122

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60. If y is a linear function of x, what will happen to the percentage rate of change of y with respect to x as x increases without bound? Explain.
MANUFACTURING COST

61. Suppose the total manufacturing cost C at a certain factory is a function of the number q of units produced, which in turn is a function of the number t of hours during which the factory has been operating. dC (a) What quantity is represented by the derivative ? In what units is this quantity dq measured? dq (b) What quantity is represented by the derivative ? In what units is this quantity dt measured? dC dq (c) What quantity is represented by the product ? In what units is this quantity dq dt measured? 62. Prove the sum rule for derivatives. [Hint: Note that the difference quotient for f g can be written as (f g)(x h) h (f g)(x) f(x [ f(x h) g(x h)] h [ f(x) g(x)]

63. (a) If f(x) (b) If f(x) f(x

h) f(x) 4x3 h xn for positive integer n, show that x4, show that

6x2h

4xh2

h3

n(n 1) n 2 h) f(x) nxn 1 x h nxhn 2 hn 1 h 2 (c) Use the result in part (b) in the denition of the derivative to prove the power rule: d n (x ) dx nxn
1

3
The Product and Quotient Rules

Based on your experience with the multiple and sum rules in Section 2 of this chapter, you may think that the derivative of a product of functions is the product of separate derivatives, but it is easy to see that this conjecture is false. For instance, if x3, then f (x) 2x and g (x) 3x2, so f(x) x2 and g(x) f (x)g (x) while f(x)g(x) x2x3 x5 and [ f(x)g(x)] (x5) 5x4 (2x)(3x2) 6x3

Chapter 2 I Section 3

The Product and Quotient Rules

123

The correct formula for differentiating a product can be stated as follows.

The Product Rule

their product P(x)

I If f(x) and g(x) are differentiable at x, then so is f(x)g(x) and dg df d ( f(x)g(x)) f(x) g(x) dx dx dx

or equivalently, ( fg) fg gf

In words, the derivative of the product fg is f times the derivative of g plus g times the derivative of f.

Applying the product rule to our introductory example, we nd that (x2x3) x2(x3) (x2)(3x2) (x2x3) Here are two additional examples. (x5) (x2) (x3) (2x)(x3) 5x4 3x4 2x4 5x4

which is the same as the result obtained by direct computation:

Explore!
Use a graphing utility to graph f(x) (x 1)(3x 2) using a viewing rectangle of [0, 2].1 by [ 1, 1].1. Find f (x) and graph it on the same coordinate axes. Explain why the graph of f (x) is a straight line. Explain what feature f(x) has when f (x) 0.

EXAMPLE 3.1
Differentiate the product P(x) (x 1)(3x 2) by (a) Expanding P(x) and using the polynomial rule. (b) The product rule. Solution (a) We have P(x) 3x2 (b) By the product rule P (x) 5x (x (x 2, so P (x) 1)(3x 1)(3) 6x 5. 2) 5

2) (x 1) (3x (1)(3x 2) 6x

EXAMPLE 3.2
Differentiate the function y x2(3x 1).

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Solution According to the product rule, d 2 [x (3x dx 1) d (3x 1) (3x dx x2(3) (3x 1)(2x) 9x2 2x x2 1) d 2 (x ) dx

which is precisely the result obtained when the product is multiplied out and differentiated as a sum.

A proof of the product rule is given at the end of this section. It is also important to be able to differentiate quotients of functions, and for this purpose, we have the following rule.

The Quotient Rule

so is the quotient Q(x) d f(x) dx g(x) or equivalently,

I If f(x) and g(x) are differentiable functions, then f(x)/g(x) and

g(x)

df dg f(x) dx dx 2 g (x)

whenever g(x)

f g

gf g
2

fg

In words, the derivative of the quotient f/g is g times the derivative of the numerator f minus f times the derivative of the denominator g, all over g squared.

Note

The quotient rule is probably the most complicated formula you have had to learn so far in this book. It may help to note that the quotient rule resembles the product rule except it contains a minus sign, which makes the order of terms in the numerator very important. Begin by squaring the denominator g, and then, while still thinking of g, copy it into the numerator. This gets you started with the proper order in the numerator, and you can easily write down the rest while thinking of the product rule. Dont forget to insert the minus sign, without which the quotient rule would not have been so hard to remember in the rst place!

