Nicholas Socrates 2011 TU Delft 4123875 SMART: Bioclimatic Design Green Roof Study & Research ECO DESIGN

Over the last several years, the green-building movement has really taken off. The movement has touched every aspect of commercial-building construction from heating, ventilating and air-conditioning systems, to lighting, roofing and even carpet and paint. Green Roofs: What are they? As the name implies, green roofs are roofs made of plants. They're comprised of a waterproof membrane followed by a root barrier, a drainage layer and finally the growing medium and a variety of plants, grasses, sedums, cactus or shrubs -- hence, the green. The technology, of course, isn't entirely new. For millennia, the natives of Scandinavia and Iceland, particularly barren environments with limited building materials, used sod on their roofs as insulation; in Tanzania, mud huts with grass roofs are common; and closer to home, many early settlers used sod to insulate their walls and prairie grass to cover their roofs.

Introduction
Establishing vegetation on rooftops, commonly referred to as green roofs, is an emerging strategy for retaining storm-water runoff. In addition, green roofs offer numerous other benefits beyond storm-water mitigation. They provide insulation for buildings, thus saving on energy consumption, increase the life span of a typical roof by protecting the roof components from damaging ultraviolet rays, extreme temperatures, and rapid temperature fluctuations, filter harmful air pollutants, provide a more aesthetically pleasing environment to live and work, provide habitat for a range of organisms from microbes to birds and have the potential to reduce the Urban Heat Island Effect. Container gardens on roofs, where plants are maintained in pots, are not generally considered to be true green roofs, although this is an area of debate. Rooftop ponds are another form of green roofs, which are used to treat grey-water. Also known as living roofs, green roofs serve several purposes for a building, such as absorbing rainwater, providing insulation, creating a habitat for wildlife, and helping to lower urban air temperatures and combat the heat island effect. There are two types of "green" roofs: intensive roofs, which are thicker and can support a wider variety of plants but are heavier and require more maintenance, and extensive roofs, which are covered in a light layer of vegetation and are lighter than an intensive green roof. The term green roof may also be used to indicate roofs that use some form of "green" technology, such as solar panels or a photovoltaic module; for example what may appear as a typical, low-slope commercial roof. What distinguishes it from a typical roof is the cap sheet material and the amount of insulation. There may be a significant amount of insulation (up to 12 inches in some locations). Building owners are investing in the additional insulation to lower utility costs. Green roofs are also referred to as eco-roofs, vegetated roofs and living roofs

Benefits of these vegetated Green Roofs consist of; 1. 70-90% of rain-water retained, easing pressure on drains and prevents river pollution 2. Reduced energy and maintenance costs 3. Long roof life: Protects against UV and weather damage 4. Provides a habitat for fauna and flora species 5. No reflected heat and prevents sealed surface heat build-up 6. Cools buildings in summer and insulates in winter 7. A useful, recreational space for roof gardens or terraces 8. Higher property value & quality of life 9. Increased efficiency of solar panels 10. LEED accredited

Absorb Storm-water
Green roofs are a best practice for onsite water management. They slow the velocity of runoff volume to sewer systems by 60 to 90%. During heavy rainfalls excess water and the water contaminants associated can lead to combined sewer overflows into our watersheds. Green roofs present an opportunity to mitigate this all-too-common problem by absorbing much of the water in the root systems and releasing the rest back into the atmosphere through evapotranspiration. If there is runoff, green roofs slow it down so that the sewer system isn't overburdened during peak

usage in times of extreme rainfall. Most commercial spaces are required to retain storm-water on site. A green roof eliminates or greatly decreases the space needed and costs associated with dealing with the stormwater.

Reduce Energy Costs

Green roofs greatly reduce the temperature of the roof in the summer time. It works best in buffering against daily temperature extremes. Roofs can reach temperatures of 70 C. With a green roof the temperatures stay closer to 26 C. This means in the summer when energy demands and their associated utilities costs are the highest, you are reducing the amount of energy the building requires. The same is true in the winter, that the green roof acts as extra insulation keeping the heat in the building, but to a lesser degree. In today's world of rising energy costs, green roofs provide a tremendous benefit.

