false tests are less reliable than other types of exams. However, these items are appropriate for occasional use. Some faculty who use true-false questions add an "explain" column in which students write one or two sentences justifying their response. Matching tests. The matching format is an effective way to test students' recognition of the relationships between words and definitions, events and dates, categories and examples, and so on. See "Multiple-Choice and Matching Tests" for suggestions about developing this type of test. Essay tests. Essay tests enable a teacher or evaluator to judge students' abilities to organize, integrate, interpret material, and express themselves in their own words. Research indicates that students study more efficiently for essay-type examinations than for selection (multiplechoice) tests: students preparing for essay tests focus on broad issues, general concepts, and interrelationships rather than on specific details, and this studying results in somewhat better student performance regardless of the type of exam they are given (McKeachie, 1986). Essay tests also give teacher an opportunity to comment on students' progress, the quality of their thinking, the depth of their understanding, and the difficulties they may be having. However, because essay tests pose only a few questions, their content validity may be low. In addition, the reliability of essay tests is compromised by subjectivity or inconsistencies in grading (Sources: Ericksen, 1969, McKeachie, 1986) A variation of an essay test asks students to correct mock answers. One faculty member prepares a test that requires students to correct, expand, or refute mock essays. Two weeks before the exam date, he distributes ten to twelve essay questions, which he discusses with students in class. For the actual exam, he selects four of the questions and prepares wellwritten but intellectually flawed answers for the students to edit, correct, expand, and refute. The mock essays contain common misunderstandings, correct but incomplete responses, or absurd notions; in some cases the answer has only one or two flaws. He reports that students seem to enjoy this type of test more than traditional examinations.

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Short-answer tests. Depending on your objectives, short-answer questions can call for one or two sentences or a long paragraph. Short-answer tests are easier to write, though they take longer to score, than multiple-choice tests. They also give a teacher some opportunity to see how well students can express their thoughts, though they are not as useful as longer essay responses for this purpose Problem sets. In courses in mathematics and the sciences, a teachers tests can include problem sets. As a rule of thumb, allow students ten minutes to solve a problem teacher can do in two minutes. Oral exams. Though common at the graduate level, oral exams are rarely used for undergraduates except in foreign language classes. In other classes they are usually timeconsuming, too anxiety provoking for students, and difficult to score unless the instructor tape-records the answers. However, a math professor has experimented with individual thirtyminute oral tests in a small seminar class. Students receive the questions in advance and are allowed to drop one of their choosing. During the oral exam, the professor probes students' level of understanding of the theory and principles behind the theorems. He reports that about eight students per day can be tested. Performance tests. Performance tests ask students to demonstrate proficiency in conducting an experiment, executing a series of steps in a reasonable amount of time, following instructions, creating drawings, manipulating materials or equipment, or reacting to real or simulated situations. Performance tests can be administered individually or in groups. They are seldom used in colleges and universities because they are logistically difficult to set up, hard to score, and the content of most courses does not necessarily lend itself to this type of testing(Disadvantages) . However, performance tests can be useful in classes that require students to demonstrate their skills (Advantages) The following points are recommended for action.

Specify the criteria to be used for rating or scoring (for example, the level of accuracy in performing the steps in sequence or completing the task within a specified time limit).

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State the problem so that students know exactly what they are supposed to do (if possible, conditions of a performance test should mirror a real-life situation).

Give students a chance to perform the task more than once or to perform several task samples.

