Course Module Preparation

For the Course Feeds and Applied Animal Nutrition

3/31/2012

Addis Ababa University School of Veterinary Medicine Debre Zeit

By: Ketema Tilahun, Shimelis Dangachew, Diriba Geleti, Ermias T/Tsadik, Gezaheng Tadesse, Mulugeta Fitwi, Tujuba Jergefa and Theodros Tekle

Course Description
This course is intended to describe the role, classification, sources, distribution and potential of animal feeds; common feed resources and their characteristics; treatments of animal feed resources; ration formulation for different speciesand classes of livestockand feeding systems.

Course Objectives
Upon completion of the course the learner will be able to: identify the major animal feed resources role, classification, sources, distribution; identify major feeds and their quality characteristics; improve the nutritive values of feeds; formulate economically feasible balanced ration from locally available feed resources on the basis of requirements for different species and classes of livestock; conduct feedingtrial for different species and classes of livestockand develop feeding standards from locally available feed resources.

Note:
1. Domains of education: Cognitive/Knowledge (K), Affective/Attitude (A) and Psychomotor/Skill (S) 2. Hierarchy of learning: Simple to Complex (Levels 1to6 for cognitive/knowledge; Levels 1to 5 for affective/attitude and Levels 1 to 7 for psychomotor/skill domains respectively)
Level 1 (Knowledge): define, describe, label, list (Receiving): ask, choose, describe, follow, give (Perception): choose, describe, detect, differentiate Level 2 (Comprehension): convert, defend, distinguish, estimate, explain (Responding): answer, assist, compile, discuss (Set): begin, display, explain, move Level 3 (Application): change, compute, demonstrate, manipulate, modify (Valuing): complete, describe, differentiate, explain (Guided Response): assemble, build, dismantle, display Level 4 (Analysis): break down, relate, infer (Organization): adhere, alter, arrange, compare (Mechanism): [Same list as for Guided Response] Level 5 (Synthesis): compose, create, design, generate (Characterization): act, discriminate, display, influence (Complex Overt Response): [Same list as for Guided Response] Level 6 (Evaluate): appraise, conclude, criticize, relate (Adaptation): adapt, alter, change, rearrange Level 7 (Origination): arrange, combine, compose, construct

Table 1. Tabular Representation to the Course Module of Feeds and Applied Animal Nutrition (Atv AnSc. 204) Objectives Contents Methods Domain and Hierarchy Unit 1: Introduction At the end of this unit the students will be able to: Identify the role of animalnutritionin livestock production (KA, L1) Outline thecontribution oflivestock to agricultural development and national economy (K, L1) Role of animalnutritionin livestock production Contribution of livestock to agricultural development and national economy Brainstorming, Group work, Peer teaching , Mini lecture and wind up, Self-learning, Portfolio * the questions are included in the detail
curse module preparation part

Assessments

KA, L1

Multiple choices, *(KA, L1) True or false, *(KA, L1)and Fill the blanks*(KA, L1)

Unit 2: Major Animal Feed Resources At the end of this unit the students will be able to: Distinguish the major livestock feed resources available in our country

Major livestock feed resources distribution and utilization practices in our country

Brainstorming, Group work, Peer teaching, Min lecture and windup,

KAS, L2

Multiple choices, *( KAS, L2) True or false, *( KAS, L2) Matching, * (KAS, L2)and Fill the blanks*( KAS, L2)

* the questions are included in the detail

curse module preparation part

(KAS, L2)

Individual project assignment, Practical, Self-learning, Portfolio Yield and quality Brainstorming, characteristics of natural mini lecture, pasture individual Crop residues, their assignment, reported yield potential and quality wind up Agro-industrial byproducts availability and quality Improved pasture, their yield characteristics and quality K: L1, L2, Multiple choice: Select a common L3, L4, L5 feed resource category dominant in and L6; the highlands of Ethiopia among A: L1, L2, the choices listed (K, L1) (see L3, L4 details in the body) Write T if the statement is true or F if the statement is false (K, L2). (see details in the body) Collect two barley residue samples from Debre Zeit area and take them to nutrition lab at Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center. Collect samples of Sesbania sesban ( apotential protein supplement) in the area and mix in 1: 1 proportion with the barley residue and analyze the mixed sample for crude protein concentration and total cell wall components and demonstrate the result to your class mates (K, L3). By doing so the student will also demonstrates his willingness to

Unit 3. Abundance and quality characteristics of feed resources At the end of this unit, the learners will be able to List major feed recourses in Ethiopia (K, L1). Explain key quality attributes of feed resources like crude protein, fibre, digestibility and minerals (K, L2). Demonstrate the role of protein supplement feeds in improving digestibility of poor quality roughages (K, L3). Break down selected feed DM in to its protein, fiber and digestibility and mineral fractions (K,

participate and follow the instruction to go to field and collect the samples (A, L1), reacts to the learning-teaching process and practice/performs the task with interest (A, L2). o Visit five farmers field in the vicinity of the School of Veterinary Medicine. Identify/select the five feed samples widely used on farm and breakdown/analyze the sampled feed DM in to protein, fiber, digestibility and mineral fractions (K, L4). Compile/combine the data gathered and analyze the relationship between the quality parameters using valid statistical tools and tell/inform the summary of your findings to your peers (K, L5). Using the feed quality data generated, prepare a short communication scientific article explaining the implications of the result. Evaluate/judge your report against findings reported by other scientists elsewhere (compare, contrast, relate, interpret, discriminate) through intensive literature search (critical

Unit 4: Treatments and Processing of Animal Feed Resources At the end of this unit the learners will be able to: List the methods used to treat poor quality roughages (K,L1) Explain/manipulate how to treat poor quality roughages (AS, L3 Explain methods used to process/treat concentrates (K, L2) Identify/organize appropriate methods used to process/treat concentrates

Roughages treatments Concentrate processing and treatments

Brain storming, Group work, Mini-lecture and windup, Self-learning , Peer teaching Group project assignment, Practical, Portfolio

K, L1, L2 A S, L3,L4

thinking)(K, L6; A, L3; A, L4) and submit the material for publication in a peer reviewed journal. Multiple choice (K, L1) (see the detail) Describe/operate methods used to treat poor quality roughages

(AS,L3) Multiple choice (K, L2) (see the detail) Explain/use appropriate methods used to process/treat concentrates (based on the type of concentrates) (AS,L4)

(based on the type of concentrates) (AS, L4) Introduction standards formulation Demonstrate economically ration for

Unit 5: Ration Formulation At the end of this unit the students will be able to:

to and

feeding Brain storming, ration Peer teaching, Mini lecture and

KAS, L3, L4

preparation feasible

of

balanced and

differentspecies

 Demonstrate/complete

preparation

Factors to be considered in wind up, Group ration materials, methods formulation. Preparationof economically ration from formulation: project steps for and assignment, ration Practical, Case study, Selflearning, feasible Portfolio. locally

classes of livestock, from locally available materials; considering the possible stated factors, steps following using the the

of economically feasible balanced ration, from locally available feed ingredients, for different species and classes of livestock.(KAS, L3). Compare and contrast the prepared balanced ration on the basis of feeding standards(KAS, L4).

and

appropriate method (KS,L3) Complete

preparation

of

economically feasible balanced ration for different species and classes of livestock, from locally available materials; considering the possible factors, following

available feed ingredients.

the stated steps and using the appropriate method (A,L3) Compare and contrast the prepared balanced ration on the basis of the feeding standards (KAS,L4))

Unit 6: In Vivo Feed Evaluation At the end of this unit the students will be able to: Conduct in vivo feed evaluation (K,L6, A,L5, S,L6)

In Vivo Feed Evaluation

Brainstorming, Group work, Individual project assignment, Practical, Laboratory work, Wind up, Portfolio

K,L6 A,L5 S,L6

Justify in vivo feed evaluation method (K,L6)

Perform in vivo feed evaluation method (A,L5) Adapt in vivo feed evaluation method (S,L6)

References 1. Alemayehu Mengistu, 1987. Conservation based forage Development. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 2. E.R. Orskov, 1987. The Feeding of Ruminants: Principles and Practices. Clalcobe Publications, Great Britain. 3. L.R. Humphreys and F. Rivers, 1986.Tropical Pasture Seed Production. Paper 8 FAO, UN Rome. 4. L.R. Humphreys and F. Rivers, 1987.Tropical Pasture and Fodder Crops. Second Edition. I.I.A.S, Longman. 5. J.K. Ranijhan, 1980. Animal Nutrition in the Tropic. New Delhi. 6. G.P. Lodhi and P.C Gupta, 1992. Forage production and conservation, India 7. M.E. Engminger and C.G. Olefin, 1980.Feeds and Nutrition Complete.US, New York. 8. National Research Council. 1984. Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle, Sixth Revised Ed. National Academy Press, Washington,D.C. 9. National Research Council. 1989. Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle. Sixth Rev. Ed., Natl. Acad. Sci., Washington, D.C. 10. National Research Council. 1996. Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle., Seventh Rev. Ed., Natl. Acad. Sci., Washington, D.C. 11. National Research Council. 2001. Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle. Seventh Rev. Ed., Natl. Acad. Sci., Washington,D.C. 12. P.C. Whiteman, 1980. Tropical Pasture Science. Oxford. 13. P. McDonald, R.A. Edwards and J.F. Greengage, 1988.Animal Nutrition. New York.