Extend Service Life of the Roof

The application of a green roof protects the waterproofing membrane from UV radiation, therefore the life of the waterproofing membrane is extended three to four times its average life, meaning that, in the long run, money is saved and fewer materials go into the landfill because it does not need to be replaced as frequently. Green roofs also protect the roof surface from human traffic, dust and other debris.

Create Wildlife Habitats

Green roofs create new wildlife habitats for pollinators and insects.

Improve Air Quality

Like all plants, green roof plants sequester carbon dioxide from the air and release oxygen. Additionally, they remove smaller amounts of other contaminants in the air.

Reduce Heat Island Effect

A natural function of plants is to cool the air through evapotranspiration (or release of water through plants into the atmosphere). With an increase of green roofs in the urban fabric we will start to see a reduction of the overall heat trapped in our cities.

Higher Property Value & Quality of Life

Although difficult to quantify, green roofs provide many auxiliary benefits; Introduce an attractive and a dramatic amenity and transform rooftop eyesores into assets. Reclaim space for relaxation and passive recreation for employees and residents. Increase productivity for employees and recovery time for patients in health care facilities. Reduce noise heard by occupants, particularly near highways and airports. Create green space in neighborhoods that have little ground level space, increasing livability and helping to meet municipal mandates for green space. Create marketing value for your building and organization, resulting in higher rents and increased resale value.

Increase the Efficiency of Solar Panels

Solar panels operate most efficiently at 80 F. In general, a standard roof surface can reach temperatures of 70C-80C during the summer season. A green roof will lower the ambient temperature to 26C even on the hottest days, therefore making the solar panels work more efficiently. This is why green roof systems and solar energy panels make for a great energy saving solution when used in combination.

LEED Credits
Green roofs can earn LEED credits in the following categories of the USGBC's green building rating system: PART 1: SUSTAINABLE SITES Reduced Site Disturbance, Protect or Restore Open Space Reduced Site Disturbance, Development Footprint Credit Landscape Design That Reduces Urban Heat Islands PART 2: WATER EFFICIENCY Storm Water Management Water Efficient Landscaping Water Use Reduction Innovative Wastewater Technologies

PART 3: ENERGY & ATMOSPHERE Optimize Energy Performance Renewable Energy CFC and Ozone Depleting Substance Reduction PART 4: MATERIALS & RESOURCES Storage and Collection of Recyclables Recycled content materials PART 5: INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY PART 6: INNOVATION IN DESIGN

Green Roof Summary

Green roofs are used to: Grow fruits, vegetables, and flowers Reduce heating (by adding mass and thermal resistance value) and cooling (by evaporative cooling) loads on a building especially if it is glassed in so as to act as a terrarium and passive solar heat reservoir a concentration of green roofs in an urban area can even reduce the city's average temperatures during the summer Increase roof life span Reduce storm-water run off Filter pollutants and carbon dioxide out of the air The soil and plants on green roofs help to insulate a building for sound; the soil helps to block lower frequencies and the plants block higher frequencies. Filter pollutants and heavy metals out of rainwater Increase wildlife habitat in built-up areas

Types of Green Roofs

Green roofs can be categorized as "semi-intensive", intensive, or extensive, depending on the depth of planting medium and the amount of maintenance they need. Traditional roof gardens, which require a reasonable depth of soil to grow large plants or conventional lawns, are considered "intensive" because they are labour-intensive, requiring irrigation, feeding and other maintenance. Intensive roofs are more park-like with easy access and may include anything from kitchen herbs to shrubs and small trees. "Extensive" green roofs, by contrast, are designed to be virtually self-sustaining

and should require only a minimum of maintenance, perhaps a once-yearly weeding or an application of slow-release fertilizer to boost growth. Extensive roofs are usually only accessed for maintenance. They can be established on a very thin layer of "soil" (most use specially formulated composts): even a thin layer of Rockwool laid directly onto a watertight roof can support a planting of Sedum species and mosses.