"Create-a-game" exams. For one midterm, ask students to create either a board game, word game, or trivia game that covers the range of information relevant to the course. Students must include the rules, game board, game pieces, and whatever else is needed to play. Take-home tests. Take-home tests allow students to work at their own pace with access to books and materials. Take-home tests also permit longer and more involved questions, without sacrificing valuable class time for exams. Problem sets, short answers, and essays are the most appropriate kinds of take-home exams. Be wary, though, of designing a take-home exam that is too difficult or an exam that does not include limits on the number of words or time spent (Jedrey, 1984). Also, be sure to give students explicit instructions on what they can and cannot do: for example, are they allowed to talk to other students about their answers? A variation of a take-home test is to give the topics in advance but ask the students to write their answers in class. Some faculty hand out ten or twelve questions the week before an exam and announce that three of those questions will appear on the exam. Open-book tests. Open-book tests simulate the situations professionals face every day, when they use resources to solve problems, prepare reports, or write memos. Open-book tests tend to be inappropriate in introductory courses in which facts must be learned or skills thoroughly mastered if the student is to progress to more complicated concepts and techniques in advanced courses. On an open-book test, students who are lacking basic knowledge may waste too much of their time consulting their references rather than writing. Open-book tests appear to reduce stress (Boniface, 1985; Liska and Simonson, 1991), but research shows that students do not necessarily perform significantly better on open-book tests (Clift and Imrie, 1981; Crooks, 1988). Further, open-book tests seem to reduce students' motivation to study. A compromise between open- and closed-book testing is to let students bring an index card or one page of notes to the exam or to distribute appropriate reference material such as equations or formulas as part of the test. Group exams. Some faculty have successfully experimented with group exams, either in class or as take-home projects. Faculty report that groups outperform individuals and that

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students respond positively to group exams (Geiger, 1991; Hendrickson, 1990; Keyworth, 1989; Toppins 1989). For example, for a fifty-minute in-class exam, use a multiple-choice test of about twenty to twenty-five items. For the first test, the groups can be randomly divided. Groups of three to five students seem to work best. For subsequent tests, a teacher may want to assign students to groups in ways that minimize differences between group scores and balance talkative and quiet students. Or a teacher might want to group students who are performing at or near the same level (based on students' performance on individual tests). Some faculty have students complete the test individually before meeting as a group. Others just let the groups discuss the test, item by item. In the first case, if the group score is higher than the individual score of any member, bonus points are added to each individual's score. In the second case, each student receives the score of the group. Faculty who use group exams offer the following tips:

Ask students to discuss each question fully and weigh the merits of each answer rather than simply vote on an answer.

If teacher assign problems, have each student work a problem and then compare results.

If teacher want students to take the exam individually first, consider devoting two class periods to tests; one for individual work and the other for group.

Show students the distribution of their scores as individuals and as groups; in most cases group scores will be higher than any single individual score.

A variation of this idea is to have students first work on an exam in groups outside of class. Students then complete the exam individually during class time and receive their own score. Some portion of the test items are derived from the group exam. The rest are new questions. Or let students know in advance a teacher will be asking them to justify a few of their responses; this will keep students from blithely relying on their work group for all the answers. (Sources: Geiger, 1991; Hendrickson, 1990; Keyworth, 1989; Murray, 1990; Toppins, 1989) Paired testing. For paired exams, pairs of students work on a single essay exam, and the two students turn in one paper. Some students may be reluctant to share a grade, but good students will most likely earn the same grade they would have working alone. Pairs can be self-selected or assigned. For example, pairing a student who is doing well in the course with

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one not doing well allows for some peer teaching. A variation is to have students work in teams but submit individual answer sheets. (Source: Murray, 1990) 7.6 Portfolios. A portfolio is not a specific test but rather a cumulative collection of a

student's work. Students decide what examples to include that characterize their growth and accomplishment over the term. While most common in composition classes, portfolios are beginning to be used in other disciplines to provide a fuller picture of students' achievements. A student's portfolio might include sample papers (first drafts and revisions), journal entries, essay exams, and other work representative of the student's progress. Teacher can assign portfolios a letter grade or a pass/not pass. If teacher do grade portfolios, teacher will need to establish clear criteria. (Source: Jacobs and Chase, 1992) Prepare new exams each time teacher teach a course. Though it is time consuming to develop tests, a past exam may not reflect changes in how a teacher has presented the material or which topics teacher has emphasized in the course. If teacher do write a new exam, teacher can make copies of the old exam available to students. Prepare test items bank.. Don't wait until a week or so before the exam. One way to make sure the exam reflects the topics emphasized in the course is to write test questions at the end of each class session and place them on index cards or computer files for later sorting. Software that allows teacher to create test banks of items and generate exams from the pool is now available. Ask students to submit test questions. Faculty who use this technique limit the number of items a student can submit and receive credit for. Here is an example .Teacher can submit up to two questions per exam. Each question must be typed or legibly printed on a separate 5" x 8" card. The correct answer and the source (that is, page of the text, date of lecture, and so on) must be provided for each question. Questions can be of the short-answer, multiplechoice, or essay type. Students receive a few points of additional credit for each question they submit that is judged appropriate. Not all students will take advantage of this opportunity. Teacher can select or adapt student's test items for the exam. If teacher have a large lecture class, he may tell the students that teacher might not review all items but will draw randomly from the pool until teacher have enough questions for the exam.

