HM Laboratory Manual

Hydraulic Machines Laboratory Manual Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machines Lab
This Lab is intended to make the students aware of the all the aspects which comes under the fluid flow. The experiments include flow measurement, practical applications of the basic principles of fluid mechanics and the study of major tools used. The hydraulics lab comprises of the performance tests of pumps and load tests on turbine test rigs.
The Major equipments include: Flow Apparatus By Venturimeter & Orificemeter Orifice & Mouth piece Pitot Tube Reynold's Apparatus Notches (V & Rectangular type)
Metacentric Height Apparatus Bernouli's Theorem Apparatus Losses Determination Apparatus Test Rigs of Francis Turbine Kaplan Turbine Pelton Turbine Centrifugal Pump Reciprocating Pump Jet Pump Gear Pump Submersible Pump Hydraulic Ram SAINT GITS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,Pathamuttum
Sreesh P S & Sailesh K S
Hydraulic Machines Laboratory Manual
Hydraulic machines laboratory

Introduction Hydraulic machines lab is mainly intended to make an awareness of different hydraulic machines and their operations. Here the theories learned in Hydraulic machines should be applied. Turbo machines are devices in which energy is transferred either to, or from, a continuously flowing fluid by the dynamic action of moving blades on the runner .the word turbo or turbines is of Latin origin and implies that which spins or whirls around. Hydraulic machines include both power producing (Turbines) and power consuming (Pumps) devices. Classification of Turbines as well as Pumps and general description of each type of turbine and pump is given in the literature. In modern day we make use of hydraulic machines for achieving our needs such as producing electricity, water powered mills, pumping water etc. For each needs we require different kinds of machines. In this lab the students are expected to learn the practical difficulties; precaution to be taken etc during the performance of each experiment .Procedure for each experiment should be carefully followed as laid down in this manual. Certain deviations in the equations from theory are made according to the test rig provided for easy understanding and completion of each experiment. In case each experiment the graphs are to be drawn as mentioned .In some cases standard graphs are given wherein any deviations graphs obtained during the experiment are to be mentioned with proper reasons. Practical application of the machines should be well understood. Hydraulic Machines at a glance Machine Pelton Turbine Remarks Impulse turbine with low specific speed range, suitable for head above 300m Francis Turbine High efficiency, medium range of specific speed. Medium head (Perigalkoothu, Head ranges between 50 m to 300m Neriamangalam) Kaplan Turbine Low head (Malampuzha) High discharge, high specific speed, better part load efficiency &suitable for head below 50 m. Centrifugal Pump Wide range of head and discharge. High efficiency, Suction head limited Viscous or non viscous liquids Reciprocating pump High delivery head, low discharge Low efficiency, Suction head limited. Discharge (Metering pumps) Pumping water increases head remains constant in hilly regions Self priming pump House hold application Very low efficiency Suction head limited Gear pump Viscous liquids(Metering pumps) Discharge increases head remains constant Air lift pump Bore well application, low No moving part in the well, maintenance free (Compressor discharge, high head pump) Jet pump Deep open well application High suction lift, part of discharged water re circulate through a nozzle fitted near to the foot valve Submersible centrifugal pump Bore well and open well No suction lift, sealed motor, motor and pump assembly dipped in water Application High head (Pallivasal,Idukki)
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SAINT GITS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,Pathamuttum

CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID MACHINES 1. Power Developing Machines 2. Power Absorbing Machines Eg. Turbines Eg. Pumps & Compressors
Turbines can be further classified according to the kind of energy. 1. Hydraulic Turbines 2. Wind Turbines 3. Heat Turbines i) ii) Steam Turbines Gas Turbines Pressure Energy Kinetic Energy Thermal Energy
Power Absorbing Machines can be further classified according to the kind of flow medium. 1. Pumps 2. Compressors i) ii) iii) Fans Blowers Turbo-Compressors Liquid medium Gas medium
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Hydraulic Machines Laboratory Manual STUDY OF PELTON TURBINE

Pelton turbine is a tangential flow type impulse turbine. It is named after an American Engineer Lester. A Pelton. It is well suited for high head operation where head is more than 250 meters. The major components of the Pelton turbine identified from figure are penstock, nozzle, spear valve, runner and casing. Penstock is the pipe line carrying water from the reservoir to the inlet of the turbine. This is made of steel or reinforced concrete as it has to bear very high pressures due to the head of water and sudden changes in flow rate. Runner consists of a circular disc with a number of buckets evenly placed around its periphery. The runner is keyed to the main shaft of the turbine. The Pelton turbine buckets are double semi ellipsoidal in shape. Each bucket is divided into two symmetrical cups with a sharp ridge known as splitter at the centre. The jet of water impinges on the splitter, divides the jet into two equal portions each of which after flowing round the smooth inner surface leaves at its outer edge. The buckets are so shaped that the angle at the outlet tip varies from 10 to 20 so that the jet of water gets deflected through 160 to 170. It avoids deflected water striking at the back of the succeeding bucket causing braking effect. The advantage of having double cup shaped bucket is that the axial thrusts neutralize each other being equal and opposite and hence the bearings supporting the wheel shaft are not subjected to any axial thrust. The back of bucket is so shaped that as it swings downwards into the jet no water is wasted by splashing. At the tip of the bucket a notch is cut which prevents the jet striking the preceding bucket being intercepted by next bucket very soon. It also avoids the deflection of water towards the centre of the wheel as the bucket first meets the jet. For low heads the buckets are made by cast iron. But for higher heads they are made of cast steel, bronze or stainless steel. Nozzle is a convergent tube, which converts all the available pressure energy into kinetic energy and also directs the jet along the pitch circle of the runner. Spear valve control the quantity of water striking the runner. The nozzle fitted at the end of penstock is provided with a spear or needle having a streamlined head, which is fixed to the end of a rod. The spear may be operated by
a hand wheel in the case of small units or automatically by a governor in case of bigger units. When the shaft of Pelton turbine is horizontal then not more than two jets are employed, but if the wheel is mounted on a vertical shaft a large number of jets is possible. Casing of Pelton turbine is made of cast iron or fabricated steel plates and has no hydraulic function to perform. It is provided only to prevent splashing of water and lead splashed water to tail race and to set as safeguards against accidents.
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The energy transfer from the fluid to the runner takes place because of impulse force. The Eulers head equation is
Schematic view of Pelton Turbine
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Pelton Turbine Bucket