10

Detailed Course Module of the Course Feeds and Applied Animal Nutrition

Unit 1: Introduction
Unit description: This unit is intended to address the description for the role of feed on animal production, and consequently the role of livestock production on agricultural development and national economy. 1.1 Objective: At the end of this unit the students will be able to: Identify the role of animalnutritionin livestock production (KA, L1) Outline the contribution of livestock to agricultural development and national economy (K, L1) 1.2 Content: Role of animalnutritionin livestock production Contribution of livestock to agricultural development and national economy 1.3 Teaching Methods: Brainstorming, Group work, Peer teaching, Mini lecture and wind up, Self-learning, Portfolio Brainstorming: o What is the role of animal feed on national economy? Group work: o Discus in group and report on the role of feed in the livestock productivity and the role of livestock production in the agricultural development and national economy. Peer teaching:

11

o Make an interactive presentation on the relationships that existamong animal feed, livestock production, agricultural development and national economy. Mini lecture: 1. Role of feed in the livestock productivity

A sound-feeding programmed consists of combining various ingredient requirements set for standards for animals at different stages of life performing specific functions. It is important to provide the correct amount of nutrients to the animals to obtain the desire response. If the objective of livestock enterprise is to produce weight gain or milk, the proportion of feed above that need for maintenance is critical. On the other hand, where the purpose for maintaining animals is to produce offspring, excessive feeding is often detrimental. Therefore; both extremes are undesirable in terms of productivity of a breeding herd. There is a definite relationship between nutrition of animals and health. In some cases, animal having one or more nutrient deficiencies can be observed to be more susceptible to infections. Avoidance of conditions such as these has made feeding of livestock an art as well as a science in the past. While this is still true to some extent, the scientific basis for proper feeding of animals now well established and should be the foundation on which to build sound feeding programs.

2. Role of livestock in the agricultural development and national economy Livestock production plays an important role in Ethiopia's economy. Estimates for 1987 indicated that livestock production contributed one-third of agriculture's share of GDP, or nearly 15 percent of total GDP. In the 2006/2007 hides, skins and leather products made up 7.5% of the total export value; live animals accounted for 3.1% of the total value of exports during the same period. Although varying from region to region, the role of livestock in the Ethiopian economy was greater than the figures suggest. Almost the entire rural population was involved in some way with animal husbandry, whose role included the provision of draft power, food, cash,
12

transportation, fuel, and, especially in pastoral areas, social prestige. In the highlands, oxen provided draft power in crop production. In pastoral areas, livestock formed the basis of the economy. Per capita meat consumption was high by developing countries' standards, an estimated thirteen kilograms annually. According to a 1987 estimate, beef accounted for about 51% of all meat consumption, followed by mutton and lamb (19%), poultry (15%), and goat (14%).Because of the development of planting, feeds processing, food and other livestock products processing industries the livestock husbandry can increase the income and employment for farmers, which is very important for the stable development of agriculture. It also can develop the national industries and improve the national economy status. A developed animal industry can provide good products which can supply good quality nutrients especially for protein source for human, which will help to improve the general level of health and daily life for people in Ethiopia.While animals consume mostly only forage, roughage and other byproducts of agriculture especially for ruminants and other herbivorous animals, but human cannot consume these kinds of feeds.
Wind up:

o In this section we will try to describe the role of feed in livestock productivity and further livestock production in agricultural development and the national economy. We will also try to show an overview of the relationship that exists among feed, livestock production, agricultural development and national economy. Self-learning: o The learner should further be able to learn more by him/her-self about livestock feed (nutrition), livestock productivity, agricultural development and national economy. Portfolio: o The learners should be able to record their strength and weakness during the learning process of the unit. This will for the sake of the learner to have the

13

feedback about his/her success or failure and helps to work hard the formative assessment of the unit and entirely the next one as well. 1.4 Assessment 1.4.1 Choose the letter (s) containing the best alternative (s): (KA, L1) 1. Which of the following is UNTRUE about livestock production in Ethiopia? A. can increase the income and employment for farmers B. is very important for the stable development of agriculture C. improves the national economy status by its alone D. helps in nutritional status improvement of the people 2. Of the following one isNOT livestock product used for foreign currency exchange? A. Hide and skin B. Live animal C. Small ruminant meat D. Wool

3. Livestock husbandry in pastoralcommunities provides all of the followings EXCEPT: A. Draft power E. Social prestige 1.4.2 Say True if the statements are correct or False if they are stated wrongly: (KA, L1) 1. In feeding programs it is important to provide the correct amount of nutrients to the animals to obtain the desire response. 2. If the objective of livestock enterprise is to produce weight gain or milk, the proportion of feed above that need for maintenance is not as such critical. 3. Where the purpose for maintaining animals is to produce offspring, excessive feeding is often detrimental. 4. There is no any definite relationship between nutrition of animals and health. 5. Almost the entire rural population was involved in some way with animal husbandry. 1.4.3 Fill the blank spaces with suitable terms: (KA, L1)
14

B. Food supply

C. Cash earning

D. Transportation

1. In .........................., oxen provided draft power in crop production. 2. In ......................, livestock formed the basis of the economy. Possible answers 1.4.1.1 C 1.4.1.2 D 1.4.1.3 A 1.4.2.1 True 1.4.2.2 False 1.4.2.3 True 1.4.2.4 False 1.4.2.5 True 1.4.3.1 the highlands 1.4.3.2 pastoral areas

1.5 References

1. Alemayehu Mengistu, 1987. Conservation based forage Development. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 2. L.R. Humphreys and F. Rivers, 1986.Tropical Pasture Seed Production. Paper 8 FAO, UN Rome. 3. L.R. Humphreys and F. Rivers, 1987.Tropical Pasture and Fodder Crops. Second Edition. I.I.A.S, Longman. 4. J.K. Ranijhan, 1980. Animal Nutrition in the Tropic. New Delhi.

15

5. G.P. Lodhi and P.C Gupta, 1992. Forage production and conservation, India 6. M.E. Engminger and C.G. Olefin, 1980.Feeds and Nutrition Complete.US, New York. 7. P. McDonald, R.A. Edwards and J.F. Greengage, 1988.Animal Nutrition. New York.

Unit 2: Major Animal Feed Resources

Unit description:The main emphasis of this unit is to distinguish the major livestock feed resources available in our country. 2.1 Objective: At the end of this unit the students will be able to: Distinguish the major livestock feed resources available in our country (KAS, L2) 2.2 Content: Major livestock feed resources distribution and utilization practices in our country 2.3 Teaching methods: Brainstorming, Peer teaching, Group work,Min lecture and windup, Individual project assignment, Practical, Self-learning, Portfolio Brainstorming: o What are the major livestock feed resources in your locality? Explain them. Peer teaching: o Make an interactive presentation on the importance and distribution of the major feed resources. Group work: o Discuss in group and report on How to classify the major feed resources? Min lecture:
16

Major Livestock Feed Resources There are three major livestock feed resources. These are forage, cropresidues and agroindustrial by-products. 1. Forage There are commonly four forage sources. These are: i. Range Land: It is a wide land that can be a source of grass, shrubs, legumes, trees and also consists of unwanted feeds (weeds) for animals. ii. Natural pasture: It is comparatively economical for animal feed. About 90% of the livestock population subsists on naturally growing grass. Can be fenced to control the over grazing. iii.Improved forage

Improved Forage

Roughage

Silage

Green Forage

Leguminous Fodder
Figure 1. Improved forage classification iv. Conserved Forage
17

Non-leguminous Fodder

It is a forage types that has a dip root system used to conserve soil and water in strip eroded area. E.g. Elephant grass, pigeon pea, leucenea 2. Crop residues They are classified under basal concentrates including agricultural products of grain and by products of grain like maize, sorghum, wheat and rich in CH2O and low in protein. 3.Agro-industrial by products They are the products get after the processing of agriculture products, which are rich in protein. The source of by products are: 1. Animal origin Fish meal, meat meal, dried skim milk, dried butter meal, feather meal