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Items from colleagues' exams. Teacher should ask colleagues at other institutions for copies of their exams. Be careful, though, about using items from tests given by colleagues on his/her own campus. Some of on his/her students may have previously seen those tests. Consider making your tests cumulative. Cumulative tests require students to review material they have already studied, thus reinforcing what they have learned. Cumulative tests also give students a chance to integrate and synthesize course content Prepare clear instructions. The teacher should test his/her instructions by asking a colleague to read them. Include a few words of advice and encouragement on the exam. For example, give students advice on how much time to spend on each section or offer a hint at the beginning of an essay question or wish students good luck. Put some easy items first. Place several questions all the students can answer near the beginning of the exam. Answering easier questions helps students overcome their nervousness and may help them feel confident that they can succeed on the exam. A teacher can also use the first few questions to identify students in serious academic difficulty. Challenge the best students. Some instructors like to include at least one very difficult questionthough not a trick question or a trivial oneto challenge the interest of the best students. They place that question at or near the end of the question paper. Try out the timing. No purpose is served by creating a test too long for even well-prepared students to finish and review before turning it in. As a rule of thumb, allow about one-half minute per item for true-false tests, one minute per item for multiple-choice tests, two minutes per short-answer requiring a few sentences, ten or fifteen minutes for a limited essay question, and about thirty minutes for a broader essay question. Allow another five or ten minutes for students to review their work, and factor in time to distribute and collect the tests. Another rule of thumb is to allow students about four times as long as it takes you (or a graduate student instructor) to complete the test. Give some thought to the layout of the test. Use margins and line spacing that make the test easy to read. If items are worth different numbers of points, indicate the point value next to each item. Group similar types of items, such as all true-false questions, together. Keep in

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mind that the amount of space a teacher leave, for short-answer questions often signifies to the students the length of the answer expected of them. If students are to write on the exam rather than in a answer paper, leave space at the top of each page for the student's name (and section, if appropriate). If each page is identified, the exams can be separated so that each graduate student instructor can grade the same questions on every test paper. Summary: 7.7 What is assessment? Gathering information about what students know and can do by observing students at work, looking at products of student work, or testing students skills and knowledge Testing: One means of assessment.

Formative: Diagnostic feedback for student learning; informs instruction. Summative: Documents what the student has learned at the end of the teaching unit. Evaluation: Interpreting and making judgments about the assessment information.

7.8

School inspection.

A school inspection is a process of evidence gathering in order to provide an assessment of how well a school is performing. This is achieved using analysis of data, observation of lessons, interviews with teachers, analysis of pupils' work and meetings with parents, pupils and governors. Inspections must be conducted by teams of inspectors, led by a registered inspector, and must result in a written report. 7.8.1 Why school inspections?

School inspections are required in law and are governed by the School Inspections Act 1935 and later amendments. The school inspection provides to parents an external and independent view of what is good and bad about the school in which their children are studying as compared to other schools. 7.8.2 Type of Inspections: Normally there are two type of school inspection in public sector school. Annual inspection Surprise Inspection

