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Antioxidant Natural Plant


AMANI. S. AWAAD1*
AND

NABILAH A. AL- JABER1

Abstract
Cellular damage or oxidative injury arising from free radicals or reactive oxygen species (ROS) now appears the fundamental mechanism underlying a number of human neurodegenerative disorders, diabetes, inflammation, viral infections, autoimmune pathologies and digestive system disorders. Free radical are generated through normal metabolism of drugs, environmental chemicals and other xenobiotics as well as endogenous chemicals, especially stress hormones (adrenalin and noradrenalin). Accumulated evidence suggests that ROS can be scavenged through chemoprevention utilizing natural antioxidant compounds present in foods and medicinal plants. Plant extracts and their constituents as a natural source of antioxidants have been extensively reviewed. Plant extracts containing low molecular mass compounds have been successively used in phytotherapy since ancient times, as reactive oxygen species are involved in several diseases in this review, research on the antioxidant potential of medicinal plants. Key words : Medicinal plant, Antioxidant activity, Chemoprevention, Neurodegenerative diseases, Antioxidant flavonoids, Antioxidant alkaloids, Antioxidant plant

Introduction
An array of intra and extracellular antioxidant mechanisms are essential to scavenge any oxidants reactive intermediate which are continuously generated in almost all aerobic cells, otherwise tissue damage occurs(1-7).
1. Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science (Girls Sections), King Saud University, Riyadh, KSA * Corresponding author : Email: alazab@ksu.edu.sa; amaniawaad@hotmail.com

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RPMP Vol. 27 Ethnomedicine: Source & Mechanism I

The antioxidant is any substance which when present at low concentrations compared with those of an oxidizable substrate, significantly delays or prevents oxidation of substrate. The term oxidizable substrate includes almost everything found in the living cells including proteins, lipids, DNA and carbohydrates(8). Biological antioxidants have been defined as compounds that protect biological systems against the potentially harmful effects of processes or reaction that can cause excessive oxidation(9). Our body is rich in endogenous antioxidants, the substances that have the ability to stop free radicals formation or to limit the damage they cause(10). The effectiveness of current used exogenous antioxidants arises most probably from the increase of the endogenous free radical scavengers as enzymes (superoxide dismutase and selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase), vitamins (alpha tocopherol and ascorbic acid). Many plants have been also found to posses free radical scavenging activity (Polyphenols, alkaloids and terpenoids) Low levels of one or more of the essential antioxidants have been shown to be associated with many disorders including cancer, inflammation, atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease and diabetes. Thus, in such cases, the administration of exogenous antioxidants seems to be salutary. Nowadays, a great deal of effort being expended to find effective antioxidants for the treatment or prevention of free radical-mediated deleterious effects(9).

Source of Antioxidants
There are several sources of antioxidant: those that we can get from food and food supplements e.g. vitamin E, D and b carotene; and those that are produced within our own bodies they are less well known but vital. The later type includes molecules such as glutathione and uric acid which scavenge free radicals directly; and enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase which can break free radical into nontoxic products. There are also melatonin which comes as a new member in antioxidant systems besides macromolecules such as caeruloplasmin and transferrin and an array of small molecules including methionine(7,10),vitamins E & C. The antioxidant can occur endogenously in body e.g.: enzymes and melatonin, or exogenously as they can be obtained from dietary allowance and natural or synthetic drugs such as vitamins and their precursors (vitamins E and C and carotenoids), selenium and polyphenols. Plant extracts and their constituents as a natural source of antioxidants have been extensively reviewed. This includes different plant

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Antioxidant Natural Plant

organs such as seeds (Soybean, peanut, cottonseed, mustard, rapeseed, rice, sesame seed), fruits (grape, citrus, black, pepper, olive), leaves (tea, rosemary, thyme, oregano) and others (sweet potato, onion, oat seedling(11). Plant extracts containing low molecular mass compounds have been successively used in phytotherapy since ancient times, as reactive oxygen species are involved in several dideases. It has been demonstrated that many naturally occuaring possess notable activity as radical scevengers and lipid peroxidation inhibitors(12). In addtion to plant extracts, numerous naturally occurring compounds are useful as antioxidant, ranging from alpha tocopherol and beta carotene to plant antioxidants such phenolic compounds (tannins, flavonoids, anthrocyanins, chalcones, xanthones, xanthones, liganans, depsides, and depsidones .etc), terpenes (sesquterpens and diterpineses), alkaloids, organic sulfur compounds(13).etc. A large number of experiments have been carried out concerning the antioxidant activity of several plant extracts and powders. The results of these experiments reveal that, the activity is due to several secondary metabolites especially phenolic compound e.g.: flavonoids tannins.etc.

