The Ecological Basis of Alternative Agriculture Author(s): John Vandermeer Source: Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, Vol.

26 (1995), pp. 201-224 Published by: Annual Reviews Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2097205 Accessed: 25/10/2010 18:29
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AnnwRev.Ecol. Syst.1995. 26:201-24 C Copyright 1995 byAnnual Reviews Inc. All rights reserved

THE ECOLOGICAL BASIS OF ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE

JohnVandermeer
of of AnnArbor, Michigan 48109 Department Biology,University Michigan, KEY WORDS: agroecosystems, alternative sustainability, pest soils, control, agriculture, multiple cropping

ABSTRACT

a of collecThecritique modem of agriculture spawned host alternatives, has known thealternative Its havebeen as movement. critics tively agriculture is to senseof themovementsimilar fierce, proponents its zealous. Making eclectic, sometimes contradicmaking sense theoriginal of critique-always too now and brilliant. nonsensical, occasionally tory, often romantic, andthen agriculture movement, Thisreview discusses definitions thealternative of for control, management, ofall of integration aspects the substitutes pest soil of and problem conversion oneform another. of to farming operation, the

INTRODUCTION
an of Thecritique modem naturally spawned agriculture 162)hasmost (33, orrather ofalternatives, known the as alternative a host collectively alternative, its havebeenfierce, movement 19,20, 103,126).Itscritics agriculture (5, is similar making of movement to sense sense the proponents zealous. Making toooften oftheoriginal sometimes contradictory, critique-always eclectic, now brilliant. and romantic, andthen nonsensical, occasionally is not Even of clear. the agriculture" all that Ultimately nature "alternative thename as "sustainable," usedis as diverse theproponents-"alternative," and plus all-encompassing "holistic," "ecological," "organic" agriculture, such titles "permaculture" "lowinput as and sustainable agriculture" (LISA).Conof concept 31,34, over proper the cern beenvoiced has articulationthe (27, in all 51, 56, 68, 91, 103,107,110,112,164),andwhile participantsthis
201

120-0201 0066-4162/95/1 $05.00

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VANDERMEER

each of system, hashisorherown a critique themodem incorporate debate emphasis. conservation-"the resource (138, Poincelot p. 2) emphasizes Forexample, base."Thegoalof resource is a to threat agriculture diminishing main future and of consumption is agriculture"theelimination agriculture's sustainable Widdowson level, general At resources." an evenmore of pollution limited a correct is concerned obtaining in agriculture that (198,p. 1) notes "Holistic The sustainable.... which in themselves are in systems grouping farming and use should suchas to givethefullest oflandresources be organization labour capital...." and of best the utilization available context, in broadest program,its ofthe development alternative Thepolitical to (17-19),whorefer a loosecoalition by hasbeenanalyzed Beus& Dunlap of industrial criticism modem a that of interest groups share fundamental Theyalso or "ex/al" as agriculturethe"externalities/alternatives" coalition. in by contempt many the "is with note this that coalition viewed considerable establishment" 28, Vol. 19:432).Evenmore (citing traditional agricultural not attempt onlyto define MacRaeet al (111), in an ambitious broadly,
implementation for but agriculture to setouta program itsmassive sustainable

energy cycles, "nutrient water and includes inCanada, that note sustainability
treatand natural pestcontrols, thehumane soil flows, beneficial organisms, and communities, to of the of ment animals,... [to] ensure well-being rural with that is and foodthat nutritious uncontaminated products might produce health." harm human and livestock from "alterna"sustainable" schemeseparates An alternative definitional be thanmight is less all that agriculture probably sustainable tive,"allowing will when forms alwayswelcome are they increase alternative and desired, that that the sustainability (132, 133). Such a schememayhelpto defuse tension

it is forced facetheproblems to arises when modern agriculture sometimes hascreated. remains vigorous. of agriculture about definitionalternative the Thedebate that definitions might guide about to I suspect is tooearly be worried formal it debate active to to It simply leavethedefinitional work. is better scientific are understood 32,51), (27, and until problem itssolutions better discourse the alternative which characterized Council, Research as suggested the by National
or set as practices "... nota well-defined of practices management farming and of options they Rather, area range technological management techniques. and qualhealth environmental to protect usedon farms striving reducecosts, and (126). interactions natural processes" beneficial biological and ity, enhance in codified can for Muchof whatis relevant theecologist be conveniently soil (includmanagement, management a simple classification-pest three-part be and (or ingwatermanagement), integration whatmight moremarketably and soil integrated management, codifiedas integrated pest management,

AGRICULTURE 203 ALTERNATIVE

a includes vaEach 13 farm integrated management-theprogram). ofthese based are basis.Many havesome ecological all riety techniques, ofwhich of others based are whereas assumptions, and ecological onwell-known popular tobe demonstrated ideas. but on popular discredited Somehavebeenclearly Many havebeen evidence. to are others assumed be so without efficacious;

awaitsuchserious of from ecologicalpoint view;others an studied thoroughly

bases of thevarious the hereis to review ecological My study. purpose about of ecological knowledge them. the and proposals toassess state verified