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When do inspections take place? Annual inspection: This is an inspection which is carried out annually. The inspector circulates the schedule of annual inspection to the schools in his/her jurisdiction. Inspection has multiple purposes. The inspection evaluate and asses the academic performance of the kids maintenance of schools and performance etc. Surprise Inspection: All the activities of annual inspection and teacher attendance etc. How are parents involved? The school is required to inform PTA through HeadMaster/Principal inspection is about to take place. The EDO/DO arranges a meeting with parents to explain the scope and procedures of the inspection and to listen to any issues that they raise. Parents are also invited to complete a questionnaire and this gives an opportunity for parents who cannot attend the meeting to make their views known. After the inspection the school is required to inform parents promptly of the main inspection findings and what actions have been proposed to improve the performance of the school. What happens in a school inspection? A team of inspectors led by a district officer of education department spends ONE full day in the school observing lessons and speaking to teachers and pupils, to gather evidence on how well the school is performing. The length of the school inspection depends on the size of the school and the type of inspection. Typically an inspection of a small primary school may take a team of 2 inspectors 3 hours to complete; whilst for a large secondary school it may take 15 inspectors one day. The inspection is designed to answer the following questions: What sort of school is it? What does the school do well? How high are the standards? How well pupils are taught? How well the school is led and managed? How much has the school improved since the last inspection? What should school do to improve further?

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How much course has been covered? How much written work has been done? What is over all condition of the school? What are the results of school inspection. There are two outcomes depending on the results of the inspection.

An oral report of the corporate judgements of the team is given by the DO/EDO in the meeting at the end of the inspection to the head teacher and staff. This follows by a written report within two weeks. The school makes the inspection report a public document The parents are provided with the summary of report within ten days of its receipt. The school has to prepare an action plan that describes how it is going to implement the supervisors/inspectors' recommendations. The supervisors/ inspectors may judge that there are Serious Weaknesses in the schools performance and made recommendations in their report. 7.8.3 Important points for supervisors/inspectors

supervisors/Inspectors are expected to: Evaluate objectively, be impartial and have no previous connection with the school which could undermine their objectivity. Report honestly and fairly, ensuring that judgments are accurate and reliable. Carry out their work with integrity, in the friendly environment. Do all they can to minimize the stress on those involved in the inspection, and act with their best interests and well-being as priorities. Maintain purposeful and productive dialogue with those being inspected, and communicate judgements clearly and frankly. Respect the confidentiality of information, particularly about individuals and their work

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CHAPTER 8

General
8.1 Four Principles of Learning Previous Knowledge: Social Interaction: Learning is enhanced when learners talk to each other Use of Strategies: Successful learning involves use of numerous strategies Particular Situations: Learning is situational and not readily transferred to other situations 8.2 Dales Cone of Experience People remember 8.3 10% of what they read 20% of what they hear 30% of what they see 50% of what they hear and see 70% of what they say and write 90% of what they say and perform as a task At the end I will recommend to make the school system efficient that following four

What we know affects what we learn

resources need to be decentralised. Power to make decisions that influence organizational practices, policies and directions; Knowledge that enables employees to understand and contribute to organizational performance including technical knowledge to do the job or provide the service, interpersonal skills, and managerial knowledge and expertise; Information about the performance of the organization, including revenues, expenditures, unit performance, and strategic information on the broader policy and economic environment; and Rewards that are based on the performance of the organization and the contributions of individuals.

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Glossary of Education Terms

Accreditation The process by which an organization, sanctions teacher-education programs,l gives certain programs ,approval for quality. Provinces also approve teacher-education programs by issuing teaching licenses to their graduates. Accountability Policies that hold districts, schools, or students responsible for their performance. School and district accountability often means rating schools or districts according to student performance, reporting on school or district performance, and rewarding and punishing schools or districts based on improvement over time. Student accountability refers to holding students responsible for their own performance by requiring them to pass a test to be promoted or to graduate. alternative assessment Any form of gauging students' knowledge other than conventional standardized tests. Alternative assessments include performance-based assessments, portfolios, and other means. alternative schools Public schools that are set up by Provinces or school districts to serve students who are failing in traditional public schools. Alternative schools typically attract students with learning disabilities or behavioral problems, and offer them a chance to achieve in a different environment. Such schools often have flexible schedules, smaller teacher-student ratios, and modified curricula. assessment An exercise, e.g., a written test, portfolio, performance, or experiment, that aims to measure a student's knowledge or skill in a given subject. Basic skills The traditional building blocks of a curriculum that is most commonly associated with explicit instruction in early elementary language arts and mathematics. Basic skills include teaching the letters of the alphabet, how to sound out words, spelling, grammar, counting, adding, subtracting, and multiplying. bilingual education An education program for non-native English speakers. Children spend part of the school day receiving instruction in their native language, with the goal of moving them into mainstream English classes, normally within two or three years.

cognitive science The study of how, rather than what, people learn. Teachers using this approach build on students' outside knowledge and experience and rely less on rote memorization.