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STUDY OF FRANCIS TURBINE
Francis turbine is a mixed flow reaction turbine named after James B. Francis. It is well suited for medium head operations such as head ranging from about 60 to 250 meters. The major parts identified from Figure of Francis turbine are penstock, spiral casing, stay vanes, guide vanes, runner and draft tube. Penstock carries water form the reservoir to the turbine inlet. Water from the penstock enters into the spiral casing, which completely surrounds the runner. The cross sectional, area of the casing is made gradually decreasing to get a uniform velocity. Stay vanes are fixed vanes. They are half the number of guide vanes. They resist the load imposed on them and transmit it to the foundation, through the casing. Water coming from the stay vanes enters into the guide vanes. Guide vanes direct the water to the runner vanes at the appropriate flow angle. The above described components guide the water into the runner with minimum loss of energy. The runner of the Francis turbine consists of a series of curved vanes evenly arranged around the annular space between two plates. The vanes are so shaped that water enter the runner radially at the outer periphery and leave axially at the inner periphery. The reaction force on the runner vanes due to the flow of water through the vane passage causes the runner to rotate. When flow is passing through the runner static pressure gradually decreases. The force produced by the water is transmitted through a shaft, which is keyed on to the runner. The water after passing through the runner flows to the tailrace through a draft tube. Draft tube is a gradually increasing cross sectional area passage, which connects the runner exit to the tailrace. It permits a negative suction head at the runner exit, thus making it possible to install the turbine above the tailrace with out loss of head. It also regains a large portion of kinetic energy rejected from the runner into the useful pressure energy. The energy transfer from the fluid to the runner takes place because of reaction force. The Eulers head equation is
In reaction turbine, the energy transfer from the fluid to the runner takes place because of change in tangential velocity and relative velocity. That is energy transfer is due to second and third terms (static pressure) and the change in absolute velocity is zero. The second and third term causes reaction force.
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Schematic view of Francis Turbine

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Hydraulic Machines Laboratory Manual STUDY OF KAPLAN TURBINE

