Chapter 1 I Section 5

Limits

61

(b) Express the equilibrium price in terms of the coefcients a, b, c, and d. (c) Use your answer in part (b) to determine what happens to the equilibrium price as a increases. What happens as d increases?
CHECKING ACCOUNTS

44. The charge for maintaining a checking account at a certain bank is $12 per month plus 10 cents for each check that is written. A competing bank charges $10 per month plus 14 cents per check. Find a criterion for deciding which bank offers the better deal. 45. During the summer, a group of students builds kayaks in a converted garage. The rental for the garage is $1,500 for the summer, and the materials needed to build a kayak cost $125. The kayaks can be sold for $275 apiece? (a) How many kayaks must the students sell to break even? (b) How many kayaks must the students sell to make a prot of $1,000? 46. A furniture manufacturer can sell end tables for $70 apiece. It costs the manufacturer $30 to produce each table, and it is estimated that prot will equal loss when 200 tables are sold. What is the overhead associated with the production of the tables? [Note: Overhead is the cost when 0 units are produced.] 47. It costs a book publisher $74,200 to prepare a book for publication (typesetting, illustrating, editing, and so on); printing and binding costs are $5.50 per book. The book is sold to bookstores for $19.50 per copy. (a) Make a table showing the cost of producing 2,000, 4,000, 6,000, and 8,000 books. Use four signicant digits. (b) Make a table showing the revenue from selling 2,000, 4,000, 6,000, and 8,000 books. Use four signicant digits. (c) Write an algebraic expression representing the cost y as a function of the number of books x that are produced. (d) Write an algebraic expression representing the revenue y as a function of the number of books x sold. (e) Graph both functions on the same coordinate axes. (f) Use trace and zoom to nd where cost equals revenue. (g) Use the graph to determine how many books need to be made to produce revenue of at least $85,000. How much prot is made for this number of books?

PROFIT=LOSS

MANUFACTURING OVERHEAD

5
Limits

As you will see in subsequent chapters, calculus is an enormously powerful branch of mathematics with a wide range of applications, including curve sketching, optimization of functions, analysis of rates of change, and computation of area and probability. What gives calculus its power and distinguishes it from algebra is the concept of limit, and the purpose of this section is to provide an introduction to this important concept. Our approach will be intuitive rather than formal. The ideas outlined here form the basis for a more rigorous development of the laws and procedures of calculus and lie at the heart of much of modern mathematics.

62 INTUITIVE INTRODUCTION TO THE LIMIT

Chapter 1

Functions, Graphs, and Limits

Explore!
using x 1 the viewing window [0, 2].5 by [0, 5].5. Using the trace key around x 1, you will notice that at x 1, there is no corresponding y value. Create a table with an initial value of 0.5 for x, increasing in increments of 0.1. Notice that an error is displayed for x 1, conrming that f(x) is undened at x 1. What would be the appropriate y value if this gap were lled? Change the initial value of x to 0.9, and the increment size to 0.01 to get a better approximation. Finally, zoom in on the graph about x 1 to conjecture a limiting value for the function at x 1. Graph f(x) x2 x 2

Roughly speaking, the limit process involves examining the behavior of a function f(x) as x approaches a number c that may or may not be in the domain of f. Limiting behavior occurs in a variety of practical situations. For instance, absolute zero, the temperature Tc at which all molecular activity ceases, can be approached but never actually attained in practice. Similarly, economists who speak of prot under ideal conditions or engineers proling the ideal specications of a new engine are really dealing with limiting behavior. To illustrate the limit concept, suppose you want to know what happens to the x2 x 2 function f(x) as x approaches 1. Although f(x) is not dened at x 1, x 1 you can get a feel for the situation by evaluating f(x) using values of x that get closer and closer to 1 from both the left and the right. The following table summarizes the behavior of f(x) for x near 1.
x approaches 1 x approaches 1 from the left from the right

x f(x)

0.8 2.8

0.9 2.9

0.95 2.95

0.99 2.99

0.999 2.999

1.001 3.001

1.01 3.01

1.05 3.05

1.1 3.10

The function values in this table suggest that f(x) approaches the number 3 as x gets closer and closer to 1 from either side. This behavior can be described by saying the limit of f(x) as x approaches 1 equals 3 and abbreviated as
x 1

lim f(x)

More generally, the limit of f(x) as x approaches the number c can be dened informally as follows.