Tannins and related polyphenols


Tannins known as the group of phenolic compounds are the significant plant secondary metabolites. Tannins in vascular plants occur as two types, the condensed and the hydrolysable(14). Condensed tannins are also known as proanthocyanidins (PAs), the oligomeric and polymeric flavan3-ols, which are linked through C4-C8 or C4-C6 linkages. The diversity of condensed tannins is given by the structural variability of the monomer units. The size of PA molecules can be described by their degrees of polymerization (DPs). The molecules are water-soluble and can form complexes with proteins and polysaccharides (15). PAs are of great interest in nutrition and medicine because of their potent antioxidant capacity and possible protective effects on human health(16). They have antioxidant properties related to their radical scavenging capacity(17), and these properties have been used against heart disease through reducing lipid oxidation. It was hypothesized that the free radical scavenging properties of PAs may reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases, cancer (18) and blood clotting, and certain types of trimeric PAs may protect against urinary tract infections(16). However, tannins are diverse compounds with great variation in structure and concentration within and among plant species. Therefore, biomedical researches on the health benefits and risks of increased tannins consumption are severely limited by lack of methods for rapid characterization and standardization.

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RPMP Vol. 27 Ethnomedicine: Source & Mechanism I

Gallic acid and (+)-catechin showed the highest followed by tannic acid, and then chlorogenic acid which exhibited relatively very low absorbance. Chlorogenic acid and neochlorogenic acid showed the lower absorbance than gallic acid by 0.6 times(19). Pedunculagin(20) is the most cytotoxic compound against solid tumor cancer cells as it work as potent scavenger against the artificial radical DPPH and physiological radicals including ROO*, OH*, and O2-*, Polyphenols Polyphenols are present in a variety of plants utilized as important components of both human and animal diets (21-23). fruit and vegetables provide the best polypharmacy against the development of a chronic disease, considering that they contain a vast array of antioxidant components such as polyphenols. Polyphenols make a major contribution to free radical scavenging capacities(24). There was a direct relationship between antioxidant activity and total phenolics content in selected herbs, vegetables and fruits (24). C. album leaves had a relatively high level of total phenolics and extractable condensed tannins which consisted of predominantly procyanidins and prodelphinidins with 2,3-cis stereochemistry. Tannins extracted from leaves, twigs and stem bark all showed very good DPPH radical scavenging activity (IC50 of 56.86, 62.31 and 54.80 g/ml) and ferric reducing power (4.28, 3.74 and 4.49 mmol AAE/g dried tannins). Polyphenols are a broad family of naturally-occurring physiologicallyactive nutrients. They can be divided into four subgroups. The first group is called bioflavonoids. The next two groups are close cousins of bioflavonoids and are called anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins (OPCs). The last group is called xanthones. Phenolic compounds act as antioxidants with mechanisms involving both free radical scavenging and metal chelation. They have ideal structural chemistry for free radical-scavenging activities, and have been shown to be more effective antioxidants in vitro than vitamins E and C on a molar basis(25). Biological Effects of Polyphenols Polyphenols exhibit a wide range of biological effects as a consequence of their antioxidant properties. They inhibit LDL oxidation in vitro(26). Moreover, LDL isolated from volunteers supplemented with red wine or red wine polyphenols show reduced susceptibility to oxidation(27,28). Thus, polyphenols probably protect LDL oxidation in vivo with significant consequences in atherosclerosis and also protect DNA from oxidative

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Antioxidant Natural Plant

damage with important consequences in the age-related development of some cancers(29). In addition, flavonoids have antithrombotic and antiinflammatory effects(30). The antimicrobial property of polyphenolic compounds has been well documented(31). Several types of polyphenols (phenolic acids, hydrolysable tannins, and flavonoids) show anticarcinogenic and antimutagenic effects. Polyphenols might interfere in several of the steps that lead to the development of malignant tumors, inactivating carcinogens, inhibiting the expression of mutant genes and the activity of enzymes involved in the activation of procarcinogens and activating enzymatic systems involved in the detoxification of xenobiotics(32). However, some polyphenols have been reported to be mutagenic in microbial assays and co-carcinogens or promoters in inducing skin carcinogenesis in the presence of other carcinogens(33). This latter possibility warrants further research. Several studies have shown that in addition to their antioxidant protective effect on DNA and gene expression, polyphenols, particularly flavonoids, inhibit the initiation, promotion and progression of tumors, possibly by a different mechanism. Caffeic and ferulic acids react with nitrite in vitro and inhibit nitrosamine formation in vivo. They inhibit the formation of skin tumors induced by 7,12-dimethyl-benz(a) anthracene in mice(34). They also inhibit tyrosine nitration mediated by peroxynitrite(35). Polyphenol Bioavailability and Metabolism The knowledge of absorption, biodistribution and metabolism of polyphenols is partial and incomplete, yet it is sufficient to state that in general, some polyphenols are bioactive compounds that are absorbed from the gut in their native or modified form. They are subsequently metabolized with products detected in plasma that retain at least part of the antioxidant capacity and then excreted. Experimental studies in animals support the previous general statement(36-38). In humans, studies aim at identifying native compounds and their metabolites in plasma and urine after the administration of test meals or drinks. These studies also support the initial general statement. Many of the studies performed with humans are centered on the detection of quercetin after the consumption of onions, tea, and apple juice(39). Some of these studies have addressed the question of the biological activity of rutin and quercetin metabolites, such as the ability of quercetin and isorhamnetin to inhibit copper induced LDL oxidation(40). These authors state that the plasma metabolites retain antioxidant activity.