SUBSTITUTING FOR PEST CONTROL

revolution War the on The keyproblem which post-World II agricultural like for pests, controlling much The was of focused that pests: methodology Thiswasachievable annihilation. inwarfare (149),wastotal the methodology That from research. that ultimately war the poisons sprang through useofnew damage and health causeenvironmental human could threaten technique this was Spring publishCarson's Silent until recognized Rachel wasnot generally mechaand in ecological evolutionary the edin 1962;only 1978were general important The for lay formulatedthe public. most problems behind those nisms treadmill (179)-pest pesticide was nowwell-known ofthese mechanisms the of pest and pest resistance, resurgence, theformationsecondary outbreaks(179). of quantities pesticides ever into which farmers spraying greater led became control of the problem pest ofthe treadmill, Inrecognition pesticide
(IPM). This formulapest as formulated a program-integrated management of of whathadbeena variety issues.The from systematization a tionderived simple: wereextremely vandenBosch (179), articulated by keyideas,originally in ecosystem the and poisonsunlessitis necessary, 2) manage 1) Don't spray

at remain the Theseprinciples necessary. it become a such waythat doesn't IPM (97, of all foundationalmost functioning programs 184). control goalofproduction. a and beenproblems, their havealways Pests
was diverseand universal practices Control biologicaland cultural through has of pest (78). The ecologicalstudy agricultural situations becomecommon forinsect pests(88, 140, 144, 148, 184),forcropdiseases(59, 121, 185, 189, to of weeds(54, 84, 101).Application ecologicalprinciples solve 201), andfor created thesepestshas metwithmixedsuccess. theproblems by for practice insect to of Application ecologicaltheory biologicalcontrol of sincetheexplosion theoretiactivefield has populations beenan extremely based either theLotkaVolterra on most theory cal ecologyin the1970s,with model(15, 123). Bothformal or equations theNicholson-Baily predator-prey obviousidea thata suchave focusedon therelatively and informal theory its if not go control cessful agentmust itself extinct itis toperform biological seek function morethana short for periodof time.Thus,whilepractitioners

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ecofrom the at natural enemiesthatare efficient killing pest,theemphasis prey, withtheir stableequilibria form has logicaltheory been on agentsthat (15, threshold 69). Thisview that densities arebelowtheeconomic butat prey from actualcase studies evidence (123, 124) who notethat has itsdetractors stability overthepopulation that do control notsuggest concern ofbiological of beena component any and enemy itspesthas everreally of theintroduced (such regulation modesof population subtler and realbiologicalcontrol, that of as effect that the mosaic)mayprovide samepractical a as through habitat overtheinterpretation (122). Debate continues equilibrium population formal of data(71, 122). in interaction a of to In addition thefocuson stability thepredator-prey regarding seemstohaveevolved consensus a control system,general biological and be agentmust a specialist, 2) theprob1) twoassumptions: The control crop an than annual cropsystem in of ability successis fargreater a perennial this have challenged pointof view (123, 135). (159). Severalauthors system have been in programs While it seems to be the case thatmostsuccessful control of introductionsbiological successful (94), andmost systems perennial sugconvincingly in nothing ecologicaltheory have been specialists, agents that it suchshouldalwaysbe thecase. Recently has beensuggested geststhat to and pestoutbreaks, a generalist to of thecombination a specialist deal with strategy be wouldfrequently theoptimum normal times, during deal with pests (65). on also literature seemsto have settled a seriesof The biologicalcontrol agent. in enemy"qualities"to be sought thesearchfora biologicalcontrol effectiveand agent pest, control between of synchrony activity Theseinclude of thanthat thepest, greater capacity reproductive ness at low preydensity, high ease ofmanagement, searchthan of ability greater that thepest, dispersal the to of requirement onlya few pest individuals complete life ing ability, and agent pest(75, 123,194). in similarity needsofcontrol and cycle, climatic from pointof view of the Whilemostof thesequalitiesare sensibleeither nonehas been subecologicaltheory, or ecologicalinsight formal qualitative and that examination Murdoch colleagues empirical jectedtothesamedetailed (122), and thus and of have appliedto thequestion equilibrium monophagy other still.Furthermore, forms hypotheses thesemustbe judged as tentative for control conserand suchas massliberation cultural of biologicalcontrol, examples. specific onlyfrom enemies(11), are well known of vation natural involvedin ecological principles All of this suggeststhatthe underlying or needecologicalstudy, hardly so are biologicalcontrol either obviousthey that speculations mayor maynotturn at remain thelevel of interesting they study. or upondetailed outto be useful true of control insect of to of Application ecologicalprinciples questions cultural eclectic biological more than, as, pestshas beenequallyvigorous ifsomewhat