Kaplan turbine is an axial flow reaction turbine, developed by an Austrian Engineer V. Kaplan. It is well suited for low head operations such as head below 60 meters. The main components of the Kaplan turbine are scroll casing, inlet guide vanes, and runner vanes. Draft tube is placed at the exit of the runner. The water from the penstocks enters the casing. The casing has spiral shape in which the cross-sectional area gradually decreases. (Hence it is also called scroll casing). The casing completely surrounds the runner of the turbine. Due to the peculiar shape of the casing the water may enter the runner at constant velocity throughout the circumference of the runner. The casing is made of concrete, cast steel or plate steel. The guide vanes are fixed between two rings in the form of a wheel known as guide-wheel. The guide vanes have an aerofoil cross-section. This particular cross section allows water to pass over the vanes without much velocity variation. Each guide vane can rotate about its pivot center, which is connected to the regulating ring by mean of a link and a lever. The ring is connected to the regulating shaft by means of regulating rods. By rotating the regulating shaft the guide vanes can be closed or opened allowing a variable quantity of water. The guide vanes turn the incoming flow at an appropriate angle, to match the inlet runner vane angle (zero incidence). The guide vanes are generally made of cast steel. The runner of a Kaplan Turbine closely resembles a ship's propeller. Usually it has four or six blades and in some exceptional cases even eight blades. The blades attached to a hub or boss cone are so shaped that water flows axially through the runner. The turbine blades can be turned about their own axes so that, their inlet (zero incidence) angle can be adjusted while the turbine is in motion. In Kaplan turbine, the incidence loss at inlet of the guide vanes and runner vanes are very small because the runner vanes and guide vanes are adjustable. Therefore, Kaplan turbine can operate over a wide range of load (discharge) without much decrease of efficiency. The draft tube is a divergent cross sectional area tube, which connects the runner exit to the tailrace. The velocity at the exit of a reaction turbine is generally high which means it possesses large amount of kinetic energy. The draft tube transforms kinetic energy into pressure energy while flowing through this divergent cross sectional area tube. Therefore the effective head on the turbine is increasing. The draft tube develops a vacuum pressure at the runner exit. The effective head acting on the turbine is the pressure head at inlet plus the vacuum head at runner exit. It is also advantageous to construct the power station above the tailrace without affecting the head acting on the machine
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Schematic view of Kaplan Turbine
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STUDY OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
Centrifugal pumps are rotodynamic type of pumps. The basic principle on which a centrifugal pump work is that when a certain mass of liquid is made to rotate by any external force it is thrown away from the central axis of rotation because a centrifugal head is impressed which enables the liquid to rise to higher level. The main components of a centrifugal pump identified in figure are impeller, casing, suction pipe with foot valve and strainer, delivery pipe and delivery valve. Impeller is a circular wheel, which is provided with a series of curved vanes, imparts energy into the fluid. The vanes can be curved backward (<90), radial ( = 90) and forward ( > 90) with out (open impeller) or with shroud plates in back side (semi open impeller), shroud plates in back and frond side (closed impeller). It is mounted on a shaft, which is coupled to an external source of energy, usually an electric motor, which imparts the required energy to the impeller there by making it to rotate. The impeller is surrounded by a spiral (volute) shaped casing. It is an airtight chamber. It is shaped in such a way that the liquid can flow through a passage of gradually increasing area with constant velocity. Partial conversion of velocity energy into pressure energy can take place in the casing. Moreover casing carries water from the impeller to the delivery pipe. In large centrifugal pumps air vent is provided on the casing. This is used to vent air at the time of priming. The upper end of the suction pipe is connected to the casing at the center of the impeller. The lower end of suction pipe is fitted with a foot valve and strainer. The strainer keeps away the debris. The foot valve is a non return or one way type of valve which opens only in the upward direction. Delivery pipe is connected at its lower end to the out let of the pump and it delivers the liquid to the required height. A delivery valve is fitted near the outlet or the pump to control the flow from the pump to the delivery pipe. The first step in the working of centrifugal pump is priming. It is an operation by which suction pipe, casing of the pump and portion of delivery pipe up to the delivery valve is filled with the liquid to be pumped, so as to remove air gaps. The necessity of priming in centrifugal pump is due to the fact that the centrifugal head generated by the impeller is directly proportional to the density of liquid that is in contact with it.
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Schematic view of Centrifugal Pump
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After priming the delivery valve is kept closed (to reduce starting torque of the motor) and the electric motor starts to rotate with the impeller. The rotation of the impeller imparts a centrifugal head to the liquid thereby increasing pressure. The pressure at any point is directly proportional to the square of the angular velocity (2) and the distance of the point from the axis of rotation (r2). Now the delivery valve is opened and the liquid is allowed to flow in an outward radial direction. At the eye of the impeller a partial vacuum will be created. This causes the liquid from the sump which is at atmospheric pressure to rise through the suction pipe to the eye of rotation of impeller is utilised in lifting the liquid to the required height i.e. delivery pipe.
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STUDY OF RECIPROCATING PUMP
The reciprocating pump is a positive displacement pump in which the liquid is sucked and then it is displaced or pushed due to the thrust exerted on it by a moving member, which results in pumping liquid to the required height. The discharge of liquid produced by these pumps completely depends on the speed of the pump. Reciprocating pump generally operates at low speeds. So it is coupled to electric motor with belt drives. Reciprocating pumps can be classified as Single acting or Double acting pump. If the liquid is in contact with one side of the piston or plunger then it is known as single acting pump. Thus a single acting pump has one suction pipe and one delivery pipe. In one complete revolution of the crank there are only two strokes - one suction and one delivery stroke. On the other hand if the liquid is in contact with both the sides of the piston or plunger it is known as double acting pump. A double acting pump has two suction and two delivery pipes. So during each stroke when suction taken place on one side of the piston, the other side delivers the liquid. In this way in the case of a double acting pump in one complete revolution of the crank there are two suction strokes and two delivery strokes. Reciprocating pump is well suited for low discharge and high delivery head applications. The main parts of reciprocating pumps are cylinder, piston or plunger, suction and delivery valves, suction pipe with strainer, delivery pipe and air vessels on both suction and delivery pipes close to cylinder. The cylinder is the chamber where water is admitted. Suction and delivery pipes are connected to the cylinder. A piston or plunger reciprocates in side the cylinder. Piston or plunger is the part that reciprocates inside the cylinder. The difference between piston and plunger is that piston length is much shorter that its stroke whereas the length of the plunger is more than its stroke. Another distinguishing feature is that in case of piston, the packing is laid on the rim of piston for a light seal. But when a plunger is used the packing is in a stuffing box located at the end of the cylinder to provide a tight seal. The piston is connected to the crank through a piston rod and connecting rod. Piston rod and connecting rod are joined together by means of cross head. But in the case of a plunger pump the plunger is directly connected to the crank by means of the connecting rod. A prime mover (either electric motor or diesel engine) supplies power to the pump and thereby rotates the crank. The rotating motion of the crank is converted to reciprocating motion of either piston or plunger by means of a connecting rod and crankshaft. A suction pipe is a connecting passage between
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the source of fluid (water) and the cylinder. The suction pipe is provided with a non return or one way valve called suction valve. The function of the valve is it admit water in one direction only. Then the suction valve allows the liquid to only enter the cylinder. The delivery pipe collect the liquid discharged from the cylinder and carries to the delivery tank. Similar to a suction pipe, delivery pipe is also provided with a one way valve called delivery valve. The delivery valve allows the liquid to flow from the cylinder to the delivery pipe. Air vessels are provided on both suction and delivery side close to the suction valve and the delivery valve. An air vessel is a closed chamber containing compressed air on the top portion and liquid at the bottom of the chamber. At the base of the chamber there is an opening through which the liquid may flow into the vessel or out from the vessel. When the liquid enter the air vessel, the air gets compressed further and when liquid flows out of the vessel, the air will expand in the chamber. An air vessel serves continuous supply of liquid at uniform rate, save a considerable amount of work in overcoming the frictional resistance in the suction and delivery pipes, run the pump at a high speed without separation. As the crank is rotated at uniform speed by a driving engine or motor, the piston or plunger moves to and fro in the cylinder. When the crank rotates from = 00 to =1800 the piston or plunger which is initially at its extreme left position (that is it is completely inside the cylinder) moves to its extreme right position (that is it moves outwards from the cylinder). During the outward movement of the piston or plunger a partial vacuum (pressure below atmospheric) is created in the cylinder. This enables the atmospheric pressure acting on the liquid surface in the well or sump below to force the liquid up in the suction pipe. This liquid opens the suction valve and enters the cylinder. Since during this operation of the pump the liquid is sucked from below it is known as suction stroke. Thus at the end of the suction stroke the piston or plunger is at its extreme right position, the crank is at =1800, the cylinder is full of liquid. When the crank rotates from =1800 to 3600 the piston or plunger moves inwardly from its extreme right position towards left. The inward movements of the piston or plunger causes the pressure of the liquid in the cylinder to rise above atmospheric. Due to this suction valve closes and the delivery valve opens. The liquid is then force opens the delivery valve and flows up through the delivery pipe and rise to the required height. Since during this operation of the pump the liquid is actually delivered to the required height it is known as delivery stroke. At the end of the delivery stroke the piston or plunger is at extreme left position, the crank is at = 00or 3600 (i.e. at its inner dead center) so that it has completed one full revolution. Now both the suction and delivery valves will
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be closed. The next cycle will be repeated as the crank rotates. During the first half of the suction stroke the piston moves with acceleration. So the velocity of water in the suction pipe must be more than mean velocity. Hence the discharge of water entering the cylinder will be more than the mean discharge. This excess quantity of water will be supplied from the air vessel to the cylinder. Thereby the velocity in the suction pipe below the air vessel is made equal to mean velocity of flow. During the second half of the suction stroke the piston moves with retardation. Hence velocity of flow in the suction pipe is less than the mean velocity of flow. Thus the discharge entering the cylinder will be less than the mean discharge. But the velocity of liquid in the suction pipe will be made equal to mean velocity and the excess water flowing in suction pipe will be stored in the air vessel. This will be supplied during the first half of the next suction stroke Similarly an air vessel may be provided to the delivery pipe also. During the first half of the delivery stroke the piston moves with acceleration and forces water into the delivery pipe with a velocity more than the mean velocity. The quantity of water in excess of mean discharge will flow into the air vessel. This will compress the air inside the vessel. During the second half of the delivery strike the piston moves with retardation and velocity of water in the delivery pipe will be less than the mean velocity. The water already stored into the air vessel will start flowing into the delivery pipe. Then the velocity of flow in the delivery pipe is beyond the point to which air vessel is filled will become equal to the mean velocity. Hence the rate of flow of water in the delivery pipe will be uniform.
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Schematic view of Reciprocating Pump