Extensive or Intensive Green Roofs?

There are two general types of green roofs: extensive and intensive. Intensive green roofs, commonly thought of as garden roofs, are the more complex of the two, exhibiting much greater plant diversity, and a greater need for design expertise, says Peck. Planting media for intensive green roofs are a 30cm deep at minimum, and are heavy. They are almost always used for new construction, intensive green roofs can be anything from a public garden to an entire park as is the case with the worlds largest green roof, Millennium Park in Chicago, which is 24.5 acres of landscaping on top of two subterranean parking garages. Extensive green roofs, with a much lighter saturated weight are most common. With planting media (soil) of 1 to 5 inches thick, most extensive green roofs are not designed for public access or to be walked on any more than a typical membrane roof would. Several modular extensive green roof products have emerged in the last few years that allow plants to be grown at the factory prior to actually being installed on a roof, so it is possible to get an instant green roof.

Flat & Pitched Green Roofs

Another important distinction is between pitched green roofs and flat green roofs. Pitched sod roofs, a traditional feature of many Scandinavian buildings, tend to be of a simpler design than flat green roofs. This is because the pitch of the roof reduces the risk of water penetrating through the roof structure, allowing the use of fewer waterproofing and drainage layers.

Usage
Many green roofs are installed to comply with local regulations and government fees, often regarding storm-water runoff management. In areas with combined sewerstorm-water systems, heavy storms can overload the wastewater system and cause it to flood, dumping raw sewage into the local waterways. Green roofs decrease the total amount of runoff and slow the rate of runoff from the roof. It has been found that they can retain up to 75% of rainwater gradually releasing it back into the atmosphere via condensation and transpiration, while retaining pollutants in their soil.

Rainwater Harvesting Systems

The new code for sustainable homes requires a vast reduction in water consumption. Rainwater harvesting can provide this, very cost effectively.

Recently, water demand has started to exceed supply, and localized flooding has become an issue. Industry experts are now recognizing the important role that rainwater harvesting has to play in alleviating both these problems. Rain-water is part of a never ending cycle. It is the perfect sustainable solution.

Watermetric Rain Water System. (Domestic Rainwater Harvesting System).

What are the Benefits in Rainwater Harvesting? As well as being environmentally friendly, collecting and using your own water can significantly reduce your water bills. Delivering precious clean tap water requires more and more effort, energy and expense, and for irrigation we simply don't need to use purified drinking mains water. Harvesting rain-water is another free resource to use and is perfect for automated watering irrigation systems, landscape irrigation, lawn irrigation domestic and commercial irrigation. Domestic rainwater harvesting systems are designed to collect roof and/or ground rain

water via pipes filtering out leaves and particles, and store collected water above or below ground tanks.

Green Roofs History

Germany spearheaded the modern movement back to grassy rooftops, but this time with an urban twist. During the 1970s, the densely populated country began installing green roofs to prevent storm water from surging into its ageing sewer systems, and the industry has since boomed, experiencing rapid and sustained growth. Today, roughly 14 percent of the country's total roofs are greened, the industry continues to grow 10 percent per year and some German cities actually levy a "rain tax" on non-greened asphalt rooftops. Germany's pioneering work has encouraged other countries such as Australia, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and Switzerland to actively embrace the concept. But there's more to the mounting buzz than sheer novelty. In an era when global warming, catastrophic weather patterns, flooding, sustainability issues, and man's very tangible impact on the planet's health grab daily headlines, green roofing offers positive solutions.

Energy Budgets of Individual Buildings

Green roofs have been investigated for their effects on building energy costs. The insulating effects of added materials seem likely to reduce the penetration of summer heat and the escape of interior heat in winter and there is some scientific evidence to support these notions. There is possibly an even greater benefit in the summer due to the cooling created by the evapotranspiration effect from plants and the evaporation of retained moisture from the soil. Green roofs prevent temperature extremes and the insulation value of the soil on the structure lowered the cooling energy costs.