2. Plant origin Wind up: o In general we try to cover the three major livestock feed resources and their classification, importance, distribution and feeding potential. Individual project assignment: o On how to analyze the nutritive value (chemical composition) of major feed resources. Practical: o Demonstrate the livestock feeds available in your locality. Self-learning: o The learner should further be able to learn more by him/her-self about livestock feed resources classification, importance, sources, distributions and feeding potential. Portfolio: Groundnut cake, coconut cake, cottonseed, rapeseed cake

18

o The learners should be able to record their strength and weakness during the learning process of the unit. This will for the sake of the learner to have the feedback about his/her success or failure and helps to work hard the formative assessment of the unit and entirely the next one as well. 2.4 Assessment

2.4.1 Choose the letter (s) containing the best alternative (s):(KAS, L2) 1. The major livestock feed resources in marginal areas of Ethiopia include: A. Native pastures D. Agro-industrial by-products 2.4.2 Say True if the statements are correct or False if they are stated wrongly: KAS, L2 1. Natural pasture is comparatively economical for animal feed. 2. Improved forage is a good source of quality feed for livestock. 2.4.3 Match the terms under column A with appropriate description under column B:(KAS, L2) A 1. Animal origin 2. Plant origin B A. Groundnut cake B. Fish meal B. Improved fodder C.Crop residues

2.4.4 Fill the blank spaces with suitable terms:(KAS, L2) 1. . is a wide land that can be a source of grass, shrubs, legumes, trees and also consists of unwanted feeds (weeds) for animals. 2. .. are the products get after the processing of agriculture products. Possible answers: 2.4.1.1 A 2.4.2.1 True 2.4.2.2 True
19

2.4.3.1 B 2.4.3.2 A 2.4.4.1 Rangeland 2.4.4.2 Agro-industrial by-products 2.5 References 1. Alemayehu Mengistu, 1987. Conservation based forage Development. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 2. L.R. Humphreys and F. Rivers, 1986.Tropical Pasture Seed Production. Paper 8 FAO, UN Rome. 3. L.R. Humphreys and F. Rivers, 1987.Tropical Pasture and Fodder Crops. Second Edition. I.I.A.S, Longman. 4. J.K. Ranijhan, 1980. Animal Nutrition in the Tropic. New Delhi. 5. G.P. Lodhi and P.C. Gupta, 1992. Forage production and conservation, India. 6. M.E. Engminger and C.G. Olefin, 1980.Feeds and Nutrition Complete.US, New York. 7. P. McDonald, R.A. Edwards and J.F. Greengage, 1988.Animal Nutrition. New York

Unit 3. Abundance and Quality Characteristics of Feed Resources

Description: This unit deals with explanation of various feed resource categories, theirabundance and quality characteristics. 3.1 Objectives: At the end of this unit, the trainees will be able to : List major feed recourses in Ethiopia (K, L1). Explain key quality traits of local feed resources (K, L2). Demonstrate the role of protein supplement feeds in improving digestibility of poor quality roughage feeds (K, L3). Identify/select five feed samples widely used on farm and breakdown/analyze the sampled feeds DM in to protein, fiber, digestibility and mineral fractions (K, L4).

20

Compile/combine the data gathered and analyze the relationship between the quality parameters using valid statistical tools and tell/inform the summary of their findings to their peers (K, L5).

Using the feed quality data generated, prepare a short communication scientific article explaining the implications of the result ; undertake evaluation/judgment on their report against findings reported by other scientists elsewhere (compare, contrast, relate, interpret, discriminate) through intensive literature search (critical thinking) (K, L6; A, L3; A, L4) and submit the material for publication in a peer reviewed journal.

3.2 Content Yield and quality characteristics of natural pasture Crop residues, their potential yield and quality Agro-industrial by-products, their availability and nutritional characteristics Improved pasture, their yield characteristics and quality

3.3 Teaching Methods: Brainstorming, mini lecture, individual assignment, case study, interactive group presentation, wind up Brainstorming questions: what are the major types of animal feeds in Ethiopia? What do we mean by yield? What do we mean by feed quality?

Mini lecture:The course facilitator will deliver a brief lecture on yield and quality of natural pasture; agricultural by products and their availability and quality and aspects of improved pasture and their feeding values with a focus on issues briefly presented below.

Major feed categories

As indicated in unit 2, there are four major categories of feed resources under Ethiopian situation. These include native pastures, crop residues, and agro-industrial by products and improved pasture species.

21

Yield and quality characteristics of natural pasture

Assessment of yield and quality of native pasture in the central highlands (Zinash and Seyoum 1991) suggested remarkable seasonality in yield and quality of native pasture. Dry matter yield of native pasture varied from 3.0 ton/ha in August to 6.0 ton/ha in October with a mean annual yield of 4.2. ton of DM/ha. Crude protein content varied from 3.2% in January to 12.1% in July while IVOMD ranged from 42% during the dry season to 57% during the main rainy season. In the same study, the critical nutrient lacking in native pasture was noted to be

protein and the supply of this nutrient falls below 50% of maintenance requirement of ruminant livestock for about 6 months of the year. Grazing trials at Holetta and Bako also suggested

animals kept on sole native pasture diet, losses upto 20% of their live weight especially during the dry season (IAR, 1976).

Crop Residues, their reported potential yield characteristics and nutritional

Estimates of crop residue availability are usually based on harvest indices of crops under research condition assuming certain field losses. Using recommended conversion factors and grain yields a total of 13 million tons of crop residues were estimated to be annually produced among which sorghum stover, tef straw and maize stover account for 27, 27 and 22 percent respectively (Alemu et al 1991). Because of increase in area and yield of crops over years, the present estimate of total crop residues produced in the country is about 14 million ton DM. Estimates on alternative uses of crop residues in the highlands of the country also indicates that about 70% of the crop residue is used for livestock feed while the rest is used for other purposes (Zinash, and Seyoum, 1991).

Low CP, EE, digestibility and high cell wall and cell wall constituents generally characterize crop residues. Among cereal crop residues, tef straw has the best nutritive value followed by barely. Studies on content and availability of minerals in crop residues in Ethiopia indicated that diets based on crop residues are unlikely to supply adequate Na and are marginal to deficient in P, Cu and possibly Zn(Kabaija and Little, 1987).

22

Reported voluntary intake of local crop residues suggest Oats straw have the highest voluntary intake followed by tef straw. Voluntary intake of tef straw varies from 1.63 to 2.5% for small ruminants and from 1.9-2.3% for large ruminants. Considerable differences in composition and nutritive value have been realized among various crop residues owing to their genetic makeup, environment and genotype by environment interaction. This variability has provided an option in the exploitation of varietal differences in crop residues. Assessment of varietal differences and studies on the impact of management on straw quality has been investigated on a limited scale for barely (Seyoum et al 1995), Tef (Seyoum et al, 1996) and also for legumes (Seyoum, unpub.) Agro-industrial by-products, their availability and nutritional characteristics

Research efforts undertaken on estimation of availability of agro-industrial by-products in the country are very much limited and are not comprehensive in coverage. Past research efforts on agro-industrial by-products have tried to establish nutritional Attempts have been made to establish nutritional characteristics and animal responses to these feed resources. Feedstuffs of this category included in the research agenda for the last three decades are oilseed cakes, grain by-products (wheat bran, wheat middling), molasses, coffee pulp, brewers grain and slaughter house by-products (bone meal, meat meal, blood meal, meat and bone meal). There is no resource base study undertaken so far to describe the quantity and distribution of agro-industrial by-products in Ethiopia. Estimates of the AACM (1984) suggest a total production of 500 thousand tons of agro-industrial by-products to be annually produced in the country and this figure can be increased substantially because of increase in cottage industries and increase in raw material production over the last 15 years. The major agro-industrial byproducts produced include oilseed cakes, flour mill by-proudcts and grain screenings, molasses, brewers grain, coffee pulp and slaughter house by-products.