AGRICULTURE 205 ALTERNATIVE

texture ofvegetation the have techniques included management These control. of planning careful of (76), sanitation, forms tillage (9, 11, 144),various and manipulations, fertilizer varieties, dates, and planting harvesting resistant methin cultural control involved these principles others Theecological (11). category the fall of but and odsaremany varied, many them within general the idea is to reduce plant's theory (52). The general apparency of plant in with to pest question. effective apparency regard the trajectory, a has in of Theecology diseases agroecosystemsfolloweddistinct theory (8). prey to theoretical parallel predator theory Most the despite obvious much at the has treated diseasesystem, leastsuperflcially, likea classical classification a and (96), problem after simple approximate epidemiological multiple versus (single categories versus poly-cyclic into monoofdiseases the to (188,202).Subsequent initial season) cropping a infections during single of is thought as exponential-like of infection progress thedisease usually the the of initial revolve around nature the questions and orlogistic-like, ecological (58, buildup 121). and infection itsepidemiological has plant literature, disease control of biological caseofmost the As inthe the and disease. problem, crop the of been thoughtas a two-dimensional largely threeare dynamics fundamentally that suggested disease it Recentlyhasbeen aegricorpus and so-called organism, the the with crop, disease dimensional, the that it of (105,121).Clearly is theaegricorpus tissue thecrop) diseased (the while dynamics or pattern, the to logistic exponential increases according the elsewhere-the bysocioecocrop are two other dimensions controlled ofthe of crop aspects the by and disease landscape forces, the nomic ecological and explored has yet approach not beencompletely This itself. three-dimensional that It all, potential. is, after wellknown the seemto holdgreat butwould dimensions frequently systems ofmultidimensional inoneortwo formulation of statement the and quitemistaken, in simplified, often results an overly effects and of questions indirect or dimensions, three more (98). problem With and become relevant 180,181,197), complicated, (1, interactions higher-order behavior (70, emerging 151,183). with dynamic sometimes enigmatic, between the for The agriculture centuries. homology Weeds haveplagued notions of and ecological of farmer's perception weedproblems theclassic ofplant competition is obvious (182,196).Theformulation competition plant on as and as response effect hasbeensuggested a focus weedproblems (61) the of crop emphasizes dualrole the andtheir (84). management Sucha focus to and naturallya manof and as recipient promotercompetition, leadsquite of the by to that philosophy seeks control effect weeds manipulating agement can for strategies be management the (54, ecosystem 84,101).Precedent such the For systems. example, malmonte in traditional agricultural found many farmers that of recognizes and monte (goodweeds) Mexican (badweeds) buen to those be as a wholemust managed promote thevegetation community

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VANDERMEER

has deal (35). aspects arebeneficial A great ofattention beenpaidtothe that weeds 79). (47, (a crops goodweed)tocontrol useofcover

SOIL MANAGEMENT
cateinto general can of Thecomponentssoilmanagement be divided three The three and dynamics, 3) biota. 2) structure,nutrient 1) gories: physical of the influences nature the structure interrelated-physical areinextricably feed which backonthe dynamics, the which microbiota, determines nutrient has which the determines macrobiota, inturn an which microbiota, partially to is thought agriculture Modem structure. effect important on soilphysical sacrigenerally components, in changes all three significant haveprovoked The in nutrient status. improvement for utility short-term long-term ficing and to and spectacular subtle notwell docuobvious from range effects soil is end of thespectrum themassive erosion mented. theobvious At in world the throughout contemporary (26,41, 162)andcodified occurring deal is end (64). mythology Atthesubtle ofthespectruma great of popular have techniques that management evidence suggesting modern circumstantial and availability, the nutrient long-term soil affected structure, negatively of integritysoilbiota. is of categories soil science the to functional approach defining A more components the (177)inwhich salient & of model vanNoordwijkDe Willigen matter, organic fertilizer, material (chemical between applied oftherelation can production be conveniently and matter orsomesort contaminant) dry of tothe is applied transferred soil, I material 1). (Figure Inquadratthe illustrated lost is of in someamount thematerial inevitably (e.g.the a process which ultisol but for large a tropical be likely very I area shaded in quadrat would is humic This content). quadrat the with mollisol high low for temperate a II or Quadrat illustrates physics, biology. of point soilchemistry, usualfocal all usually and of by theprocess nutrient uptake plants involves thefactors on curve depends root The of ecology. shapeoftheuptake thought as root or infectionspathogenic actions mycorrhizal microbial (e.g. biomass density, with associated rhizosphere factors and and infections), physical chemical IV with Quadrat concerned plant physiology. III Quadrat is largely dynamics. of first of the the ofcourse, consequence composing functionsthe represents, fertilizer trials. in obtained simple the normally and three quadrats, itmaps data that factors might the ecological one enables totease apart various Thismodel of as a matter production functionnutrient curve the beaffecting ultimate ofdry input. of nature thesoil,its of is a While soil's"texture"a propertythephysical with biota. nature of interacting the is a "structure" consequence thephysical of and with origin combines various nature gums resins biological Thephysical

ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
d.

207

II
_

\ A'aAl-. Iable in

C.

Av

(kg/Htffa)_

available Potentially but actually not taken up

..