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Hydraulic Machines Laboratory Manual 1.

Aim: To conduct load test on the given pelton turbine at constant head and to plot the main characteristic curves Specifications Head=46m Discharge=800 lpm RPM=750 Output power= 1 KW Description: Pelton Turbine is an impulse turbine that uses water available at high heads (pressure) for generation of electricity. All the available potential energy of water is converted into kinetic energy by a nozzle arrangement. The water leaves the nozzle as a jet and strikes the buckets of the Pelton wheel runner. These buckets are in the shape of double cup-, joined at the middle portion in a knife edge. The jet strikes the knife edge of the buckets with least resistance and shock and glides along the path of the cup, deflecting through an angle of 160 to 170 deg. This deflection of water causes a change in momentum of the water jet and hence an impulsive force is supplied to the buckets. As a result, the runner attached to the buckets moves, rotating the shaft. The specific speed of the Pelton wheel varies from 10 to 100, In the test rig the Pelton wheel is supplied with water under high pressure by a centrifugal pump. The water flows through an orifice meter to the Pelton wheel. A gate valve is used to control the flow rate to the turbine. The orifice meter with pressure gauges connected to it is used to determine the flow rate of water in the pipe. The nozzle opening can be decreased or increased by operating the spear wheel at the entrance side of turbine. The Turbine is loaded by applying dead weights on the brake drum. This is done by placing, the weights on the weight hanger. The inlet head is read from the pressure gauge. The speed of the turbine is measured with a tachometer Experimental -Procedure: 1) 2) 3) 4) Calculate the maximum load that can be used Close the delivery gate valve completely and start the pump. Add minimum load, to the weight hanger of the brake drum say1 kgf. Open the gate valve while monitoring the inlet pressure to the turbine. Set it for the design
CONSTANT HEAD TEST ON PELTON TURBINE
value of 3 kg/sq.cm.
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5) 6) 7) 8) 9) Open the cooling water valve for cooling the brake drum. Measure the turbine rpm with tachometer. Note the pressure gauge reading at the turbine inlet. Note the orifice meter pressure gauge readings, P1 and P2. Add additional weights and repeat the experiments for other loads.
(For constant speed tests, the main valve has to be adjusted to reduce or increase the inlet head to the turbine for varying loads). Warning: 1. Always operate the turbine with a load. Since the runaway speed of the turbine is high, running the turbine without any load will lead to excess vibrations and noise. 2. Provide cooling water for the brake drum when it is loaded. Absence of cooling water will cause brake drum heating and even charring of the rope under extreme conditions. Amount of cooling water must be controlled to avoid excessive spillage and splashing. 3. The motor is provided with DOL starter to trip under overload, low voltage, uneven phase supply conditions, If the motor trips, check for voltage conditions. Also, do not run the supply pump at fully open valve conditions as this is an overload condition for the pump.
Calculations:
I. To determine discharge: Orifice meter line pressure gauge readings = P1 kg/sq. cm Orifice meter throat pressure gauge reading = P2 kg/sq.cm Pressure difference Orifice meter equation Q dH = (P I -P2) 10 m of water = Cda1a2 (29.81 x dH) 0.5\ (a12-a22) 0.5 m3/sec = CdAB2 ((29.81 dH) /(1-B4 ))0.5 = 0.00204 (dH) 0.5 Note: where,Cd - Orifice meter discharge coefficient-0.61 A=Inlet Area=3.14d12/4 , Inlet dia, d1- 50mm, throat dia ratio, B = 0.6 II. To determine Head Turbine Pressure gauge reading Total Head H = P kg/sq.cm = P10 m of water
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III. Input to the turbine: Input Power= gQH /1000 kW =9.81 QH kW IV. Turbine Out put power: Brake drum diameter Rope diameter Equivalent drum diameter(D) Hanger weight - To Weight added Spring Load Resultant load - T Speed of the turbine Output Power = 0.20m. = 0.015m. = 0.215m = 1 kgf =T1 kgf = T2 kgf = (T0+T1-T2) kgf = N RPM
=Torque( )Angular Velocity( = (T gD/2) [(2N)/60] Watts ={(T gD/2) [(2N)/60]}/1000 kW Turbine Efficiency= Output power/Input power x 100 Sample Calculations (set no: ) Orifice meter Constant =0.00204 Brake drum diameter Rope diameter =0.2m =0.015 m
Equivalent drum diameter (D)=0.215m Input total head=10xP m of water Orifice meter head differenced dH =10 (P1-P2) m of water Discharge, Q=0.00204 (dH) 0.5 cu.m/sec Input Power=9.81 x Q x H kW
Weight of empty hanger T0 = 1 kgf Brake drum net load (T)= (T0+T1-T2) Kgf Turbineoutput ={(T gD/2) [(2N)/60]}/1000 kW Efficiency= Output/Input x 100 %
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Tabular column
Sl No Inlet Press. P kg/ sq.cm Total head, Hm of water Orifice meter Gauge readings P1 P2 kg/sq.cm kg/sq .cm Press. dH m of water Discharge, Speed Q N cu.m/sec rpm Wt.on Spring hanger balance T1 kg T2 kg Net Wt. Tkg Output KW Input KW Efficiency %
Where P is output power, is Efficiency, Q is discharge& N is speeding rpm
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Aim: To conduct load test on the given Francis turbine at constant head and to plot the main characteristic curves Specifications Head=18 m Discharge=1900 lpm RPM=1500 Output power=3.7 KW Description: Francis turbine is a reaction type hydraulic turbine, used in dams and reservoirs of medium height to convert hydraulic energy into mechanical and electrical energy. Francis Turbine is a radial inward flow reaction turbine. This has the advantage 6f centrifugal forces acting against the flow, thus reducing the tendency, of the turbine to over speed. Francis Turbines are best suited for medium heads, say 40m. to 300m. The specific speed ranges from 25 to 300. The turbine test rig consists of a 3.72 KW (5 H-P) turbine supplied with water from a suitable 15 HP centrifugal pump through suitable pipelines, a gate valve, and a flow measuring venturimeter. The turbine consists of a cast iron body with a volute casing and a gunmetal runner consisting of two shrouds with aerofoil shaped curved vanes in between, the runner is surrounded by a set of adjustable gunmetal guide vanes. These vanes can be rotated about their axis by a hand wheel. Their position is indicated by a pair of dummy guide vanes fixed on the outside of the turbine casing. At the outlet, a draft tube is provided to increase the net head across the turbine. The runner is attached to the output shaft with a brake drum to absorb the energy produced. Water under pressure from pump enters through the guide vanes into the runner. While passing through the spiral casing and guide vanes, a portion of the pressure energy is converted into velocity energy, Water thus enters the runner at a high velocity and as it passes through the runner vanes, the remaining pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy. Due to the curvature of the vanes, the kinetic energy is transformed into the mechanical energy i.e., the water head is converted into mechanical energy and hence the runner rotates. The water from the runner is then discharged into the tailrace. The discharge through the runner can be regulated also by operating the guide vanes. The flow through the pipe lines into the turbine is measured with the venturimeter fitted in the pipe line. The Venturimeter is provided with a set of pressure gauges. The net pressure difference across the turbine inlet and Cutlet is measured with a pressure gauge and a vacuum gauge. The turbine output torque is determined with a rope brake drum dynamometer. A tachometer is used to measure the rpm.