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Constructivism An approach to teaching based on the idea that learning is the result of "mental construction." That is, students learn by fitting new information together with what they already know. Constructivists believe that learning is affected by the context in which an idea is taught as well as by students' beliefs and attitudes. These theorists dismiss the idea that students learn by absorbing information through lectures or repeated rote practice. critical thinking The mental process of acquiring information, then evaluating it to reach a logical conclusion or answer. Increasingly, educators believe that schools should focus more on critical thinking and less on memorization of facts. curriculum The subject matter that teachers and students cover in class. (Plural curricula.) curriculum frameworks Describe what should be taught in order for students to acquire certain skills. Decentralization In education, the term is most frequently used to describe the transfer of school policymaking authority from the federal to the Province level, or the transfer of decision-making authority from the Province level to districts or schools. Distance learning The use of telecommunications technologies, including satellites, telephones and cable-television systems, to broadcast instruction from one central site to one or more remote locations. Typically, a television image of a teacher is broadcast to students in remote locations. This may also be done using interactive videoconferencing. School districts frequently use distance learning so one teacher can teach to students in more than one school at once. Rural districts often rely on distance learning. EDO Executive District Officer equity Fairness or justice, usually referring to the equitable distribution of something valued. In the education field, this term refers to the fair distribution of funding, technology, facilities, services, and equal education opportunities for both male and female students, including students with disabilities, students with limited proficiency. and students in high-poverty schools. Evolution The theory of evolution holds that a one-celled organism spontaneously emerged from steaming, nutrient-rich seas about 3.5 billion years ago, and that increasingly varied and complex organisms developed through such processes as genetic mutation. Over time, unforgiving environments killed the weaker members of each speciesand sometimes the entire species

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in favor of better-suited ones. Scientists say evidence supporting the theory of evolution includes fossil records, the existence of similar structures in different animals, and the fact that all living things share similar biochemistry. They say the theory of evolution is not only scientifically valid it is the unifying theory of biology.
.gifted students

Pupils who have the ability to achieve beyond the norm either because of their IQ scores, their demonstrated skill in the classroom, or both. Once limited to academic skills, the definition of giftedness in many schools is expanding to include children with a wide variety of talents. illiteracy The condition of being unable to read. People were at one time considered illiterate if they could not write their name. The definition has been expanded so that literacy tests now measure people's ability to perform everyday tasks, such as reading a bus schedule. IQ Abbreviation for "intelligence quotient," which is supposed to reflect a person's mental capacities. IQ tests have become controversial in recent years because critics claim they measure only a narrow band of intellectual strengths, primarily "school smarts." Others claim the tests are biased against members of some minority groups.
.Mainstreaming

The practice of placing students with educational and/or physical disabilities in general education classes. This encourages special education and general education students to interact with each other socially and academically. The special education teacher maintains the students' attendance records and grades. (Compare with "inclusion.") Manipulative A physical object that can be used to represent or model a problem situation or develop a mathematical concept. A manipulative could be blocks, sticks, coins, etc.
.Parent-Teacher Association (PTA)

An organization of parents, teachers, and other interested persons, with chapters in individual schools. PTA's are normally parent dominated, and rely entirely on voluntary participation. The PTA offers assistance to schools in many different ways. private school An independent school that is controlled by an individual or agency other than the district or Province. It is normally supported by private funds . .