Substantial work has been undertaken to characterize and assess the supplementary values of oilseed cakes produced in Ethiopia. Oilsseed cakes are generally characterized by high crude protein (35%), low neutral detergent fiber (32%) and a modest level (67%) of digestibility. Chemical composition and nutritive value of oilseed cakes vary widely depending on crop
23

species and method of processing (Solomon, 1992, Beyene et al 1977, Seyoum and Zinash, 1989 and Seyoum, 1995). Evaluation of mineral compositions of locally produced oilseed cakes has also indicated that the concentration of P, K and Mg are higher than optimum level for ruminant diets but low in Ca and Na contents (Solomon, 1992). Studies on rumen degradability characteristics of oilseed cakes also indicated that most oilseed cakes have high rumen degradable nitrogen and low undegradable dietary protein (Seyoum, 1995). In the same study, cottonseed cake and flax cake were noted to have high escape N than other oil seed cakes. Based on bioassay techniques and animal performance, cotton seed cake was noted to be the best followed by noug cake and peanut cake (Solomon, 1992).

In a study on inclusion rate of mustard cake (Brassica carinta) or Gomenzer, up to 42% inclusion in a concentrate diet was noted to support a daily weight gain of 49.2 g/head for castrated black head Ogaden sheep while a daily gain of 71 g/head was reported for a positive control diet based on cottonseed cake (Teshome and Goshu, 1995). Evaluation of peanut cake and noug cake in calf starter rations also indicated that noug cake has comparable nutritive value with peanut cake and heat treatment of these by-products had no beneficial effect on growth performance of calves (Mekonnen, et al 1984). In a comparative evaluation of these oilseed cakes in layer diets better performance was noted for noug cake than peanut and this difference was attributed for better protein quality of noug cake than peanut cake (Maaza and Beyene 1984). Among agro-industrial by-products, wheat bran and middling have high nutritive value and they usually serve as sources of energy in most of concentrate mixtures. Evaluation of coffee pulp as potential ruminant feed indicated presence of caffeine and other phenolic compounds which can impede feeding value of this by-product (Getachew, 1987). On the other hand ensiling coffee pulp with 70% native pasture and supplementing with Sesbania leaves was noted to support a daily gain of 170 g per head for small ruminants (Solomon, 1991). Evaluation of dried cage poultry excreta in broilers ration suggested that this by-product can substitute maize grain by weight upto 10% without affecting body weight gain and efficiency of broilers (Maaza, and Beyene, 1984).Although dominated by studies on oilseed cakes, past research efforts have invariably established potential of various agro-industrial by-products in
24

ruminant or non-ruminant diets and shaded light in improving livestock productivity and promotion of the livestock industry in the country. Improved pasture, their yield characteristics and quality

In the past five decades, annual and perennial forage species have been tested in different ecological zones ranging in altitude from 500 to 3000 m above sea level. Research results and development testing have identified many species suitable for various ecological conditions in the country (Lulseged et al., 1987). In general, the introduced species yielded higher than the naturally occurring swards and have high nutritive value. Among the selected grass species Chloris gayana, Panicum and Napier grass are highly productive with annual dry matter (DM) yields ranging from 10-15 t/ha. Moreover, in suitable areas yields of oat vetch mixtures are commonly more than 8 t/ha and that of fodder-beet ranged from 15-20 t/ha (Lulseged and Alemu, 1985). In mid-altitude and lowland areas, Chloris gayana, Medicago sativa, Stylosanthes guianensis, Desmodium intortum, Macrotyloma axillare and Macroptilum atropurpurium have shown good potential in areas of better rainfall (Lulseged, 1987).

The effect of supplementing teff strawwith lablab or cowpea in cattle on microbial protein supply was evaluated usingurinary purine derivatives. There was no effect of type of supplement but thelevel of supplementation significantly improved microbial protein supply.Teff straw supplemented with Sesbania sesbanincreased dry matter degradation and liquid passage rates. Degradation ofSesbania, Lucaena, Chamaecytisus and Vernonia foliage was also evaluated.Sesbania was degraded rapidly and Vernonia slowly. Studies conducted insemi-arid West Africa indicated that the microbial digestive activity, as measuredby the disappearance in sacco of a standard forage, varies both seasonallyand across animal species.

Group assignment: The learners will be grouped into three and each group will undertake a review of literature on the following subtopics.

Yield and quality characteristics of natural pasture 25

Crop residues, their reported potential yield and quality

Improved pasture, their yield characteristics and quality

Interactive group presentation: each group formed above will deliver an interactive presentation on each topic assigned to them.

Wind up: The course facilitator will summarize and wind up by emphasizing on key issues related to common feed types, their availability and quality

3.4 Domain and Hierarchy: K, L1, L2, L3, L4, L5 and L6; A, L1, L2, L3, L4

3.5 Assessment

3.5.1 Crop residues are:(K, L1) A. classified under supplementary concentrates B. including agricultural products and by products of C. poor in CH2O D. high in protein

3.5.2 Write T if the statement is true or F if the statement is false (K, L2).

1. Digestibility is the primary quality parameter in the evaluation of feed resources. 2. Leguminous forage crops could serve as protein supplements to poor quality crop residues in Ethiopia. 3. Energy and protein contents of crop residues and agro industrial byproducts are low justifying the need to supplement them with feeds of high energy and protein concentrations. 4. Leucaena leuocephala is an indigenous shrub species with high protein content and can be used as a supplementary protein source.

26

3.5.3 Collect two barley residue samples from Debre Zeit area and take them to nutrition lab at Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center. Collect samples of Sesbania sesban ( apotential protein supplement) in the area and mix in 1: 1 proportion with the barley residue and analyze the mixed sample for crude protein concentration and total cell wall components and demonstrate the result to your class mates (K, L3). By doing so the student will also demonstrates his willingness to participate and follow the instruction to go to field and collect the samples (A, L1), reacts to the learning-teaching process and practice/performs the task with interest (A, L2).

3.5.4 Visit five farmers field in the vicinity of the School of Veterinary Medicine. Identify/select the five feed samples widely used on farm and breakdown/analyze the sampled feed DM in to protein, fiber, digestibility and mineral fractions (K, L4). Compile/combine the data gathered and analyze the relationship between the quality parameters using valid statistical tools and tell/inform the summary of your findings to your peers (K, L5). Using the feed quality data generated, prepare a short communication scientific article explaining the implications of the result. Evaluate/judge your report against findings reported by other scientists elsewhere (compare, contrast, relate, interpret, discriminate) through intensive literature search (critical thinking) (K, L6; A, L3; A, L4) and submit the material for publication in a peer reviewed journal.

3.6 Answers 3.5.1 B 3.5.2.1 False 3.5.2.2 True 3.5.2.3 True 3.5.2.4 False

3.5.3 Written and presentation material from the field work 3.5.4 Written and material submitted for publication in journals

27

References

1.Abule Ebro. 1994. Performance of Crossbred calves fed tef (Eragrostis tef supplemented with graded levels of cowpea (Vigina ungiculta) and Dolicos lab lab (Lab lab purpureu) hay. Ethiopia.178PP. 2. Alemayehu Mengistu. 1979. Grassland condition in Chilalo Awaraja, Arsi administrative region, Ethiopia, an ecological study. EJAS, 1(2): 116 125. 3. Alemu Tadesse. 1987. Grassland composition of Nekemte Awraja. Proceedings of the First National Livestock Improvement Conference, 11-13 February 1987, Addis Ababa, IAR, Addis Ababa. PP. 173-175. 4. Alemu G/Wold, P.B. O'Donovan, Hailu G/Mariam, Beyene Kebede and E.S.E. Galal. 1978. Fattening Studies with crossbred (European X Zebu) bull.2. Rate and efficiency of gain on diets of maize residues and concentrates. J.Agric Sci. (Camb.) 90: 431 434. 5. Alemu Yami, Zinash Sileshi and Seyoum Bediye. 1991. The potential of crop residueand agro-industrial by products as animal feed. Proceedings of the livestockimprovement conference, 24-26 May, 1989. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 6. Ameha Sebsibe and Ian Flecthcer.1993. Sheep carrying capacity of native pasture in the high lands.In :Proceedings of the fourth National Livestock Improvement Confercne,13-15 November 1991, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 7. Beyene Chichaibelu. 1976. Laboratory Evaluation and Estimation of Nutritive Value of Some Ethiopian Feedstuffs and Formula Feeds Plus Animal Evaluation of Noug seed cake (Guizotia abyssinica) PhD thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. 8. Biru Yitaferu, Lema Biru and Ashenafi Mengistu. 1995. Stocking rate of native pasture at Adamitulu. Proceedings of the Third National Conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production. ESAP, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PP.287 291. MSc thesis, Alemaya University of Agriculture, Alemaya,