CONSTANT HEAD TEST ON FRANCIS TURBINE
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Experimental Procedure: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Calculate the maximum load that can be used. Keep the guide vanes at required opening (say 3/8th). Prime the pump if necessary. Close the main gate valve and start the pump. Open the gate valve for required discharge after the pump motor switches from star to delta mode. Load the turbine by adding weights in the weight hanger. Open the brake drum cooling water gate valve for cooling the brake drum. 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) Measure the turbine rpm with tachometer. Note the pressure gauge and vacuum gauge readings. Note the venturimeter pressure gauge readings. Repeat the experiments for other loads. For constant speed tests, the main sluice valve has to be adjusted to vary the inlet head and discharge for varying loads (at a given guide vane opening position). 12) The experiment can be repeated for other guide vane positions.
Warning 1) 2) 3) 4) Do not start the motor without priming the pump. Do not start the motor without closing the delivery valve completely. Only after the starter has changed to delta mode from the star mode (this is indicated by the jump in the motor speed), the delivery valve should be opened. Starter tripping indicates motor overload and this will occur if the pump discharge is above its normal range. When the motor is restarted, ensure that the flow rate is maintained within the normal range.As the motor is designed to run at 400-440 Volts, starter will also trip when the supply voltage is low - less than about 380 Volts. In such case, operate the motor pump set at reduced flow rates the turbine output will be correspondingly lower than the design value of 5HP. NOTE: Do not operate the motor at very low voltages of 3-50 Volts and below as this will draw excessive current, leading to motor coil burn-out. 5) The 15HP mono block motor is provided with a cooling fan and consists of class A insulating materials (temperature limit - 105 deg. Q. Temperature rise of the motor during its operation is normal and at lower supply voltages, the rise will be higher. Immediately after shut-off, due to absence of cooling the motor temperature will rise higher than the temperature during operation. This is normal and does not indicate any malfunction.
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Equations &Calculations: I. To determine discharge. Venturimeter line pressure gauge reading Venturimeter throat pressure gauge reading Pressure difference dH Orifice meter equation Q
= P1 kg/sq. cm = P2 kg/sq.cm = (P I -P2)x 10m of water = Cda1a2 (29.81dH) 0.5\ (a12-a22) 0.5 m3/sec = CdxAxB2x ((2x9.81xdH)/ (1-B 4)) 0.5 m3/sec =0.0131(dH) 0.5 m3/sec Note: where, Venturimeter inlet dia D= 100mm, throat dia ratio B = 0.6 Cd - Venturimeter discharge coefficient - 0.98, A - inlet area = (3.14xD2)/4 II. To determine inlet head of water: Turbine Pressure gauge reading Turbine vacuum gauge reading Total Head, H III. Input to the turbine: Input Power IV. Turbine Output: Brake drum diameter Rope diameter Equivalent drum diameter(D) Hanger weight -T0 Weight Spring Load Resultant load - T Speed of the turbine Output Power
= P kgf/sq.cm = V mm of Hg = 10 (P+V/760) m of water = gQH /1000 kW =9.81 QH kW = 0.30m. = 0.015m. = 0.315m = 1Kgf. = T1 Kgf. = T2 Kgf, = (T1 - T2+ T0) kg =N RPM =Torque( )Angular Velocity( = (T gD/2) [(2N)/60] Watts ={(T gD/2) [(2N)/60]}/1000 kW = Output\Input
Turbine efficiency Sample Calculations: Venturimeter Constant Brake drum diameter Rope diameter Equivalent drum dia, D Weight of empty hanger T0 =0.0131 = 0.3m = 0.015m = 0.315m = 1 Kgf
Input total head H = 10(P+V/760) m of water Venturimeter head diff,dH = 10 (P1 -P2) m of water discharge= 0.0131(dH) 0.5 cu.m/sec Input Power, I/P= 9.8lxQxH kW Brake drum net wt. T= (T0+T I -T2) Kg Turbine output,O/P={(T gD/2) [(2N)/60]}/1000 kW
Efficiency= Output/Input x100%
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Tabular column
Sl. Inlet. No Press. P Kg/sq. cm Outlet Vac. V mm of Hg Total Head H m of water Venturimeter Press. Gauge readings P1 Kg/sq. cm P2 Kg/sq. cm dH in m of water Flow rate Q cu.m/ sec Speed Wt. on Spring N Hanger balance rpm T1 Kg T2 Kg Net Wt T Kg Output O kW Input Efficiency I kW %
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Aim: To conduct load test on the given Kaplan turbine at constant head and to plot the main characteristic curves Specifications Head=7 m Discharge=5000 lpm RPM=1500 Output power=1 KW Description: Kaplan turbine is an axial flow reaction turbine used in dams and reservoirs of low height to convert hydraulic energy into mechanical and electrical energy. They are best suited for low heads say from 10 m to 50 m. The specific speed ranges from 200 to 1000. The test rig consists of an I KW (1.34 HP) Kaplan turbine supplied with water from a suitable 5 HP pump through pipelines, a valve, and a flow measuring venturimeter. The turbine consists of a cast iron body with a volute casing, an axial flow gunmetal runner, a ring of adjustable guide vanes and a draft tube. The runner consists of three vanes of aerofoil section. The guide vanes can be rotated about their axis by means of hand wheel. A rope brake drum is mounted on the turbine shaft to absorb the power developed. Suitable dead weights and a hanger arrangement, a spring balance and cooling water arrangement is provided for the brake drum. Water under pressure from pump enters through the volute casing and the guide vanes into the runner. While passing through the spiral casing and guide vanes, a portion of the pressure energy (potential energy) is converted into velocity energy (kinetic energy). Water thus enters the runner at a high velocity and as it passes through the runner vanes, the remaining potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. Due to the curvature of the vanes, the kinetic energy is transformed into the mechanical energy i.e., the water head is converted into mechanical energy and hence the runner rotates. The water from the runner is then discharged into the draft tube. The flow through the pipe lines into the turbine is measured with the venturimeter fitted in the pipe line. Two pressure gauges are provided to measure the pressure difference across the venturimeter. The net pressure difference across the turbine-inlet and exit is with a pressure gauge and vacuum gauge. The turbine output torque is determined with a rope brake drum .A tachometer is used measure the rpm. Experimental Procedure: 1) Calculate the maximum load that can be used 2) 3)
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CONSTANT HEAD TEST ON KAPLAN TURBINE
Add minimum load to the weight banger of the brake drum - say l kg. Close the main gate valve and start the pump.
29