Limit

I If f(x) gets closer and closer to a number L as x gets closer and closer to c from either side, then L is the limit of f(x) as x approaches c. The behavior is expressed by writing
xc

lim f(x)

GEOMETRIC INTERPRETATION OF LIMITS

lim Geometrically, the limit statement x c f(x) y

L means that the height of the graph of

f(x) approaches L as x approaches c (Figure 1.37a). For instance, the graph of x2 x 2 the function f(x) is a line with a hole at (1, 3), and the points (x, y) x 1 on the graph approach this hole as x approaches 1 from either side (Figure 1.37b).

Chapter 1 I Section 5

Limits

63

Explore!
2 using the (x 2)2 window [0, 4]1 by [ 5, 40]5. Trace the graph on both sides of x 2 to view the behavior of f(x) about x 2. Also display the table value of the function with the incremental change of x set to 0.01 and the initial value x 1.97. What happens to the values of f(x) as x closes in on the x value of 2? Graph f(x)
f(x) L f(x)

xcx

(a) If lim f(x)

x c

L, the height of the graph of f approaches L as x approaches c.

y f(x) 3 f(x) x

x1x

(b) Geometric interpretation of the limit statement lim

x2 x

x 1

x 1

FIGURE 1.37 Geometric interpretation of the limit. It is important to remember that limits describe the behavior of a function near a particular point, not necessarily at the point itself. This is illustrated in Figure 1.38. For all three functions graphed, the limit of f(x) as x approaches c is equal to L. Yet the functions behave quite differently at x c itself. In Figure 1.38a, f(c) is equal to the limit L; in Figure 1.38b, f(c) is different from L; and in Figure 1.38c, f(c) is not dened at all.

64

Chapter 1

Functions, Graphs, and Limits

0 (a)

0 (b)

0 (c)

FIGURE 1.38 Three functions for which lim f(x)

x c

L.

Figure 1.39 shows the graph of two functions that do not have a limit as x approaches c. The limit does not exist in Figure 1.39a because f(x) tends toward 5 as x approaches c from the right and tends toward a different value, 3, as x approaches c from the left. The function in Figure 1.39b has no nite limit as x approaches c because the values of f(x) increase without bound as x tends toward c and hence tend to no nite number L. Such so-called innite limits will be discussed in Section 3 of Chapter 3.
y y

5 3

0 (a)

0 c (b)

FIGURE 1.39 Two functions for which lim f(x) does not exist.
x c

PROPERTIES OF LIMITS

Limits obey certain algebraic rules that can be used in computations. These rules, which should seem plausible on the basis of our informal denition of limit, are proved formally in more theoretical courses. They are important because they simplify the calculation of limits of algebraic functions.

Chapter 1 I Section 5

Limits

65

Explore!
Graph the function f(x) 3 5 x x 2 2

Algebraic Properties of Limits

xc

If lim f(x) and lim g(x) exist, then

xc xc xc

lim [ f(x) + g(x)]

xc

xc xc

lim f(x) + lim g(x) lim f(x) lim g(x)

xc

lim [ f(x) g(x)]

xc

using the Dot graphing style (access through the MODE menu) and writing Y1 3(X 2) 5(X 2). Use your TRACE key to determine the values of y when x is near 2. Does it make a difference from which side x 2 is approached? Also evaluate f(2).

xc

lim [kf(x)]
xc

k lim f(x)
xc

for any constant k

xc

lim [ f(x)g(x)] f(x)

xc

[lim f(x)][lim g(x)] if lim g(x)

xc

xc g(x)

lim

lim f(x)

lim g(x) xc [lim f(x)]p

xc

xc

lim [ f(x)]p

if [lim f(x)]p exists

xc

That is, the limit of a sum, a difference, a multiple, a product, a quotient, or a power is the sum, difference, multiple, product, quotient, or power of the individual limits, as long as all expressions involved are dened.

The next two properties deal with the limits of two elementary linear functions, which can be used to build other algebraic functions.