28

9. Coppock, D.L. and Reed J.D. 1992. Cultivated and native browse legumes as calf supplements in Ethiopia. Journal of Range Management45(3):231-238. 10. Coppock, D.Layne. 1994. The Borena Plateau of Southern Ethiopia Synthesis of pastoral Research, development and change, 198091. ILCA Systems Study5; ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 11. Cossins, N.J. and M.Upton.1987. The Borena pastoral system of Southern Ethiopia. Agricultural Systems 29: 117 135. 12. Cossins, N.J. M.Upton.1988a. The impact of climatic variation on the Borena pastoral system. Agricultural systems 27:117-135. 13. CSA. 1996. Agriculture sample survey 1995/96 (1988 EC), Report on livestock, poultry and beehives population (private peasant holdings) Vol VI. Statistical Bulletin 152 CSA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 14. FAO.1994. Production Year Book 1994, Rome Italy 15. Froman.1975. Pasture management in Ethiopia with special references to the conditions in Chilalo Awraja. Department of plant husbandry, Uppsalla, Sweden. 16. IAR.1976. Results of experiments in Animal production (1966/67 to 1975). Animal production report No 1. IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 17. Kabaja, E and D.A. Little. 1989. Potential of agricultural by-products as sources of mineral nutrients in ruminant diets. In: A.N. said and A.M. Dzowela (eds.) overcoming constraints to the efficient utilization agricultural by-products as animal feed. Proceedings of the fourth annual workshop held at the Institute of animal Research, Marken Station, Bamenenda, Cameron, 20 29 October 1987. ARNAB, ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PP. 379394. 18. Kabija, E and D.A. Little.1987. Composition of native mineral supplements in Ethiopia. FNE (Forage Network in Ethiopia) Newsletter15:24-28.
29

19. Lema Gizachew. 1993. Compassion of legume hay, urea and noug cake and protein supplements for sheep fed tef straw. Proceedings of the Fourth NLIC, 1315 November, 1991, IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PP. 211215. 20. Leng, R. 1993. Practical technologies to optimize feed resources utilization in reference to the needs of animal agriculture in developing countries. Proceedings of the FAO expert consultation held in Rome, Italy, 10 14 December. 1990. FAO Animal Production and Health paper 107. FAO, Rome. PP.107 120. 21. Lema Gizachew and Abubeker Hassen. 1995. Effects of pasture improvement on dry season weight gain of Horro bulls. Proceedings of the Third National Conference of ESAP. ESAP, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia PP.282286. 22. Lulseged G.Hiwot and Hailu Keno.1985. Studies on carrying capacity of natural pastureusing crossbred cattle and local sheep. Ethiopian Journal of Agricultural Science7(1):41-47. 23. Maaza Sahle and Beyene Chichaibelu. 1984. Comparative evaluation of various protein sources in layers rations. EJAS 4 (2): 75 86. 24. Mekonin Lema, N.N. Pendita and Beyene Chichaibelu.1984. Evaluation of noug versus groundnut meal as protein source in calf starter rations. EJAS, 6(1): 13 24. 25. MOA 1998. Agro-ecological zones of Ethiopia. Natural Resources Management and Regulatory Department, MOA. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 26. Nicholson M.J. 1987. The effect of drinking frequency on some aspects of the productivity of Zebu cattle. Journal of Agric. Sci. (Cambridge) 108: 119 128. 27. Oba, Gufa. 1998. Assessment of Indigenous Range Management knowledge of the Boran pastoralists of Southern Ethiopia. GTZ-Boran lowland pastoral Development program and Oromia Regional Bureau for Agricultural Development, Negelle/Borena, Ethiopia. 28. O'Donovan, P.B. and Alemu, G/wold. 1978. Maize residue based fattening diets for Zebu and crossbred cattle proceedings of IV world conference. Animal production. Buenos Aires, Argentina. 29. Seyoum Bediye and Zinash Sileshi, 1989. The composition of Ethiopian feedstuffs. IAR Research Report No.6. IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

30

30. Seyoum Bediye, Zinash Sileshi, L.J. Lambouryne and Sendros Demeke. 1995. Feeding value of fodder beet to crossbred cows. Proceedings of the Third National Conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production. ESAP, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PP.316322. 31. Seyoum Bediye. 1995. Evaluation of nutritive value of herbaceous legumes, browse species and oil seed cakes using chemical analysis, in vitro digestibility andnylon bag technique. MSc thesis, School of Graduate Studies, AlemayaUniversity of Agriculture, Ethiopia. 32. Seyoum Bediye, Zinash Sileshi and Tesfaye Mengiste. 1996. Tef straw quality as influenced by variety differences and locations. Proceedings of the Fourth National conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production. ESAP, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PP.145152. 33. Solomon Mogus. 1992. The effect of processing methods of oilseed cakes in Ethiopia on their nutritive value. In vitro degradability and N metabolism in growing sheep feed a basal diet of maize stover, PhD thesis, University of Bonn, Germany. 34. SORDU(Southern range lands Development Unit).1991. The effects of rangelands management and utilization in the Did Hara area. TLDP (third Livestock Development project) Yabello, Ethiopia. 22 PP. 35. Tamene Yigezu.1990. Population dynamics of the problem shrubs, Acacia drepnanlobium and Acacia brevispica in the southern rangelands of Ethiopia. MSc Thesis, Department of Wool and Animal Sciences, Universirty of New SouthWales Kensngton, Australia.288PP. 36. Zinash Sileshi and Seyoum Bediye. 1991. Utilization of feed resources and feeding systems in the central zone of Ethiopia. Proceedings of the third National Livestock Improvement Conference. IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PP.129132.

Unit 4: Treatments and Processing of Animal Feed Resources

Unit description:The unit emphasizes on methods used to treatpoorquality roughages and methods of concentrates processing/treatment to improve their feeding value.

31

4.1 Objective: At the end of this unit the learners will be able to: List the methods used to treat poor quality roughages (K,L1) Explain/manipulate how to treat poor quality roughages (AS, L3) Explain methods used to process/treat concentrates (K, L2) Identify/use appropriate methods used to process/treat concentrates (based on the type of concentrates) (AS, L4) 4.2 Content: Roughages treatments Concentrates processing and treatments

4.3 Teaching methods: Brain storming, group work, mini-lecture and windup, self-learning, peer teaching, group project assignment, practical, portfolio Brainstorming: What are the importances of feed treatment? Group work: Discuss what feed treatment practices employed by local farmers in your local area and present the group work to your classmates. Mini-lecture: Limitations of crop residues Since most crop residues are used as animal feed after the grains are fully matured, they have high lignin content, low nitrogen content, high insoluble ash, poor palatable to livestock and low digestibility. Generally crop residues are bulky roughages that contain greater than 18% crude fiber in DM. Due to low concentration nitrogen (almost indigestible nitrogen) and poor digestible energy, crop residues are classified as non-maintenance roughages. Improving the feeding value of poor quality roughages The main objective of improving poor quality roughages is to increase their nutritional quality, to increase their digestibility, to increase voluntary feed intake and to increase efficiency of utilization. Various methods are used to improve the feeding value of poor quality roughages
32

are: physical (mechanical) treatments, chemical treatments, physio-chemical treatments and biological treatments. Physical treatments:- The main aim of physical treatment is to reduce the particle size of ligino-cellulosic residue thereby increase the surface area available for enzymatic degradation. The methods of physical treatments are chopping, grinding, wafering and pelleting, soaking in water and steam under pressure. Chemical treatments:- The aim of chemical treatment is to increase digestibility with simultaneous intake by increasing lignin solubility, thereby making cellulose and hemicelluloses more susceptible to microbial attack. The most common chemical treatments of poor quality roughages are urea and alkali treatments of straw. 1. Urea treatment: There are different recommendations to treat straw using urea. The amount of water, urea and molasses required depend on the quantity of straw and its moisture content. Table 2. Recommended amounts ingredients for straw treatment using urea Straw (kg) 100 150 250 Urea (kg) 5 6 10 Water (liter) 100 150 250 Molasses (kg) (optional) 10 15 25