4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) Open the gate valve while monitoring the inlet pressure to the turbine. Open the cooling water valve for cooling the brake drum. Measure the turbine rpm with tachometer. Note the pressure gauge and vacuum gauge readings at the turbine inlet and outlet. Note the venturimeter pressure gauge readings, P1and P2. Add additional weights and repeat the experiments for other loads. For constant speed tests, the main valve has to be adjusted to reduce or increase the inlet head to the turbine for varying loads.
Warning: 1. Always operate the turbine with a load. Since the runaway speed of the turbine is about 4000 rpm, running the turbine without any load will lead to excess vibrations an noise. Provide cooling water for the brake drum when it is loaded. Absence of cooling water will cause brake drum heating and even charring of the rope under extreme conditions. Amount of cooling water must be controlled to avoid excessive spillage and splashing. The motor is provided with DOL starter to trip under overload, low voltage, and uneven phase supply. If the motor trips, check for voltage conditions. Also, do not run the supply pump at fully open valve conditions as this is an overload condition for the pump.
2.
3. 4.
Calculations: I. To determine discharge. Venturimeter line pressure gauge reading Venturimeter throat pressure gauge reading Pressure difference dH Orifice meter equation Q
= P1 kg/sq. cm = P2 kg/sq.cm = (P I -P2)x 10m of water = Cdxa1xa2x (2x9.81 x dH) 0.5\ (a12-a22) 0.5 m3/sec = CdxAxB2x ((2x9.81xdH)/ (1-B 4)) 0.5 m3/sec Note: where, Venturimeter inlet dia D= 100mm, throat dia ratio B = 0.6 Cd - venturimeter discharge coefficient - 0.98, A - inlet area)(3.14xD2)/4 II. To determine inlet head of water: Turbine Pressure gauge reading Turbine vacuum gauge reading Total Head
= P kg/sq.cm = V mm of Hg = 10 (P+V/760) m of water
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III. Input to the turbine: Input Power IV. Turbine Output: Brake drum diameter Rope diameter Equivalent drum diameter Hanger weight T0 Weight Spring Load Resultant load - T Speed of the turbine Output Power =gQH\736 = 1000 QH\75 HP = gQH /1000 kW =9.81 QH kW = 0.20m. = 0.015m. = 0.215m = 1Kg. = T1 Kg. = T2 Kg, = (TI - T2+ T0) kg = N RPM = (2N)/ (75x60) HP = (3.14xDxNxT)/(75x60) HP = (2N)/ (1000x60) kW = (3.14DNTg) / (1000 60) kW = (3.14DNT) / (10260) kW = output\input
Turbine efficiency Sample Calculations: Venturimeter Constant =0.0131 Brake drum dia = 0.2m Rope dia = 0.015m Equivalent drum dia = 0.215m Weight of empty hanger T0= 1.0 Kg
Input total head H = 10(P+V/760) m of water Venturimeter head difference dH= 10(PI-P2) m of water Discharge Q = 0.0 131 (dH)0.5cu.m/sec Input Power I = 9.8lxQxH kW Brake drum net wt. T = (T0+T1-T2)kg Turbine output O = 3.14xDxNxT/(102x60) kW
Efficiency= Output/Inputxl00% Tabular column