Limits of Two Linear Functions

xc

For any constant k,

xc

lim k = k

and

lim x = c x

That is, the limit of a constant is the constant itself, and the limit of f(x) as x approaches c is c.

In geometric terms, the limit statement lim k k says that the height of the graph x k of the constant function f(x) k approaches k as x approaches c. Similarly, lim x c x c says that the height of the linear function f(x) x approaches c as x approaches c. These statements are illustrated in Figure 1.40.

66

Chapter 1

Functions, Graphs, and Limits

y=k

c (c, k)

(c, c)

x c (a) lim k = k
xc

0 c (b) lim x = c
xc

FIGURE 1.40 Limits of two linear functions.

COMPUTATION OF LIMITS

The following examples illustrate how the properties of limits can be used to calculate limits of algebraic functions. In the rst example, you will see how to nd the limit of a polynomial.

EXAMPLE 5.1
Find lim (3x3
x 1

4x

8).

Solution Apply the properties of limits to obtain

x

lim (3x3
1

4x

8)

3 lim x
1

( x

)3

4 lim x
1

( x

)
9

lim 8
1

3( 1)

4( 1)

In the next example, you will see how to nd the limit of a rational function whose denominator does not approach zero.

EXAMPLE 5.2
Find lim
x 0

3x3 8 . x 2

Chapter 1 I Section 5

Limits

67

Solution Since lim (x

x 0

2)

0, you can use the quotient rule for limits to get

x 0

3x3 8 lim x 0 x 2

lim (3x3
x 0

8) 2)

3 lim x3
x 0 x 0

x 0 x 0

lim 8

lim (x

lim x

lim 2

8 2

In general, you can use the properties of limits to obtain the following formulas, which can be used to evaluate many limits that occur in practical problems.

Limits of Polynomials and Rational Functions

q(x) are polynomials, then
xc

If p(x) and

lim p(x)

p(c)

and
xc

p(x) lim q(x)

p(c) q(c)

if q(c)

In the next example, the denominator of the given rational function approaches zero, while the numerator does not. When this happens, you can conclude that the limit does not exist. The absolute value of such a quotient increases without bound and hence does not approach any nite number.

EXAMPLE 5.3
y

Find lim

x 2

x x

1 . 2

1 2 x

Solution The quotient rule for limits does not apply in this case since the limit of the denominator is
x 2

lim (x

2)

FIGURE 1.41 The graph of

f(x) x x 1 . 2

Since the limit of the numerator is lim (x 1) 3, which is not equal to zero, you x 2 can conclude that the limit of the quotient does not exist. The graph of the function f(x) x x 1 in Figure 1.41 gives you a better idea of 2

what is actually happening in this example. Note that f(x) increases without bound as

68

Chapter 1

Functions, Graphs, and Limits

x approaches 2 from the right and decreases without bound as x approaches 2 from the left.

In the next example, the numerator and the denominator of the given rational function both approach zero. When this happens, you should try to simplify the function algebraically to nd the desired limit.

EXAMPLE 5.4
y

Find lim
x 1

x2 x
2

1 3x 2

1 0 2 x

(1, 2)

Solution As x approaches 1, both the numerator and the denominator approach zero, and you can draw no conclusion about the size of the quotient. To proceed, observe that the given function is not dened when x 1 but that for all other values of x, you can divide the numerator and denominator by x 1 to obtain x2 1 3x 2 x
2

FIGURE 1.42 The graph of

f(x) x2 1 x
2

(x (x

1)(x 1)(x

1) 2)

x x

1 2

3x

(Since x 1, you are not dividing by zero.) Now take the limit as x approaches (but is not equal to) 1 to get lim x2 x
2

Explore!
x 1 using an x 2 enlarged decimal window [ 9.4, 9.4]1 by [ 6.2, 6.2]1. Use the TRACE key to approach x 2 from the left side and the right side. Also create a table of values, using an initial value of 1.97 for x and increasing in increments of 0.01. Describe what you observe. Graph y

1 3x 2 x2
2

x 1 x 1

lim (x lim (x

1) 2)

x 1

2 1

1 is shown in Figure 1.42. Note that it x 3x 2 is like the graph in Figure 1.41 with a hole at the point (1, 2). The graph of the function f(x)

In general, when both the numerator and denominator of a quotient approach zero as x approaches c, your strategy will be to simplify the quotient algebraically (as in Example 5.4 by canceling x 1). In most cases, the simplied form of the quotient will be valid for all values of x except x c. Since you are interested in the behavior of the quotient near x c and not at x c, you may use the simplied form of the quotient to calculate the limit. Here is another example illustrating this technique.