The amount of liquid applied, the mode of application and the duration of treatment are modified according to season, local practice and the moisture content of the straw.Mostly urea treated straw is packed for 3-4 weeks before used for animal feed and evaluated before offering to the animals. Feeding of urea treated straw for animals Prior to offering the treated straw, the silo should be opened for an hour to remove unfermented ammonia. Then animals should be acclimatized with urea treated straw for 5-7 days by offering small amount at a time twice a day and gradually increase the quantity. Only ruminant animals whose age is greater than six months should be fed. If we want to feed ruminant animals whose age is less than six months and for sheep and goat, the proportion of
33

urea treated straw should not exceed 1% of the total ration. Dont feed empty stomach, emaciated, starved and pregnant animals the reach to deliver 2. Alkali treatment: The nutritive value of poor quality roughages can be improved by alkali treatments by using sodium hydroxide (NaOH) also called caustic soda and other hydroxides. Alkali treated roughages improve the performance of the animal. Alkali treated straw increases voluntary feed intake compared to untreated straw. Digestibility of poor roughages generally increases by 10-15% unit and ME value raises from 5-6% to 8-9% MJ/kg DM. Sodium hydroxide is a very powerful swelling agent of the cellulose and it probably neutralized free uronic acid groups, saponifies uronic acid esters and acetyl groups. Alkali treatments account for solibilization of silica and hemicelluloses. Concentrates processing and treatments The major objectives of concentrate processing and treatment are to remove anti-nutritional factors (tannin, saponin, cyanides, alkaloid etc), for better availability of nutrients for digestion and improve nutrients utilization the animals. Self-learning: Physio-chemical treatment and biological treatment ofpoorquality roughages, advantages of strawtreatment using urea,evaluation of urea treated straw, applications of alkali treatment and persuasions during alkali treatments Peer teaching: Students will prepare teaching materials on the following topics and provide interactive presentation the class. The topics are: Chopping, soaking of roughages, Grinding,extruding (gelatinization), rolling, moisture treatment, heat treatments (roasting), moist heat processing (cooking), pelleting of concentrates. Group project assignment: Students will be arranged in different groups (not more than 5 students per group), conduct small survey nearby their University how farmers practically treat feed resources prior to feeding their animalsand present their findings in the class.
34

Practical: Studentswill conductprepare silo, collect straw, urea, molasses (optional), plastic sheet, water sprayer and treat straw. After 3-4 weeks of ensiling, they will evaluate the colour, softness, smell and palatability of treated straw. Finally, the learners will prepare practical report and present in the class. Portfolio:The learners will record their strength and weakness during the learning process of this unit. This will be done to have the feedback about learner success or failure to improve his/her weakness and to keep up his/her strength. 4.4 Assessment 4.4.1 Among the following lists of choice, which methods used to treat poor quality roughages? (K,L1) A. Soaking 4.4.2 B. Feeding C. Storing D. Harvesting

Explain/manipulate how to treat poor quality roughages (AS, L3)

4.4.3 Among the following choices_______explains methods used to process/treat concentrates (K, L2) A. Chopping B. Gelatinization C. Urea treatment D. Acidosis

4.4.4 Explain/use appropriate methods used to process/treat concentrates (based on the type of concentrates) (AS, L4). Possible answers 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.4.4 A Mechanical or physical, chemical, physio-chemical and biological treatments B Grinding,extruding, rolling, moisture treatment, roasting, cooking, pelleting

4.5 References 1. Orskov, E.R., 1987. The Feeding of Ruminants, Principles and Practices. Clalcobe Publications, Great Britain. 2. Ranijhan, J.K., 1980. Animal Nutrition in the Tropic. New Delhi. 3. Engminger, M.E. and C.G. Olefin, 1980.Feeds and Nutrition Complete.US, New York. 4. National Research Council. 1996. Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle., Seventh Rev. Ed., Natl. Acad. Sci., Washington, D.C.
35

5. National Research Council. 2001. Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle. Seventh Rev. Ed., Natl. Acad. Sci., Washington,D.C. 6. McDonald, P.,R.A. Edwards and J.F. Greengage, 1988.Animal Nutrition. New York.

Unit 5. Ration Formulation

Unit description:This unit addresses formulation/analysis of economically feasible balanced ration for different species and classes of livestock on the basis of the feeding standards. 5.1.Objective: At the end of this unit the learners will be able to: Demonstrate/complete preparation of economically feasible balanced ration, from locally available feed ingredients, for different species and classes of livestock.(KAS, L3). Differentiate/compare and contrast/display the prepared balanced ration on the basis of feeding standards (KAS, L4). 5.2. Content: Introduction to feeding standards and ration formulation Factors to be considered in ration formulation: materials, formulation. Preparation of economically feasible ration from locally available feed ingredients. 5.3.Teaching methods: Brain storming, Peer teaching, Mini lecture and wind up, Group project assignment, Practical, Case study, Self-learning, Portfolio. Brain storming: steps and methods for ration

36

What is feeding standard? What is ration formulation? Peer teaching: Make an interactive presentation on the importance of ration formulation and feeding standard. Mini lecture: o Feeding Standards

Feeding standards are tables showing the amount of nutritive value of one or more nutrients and the feed requirements of different species of animals for various purposes, such as growth, maintenance, fattening and lactation. Feeding standards also express data for setting up various types of nutrition experiments such as those, which require a basal ration that is adequate in all nutrients. Rations may be changed or sometimes the proportion of their relative constituents varies. As a result feeding standards are important in expressing the nutritive value of rations in some common terms.

A limitation of feeding standard is feeding standards tables are varying from country to country. As a result, the amount of nutritive value for specific nutrient may not be the same throughout the world. Not only had this had the requirement of animals for specific feed also varies based on the feeding standard tables. These variations will bring non-uniformity in feeding standards.In the same way as for fodder or feed units, tables have been made which show the amount of digestible protein in each food. Other tables have been made which show the protein needs of each kind of animal. Animals make good use of energy foods and bodybuilding foods if they are given mineral salts and clean water at the same time. Values of certain foods for example One kilogram of grass or silage contains between 10 and 40 grams of protein and One kilogram of hay contains between 25 and 70 grams of protein. One kilogram of oil cake contains between 150 and 400 grams of protein and one kilogram of grain contains about 50 grams of protein.

37

Feeding standards for maintenance, growth, production and reproduction An animal must feed to live. These are its maintenance requirement these needs are different for each kind of animal and change according to the animal's weight. Many experiments have been made to find out what amounts of food an animal needs to produce milk, meat, work. These are its production requirement. This requirement changes for each kind of production and according to the amount of production. The pregnancy requirement when it is expecting young; the production requirement when the mother is giving milk; the requirement for growth when the young animal is growing. To find out what an animal needs, add up all these requirements. o Materials needed, factors to be considered and steps in ration formation Materials needed Nutrient requirement data from available source such as National Research Council (NRC) booklet, research and publications Feeding analysis data from available source such as Atlas of nutritional data research and publications and commercial publications,etc. Factors to be considered There are many factors that are considered in ration formulation. The major ones are: A. Nutritional factors B. Animal factors C. Economic factors A. Nutritional factors During ration formulation, the primary consideration is to meet up the total requirement of the animal in terms of:
38

1. Dry matter (DM) 2. Digestible protein and 3. Energy for 24 hours 1. Dry matter requirements The Dry matter requirement of an animal will vary based on the body weight of the animal where organic nutrients or inorganic nutrients like minerals and vitamins should come from the total Dry matter that has to be allotted. 2. Requirement for digestible protein and energy In calculating the total requirements for Digestible Protein and energy, someone has to consider the physiological needs, the purpose for feeding the animal and the condition of the animal. B. Animal factors Animal factor is another important factor that is considered in ration formulation. Because a particular type of animal (e.g. pregnant animal) will determine the type of ration that has to be formulated. Not only these, the age, breed, productivity and health status of the animal greatly determines the type of ration to be formulated. C. Economic factors The primary objective of feeding animals is to get something as a profit. Therefore the cost of the feeds and the labor in feeding should be minimized to an extent that economic efficiency is not affected. In short, during ration formulation you have to look for cheap source of the ingredients. Steps in Ration Formulation The ideal ration is the one which will maximize production at a minimums cost possible. There are some steps in ration formulation. These are:

39

1. Consult available texts or guides for developing rations and feeding programs for the animal involved. 2.List the requirements of all nutrients to be considered. 3. Prepare a listing of nutrient composition of the feed to be used. 4. Find and list the nutrient requirement and/ or allowances for specific animal. 5. Determine what feeds are available in the area (market) and of course you have to know the nutrient composition of these feeds. 6. Determine the cost of each feed ingredient. If the cost of feed ingredient is too high, it is not advisable to use that ingredient and instead use another fed which can substitute that feed ingredient 7. Proceed to balance the ration, using guide, for dry matter, digestible protein and energy. Ration Formulation or Balanced Ration

Ration is any feed supplied to an animal in a 24 hours period (24 hours allowance of feedstuffs). It may be balanced or not. It could be adequate or inadequate. Balanced ration is feed supplied to an animal in a 24 hours period and that can satisfy the need of the animal in terms of quality and quantity within a specified period of time. While formulating a ration, someone has to decide what mixtures of feed ingredients are most appropriate for a particular type of animals need and proper consideration also made on the purpose for which the animal has to be fed. Therefore, a particular ration formulated for a given animal will vary based on: The purpose for which the animal has to be fed. The breed of the animal that is going to be fed. The amount of nutrients (feed ingredients) found within the mix, etc.
40