Sl.No Inlet. Press. P Kg/sq. cm Outlet Vac. V mm of Hg Total Head H m of water Venturimeter Gauge readings P1 Kg/sq. cm P2 Kg/sq. cm Press. Flow rate Q cu.m/ sec Speed N rpm Wt.on Hanger T1 Kg Spring balance T2 Kg Net Wt T Kg Output O kW Input I kW Efficiency %
dH m of water
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Aim: To conduct a test on a single stage centrifugal pump at various speeds to obtain the pump characteristics. Description: Centrifugal Pump consists of an impeller rotating inside a casing. The impeller has a number of curved vanes. Due to the centrifugal force developed by the rotation of the impeller, water entering at the center flows outwards to the periphery. Here it is collected in a gradually increasing passage in the casing known as a volute chamber This chamber converts a part of the velocity head (kinetic energy) of the water into pressure head (potential energy). For higher heads, multistage centrifugal pumps having two or more impellers In series will have to be used. The test pump is a single stage centrifugal pump of size 2"x1.5" (50mmx40mm.) It is coupled to a 2 HP capacity three phase AC motor by means of Li cone pulley belt drive system. An energy meter and a stop watch are provided to measure the input to the motor and a collecting tank to measure the actual discharge. A pressure gauge and a vacuum gauge are fitted in the delivery and suction pipe lines to measure the pressure. NOTE: Since the centrifugal pump is not self priming, the pump must be filled with water (priming) before starting. For this reason, water should not be allowed to drain and a foot valve is provided, Experimental Procedure: 1. Loosen the V-belt by rotating the hand wheel of the motor bed and position the V-belt in the required groove of the pulley. 2. Prime the pump with water if required 3. Close the gate valve completely 4. Start the motor and adjust the gate valve to required pressure
PERFOMANCE TEST ON CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
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5. Note the following readings (a) The Pressure gauge reading P kg/sq, cm b) The vacuum gauge reading V mm of Hg c) Time for 10 revolutions of energy meter disc -Tsecs d) Time for 10 cm rise in the collecting tank - t secs e) Elevation difference between the pressure and vacuum gauge -X m of water (55 cm in this case) Take 3 or 4 sets of readings by varying the head from a maximum at shut off to a minimum where gate valve is fully open. Calculation: 1. Discharge: Time for 10 cm rise Area of tank Pump discharge 2. Head: Total Head H = 10 (P + V/760) + X m of water (55 cm in this case) = t secs = 0.8x0.8 sq. m Q = (0.64 x 0. 1)/t cu.m /sec
3. Output of the pump: Pump output = (9.81 QH) KW = (1000 Q H /75) HP 4. Input of the Motor: Energy meter constant N Time for 10 revolution Input to motor Efficiency of motor = 200 revs/kW hr = T secs.
= (3600x 10)/(200xT) kW = 80% (assumed)
Belt transmission efficiency = 90% (assumed)

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Pump input = (3600x 10)/(200xT) x 0.9x 0. 8 kW = 129.6/T kW 5. Efficiency: Pump Efficiency Sample Calculations: Collecting tank area = 0.8x0.8 sq.m Energy meter constant = 200 rev/KW Hr Discharge Total Head Pump output Input Efficiency Q H = A r/t = 0.64x0.1/t cu,m/sec = (P+V/760)10+X m of water =1000 QH/75 HP =9.81 QH kW = Pump output/Pump input
= (3600x 10x0.8x0. 9)/ (200xT) kW = 129.6/T kW = Output/Input
Tabular column Where P is Input power, is Efficiency, Q is discharge& N is speeding rpm