...

sestoenvironment .............-b.

'Kg/Ha plantuptake

Material applied(kg/Ha)

--

.......

...

..

b.&c.

Luxury consumption

a.&c. orb.&d Drymatter production

III

*(Kg/Ha)

IV

I formulationvanNoordwijk Willigen of & FigureI Thetheoretical (177). In quadrat theapplied with lossestotheenvironment availablein thesoilsolution, certain material becomes (e.g. nitrate) at availablein thesoil is taken bytheplant slower II (shadedarea).In quadrat thematerial up (c) of in and orfaster rates, on (d) depending ecologicalconditions therhizosphere thephysiology the to Thustheprocessof material converted planttissue. is In III plantitself. quadrat theabsorbed into is matter material translating appliedtodry production separated three component processes.

is to structure (a natural aggregatereferredas a ped), toproduce aggregate an is which, natural porespacedistribution, in turn, a which dictates certain earthworms, growing and macrobiota as arthropods, such by modified living in effects this on structure the roots (25). Altering biotacan havedramatic of that, a acknowledged for variety and ways, itis generally easily imagined to with bad of one speak goodversus soilstructure respect a reasons, might infiltration for must available adequate be pore specific (e.g.enough space crop pressure proper hydrostatic of ofwater thesoil,tosaynothing retaining into pore although much too water available, is up toallowthe crops take what to general ofmoisture). loss of and levels evaporation result high in spacemay in sense that growth the related root to is Furthermore, space dialectically pore grow through roots spaces, many but create pore new roots only growing not roots growing (178, created formerly by were voids, someofwhich existing
191).

effect structure has conventional farming hadanimportant onphysical TIhat

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VANDERMEER

of a variety studies (106, welldocumented 143).In particular, ofsoilsseems are methods used when stability alternative greater aggregate soil havefound (127, matter amounts soilorganic of of because greater (83, 152),possibly (29). technology in to due, 139)andcertainly inpart, changes plowing of quality the ofthe is a determinant structural Soil macroporosity major environmental but not to growth also togeneral soil,contributingonly crop and farm," "integrated soilmacroporositythe (23). quality In anexperimental higher in were significantly than by influenced soilbiota of proportionpores itself structure the of farm a conventional (30),butboth details thephysical on strongly the in that depended andtheroleofsoilbiota forming structure macrosystem, experimental (21). system In another of details thecropping was but root density the system, total under integrated was porosity higher van back (154).Referring tothe Noordwijksystem in conventional higher the nature compensatory of the 1) de Willigen theory (Figure we note potential I), in to (i.e. ordinate quadrat b Curve refers availability the two these results. (presystem ofthe microporosity conventional because the of lower reduced b the within soil),andcurve pressure hydrostatic because higher of sumably than curve c in matter production lower that with combined curve results a dry at biomass increases the curve macroporosity, a. Butifroot the with higher for expecthat compensate the time macroporosity the decreases, could same a&c as suggested the by curve orb&d biomass in production, tation decreased inFigure 1. of modern status the Elevating nutrient ofsoilshasbeena centerpiecethe & the minimum Lawes Gilbert and invented lawofthe ever model since Leibig The treatment atRothamstead. customary the experiments initiated long-term an of is ecosystems dual:first analysis howthe of nutrients terrestrial in at to the get nutrients intoand movethrough soil solution arrive therhiI the within rhizosphere, the quadratsandII in and zosphere, second, uptake the model 1). (Figure Unfortunately, and theVan Noordwijk de Willingen is not of in context nutrients as clear "availability"the used commonly term either that to be Theterm seem. applied might sensibly as it might initially to soil target its makes waytothe solution be a potential ofutilization which its the which makes wayfrom I 1) (quadratofFigure ortothat crops bythe II into crop (quadrat ofFigure incorporated the soilsolution tobe actually pool definition of that be the might a meaningful 1). Furthermore,notion there in face knowledge nutrient isquestionablethe ofmodern of availabilitya single tends program tolookatnutrients ofnutrient interactions Thealternative (48). similar or something metaphorically that as a "system" canbe"inbalance" not, held over this the farmers world have traditional "health." toecosystem Many have workers research alternative agricultural of point view(170),andmany reductionist ironic modern that from taken (6). inspiration them Itis perhaps of an of at is science nowarriving thesamepoint view-that examination