To determine the amount a given ration needed to provide a give quantity of nutrients, one must first know the nutrient content of the ration. Also it is often necessary to calculate the nutrient content of a feed mixture to determine whether it meets specifications required for a certain class of animals. Important characteristics of a ration i. The ration should be properly balanced. ii. The ration should be palatable. iii. The ration should be made from variety of feed. iv. The ration should contain enough of mineral matter. v. The ration should be fairly laxative. vi. A good ration is the one, which contains much of green fodder. vii. Avoid sudden change is often the cause of many digestive troubles and as a result bring some diseases. viii. The ration should be well prepared before administered to the animal and should not be given too bulky feed to the animals. Methods of Ration Formulation There are some methods of ration formulation of which the following three are the most common ones. These are: a. The square method (the Pearsons Square methods) b. Algebraic method (Simultaneous equation method) c. Trial and error method d. Computer software (Linear programming/LP/) A. The square method (the Pearsons Square method)

41

One simple method for determining the amount of two ingredients to use to make a mixture having a certain nutrient content involves use of the Pearson square. Where more than two ingredients are involved in a mixture some need to be combined in a predetermined proportion, or else used as affixed amount in the ration. For example, an arbitrary ratio of feed grains may be used with the nutrient content of the mixture of grains being one of the two factors used in the square. B. Algebraic method (simultaneous equation method) This method is used to calculate the quantities of two ingredients needed to satisfy two different measures of feed quality. C. Trial and error method In this method feeds are inter changed by trial and error until the right combination of the ration is found. It considers all the nutrients included in the ration (protein, energy, fat, mineral supplement and etc.). Since the ration is formulated by trial and error, this method is complex and as well time consuming. Therefore, it is not recommended to use this method unless and otherwise you are forced to do so. D. Computer software (Linear programming/LP/) Feeding standards are considered as minimum; hence the final mix should have at least the stated amounts. The Pearson square, Algebraic and trial and error method cannot give a least costformulation. Where more than two feed ingredients are available and more than two nutrients must be balanced and costs must be considered then linear programming (LP) must be used. The technique allows for simultaneous consideration of economical and nutritional parameters. The formulator must have a good understanding of the specifications and the techniques of formulation so as to enable interpretation of results. Most of the performance drill of linear programming is a black box but it is good to know the basic concept to enable verification, interpretation and reformulation of formulas when
42

necessary. A host of LP programs are available. In LP the fewer the constraints the more accurate are the results. But because of nutritional considerations these are necessary. However, with each additional constraint, cost of feeds increases. Group project assignment: On the feeding standard sources. Practical: Among the following list of livestock productions formulate a balanced ration for at least the fours of your preference. Dairy, Beef, Poultry, Shoat, Camel, Pig Case study: Evaluate the feeding situation of livestock farms (e.g. dairy or beef or poultry or shoat or pig farms) which are available in your surroundings. Self-learning: The learner should further be able to learn more by him/her-self about ration formulation and feeding standards with their advanced applications in livestock production system of various contexts. Wind up: In summary we try to overview feeding standards for maintenance, growth, production and reproduction; materials needed, factors to be considered, steps to be followed and the methods employed in ration formation.

method/s learners could follow to formulate a ration (The square root, algebraic, trial and error and/or computer soft ware method).

Determination of Optimum Inclusion Level of Feed Ingredients in Least-cost Ration (helps to avoid toxicity and deficiency problem, to limit the CF content).

For example: Table 3. Inclusion rate for 0-3 weeks turkey min Yellow corn sorghum Wheat bran 10 max 70 30 8

43

Soyabean meal Cotton seed meal Meat meal

33 4 5

- Nutrient composition of major feed ingredients. For example: Table 4. Nutrient Profile -Corn: (%) DM CP ME(kcal/kg) Calcium Av. P Sodium Chloride 85.0 8.5 3330 0.01 0.13 0.05 0.05 Potassium Selenium (ppm) Fat Linoleic acid CF Methionine 0.38 0.04 3.8 1.9 2.5 0.20

- Information on the undesirable/toxic substances. Examples: Table 5. Problems in some feed ingredients: Wheat Barley Contains ~5-8% pentosans, cause problems with digesta viscosity. - Contains moderate level of trypsin inhibitor - Major problems on the content of -glucagon Soyabean Contain trypsin inhibitor

44

Cotton seed meal Flax seed meal Groundnut meal

Contamination with gossypol Prone to oxidative rancidity - susceptible to fungal growth Aspergillus contamination - Trypsin inhibitor

One example of formulated ration

Example formulas for organic diets that meet the suggested specifications for layer stock (900 g/kg DM basis), with (AA) and without (no AA) supplemental amino acids. Table 6. Formulated ration for layer stock Ingredients (Kg/ton) AA Barley Maize Oats Sorghum Triticale Wheat Wheat middlings Dehydrated grass (or lucerne) meal Canola full fat Canola meal Faba beans Peas Sunflower meal White fish meal L-lysine DL-Methionine Ground limestone Dicalcium phospahte 104.3 500 53.3 200 100.5 2.1 3.3 21.4 3
45

Starters No AA 628.8 41.5 100 152.4 18 23.6 20.6 -

Salt (NaCl) Trace mineral premix Vitamin premix Total ME (KCal/Kg) CP Lysine Methionine+ Cystine Calcium Non-phytate P

2 5 5 1000 2775 178 9 7 10 4.5

5 5 5 1000 2775 185 9 6.8 10 4.5

Calculated analysis (abbreviated; Kg/ton unless stated

An example of nutrient requirement for one species, condition, breed, etc

at specific age, physiological

Table 7. Broilers Ration requirement Age/nutrients Starter Ration (0-3wks) Grower Ration (3-5wks) Finisher Ration (5-7wks) Protein (%) 22-24 20-22 18-20 ME/KCal/Kg 2800 3000 3200

Portfolio: The learners should be able to record their strength and weakness during the learning process of the unit. This will for the sake of the learner to have the feedback about his/her success or failure and helps to work hard the formative assessment of the unit and entirely the next one as well. 5.4. Assessment Practical exam and report writing

46

1. Demonstrate preparation of economically feasible balanced ration for different species and classes of livestocks, from locally available materials; considering the possible factors, following the stated steps and using the appropriate method (KS,L3)

2. Complete preparation of economically feasible balanced ration for different species and classes of livestocks, from locally available materials; considering the possible factors, following the stated steps and using the appropriate method (A,L3) 3. Compare and contrast the prepared balanced ration on the basis of the feeding standards (KAS,L4) Possible answers: 1 and 2.Consideration of the possible factors, Stepwise activities follow up and use of appropriate methods and Economically feasible formulated balanced ration 3. Basis of the feeding standard 5.5 References 1. J.K. Ranijhan, 1980. Animal Nutrition in the Tropic. New Delhi. 2. M.E. Engminger and C.G. Olefin, 1980.Feeds and Nutrition Complete. US, New York. 3. National Research Council. 1984. Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle, Sixth Revised Ed. National Academy Press, Washington,D.C. 4. National Research Council. 1989. Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle. Sixth Rev. Ed., Natl. Acad. Sci., Washington, D.C. 5. National Research Council. 1996. Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle., Seventh Rev. Ed., Natl. Acad. Sci., Washington, D.C. 6. National Research Council. 2001. Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle. Seventh Rev. Ed., Natl. Acad. Sci., Washington,D.C. 7. P.McDonald, R.A. Edwards and J.F. Greengage, 1988. Animal Nutrition. New York.
47

Unit 6: In Vivo Feed Evaluation

Unit description: This unit is intended to address invivo feed evaluation 6.1 Objective: At the end of this unit the students will be able to: Conduct in vivo feed evaluation (K, L6, A, L5 S, L6) 6.2 Content: In vivo feed evaluation.

6.3 Teaching methods: Brainstorming, Group work, individual project assignment, practical work,Laboratory work, Self-learning,wind up,Portfolio. Brain storming: What is in vivo feeding evaluation?

Group work: o Conduct in vivo digestibly of feeds for different intact male sheep . Individual project assignment: Develop a project for sheep farm manager who wants to have 500 male sheep for fattening at a time based on the in vivo feed evaluation. Practical work: analysis the feed and feacal samples for the moisture and Dm analysis.