Chapter 2 I Section 3

The Product and Quotient Rules

125

EXAMPLE 3.3
Differentiate the quotient Q(x) (a) Dividing through rst. (b) Using the quotient rule. Solution (a) Dividing by the denominator 2x, we get Q(x) so Q (x) (b) By the quotient rule Q (x) (2x)(x2 (2x)(2x 5x 5) 7) (2x) (x2 4x2 (x2
2

x2

5x 2x

by

1 x 2

5 2 7 ( x 2

7 x 2

1 2

1 2 7)(2x)

7 2x2

5x 7)(2)

5x

2x2 14 4x2

1 2

7 2x2

EXAMPLE 3.4
Differentiate the rational function y Solution According to the quotient rule, dy dx (x 3) d 2 (x dx 2x
2

x2 x

2x 3

21

21)

(x2

2x

21)

d (x dx

3)

(x 3)2 (x 3)(2x 2) (x 2x 21)(1) 2 (x 3) 2 4x 6 x2 2x 21 2x (x 3)2 x2 6x 15 (x 3)2

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A WORD OF ADVICE

The quotient rule is somewhat cumbersome, so dont use it unnecessarily. Consider the following example.

EXAMPLE 3.5
Differentiate the function y 2 3x2 x 3 4 5 x x 1 .

Solution Dont use the quotient rule! Instead, rewrite the function as y 2 x 3
2

1 x 3

4 5

and then apply the power rule term by term to get dy dx 2 1 ( 2x 3) 0 3 3 4 3 1 x x 2 3 3 4 3x3 1 3 1 x2 0 ( 1)x
2

APPLICATIONS

EXAMPLE 3.6
Find an equation for the tangent line to the curve y point where x 0. (2x 1)(x2 x 3) at the

Explore!
Store the function in Example 3.6, y (2x 1)(x2 x 3) into Y1 of the equation editor and nDeriv(Y1, X, X) into Y2, using a bold graphing style.

Solution Using the product rule, you get y When x 0, y(0) y (0) [(2(0) [2(0) 1)(02 0 3)] 3 1][2(0) 1] 2[02 0 3] 5 (2x (2x 1)(x2 1)(2x x 3) (2x 2 1) 2(x x 1) (x2 3) x 3)

so the equation of the tangent line at (0, 3) is y or y 5x 3. 3 5(x 0)

Chapter 2 I Section 3

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127

EXAMPLE 3.7
The prot derived from the sale of x units of a certain commodity is P(x) x3 27x2 160x x 5 7 2?

thousand dollars. At what rate is prot changing with respect to sales when x Solution You need to compute P (2). Applying the quotient rule, you get P (x) (x (x 5)( x3 5)( 3x2 27x2 54x 160x 160) (x 7) ( x3 27x2 160x 7)(x (x 5)2 ( x3 27x2 160x 7)(1) 5)2 160] [ (2)3 (2 5)2 27.857 27(2)2

5)

When the sales level is x P (2) (2 5)[ 3(2)

2

2, you nd 54(2) 160(2) 7]

so the prot is changing (increasing) at the rate of $27,857 per unit.

DERIVATION OF THE PRODUCT RULE

The product rule and quotient rule are not easy to prove. In both cases, the key is to f express the difference quotient of the given expression (the product fg or quotient ) g in terms of difference quotients of f and g. Here is a proof of the product rule. The proof for the quotient rule is outlined in Problem 44. d dg df ( fg) f g , begin with the appropriate difference quotient dx dx dx and rewrite it using the algebraic trick of subtracting and then adding the quantity f(x h)g(x) in the numerator as follows: To show that d (fg) dx lim lim f(x f(x h)g(x h h) f(x h)g(x) f(x h g(x h) g(x) f(x h) g(x) h h)g(x h)g(x) f(x)g(x) h h) f(x) h h) f(x)g(x)

h 0

h 0

h 0

lim f(x

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Now let h approach zero. Since

h 0

lim

f(x

h) h h) h h) f dg dx

f(x) g(x) f(x) g df dx

df dx dg dx

h 0

lim

g(x lim f(x

and it follows that

h 0

d ( fg) dx

P . R . O . B . L . E . M . S
In Problems 1 through 16, differentiate the given function. 1. f(x) 3. y 5. f(x) 7. y 9. f(t) 11. y 13. f(x) 15. f(x) x x t x
2

2.3

(2x 10(3u 1 5 (x 3 1 2 t 2 5 x2 2x2 (2x 3

1)(3x 1)(1 2x3

2) 5u) 1)