AGRICULTURE 209 ALTERNATIVE

philosophy Justus of von in nutrients by one,codified thesacrosanct one is of and nutrient absorptionan affair interaction. Leibig, misleading that is due of in soilsis nitrate, available largely Themajor source nitrogen most in of cannot stored be (81, totheactivity microorganisms 128).Ammonium of Nitratestored cellvacuoles is in great quantitiescellsbecause itstoxicity. in acids being processed amino into to before butmust reduced ammonium be of decomreverse the phase cycle (i.e.the constructive ofthenitrogen is the to to acid to protein). basic The position phase-nitrate ammonium amino inlegumes in is than differently for processing equipment nitrogendistributed source nitrogenmore of in general terms the is other plants (128).Themajor fixationa dominant is feature terrestrial of and nitrogen atmosphere, biological of occurs the through symbiosis legprocess ecosystems (134).Mostofthis
existsthrough action the although significant a potential umesandRhizobiwn,

and offree-living bacteria, as Azotobacter Azospirillum such nitrogen-fixing it ofama concentration thought having large that (128).While is generally is about soil is too monium inthe solution desirable, little understood free ions molecules reach final to a amino acids larger and judgment what about organic of be best source nitrogen19). (1 may ultimatelythe is ecological importancethe of immense Another recent topic seemingly nitrointeraction" (13, 153).When effect inorganic nitrogen so-called "added sometimes stimulate useof to the is added an agroecosystem, itseems to gen This to of following: (i) native nitrogen. is thought be duetooneormore the of of subsequent consumptionthe increased mineralizationsoil N with net stands addednitrogen for soil in which inorganic proxy native substitution havebeenremoved that from pool(153).This that otherwise nitrogen would in is exemplary thecomplexities exist the of that sort indirect of interaction agroecosystem. in of besides is other Soilbiota involved many biological aspects soilbiology is the toalternative interest fixation agriculture nitrogen (166).Ofparticular of inpromoting physical chemical structuresoil the and roleofearthworms such nodulation as indirect effects as promoting (73,74,86,114)as well other of evenin suppression of fungi (46, 163),indispersal mycorrhizal (66),and worms act as diseasedispersers also diseases occasionally (167),although of are in structural, componentssoilfauna alsoimplicatedvarious (171).Other or of (24, aspects soilfunction 62, 108,117,145,156). chemical, biological has shown low-input that Recent research convincingly systems generally a soil earthworms (16). harborricher biota (42, 155,193,204),especially of and all The soil factor transcends three thegeneral that categories is I in of involved thegeneral character quadrats and II ofFigure1 is intimately its ofsoil determinant structure matter through action organic (169).A major is soil matter sometimes principal the ofcreating pedstructure, organic soil
rootexploration, and/or poolmineralized by theplant, increased N (iii) (ii)

210

VANDERMEER

the soil matter sometimes principal is soil ofcreating pedstructure, organic obviously matter Soil capacity. organic cation force determining exchange of as determining nature the the from soilbiota wellas partially the derives The nutrients. formation mineral the supplies soilwith latter, its and breakdown more than the levelis nothing general matter themost at of soil organic of organisms with of consequences decomposition, a succession heterotrophic "succomponents, which the microflora, attack fundamental from primary on cells microflora thrive the that and tertiary, so forth, ceeded secondary, by is successional (39). Thisprocess stages]" andby-products theprevious [of flow published charts by as complicated, evidenced themany immensely and in managed uninvolved both processes just illustrating the"simplest" agriculture, of of the systems 39). From point view alternative (e.g. managed matter oforganic partitioning of importance: basic the two issues seem primary and nitrogen-to-carbon ratio. process, the the during decomposition it if oforganic known, the matter,is nowwell Regarding basicpartitioning fracmatter into distinct decomposes two that oversimplifled,organic perhaps fraction. and "slow" or active matter, the organic the fraction,the tions, "fast" in 99% in ecosystem England, year, a woodland after Forexample, a single in litter decomposed, only but had cellulose the ofthesugars 75% ofthe and ultimately waxes 10%ofthe and (116).Theslowfraction phenols 25%ofthe is the fraction the of structurethesoilwhile fast to contributesthephysical matter very Different oforganic may of nutrients. types main supplier mineral ultiand of and different fractions fast slowrawmaterials thus wellcontain this the as on have effects thesoil,although details towhy mately different remain elusive (85). happens has that system a highly The rawmaterial goes intothedecomposition is conveniently characterizedthe This by carbvariable chemistry. chemistry is carbon:nitrogen most one on:nutrient (166),the ratio important ofwhich the soil relative nitrogen, to abundant carbon If matter contains ratio. organic to the fast arenot microorganisms abletogrow enough decompose material in must already thesoil.The and eventually use nitrogen efficiently, they in decrease nitrogen in of matter thus may result aninitial application organic the baneof needs the of microorganisms, for crops tothe due availability the from enormously, 250 for vary C:N gardener. ratios thebeginning organic to to to humus, 4 for to legumes, 11 for comstalks, 20 for sawdust, 90 for 20 a a less bacteria (44). As a ruleof thumb, C:N ratio than generatesnet while than for greater 20 involves of release nitrogen plant growth, a C:Nratio for less growth. therefore making N available plant ofnitrogen, immobilization is in and as over changes time thecarbon utilized respiration TheC:N ratio that it For is thenitrogenrecycled. plant residues, hasbeenestimated about The material. into is 20-40%ofthecarbon actually incorporated biological about roleofsoilsand the some as is question rest released CO2(4), raising

ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE 211

of organic matter therein the to global problem 82).Therate decomCO2 (67, the time, position various of organic materials, thus C:N ratio a given and at on specificity, and depends 02, moisture content, temperature, substrate pH, available minerals 93). It is also strongly (38, influenced management by and fertilizer factors as tillage inorganic such applications 158).The (141, of material alsoaffects decomposition (80).Ina recent the rate nature the itself without fertilization was study,wasestimated agriculture it that supplementary on and six in economical 65 years temperate for prairie for years a tropical thorn while Amazonian showed soil semiarid forest, anextremely nutrient-poor for of litter no potential agriculture beyond three-year the lifespan theforest inEngland years; mat (139 (169).On theother hand, long-term experiments show benefits organic the of matter 2) andDenmark years; (90 152)clearly for soil and long-term structure crop yields. in form animal oforganic matter the of manure an old is Theprovisioning for to alternative procedure is thoughthaveconsiderable and potential adding in to employed organic matter cropping systems 36). It is commonly (22, inunderdeveloped it traditional countries 14),althoughis someagriculture (5, fertilizers In at least times viewed only supplementinorganic as a to (120). was in onestudy, manure shown provide greater to a increase soil farmyard nitrogen didgreen than manure (137). in role manure agroecosystems. in There been has much interestthe ofgreen is Theeffects living of mulches difficultsummarize their are to since purpose in to weeds (53) multiple-they frequently are employed an attempt control orinsects to to (45). (160),or simply addorganic matter thesystem While on mulch having orthe as one most research concentratestheroleofliving of inalternative other these researchers routinely recognize effects, agriculture themultiple of there mulch 79, 182).Unfortunately is potential living (40, us in to little thewayofcomprehensive ecological theory enable to predict will when where cover and a well. crop function of To bulk has been mainstay organic a Mulching long agriculture.decrease for the of it ease in transport to reduce C:N ratio applied and material, is to Most the before agriculcustomarycompost mulch application. alternative as of sustainable turalists regard compost a central component theultimate some attention beenfocused has agricultural system. Recently well-deserved involved the in composting onthe (92, biological processes process 175).The when should "biomature" itis applied be to practical problem that is compost the field more theoretical is that decomposition issue the proc(203),butthe are as essesinvolved composting justas complicated thedecomposition in in of remains processes soils(115,166),andourecological knowledge them and empirical, eclectic, superflcial. is dependent humus clear. on it soil structure is That physical Recentlyhas substances affect metabolism to also come light humic that directly (190). plant

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Work thephysiological hasshown lowmolecular at level that weight humic substances stimulated production ATPaseon plasma the of membranes and tonoplast13).Sodium (1 humate apparently also interferes the with protein ion carriers the membrane andhumic is capable altering on cell (63), acid of the lipidmatrix thecell membrane of (150). Thus, well-established of the role humus thechemical physical in and structuresoilis not only of the concern. Itmay very have important physiological also.Itshould well an direct role be tolow noted these that studies specifically molecular refer weight humic acids, of that molecules arecapable penetrating cellwall.They thus is, that the are of notlikely samefraction humus contributescation the that to exchange and but of capacity soilstructure, rather be a component later may stages of decomposition. The IPM program alternative control of pest strategists beena key has for of organizing principle proponents alternative agriculture. Curiously, a did evolve regard the with to other issue alternative in parallel pattern not major soil. to a of agriculture, It is notdifficult imagine program ISM (Integrated of Soil Management), a general and outline sucha program easily is visualizable (apply fertilizer soilonly tothe when necessary, manage cropping the from system minimize needto apply to the nutrients theoutside), perhaps notion "soil quality," of basedon thegeneralized although is stilla that somewhat slippery concept (133,165). INTEGRATION of is the Probably ideamost promoted advocates analternative by agriculture of This an integration aspects thefarming ofall take various operation. may on or One idea forms, depending theadvocate practitioner. persistent is that should the ofnonmanaged an agroecosystem mimic functioning ecosystems nutrient vertical and (49, 129),with tight cycling, structure, thepreservation ofthis of ofbiodiversity One manifestation ideais theincorporation (130). that into agroecosystem, trees the something hasbeen oftraditional part agromanifesin for time 87, 109).Another ecosystemstropical regions some (60, as has to of tation beentheattempt useecological principles part thedesign a thus what economic criterion, replacing hadbecome strictly decision-making the with includes ideasalso.Forexample, natural process onethat ecological has to of biodiversitymost unmanaged ecosystems beenusedas a rationale is is a that suggest multiple cropping generallylaudable (this discussed goal of or the below), that famous diversity-stability hypothesistheoretical ecology in be to might related promoting stability through diversity agroecosystems inthe definition field ideas suffer a lack rigorous from of of (186).Many these is their to design agroecosystems of ofecology and itself, thus applicationthe perhaps premature.

ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE 213 Multiple cropping (55, 57, 90, 199, 200) or one of its manyvariants has been oftencited as an important integrative component the alternative of agriculture agenda.It is often observed moretraditional that forms agriculof in somefonnof multiple at ture, especially thetropics, include cropping their and of was cores, itis thought theabandonment this that procedure specifically the of to accommodate methods modemconventional agriculture appli(i.e. If cationof chemicalsand mechanization). this were true,the ecological benefits multiple of cropping wouldbe lostinthemodem system, itwould and in makesenseto arguefortheir reintegrationthealternative program. Exactly whataretheecologicalbenefits thought accruefrom practice to the ofmultiple The cropping? hypothesized ecologicalbenefits havebeendivided intotwocategories (182), reduced competition thecompetitive (or production In principle) facilitation. thecase ofthecompetitive and production principle, it is thought twodifferent that the speciesoccupying same space will use all more necessary resources efficiently a single than speciesoccupying same that believedto happen natural in In space,muchas is sometimes ecosystems. the case offacilitation,is thought one cropspecieshas somesort positive it that of details each ofthesetwocategories effect theother on species.Theoretical of can be found Vandermeer in (182). is The evidence thecompetitive for For production principle scant. themost literature multiple on in parttheenormous cropping (see bibliographies 55, do accommodate 90, 131, 182) is notof use, sinceexperiments notgenerally thedatarequired answer keyquestion, to the "Does theintercrop yieldbetter than combination thetwooptimal a of At a monocultures?" oneextreme review of experiments dialellmixtures grasses(172) found with of onlyveryweak evidencethatinterspecific on competition, average,was smaller thanintraOn the of specific competition. thecontrary, overall pattern thedatasuggested more akintotheneutral something competition hypothesis 157),in which (77, are inter intraspecific and different. competition notsignificantly Attheother mixtures legumes nonlegumes of and seem extreme, frequently to provide evidence intercrop of advantage (72, 125, 173). Yet evenhereit is notreally clearwhatmechanism involved. theone hand,it couldbe a is On case ofthecompetitive that and production principle, ifthelegume nonlegume are tapping nudifferent for pools of nitrogen, interspecific competition that is trient thereby reduced(161). On the otherhand,the legumecould be the facilitating growth thenonlegume supplying withextra of by it nitrogen. have addressed thisproblem Veryfew experiments (142), and the general literature not amenableto differentiating is betweenthesetwo alternatives that (182). Thatthelegumemaysimply sequester nitrogen wouldotherwise leachoutof thesoil and later releaseit to thenonlegume beensuggested has in somecases (3). The general seemstobe that, two conclusion although theoretically ecologi-

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into environment efficiently an an more than callydifferent couldfit crops offers support little for of same crop, accumulated evidence equalbiomass the especially light recent in of logical, that idea.It would seemto be equally that species to theory plant in ecology 77,157), suggest different ofannual (37, and are or advantage ecologically, theonly crops more lessinterchangeable is either a socioeconomic ofview, from from perhaps ofintercropping point of orfrom some ofspecial sort the long-term ofview soilconservation, point effect ofthe combination involved. Perhaps facilitative characteristic particular neuthecompetitive principle turn tobe thecompetitive will out production trality principle. advantage, facilitathe the mechanism intercrop for Nevertheless,alternative seemswell-established in tiveeffect certainly ubiquitous, not (182), while empirical18, (1 a vast exists, strictly particular For cases. example, literature both creates sort 173), how on intercropping the of 144)and mechanistic 89,146, (56, the that cases, second specialist Inallofthese pests. vegetative texture controls acts ofthe crop controlling potential pests, crop as a facilitator flrst bysomehow (7, 148). whether resource concentration means enemies 146, orby of by other of integrative aspects principles tomany speak Ultimately, ecological such multiple as a potential alternative interacting agriculture program. Topics as and of that dynamics problem viewing simple (the components complex associated converwith integrative problems which complex) the is or various of from ecological an point view:Muchrecent sionneedto be explored the of wellbe relevant. Additionally, interface a ecological theory very may while always acknowledged, needs with socioeconomic framework ecology, associated tobe more A of traditionally topics explicit. host integrative more the such conservation with tillage, alternative agriculture, as agroforestry, and have risk biodiversity, system design, incorporation ofanimals, reduction, of beenexcluded this from review because spacelimitations. and seeks of A recent formulation to combine many theecological social ofproduction" Elaborating forces undersingle a the (10). umbrella, "syndromes alternative formulated that agroecosystem notion the onthe represents loosely & and relations Andow Hidaka (174), sets management of techniques ecological to of the shizen system riceproduction thenow (10) compare traditional a distinct of and that group system suggest itrepresents contemporary Japanese The relations. synecological and, management techniques byimplication, a future dromes production mayprovide useful of focus wayof directing research.