Green Amenity Space

Some researchers believe that the need for meaningful contact with nature may be as important as peoples need for interpersonal relationships (Kaplan, 1993). Moreover, impediments to meaningful contact with nature can be seen as a contributing factor to rising levels of stress and general dissatisfaction within our modern society (Zubevich, 2004). Many urban buildings are positioned along busy streets and transportation routes where access to green space is negligible. Green roofs provide a measurable psychological benefit to urbanites by adding tangible, accessible natural viewing space for social interaction, recreation, and relaxation. A green roof offers building occupants proximity to common spaces where they can relax, dine, meditate, do yoga, interact with friends or business colleagues, and enjoy proximity to green plants. Research on human behavior suggests that a view of gardens and green plants serves to restore calm and reduce stress in humans - particularly those that drive a vehicle

(Cackowski & Nasar, 2003). Other studies suggest that humans generally prefer a view of natural settings rather than congested or cluttered built environments and that accessibility to nature, specifically by way of a window or a walk, which improves worker concentration and job satisfaction, and buffers negative job stress (Hertzog, Maguire & Nebel, 2003, Laumann, Garling & Morten Stormark (2003) and Leather, Pygras, Beale, & Lawrence (1998). A study by Tayor et al. (2001) determined that children with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) were noticeably more relaxed and better behaved after playtime in green settings compared with children who did not have access to green space. There is significant evidence springing from multiple research projects to support the theory that peoples exposure to natural elements increases their ability to focus, cope with stress, generate creative ideas, reduce volatility and promote the perception of self as part of a meaningful greater whole. Exposure to natural elements enhances an individuals mental well-being.

Habitat Preservation
Many authors report that adding green space in the form of green roofs to densely populated urban environments provides eco-restorative habitats for displaced creatures. Green roofs provide food, habitat, shelter, nesting opportunities and a safe resting place for spiders, beetles, butterflies, birds and other invertebrates (Brenneisen, 2003; Gedge, 2003). Green roofs are being studied for their unique ability to provide undisturbed, viable sanctuaries for rare and nearly extinct species. Studies report that this elevated urban ecosystem affords unique protection from grade level predators, traffic noise and human intervention. Studies reveal that butterflies can access green space on the 20th floor of a building (Johnston & Newton, 1992).

Air Quality Impacts

Declining air quality is an ongoing problem in cities globally, and solutions are being proposed. Some have been acted upon, ranging from local initiatives to global accords. Among these are both restriction of point-source emissions and restoration of biological systems that reduce airborne contaminants. In cities there is strong interest in measuring and dealing with air pollution levels since air contaminants are intensified due to the density of human activity, including the increased use of fossil fuels, the presence of the urban heat island and the absence of natural biological controls. Inter-regional transport and global warming concerns serve only to heighten the issue,

as the magnitude and frequency of smog alerts and summer heat waves increase. Smog forms when nitrogen oxides (NOx) reacts with volatile organic compounds, a process that is accelerated by higher ambient temperatures. Evidence suggests that green roofs provide one opportunity to reduce local air pollution levels by lowering extreme summer temperatures, trapping particulates and capturing gases. Johnson and Newton (1996) estimate in urban forestry studies that 2,000 m2 of unmowed grass on a roof could remove as much as 4,000 kg of particulates from the surrounding air by trapping it on its foliage. Several researchers report that vegetation benefits air quality by trapping particulates and dissolving or sequestering gaseous pollutants, particularly carbon dioxide, through the stomata of their leaves.