2. f(x) 4. y 6. f(x) 8. y 10. f(x) 12. y t 1

2

(x 400(15

5)(1
2

2x) 2) 5)

x )(3x 2x

3(5x3 2x 5x x 1 t2 x2 (x2 2x 3 3 4 1 2

3x 5x 1)(x x 1

2 1 3)

14. f(x) 16. g(x)

1 x)

x 1)(4 2x 1

In Problems 17 through 20, nd an equation for the tangent line to the given curve at the prescribed point. 17. y 19. y (5x x 2x 3 1)(4 ;x 3x); x 1 0 18. y 20. y (x2 x 5 3x 7 ;x 2x 1)(2 0 x); x 1

Chapter 2 I Section 3

The Product and Quotient Rules

129

In Problems 21 through 24, nd the rate of change 21. y 23. y (x2 2x 3x 2)(x 1 ; x0 5 1 x); x0 4 22. y 24. y

dy for the prescribed value of x0. dx (x2 x 2 3)(5 3 4x 2x3); x0 ; x0 0 1

The normal line to the curve y f(x) at the point P(x0, f(x0)) is the line perpendicular to the tangent line at P. In Problems 25 through 28, nd an equation for the normal line to the given curve at the prescribed point. 25. y 27. y x2 (x 3x 3)(1 5; (0, 5) 26. y 28. y 2 x x; (1, 1) 12)

x); (1, 0)

5x 7 ; (1, 2 3x

29. (a) Differentiate the function y 2x2 5x 3. (b) Now factor the function in part (a) as y (2x 1)(x 3) and differentiate using the product rule. Show that the two answers are the same. 30. (a) Use the quotient rule to differentiate the function y . x 3) and differentiate using the product
3

2x

(b) Rewrite the function as y x 3(2x rule. (c) Rewrite the function as y 2x 2 3x 3 and differentiate. (d) Show that your answers to parts (a), (b), and (c) are the same.
BIOLOGY

31. A bacterial colony is estimated to have a population of P(t) 24t t2 10 1 thousand

t hours after the introduction of a toxin. Use calculus to determine the time when the population is its greatest and compute the maximum population.
POLLUTION CONTROL

32. A large city commissions a study that indicates that spending money on pollution control is effective up to a point but eventually becomes wasteful. Suppose it is known that when x million dollars is spent on controlling pollution, the percentage of pollution removed is given by P(x) 100 x 0.03x2 9

Use calculus to determine the expenditure that results in the largest percentage of pollution removal. What is this maximum percentage?

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Chapter 2

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33. Find the percentage rate of change in the function f(x) to x when x 3.
SPEED OF A MOVING OBJECT

x(x

3)2 with respect

34. An object moves along a straight line so that after t minutes, its distance from its starting point is D(t) 10t 5 t 1 5 meters.

(a) At what speed is the object moving at the end of 4 minutes? (b) How far does the object actually travel during the fth minute?
POPULATION GROWTH

35. It is estimated that t years from now, the population of a certain suburban com6 munity will be P(t) 20 thousand. t 1 (a) Derive a formula for the rate at which the population will be changing with respect to time t years from now. (b) At what rate will the population be growing 1 year from now? (c) By how much will the population actually increase during the second year? (d) At what rate will the population be growing 9 years from now? (e) What will happen to the rate of population growth in the long run? 36. Sand is leaking from a bag in such a way that after t seconds, there are S(t) 50 1 t2 15
3

CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

pounds of sand left in the bag. (a) How much sand was originally in the bag? (b) At what rate is sand leaking from the bag after 1 second? (c) How long does it take for all of the sand to leak from the bag? At what rate is the sand leaking from the bag at the time it empties?
SPREAD OF AN EPIDEMIC

37. A disease is spreading in such a way that after t weeks, the number of people infected is N(t) 5,175 t3(t 8) 0 t 8

(a) At what rate is the epidemic spreading after 3 weeks? (b) Suppose health ofcials declare the disease to have reached epidemic proportions when the percentage rate of change of N is at least 25%. Over what time period is this epidemic criterion satised? (c) Read an article on epidemiology and write a paragraph on how public health policy is related to the spread of an epidemic.
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

38. According to Debyes formula in physical chemistry, the orientation polarization P of a gas satises

Chapter 2 I Section 3

The Product and Quotient Rules

131

2 4 N 3 3kT

where u, k, and N are positive constants and T is the temperature of the gas. Find the rate of change of P with respect to T.
NATIONAL DEBT ANALYSIS

39. One way to measure the effect of national debt on the economy is to consider the ratio of debt to GDP. The graph on the next page shows how this ratio varied in the period 19391993. (a) When was the ratio the greatest? When was it the least? (b) When was the ratio increasing most rapidly? Use the graph to estimate this maximum rate of increase. (c) Estimate the percentage rate of change of the ratio in the election year of 1992.