THE PROBLEM OF CONVERSION

with alternative have Several studies compared systems their actually existing because matching the This is always modern suspect counterparts. comparison

ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE 215

farms very The offarms in principle, difficult. alternative arealternative is, alternativeness a number possible and of reasons, thefact their for large of not For if determining oftheir feature success failure. example, or may be the on best soilsandthose were that to alternative justhappen develop the farms the inputs, compenthe to onthe soils happen develop useofmodem bad just makes alternativeness Orif the work. of sating factor thegoodsoilsis what World country, are marginalized farmersa Third of alternative farmers mainly is a of consocioeconomic andtheir alternativenessconsequence a depressed yields a modem of dition marginal and their having yields lower than lands, farm hardly ofinterest. be highly capitalized would in creating importance ofthese factors possibly Acknowledging the potential to those comparative it of spurious results, is neverthelessinterest examine and seven farm pairs, eachonealternative one studies. India, In comparing in was factors of conventional no difference encounteredthecritical farm, in other factors (176), differences yields economic or performance although for were such on inputs thealternative striking as lessdependence external low-input a conclusion functioning that farms. finding This reflectsgeneral ones high-input (12, do more than systems notperform poorly conventional fodder those for whoseekto political 50, 104,126),andso ithasprovided promote alternative agriculture. On theother at low-input systems attempts setting experimental up hand, in with ones failed. generally Even caseswhere side-by-side conventional have the of are from multiple factors lowinput engaged, conversion conventional has thus sustainable of agriculture beensomethinga failure far. tolow-input in alternative is almost always reduced the Performance orprofitability) (yield are by input costs yields compensated reduced system. Sometimes, lowered left they (192,195),butfrequently arenot(95, 102,168).We arethus with an uncomfortable alternative systems work real paradox-that functioning Thissuggests to conventional havefailed. ones well,butattempts convert of of ecological knowledge about something theinadequacy oursystematic agroecosystems. inprogress. Facedwith a fascinating Cubarepresents experiment currently Soviet a virtual eliminationallofitshigh of technology from former inputs the Blocksince1989, Cubahasbeenforced transform to and Union theEastern or All is control IPM, biological itsagriculture wholesale. pestcontrol with weedmanagement is basedon soilamendments almost are entirely organic, for substituteimported phosphorous, mycorrhizae managing competition, plant from and waste andvermiculture mounds worm makes of compost farm city but is still (43, 136,147,187).Thetransfornation initsinfancy, Cubareprecan sents microcosm 11 million a worthy people be calleda microcosm) (if in Results interestedalternative ofconsiderable for agriculture. study those are failures the thus suggest: Somecomponents dramatic far (e.g. Voisson 1)

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cattle management system), some 2) components seen have great success (e.g. IPM),and3) some problems arisen were have that never before acknowledged as problems an alternative (e.g.newforms labor of model of management).

CONCLUSIONS
Inthe what besaidabout ecological ofalternative end can the basis agriculture? Givenourcurrent of understanding respect agroecosystems, state with to general than principles be more may pragmatic ecological. the First, curaorresponsive/preventative (184)seems a gentive/prophylactic, like paradigm of as erally goodrule thumb we slowly work towardbetter a agriculture. The programmatic is conclusion toseeksolutions candealwith that extant problems they as arise (responsive technologies) alsotodevelop but solutions that ultimately prevent problems arising the place(preventative those from in first I rather technologies). expect will ecological principles havemore do with to the latter the than former. a tounderstanding Second, first approximation a system complicated as as an agroecological may embodied the one be in functional composition model developed vanNoordwijk de Willigen by & (177) (Figure Frequently the 1). ultimate is far agroecosystem toomultidimensional dealtwith this to be in but fashion, as an initial epistemological thefunctional tool, composition us allows toexplorelevel complexity issomewhere a approach of that between the one-dimensional approach conventional of and hopelessly agriculture the of grand approach systems We ecology. canacknowledge but complexity try torepresent a lower-dimensional Sometimes will possible, itas this be system. as itseems be inthe to caseofVanNoordwijk de Willigen's & model applied to soil fertility. at times willperhaps we However, other haveto be more creative. is always danger onemight into reductionist's It a that fall the trap, which exactly opposite what is the of most alternative agriculturalists intend. Butitis important todistinguish between reductionism research and as a tactic reductionism philosophy-the is the as a latter of the folly modernism,former is a necessity science of (99). in of elusive Third, pursuit the sustainable the of system, syndromea production model is likely be a useful to in future. (10) the metaphorthe Indeed, failure single-shot of at with proverbial attemptsconversion coupled the high ofactually performance the of functioning low-input systems suggests utility the ofproduction syndromes model-i.e. conventional and agriculture sustainableagriculture alternative in and represent "adaptive peaks" thelandscape, onemay be abletoclimb alternative without not the loss peak temporary of yield and/or On profitability.theother one strive jump to hand, canalways from peaktotheother. one we remember the that problems byreal faced farmerstoday's in Fourth, must

ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE 217 worldare mainly economic and political prod(100)-falling pricesfortheir in uctsin thefaceofrising pricesforinputs thedeveloped world, lackofland in tenure markets theunderdeveloped security disappearing and world.Suswill irrelevant theseproblems until tainable ecologicaltechniques remain are solved.
Annual Review as Review Any chapter, wellas anyarticle cited an Annual in chapter, from Reviews and service. maybepurchased theAnnual Preprints Reprints email: 1400-3474007; 415-259-5017; arpr@class.org

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