Sl.No Pump Speed N rpm Pressure gauge P Vacuum Gauge V mm of Hg Total Head H m water of Time for10cm rise in Q cu. m/see Discharge 10
-3
Time for 10 revol.of energy meter disc -T seconds
Input kW
Output kW
Efficienc y%
Kg/sq cm
Coll. Tank -t seconds
Where P is Input power, is Efficiency, Q is discharge& N is speeding rpm
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Aim: To study the characteristics of a reciprocating pump Description: The Reciprocating pump is a positive displacement type pump and consists of a piston or a plunger working inside a cylinder. The cylinder has two valves, one allowing water into the cylinder from the suction pipe and the other discharging water from the cylinder into the delivery pipe. Specification of the pump: Type: Double acting single cylinder (a) Piston Stroke, L=1 3\4 (44.5 mm) (b) Piston Diameter=1 1/2" (38mm) (c) Suction pipe=1 " (25mm) (d) Delivery pipe=3\4" (18mrn) An energy meter is provided to determine input power to the motor. The pump, is belt driven by the Motor. The pump can be run at four different speeds by the use of V-belt and the differential pulley system, Special arrangement is provided for quick alteration of speed. The belt can be put in different grooves of the pulleys for different speeds quickly by loosening the belt. A set of pressure gauge and vacuum gauges are provided along with the required pipe lines Experimental Procedure: (1) Start. the motor. (2) Note the following readings (a) The pressure gauge reading P kg/sq-cm (b) The distance between the water level and the pressure gauge X m.(7cm in this case) (c) Tin-& for 10 revolution energy meter disc - T -secs (d) Time for 10 cm rise in collecting tank - t secs Take 5- 6 sets of readings by varying the head from maximum at shut off to minimum where gate valve is fully open. This is done by throttling the delivery valve. Calculations: 1. Pump output Time for 10cm.rise. Area of the tank. Pump discharge Delivery pressure Suction pressure Pump delivery head Output of the pump
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PERFOMANCE TEST ON RECIPROCATING PUMP TEST
A Q
= t secs. = 0.50.5 sq.m = (0.250.1)/t m3/s. = P kg/sq.cm = V mm of Hg = (P+V/760) 10 m of water = 9.81HQ kW

37

2. Pump Input: Energy meter constant Time for 10 Revolutions Input to the motor Where, 0.8 is the Motor efficiency Input to the Pump = motor input0.9 = 3600100.80.9/ (l200 T) = 21.6/T kW Where, 0.9 is the belt transmission efficiency Overall efficiency = (output/input) I00 % Theoretical Discharge Qth = 2 LAN / 60 (double acting pump) L, Piston Stroke =1 3\4 " (44.5 mm) A, Cylinder area = 3.14d2/4 d, Piston Diameter =1 1/2" (38mm) % Slip =(Qth Qact)/Qth Sample Calculations: Collecting tank area =0.5xO.5sq.m Energy/meter constant = 1200 rev/KW Hr Discharge Q= Ar/t = (0.25x0.1)/ t cu.m /sec Total Head H= (P+ V/7 60)10+X m of water Pump output=9.81QH KW Input= (3600x 10x0.8x0.9)/ (1200T) kW Efficiency= Output/Input N = 1200 Revs/kWhr. = T secs. = 3600x0.8x10/NTkW
Tabular column Sl. Pump Pressure No speed gauge P N kg/sq rpm cm Vacuum Gauge Head v mm of Hg Total Head H m of water Time Discharge Time Input Output Efficiency % for Q Cu.m for 10 KW KW % slip 10cm /sec revol. rise in of Coll. energy tank ,t meter seconds disc- T seconds
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7.
Aim: To conduct a test on a submersible pump to obtain the pump characteristics. Description: The vertical Submersible pump is a multistage pump set with each set made of a mixed flow impeller with axial diffuser assembly. The shaft of pump is connected to a motor which is housed on the bottom of he set The Pump and motor assembly is fully submerged in water. An integral foot valve is at the bottom set of the pump assembly the submersible pump is used to lift water from bore wells. The test rig consists of a 3-stage submersible pump driven by a 3 HP motor (440Volts. 3-phase) and suitable 50 mm (2.") Pipelines. A pressure gauge is fitted in the delivery pipe line to measure the delivery head An energy meter and stopwatch are provided to measure the input to the motor and a collecting tank to measure the actual discharge, NOTE.- AS the motor driving the submersible pump is also submerged, it is cooled by water unlike other motor pump sets which are air cooled. Hence, prior to operating the pump set the motor should be filled with water as instructed in the pump user manual. The operator is also expected to be read the user manual and be completely thorough with the operation of submersible pump. Calculation: I. Discharge: Area of the tank A= 0.8 x O.8 Sq. m Rise of level h= 0.1m Volume collected Ax h= 0.064 cu.m Time taken= t secs. Discharge Q = Volume/time = (0.064)/t cu.m/s II. Head: Total delivery head H= (10 P + Hs) m of water III Output of the pump: Out output=9.81xQxH kW =1000 xQxH/75 HP IV. Input to the motor: Energy meter constant N=200 revolution per kWh Time for 10 revolutions= T secs Input to motor= (3600/200) x (10/T) kW = 180/T kW Assuming 0.8 is the motor efficiency. Input to the pump= 0.8x Input to motor =144/T KW V. Efficiency Pump efficiency = Output /Input 100%
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SUMBERSIBLE PUMP TEST RIG
40

Sample Calculations: Collecting tank area =0.8 x0.8 8 sq.m Energy meter constant=200 rev/kW Hr Discharge Q= Ar/t = (0.64x0.1)/t cu.m/sec Total Head H= Px10 =X m of water =9.91QH kW Pump output = (3600x10x0.8)/ (200xT) kW Input=144.0/T kW Efficiency= Output/Input Tabular column Sl.No Pressure gauge P, .Kg./sq m
Total Head,H m in of water
Time for Discharge Time for Input - Output10cm Q 10 revol. kW kW rise in cu.m/sec of Coll. energy Tank t meter seconds disc -T seconds
Efficiency %
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