Debt/GDP Ratio 19391993 125 Debt/GDP Ratio, Percentage Debt/GDP ratio

100

75

50

25

40

45

50

55

60

65 70 Years

75

80

85

90

PROBLEM 39
POLLUTION CONTROL

Source: Robert Eisner, The Misunderstood Economy; What Counts and How to Count It, Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1994, page 98.

40. It has been suggested that one way to reduce worldwide carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions is to impose a single tax that would apply to all nations. The graph on the next page shows the relationship between different levels of the carbon tax and the percentage of reduction in CO2 emissions. (a) What tax rate would have to be imposed to achieve a worldwide reduction of 50% in CO2 emissions? (b) Use the graph to estimate the rate of change of the percentage reduction in CO2 emissions when the tax rate is $200.

132

Chapter 2

Differentiation: Basic Concepts

(c) Read an article on CO2 emissions and write a paragraph on how public policy can be used to control air pollution.*
Estimates of the Reductions of CO 2 Emissions Produced at Different Tax Rates 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Percentage Reduction of CO2 (relative to baseline)

100 200 300 400 Tax Rate ($ per ton carbon, 1989 prices)

500

PROBLEM 40

Source: Barry C. Field, Environmental Economics: An Introduction, New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994, page 441.

41. (a) Show that d (fgh) dx fg dh dx fh dg dx gh df dx

[Hint: Apply the product rule twice.] dy (b) Find , where y (2x 1)(x 3)(1 dx

4x).

42. (a) By combining the product rule and the quotient rule, nd an expression for d fg . dx h dy (2x 7)(x2 3) (b) Find , where y . dx 3x 5 43. The product rule tells you how to differentiate the product of any two functions, while the constant multiple rule tells you how to differentiate products in which

* You may wish to begin your research by reading Chapter 12, Incentive-Based Strategies: Emission Taxes and Subsidies, and Chapter 15, Federal Air Pollution-Control Policy, of Barry C. Field, Environmental Economics: An Introduction, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1994.

Chapter 2 I Section 4

Marginal Analysis: Approximation by Increments

133

one of the factors is constant. Show that the two rules are consistent. In particular, d df use the product rule to show that (cf) c if c is a constant. dx dx 44. Derive the quotient rule. [Hint: Show that the difference quotient for 1 f(x h g(x h) h) f(x) g(x) g(x)f(x h) f(x)g(x g(x h)g(x)h h) f is g

Before letting h approach zero, rewrite this quotient using the trick of subtracting and adding g(x)f(x) in the numerator.] 45. Prove the power rule d n (x ) dx nxn
1

for the case where n x

p

p is a negative

integer. [Hint: Apply the quotient rule to y

1 ] xp

1), and on the same set 46. Use a graphing utility to sketch the curve f(x) x2(x of coordinate axes, draw the tangent line to the graph of f(x) at x 1. Use the trace and zoom to nd where f (x) 0. 47. Use a graphing utility to sketch the curve f(x) 4x 1 , and on the same x 1 set of coordinate axes, draw the tangent lines to the graph of f(x) at x 2 and at x 0. Use the trace and zoom to nd where f (x) 0. 3x2

48. Use a graphing utility to graph f(x) x4 2x3 x 1 using a viewing rectangle of [ 5, 5]1 by [0, 2].5. Use trace and zoom, or other graphing utility methods, to nd the minima and maxima of this function. Find the derivative function f (x) algebraically and graph f(x) and f (x) on the same axes using a viewing rectangle of [ 5, 5]1 by [ 2, 2].5. Use the trace and zoom to nd the x intercepts of f (x). Explain why the maximum or minimum of f(x) occurs at the x intercepts of f (x). 49. Repeat Problem 48 for the product function f(x) x3 (x 3)2.

4
Marginal Analysis: Approximation by Increments

Marginal analysis is an area of economics concerned with estimating the effect on quantities such as cost, revenue, and prot when the level of production is changed by a unit amount. For instance, if C(x) is the cost of producing x units of a certain commodity, then the cost of producing the (x0 1)st unit is C(x0 1) C(x0). However, since the derivative of the cost function C(x), called marginal cost, is given by MC(x) C (x)
h 0

lim

C(x

h) h

C(x)