Urban Heat Island

The air in urban areas is typically warmer than that in surrounding undeveloped areas. This concept has been recognized in publications since early in the Industrial Revolution. Over the years, concern for the catastrophic effects on human health has prompted the development of strategies for reducing the urban heat island effect. These strategies have included reducing heat radiation and other emissions, expanding vegetated spaces, and most recently the implementation of cool roofs and green roofs. The most frequently observed and documented climatic effect of urbanization is the increase in surface and air temperatures over the urban area, as compared to the rural surroundings. Oke (1995) simply defines an urban heat island (UHI) as the characteristic warmth of a town or city. This warmth is a consequence of human modification of the surface and atmospheric properties that accompany urban development. This phenomenon is given its island designation due to the isotherm patterns of near-surface air temperature which resemble the contours of an island rising above the cooler conditions that surround it. The maximum difference in the urban peak temperature and the background rural temperature defines the urban heat island intensity. Over large metropolitan areas, there may be several plateaus and peaks in the surface temperature. Cooler patches coincide with open areas where vegetation or water are found. The intensity of an urban heat island depends on many factors, such as the size of city and its energy consumption, geographical location, absence of green space, month or season, time of day, and synoptic weather conditions. Oke (1987) recognized that the urban heat island is especially related to the high urban densities and configurations of buildings in downtown areas. He demonstrated that buildings can create canyons, which substantially reduce the amount of sky view available for long wave radiation heat loss at night. Other factors contributing to the intensity of the heat island effect include: containment of heat by pollutants in the urban atmosphere, daytime heat storage due

to the thermal properties of urban surface materials, emission of heat (from buildings, transportation, and industrial operations), decreased evaporation due to the removal of vegetation and the hard surface cover in the city which prevent rainwater percolation into the soil. The absence of vegetation and the nature of this hard surface cover can be addressed by green roof treatments. It is impermeable urban surfaces (buildings, roadways, sidewalks, patios, parking lots etc.), and an absence of soil and vegetation that results in rapid shedding of water from rainfall and snowmelt. In the presence of stored moisture, energy is naturally used to evaporate water (as in rural and open areas). This sensible heat used to evaporate water creates a cooling effect, thereby reducing the temperature of the surroundings. In cities, the absence of such stored moisture, due to the increase of impervious surfaces, results in an elevation of surface temperature, which in turn increases the air temperature due to radiative heat transfer. Through better understanding of the general causes and associated problems of the urban heat island, specific strategies for reversing the effect have been gaining acceptance by municipalities. These include designs to exploit natural sources of cooler air from the surrounding countryside and adjacent water bodies, parks within the city, air circulation created by urban structures themselves, and evaporative cooling from vegetation or other sources of water in the city. Designs to reduce the heating of surfaces are also seen as especially useful in overcoming the urban heat island effect. The benefits of tree planting programs in metropolitan areas have been significant in cooling the air, as well as adding to the aesthetics, and reducing greenhouse gas (CO2) contributions. However, the demand for space in cities inhibits expansion of forested areas. Green roofs present the opportunity to expand the presence of vegetated surfaces by replacing impermeable surfaces in urban areas, providing for a reduction in peak summer urban heat island temperatures. The urban environment, the lack of vegetation, which controls evapotranspiration, is the most significant factor contributing to the urban heat island. Therefore green roof technology offers the possibility of a great impact on the urban heat island effect. It should be noted that UHI is of major concern in summer months. It is not deemed to be of much concern in the winter months in northern climates.

Storm-water Management Implications

Many consider storm-water runoff mitigation to be the primary benefit of green roofs due to the prevalence of impervious surfaces in urban and commercial areas and a failing storm-water management infrastructure. Rapid runoff from roofs and other impervious surfaces can exacerbate flooding, increase erosion, and result in combined sewer overflows that could potentially discharge raw sewage directly into our waterways.