Chapter 1 I Section 5

Limits

69

Explore!
x 1 , using the x 1 viewing window [0, 4.7].5 by [ 1.1, 2.1].5. Also construct a table of values, using an initial value of 0.97 for x, and an incremental change of 0.01. Describe what you observe. Specically what happens as x approaches 1 from either side? What would be the most appropriate value for this function at x 1? Graph y

EXAMPLE 5.5
Find lim x x 1 1
x 1

Solution Both the numerator and denominator approach zero as x approaches 1. To simplify the quotient, we use a trick: namely, multiply the numerator and denominator by 1 to get x x x 1 1 ( x 1)( x 1) (x 1)( x 1) x x 1 1 (x x 1 1)( x 1 x 1 1 2 1) 1 x 1

and then take the limit to obtain

x 1

lim

x 1

lim

ONE-SIDED LIMITS

Sometimes it is necessary to consider limiting behavior of a function as the independent variable approaches a number from only one side. For instance, Figure 1.43 shows the graph of inventory I(t) as a function of time t for a company that immediately restocks to level L1 whenever the inventory falls to a certain minimum level L2 (this is called just in time inventory). Suppose the rst restocking time occurs at t t1. Then as t tends toward t1 from the left, the limiting value is L2, but if the approach to t1 is from the right, the limit is L1.

I (units in inventory) L1

L2 t t1 t t2 t3 t

FIGURE 1.43 Just in time inventory. To describe one-sided limiting behavior, we shall use the following notation.

70

Chapter 1

Functions, Graphs, and Limits

One-Sided Limits
left (x

I If f(x) approaches L as x tends toward c from the c), we write lim f(x) L. Likewise, if f(x) approaches M as x tends 2
xc

toward c from the right (x

c), then lim1 f(x)

xc

M.

If this notation is used in our inventory example, we would write

t t1

lim I(t)

and

t t1

lim I(t)

L1

Here is another example involving one-sided limits.

EXAMPLE 5.6
For the function f(x)
x
x 2

1 x2 2x 1
x 2

if x if x

2 2

evaluate the one-sided limits lim f(x) and lim f(x). Solution The graph of f(x) is shown in Figure 1.44. Since f(x)

0 3

1 3

x2 for x

2, we have

FIGURE 1.44 The graph of

f (x) 1 x2 2x 1 if x if x 2 . 2

x 2

lim f(x) 2, so

x 2

lim 1

Similarly, f(x)

2x

1 if x
x 2

lim f(x)

x 2

lim 2x

Explore!
Recreate the function given in the Explore the exercise on page 65. Verify graphically that
x 2

Notice that the two-sided limit lim f(x) does not exist for the function in Example
x 2

5.6 since the functional values f(x) do not approach a single value L as x tends toward 2 from each side. In general, we have the following useful criterion for the existence of a limit.

lim f(x)

Existence of a Limit

The two-sided limit lim f(x) exists if and only

x2 x2

and
x 2

if the two one-sided limits lim 2 f(x) and lim 1 f(x) exist and are equal, and then lim f(x) 5.
x2 x2

lim f(x) = lim 2 f(x) = lim 1 f(x)

x2 x2

Chapter 1 I Section 5

Limits

71

P . R . O . B . L . E . M . S
In Problems 1 through 6, nd lim f(x) if it exists. 1.
y

1.5

2.
y

x a

3.
y

c b b b

4.
y

5.
y

6.
y

c b b b

In Problems 7 through 30, nd the indicated limit if it exists. 7. lim (3x2

x 2 x 0 x 3

5x 6x4 1)2(x

2) 7) 1)

8. lim (x3
x 1

2x2 5x3) 1)(1

3)