Induction toin vivo feed evaluation

Experimental Feed Preparation and Feeding Management

The supplement feeds, sesame seed cake and wheat bran, used for the experiment were purchased from different sesame oil extractors (camel is the only animal used for oil extraction in shire and the surroundings) and Omona wheat flour milling factory, in shire respectively,
48

and the basal diet (teff straw) was purchased locally from farmers. They were stored in a clean feed storing house which was inconvenient for microbial growth. The supplement feeds were thoroughly mixed at the given proportion after proper grinding of the sesame seed cake. Except the control animals, those in the other treatments were supplemented with the respective level of sesame seed cake at 0800 and 1600 hours in two equal portions for 90 days. The animals had ad libitum access to water and common salt licks. Daily offer and refusal of the basal feed and the supplements were recorded for each animal. Representative samples were taken for the feed offer every morning before feeding. Supplement and basal feed offers and refusals were weighed for each animal daily and their differences were recorded as a daily feed intake per animal. Feed conversion ratio was calculated by dividing the daily total DM intake by the daily live weight gain. The feed conversion efficiency was calculated by dividing the daily live weight gain by daily DM intake and multiplied by 100. Experimental Animals Twenty-five yearling growing intact sheep weighed 19.1 + 1.17 kg (mean + Standard deviation) were purchased from Koraro local market (Embadanso) based on their dentition and information from the owners. The animals were drenched with a broad spectrum anthelmentic (Albendazol) drug against internal parasites and sprayed (Accaricide / Ectoparasite) against external parasites. They were vaccinated against common diseases (anthrax and pasteurelosis) during the quarantine period. Then the experimental animals were individual penned (1.2*1.0m/head) and offered tef straw with supplement of 0,150, 200, 250, 300 DM g/day sesame oil cake for T1, T2, T3, T4, T5 respectively for 21days to get them adapted to the feeds prior to the beginning of the experiment. Animals were closely observed for the occurrence of any ill health and disorders during the experimental period. Experimental Design and Dietary Treatments

The experiment was conducted using a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with five treatments and five replications. The experimental sheep were blocked based on their initial weight into five blocks of five animals each. A mean of two consecutive live weights were taken after
49

overnight fasting to determine initial weight of animals Treatment diets were randomly assigned to each animal in the treatment in such a way that each animal had equal chance of receiving one of the treatment diets. The experimental animals were supplied tef straw, Tap water, and salt blocks comprising sodium chloride ad libitum daily in individual pens.The different levels of SSC for T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5 were 0 g, 150 g, 200 g, 250 g, and 300g head/day on DM bases, respectively. The different levels of SSC were formulated according to the growth requirements of the sheep as recommendations by the NRC (1981) and by considering their body weight and the expected weight gain. The experiment was conducted for 90 day of feeding trial and 7 days of digestibility trial. The five treatments were randomly assigned to each animal in a blocking giving five animal per treatment.The treatments used in the experiment were as follows:

Table 8. Arrangement of experimental treatments

Block B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 Basal diet (teff straw) Ad libitum Ad libitum Ad libitum Ad libitum Ad libitum T2 T1 T3 T1 T5 T1 T2 T2 T4 T3 Treatments T3 T5 T4 T5 T2 T5 T4 T1 T3 T4 T4 T3 T5 T2 T1

Where: T1 = (150WB, 0SSC g DM/day) control group T2 = (150WB, 150SSCg DM/day) T3 = (150WB, 200SSCg DM/day) T4 = (150WB, 250SSCg DM/day)

50

T5 = (150WB, 300SSCg DM/day)

Measurements Feed intake For each animal, daily offered and refusal of each treatment diet was measured and recorded throughout the experiment for 90 days. Daily supplement and teff straw offers and refusals were weighed and recorded for each animal and the difference between the daily offer and refusal were calculated to arrive at the daily feed intake of each experimental sheep. Samples of feeds offered were collected on batches of feeds that of refusal were collected for each animal and pooled for each treatment.

Body weight changes Initial body weight of the experimental animals was taken at the beginning of the study during morning hours after overnight fasting. All animals were weighed during morning hours after overnight fasting using suspended weighing scale (Salter model) with sensitivity of 100 grams. The weights were recorded for each yearling growing rams against its identification number on a weight register book every ten-day interval and the activity was continued throughout the experiment. Daily body weight gain was calculated as the difference between final live weight and initial live weight divided by the number of days. Digestibility trial

The digestibility trial was conducted after twenty-one days of adaptation period to the feed and new environment. It was comprised of three days period for animal to adapt to carry of the fecal collection bags followed by seven-day feces collection period. Feces were collected and weighed every morning for each animal before giving of feed or water. The daily collected feces from each animal was separately mixed thoroughly and 10% was sampled and kept in air tight plastic containers and stored at -20 oC up to the completion of the digestibility trial. In addition, amount of feed offered and refusals were collected, weighed and recorded every morning. At the end, the fecal sampled of each sheep was taken and partially dried at 60 oC for 72 hours and then samples were ground and stored in air tight container (glass). Such samples were taken to Mekele University nutrition laboratory using ice box containers for analysis. The
51

apparent digestibility coefficient (DC) of dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM) crude protein (CP), crude fiber (CF), acid detergent fiber (ADF) and acid detergent lignin (ADL) was calculated using the following equation: (Mc Donald et al., 2002) Nutrient digestibility coefficient (%) = nutrient intake- nutrient excreted in feces 100 Nutrient intake
RECORDING SHEET Id N0 Feed offer Feed intake Feed refusal Daily gain body weight

Portfolio: o Similar to the former units, the learners should be able to record their strength and weakness during the learning process of the unit. This will for the sake of the learner to have the feedback about his/her success or failure and helps to work hard the formative assessment of the unit and entirely the next one as well. Moreover this helps the learner for further qualified applications and innovations in the career. Mini lecture Feed evaluation is needed either to assess the value between feeds or to assess prospective production levels and food import and export strategies. The methods to express the feed value tend to simulate or measure the effect of the digestion on that foodstuff. The most common definition of a feed state that it is a product that contains nutrients and possibly other components that are not nutrients. The digestion aims to separate the ones from the others being therefore the potential of a feed associated with the amount of nutrients that
52

can be provided to the animal. Having this in mind most of the feed evaluation methods tend to reproduce what is happening at the gastro-intestinal tract when the feed is eaten by the animal. Roughages are poor in digestive nutrients either because nutrients such as nitrogen and nonstructural carbohydrates are present at low concentrations or because they are poorly digestible, due to the presence of various physical or chemical factors sucahs lignin and poly phenols. In warm climates, the diet of many ruminants is largely composed (between 90 and 100%) of forages such as the aerial parts of herbaceous mature plants, crop residues after harvest, trees and shrubs. In temperate zones, grasses form the basis of grazing land but grass straws and cereal straws (wheat, maize, sorghum, rice) are also consumed by ruminants usually as a complement. Because of their botanical diversity and the pronounced differentiation of their organs and tissues, roughages show considerable morphological, anatomic and physicochemical heterogeneity. This heterogeneity occurs seasonally among plant species and among organ tissues. Hence the characteristics of these forages are neither permanent nor uniform for any particular species. Most of the methods used to predict the nutritive value of forages have been developed in temperate zones, usually for grasses and legumes which the range of variation of this value is less wide than in roughages. The composition of these forages usually enables microbial or enzymatic digestion to take place under optimal physiological conditions. There are mainly three types of methods for the evaluation of feeding value, which are the chemical, the enzymatic and the biological ones. All of them tend to simulate what is happening in the animal during the digestive process. This simulation is by definition and approach and not the real value, which always carries a certain degree of error. It is not our purpose to describe fully all the methods that have been used in the present project but describe each group of methods on their main characteristics limitations, ideal conditions to be used and when they should or should not be recommended as the best choice. Wind up:

53

o In the unit, the limits during conducting of in vivo feed evaluation will be bridged/ filled. 5.1 Assessment: Justify in vivo feed evaluation method (K,L6) Perform in vivo feed evaluation method (A,L5) Adapt in vivo feed evaluation method (S,L6) Feed intake, apparent digestibility , body weight gain and pre-experiment and post experiment tasks 5.2 References 1. Alemayehu Mengistu, 1987. Conservation based forage Development. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 2. E.R. Orskov, 1987. The Feeding of Ruminants, Principles and Practices. Clalcobe Publications, Great Britain. 3. L.R. Humphreys, and F. Rivers, 1986. Tropical Pasture Seed Production. Paper 8 FAO, UN Rome. 4. J.K. Ranijhan, 1980. Animal Nutrition in the Tropic. New Delhi. 5. P. McDonald, R.A. Edwards and J.F. Greengage, 1988. Animal Nutrition.

Possible answers:

54