Green roofs help mitigate the impact of high-density commercial and residential development by restoring displaced vegetation. Studies have shown that green roofs can absorb water and release it slowly over a period of time as opposed to a conventional roof where storm-water is immediately discharged. Research has indicated that an extensive green roof, depending on substrate depth, can retain 60 to 100% of incoming rainfall. This reduction in quantity of runoff from a green roof leads to improved storm-water runoff and surface water quality. Results from a Vancouver, BC, modeling study suggest that if all of Vancouver's existing buildings were retrofitted with green roofs over the next 50 years, the health of the area watershed could be restored to natural hydrologic conditions in terms of flood risk, aquatic habitat, and water quality (Graham and Kim, 2003). This would occur because green roofs have the ability to filter numerous contaminants from rainwater that has flowed across the roof surface. Other studies showed roof runoff contained higher amounts of numerous heavy metals and nutrients when compared with rainfall, probably due to the runoff picking up particulate pollutants when flowing across the roof. For green roofs, these pollutants can be taken up and degraded by the plants or bound in the growing substrate of green roofs. Rainfall and snowmelt in urban areas are typically more problematic than in rural environments. Under natural conditions, precipitation is impeded from runoff by vegetation, ground-surface retention and subsurface storage. The retained rainwater will contribute to the soil moisture and ground water replenishment. Urban landscapes are dominated by impervious surfaces, such as concrete sidewalks, building walls and roofs, and paved parking lots and roads. These collect the flow and direct it into storm gutters, sewers and engineered channels (collectively called the urban drainage system). Urban runoff eventually reaches receiving waters as sudden uncontrolled surges. Many surface contaminants are picked up in the passage of this runoff and are carried with this surge of storm-water. Common contaminants include suspended solids, heavy metals, chlorides, oils and grease, and other pollutants that arise from the use of roadways and from other surfaces the water has passed over. There are two basic categories of interrelated problems concerning urban runoff and wastewater from areas served by drainage systems: quantity management and quality management. Quantity management problems arise from upstream and downstream flooding, associated with overloaded sewer systems, and from erosion of conveyance channels downstream in the drainage basin. Untreated overflows to receiving waters from combined storm and sanitary sewer systems result in water quality management problems. Sanitary overflows usually contain high concentrations of organic compounds, bacteria and nutrients, which cause short and long-term quality problems to receiving waters. On the other hand, storm overflows often contain a considerable amount of trace metals and a high concentration of suspended solids, which may have long-term impacts on receiving waters as pollutants slowly release from deposited sediments. The following sections describe quantity and quality problems associated with each type of drainage system.

Conclusion
Modern architecture is essentially closed blocks of concrete and glass. Heating and cooling these structures is done with high-energy output and considering limited oil reserves and rising energy costs, this is a highly negative effect. Because city surfaces absorb, rather than reflect the sun's heat, surface temperatures quickly rise. Green roofs, however, make a noticeable impact on a building's heat and gain loss. During the summer, for example, the temperature of a gravel roof can increase by as much as 25 degrees Celsius, fluctuating between 60 and 80 degrees Celsius. But covered with grass, the roof temperature doesn't rise above 25 degrees Celsius. Not only do they absorb less heat, green roofs also help cool their surroundings, suck up airborne toxins and put oxygen back into the air. As cities continue to expand, there's increasing concern whether their additional warmth will further impact global temperatures. The disastrous 2003 summer heat wave that lead to 35,000 deaths in Europe showed how global climate change adversely impacts health. While scientists debate what exact influence cities have on climate change, one thing is for certain, urban heat islands effects city dwellers -nearly half of the word's population. In addition to mitigating water runoff and heat, green roofs boast a variety of gains, the first being economic. Because they are protected from ultraviolet radiation and the extreme fluctuations in temperature that cause roof membranes to deteriorate, green roofs offer longer roof life -- they can last up to 40 years -- and lower roof maintenance. They beautify bare concrete stretches, are able to grow food, attract wildlife and provide habitat in areas with fewer resources; they provide business opportunities for nurseries, landscape contractors and irrigation specialists, and also offer substantial noise insulation, which is why Amsterdam and Zurich use it at their airports. Green roofs offer so many benefits -- they reduce energy consumption, create greater biodiversity and help mitigate the effect of urban land use. For a few additional costs, they bring greater long-term economic benefits, as well as a hugely better environment in the city center.

References
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