9. lim (x5 11. lim (x

10. lim (1
x 0 x

12. lim (x2

1

2x)2

72

Chapter 1

Functions, Graphs, and Limits

13. lim 15. lim 17. lim 19. lim 21. lim

x x 2 x
x 5

1 2 3 x 1 1 3x x 5 1)(x 1)(x x 3x 2 4 x x 1 2 3
x 3

14. lim 16. lim 18. lim 10 4) 4) 6 2 20. lim 22. lim 24. lim 26. lim

2x x 1 x
x 3

3 1 3 3 x2 3 x x 2 6

x 5

2x x

x2 x 1 x x2
x 5

9 x 3 x x2
x 2

(x x 4 (x x2 2 2 x x x

x(x2 1) x 0 x2 x2 x2 x x 9 2x x 1 5 3 3 if x if x 1 1 3 3 4x 1 5
x 1

23. lim
x

25. lim 27. lim

x 4

x 9

x 3

28. lim
x 5

29. lim f(x) and lim f(x), where f(x)

x 3

2x2 x if x 3 x if x 1 x x2 1 2x

30. lim
x

f(x) and lim

x

f(x), where f(x)

31. If $1,000 is invested at 9% compounded n times per year, the balance after 1 year 1 will be 1,000(1 0.09x)1/x, where x is the length of the compounding period. n 1 For example, if n 4 the compounding period is year long. For what is called 4 continuous compounding of interest, the balance after 1 year is given by the limit B
x 0

lim 1,000(1

0.09x)1/x

Estimate the value of this limit by lling in the second line of the following table: x 1,000(1 0.09x)
1/x

0.1

0.01

0.001

0.0001

Chapter 1 I Section 5

Limits

73

Continuous compounding of interest will be discussed in detail in Section 1 of Chapter 4.

y W

32. A wire is stretched horizontally, as shown in the accompanying gure. An experiment is conducted in which different weights are attached at the center and the corresponding vertical displacements are measured. When too much weight is added, the wire snaps. Based on the data in the following table, what do you think is the maximum possible displacement for this kind of wire? Weight W (lb) Displacement y (in.)
BIOLOGY

15 1.7

16 1.75

17 1.78

18 snaps

17.5 1.79

17.9 1.795

17.99 snaps

33. The graph shows how the growth rate R(T) of a bacterial colony changes with temperature T.*

R Growth rate (generations/hr) 1.5 1.0 0.5 0 T

10 20 30 40 Temperature (C)

50

(a) Over what range of values of T does the growth rate R(T) double? (b) What can be said about the growth rate for 25 T 45? (c) What happens when the temperature reaches roughly 45C? Does it make sense to compute lim R(T)?
T 50

(d) Write a paragraph describing how temperature affects the growth rate of a species. 34. Graph f(x) |x 3| . Write this function as a piecewise dened function withx 3 out using absolute value signs. What happens to f(x) as x 3 ? As x 3+? x

35. Solve Problems 7 through 16 using the trace feature of your calculator to make a table of x and f(x) values near the number that x is approaching.
* Source: Michael D. La Grega, Phillip L. Buckingham, and Jeffrey C. Evans, Hazardous Waste Management, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994, pp. 565566. Reprinted by permission.

74

Chapter 1

Functions, Graphs, and Limits

36. Solve Problems 17 through 26 by using the trace feature of your calculator to make a table of x and f(x) values near the number x is approaching. 37. The accompanying graph represents a function f(x) that oscillates between 1 and 1 more and more frequently as x approaches 0 from either the right or the left. lim Does x 0 f(x) exist? If so what is its value? [Note: For students with experience in trigonometry, the function f(x) sin 1 behaves in this way.] x
y 1 x 1

38. The accompanying graph represents a function g(x) that oscillates more and more frequently as x approaches 0 from either the right or the left but with decreasing magnitude. Does x 0 g(x) exist? If so, what is its value? [Note: For students with lim experience in trigonometry, the function g(x)
y

x sin

1 behaves in this way.] x

6
Continuity

The dictionary denes continuity as an unbroken or uninterrupted succession. Continuous behavior is certainly an important part of our lives. For instance, the growth of a tree is continuous, as are the motion of a rocket and the volume of water owing into a bathtub. Informally, a continuous function is one whose graph can be drawn without the pen leaving the paper (Figure 1.45); that is, one with no holes or gaps. Not all functions have this property (recall the just in time inventory graph shown in Figure 1.43