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REFERENCES
Virginia Council on Technology Teacher Education John E. Bonfadini Monograph Author Revised 1993 Anderson, S. B. "The Role of the Teacher-Made Test in Higher Education." In D. Bray and M. J. Blecher (eds.), Issues in Student Assessment. New Directions for Community Colleges, no. 59. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1987. Berrenberg, J. L., and Prosser, A. "The Create-a-Game Exam: A Method to Facilitate Student Interest and Learning." Teaching of Psychology, 1991, 18(3), 167-169. Bloom, B. S. (ed.). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Vol. 1: Cognitive Domain. New York: McKay, 1956. Boniface, D. "Candidates' Use of Notes and Textbooks During an Open Book Examination." Educational Research, 1985, 27(3), 201-209. Brown, I. W. "To Learn Is to Teach Is to Create the Final Exam." College Teaching, 1991, 39(4), 150-153. Buchanan, R. W., and Rogers, M. "Innovative Assessment in Large Classes." College Teaching, 1990, 38(2), 69-73. Clift, J. C., and Imrie, B. W. Assessing Students, Appraising Teaching. New York: Wiley, 1981. Crooks, T. J. "The Impact of Classroom Evaluation Practices on Students." Review of Educational Research, 1988, 58(4), 438-481. Ericksen, S. C. "The Teacher-Made Test." Memo to the Faculty, no. 35. Ann Arbor: Center for Research on Learning and Teaching, University of Michigan, 1969. "Exams: Alternative Ideas and Approaches." Teaching Professor, 1989, 3(8), 3-4. Fuhrmann, B. S., and Grasha, A. F. A Practical Handbook for College Teachers. Boston: Little, Brown, 1983. Teachers, Schools, and Society, 6TH Edition Sadker, and Sadker,Myra Pollack Sadker, Late of the American University David Miller Sadker, the American University Discipline Education's Number One Problem Geiger, T. "Test Partners: A Formula for Success." Innovation Abstracts, 1991, 13 (l1). (Newsletter published by College of Education, University of Texas at Austin) Gronlund, N. E., and Linn, R. Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching. (6th ed.) New York: Macmillan, 1990.

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Hendrickson, A. D. "Cooperative Group Test-Taking." Focus, 1990, 5(2), 6. (Publication of the Office of Educational Development Programs, University of Minnesota) Jacobs, L. C., and Chase, C. I. Developing and Using Tests Effectively: A Guide for Faculty. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992. Jedrey, C. M. "Grading and Evaluation." In M. M. Gullette (ed.), The Art and Craft of Teaching. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984. Keyworth, D. R. "The Group Exam." Teaching Professor, 1989, 3(8), 5. Liska, T., and Simonson, J. "Open-Text and Open-Note Exams." Teaching Professor, 1991, 5(5), 1-2. Lowman, J. Mastering the Techniques of Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1984. McKeachie, W. J. Teaching Tips. (8th ed.) Lexington, Mass.: Heath, 1986. Milton, O., Pollio, H. R., and Eison, J. A. Making Sense of College Grades: Why the Grading System Does Not Work and What Can Be Done About It. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1986. Murray, J. P. "Better Testing for Better Learning." College Teaching, 1990, 38(4), 148-152. Savitz, F. "Effects of Easy Examination Questions Placed at the Beginning of Science Multiple-Choice Examinations." Journal of Instructional Psychology, 1985, 12(l), 6-10. Svinicki, M. D. "Comprehensive Finals." Newsletter, 1987, 9(2), 1-2. (Publication of the Center for Teaching Effectiveness, University of Texas at Austin) Svinicki, M. D., and Woodward, P. J. "Writing Higher-Level Objective Test Items." In K. G. Lewis (ed.), Taming the Pedagogical Monster. Austin: Center for Teaching Effectiveness, University of Texas, 1982. Toppins, A. D. "Teaching by Testing: A Group Consensus Approach." College Teaching, 1989, 37(3), 96-99. Wergin, J. F. "Basic Issues and Principles in Classroom Assessment." In J. H. McMillan (ed.), Assessing Students' Learning. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, no. 34. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988.
Sullivan, Kevin, Middle School Program and Participatory Planning Drive School Design, Middle School Journal, Vol. 27, No.4, March 1996, p.4.

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Jamal-ud-din
(30 years experience) School Teacher Assistant District Officer Assistant Director Education Dy: Director Education Additional Director Education Vice Principal High School Principal Higher Secondary School Project Director, Madrassa Reforms Project Provincial Project Coordinator, Non Formal Basic Education Provincial Coordinator, EFA, NWFP