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RPMP Vol. 27 Ethnomedicine: Source & Mechanism I

After green tea consumption, epigallocatechin gallate and epicatechin gallate are detected in plasma and urine(41). Red wine consumption leads to the accumulation of O-methylcatechin, a catechin metabolic product, in plasma(42). These findings should be considered important initial contributions to the identification of the various bioavailable polyphenols present in tea and wine, as well as the identification of their metabolites. Some worker employed(43) green tea to attempt an overall evaluation of absorption and metabolism. They detected green tea flavanols in plasma and some monohydroxy and dihydroxybenzoic acids in urine, accounting for approximately 15% of the polyphenols administered. These phenolic acids would result from bacterial metabolization of catechin and quercetin in the gut. The intestinal flora has enzymes that cleave the benzopyranosic ring(44).Methylation in one or more phenolic hydroxyls is another possibility in polyphenol metabolism, having been observed for catechin, epicatechin and green tea flavonoids(33,34). This reaction is apparently mediated by catechol-O-methyl transferase, an enzyme present in liver and kidney. Epicatechin, methylated and conjugated with glucuronic acid and sulfate, appears as the plasma metabolite with the longer half life, after a single dose of epicatechin to rats. In rats receiving 0.2% quercetin in their diet for three weeks, the most abundant metabolite was the glucuronic acid and sulfate conjugate of isorhamnetin, the 3 methylation product of quercetin(34). Bioflavonoid Bioflavonoids are antioxidants that battle and neutralize a wide variety of free radicals including nitric oxide, the hydroxyl radical (HORAC), singlet oxygen, the super-oxide radical, and the super-potent combination of superoxide and nitric oxide called the peroxynitrate radical. Bioflavonoids help to regulate nitric oxide levels and keep them from becoming excessive. Free radicals like nitric oxide cannot be totally eliminated for they have a good side as well as a bad one. Free radicals react with just about every part of your body including proteins, fats, brain cells, collagen, connective tissue(45), blood vessels, immune cells and DNA. Free radical reactions produce oxidative stress which if left unchecked can result in greater susceptibility to disease, premature aging, heart disease, chronic inflammations in a variety of organs and tissues, arthritis, asthma, diabetes and stroke. Bioflavonoids in general are amazingly bioactive with a wide range of benefits. Like many other powerful antioxidants, they show a biphasic action, depending on the dose. Lower doses, available from diet and supplements act as antioxidants and raise the levels of reduced glutathione and vitamin C. Negative effects such as pro-oxidant action and glutathione depletion become an issue only if huge megadoses are taken over a longer period of time(46).

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Antioxidant Natural Plant

Anthocyanins
Anthocyanins have some of the strongest medicinal effects of any plant compounds. Physiologically, they are powerful antioxidants used as viable therapies that support eye and heart health. Some anthocyanins have been shown to be four times as powerful as vitamin E. The berry nectars including grapes (vitis vinifera var), bilberries, and blueberries (vaccinium myrtillus), elderberries (sambucus cerulean), cranberries (vaccinium macrocarpon) and prunes (prunus domestica) are some of the richest sources of anthocyanins. Anthocyanins are most stable in low, acid Phs. However, these berries have a powerful alkalinizing effect from their minerals and polyphenols. The ultimate test of a nutrients effect of body pH is the pH of its ash, and when the nectars of these anthocyanin-rich foods are heated to ash, the pH is quite alkaline. Red cabbage, egg plant and apples (malva pumila) are some common foods that contain anthocyanins. An easy way to identify them in your refrigerator is to notice which fruits and vegetables do not spoil quickly(47). Bilberry nectar is a rich source of anthocyanins. It is also a rich botanical source of iron, magnesium, potassium and copper. It was used as early as the Middle Ages to induce menstruation and as recently as World War II to improve pilots night vision. One study showed that anthocyanins have the strongest antioxidant power in the polyphenol family. The study found that the darker a berrys color, the greater its antioxidant power. Oligomeric proanthocyanidins (OPCs) can prevent damage caused by atherosclerosis and unhealthy lifestyles. They inhibit platelet aggregation four times better than aspirin in smokers. They also prevent damage from blood clots, or ischemic reperfusion injury, as well as from venous insufficiency. Anthocyanins are powerful atherosclerosis fighters, they prevent the damaging oxidation of low density lipoproteins or LDL (bad) cholesterol, which is often the source of inflammation, thickening of arteries and clotting mechanisms, all of which lead to heart disease. They help maintain healthy cholesterol levels and reduce the risk factors from heart disease that can lead to death. Prune nectar has been shown to promote healthy cholesterol levels, particularly high density lipoproteins or HDL (good) cholesterol in both menopausal and post-menopausal women, compensating in part for the reduction of estrogen levels and helping to maintain a healthy cardiovascular system(48). Proanthocyanidins Proanthocyanidins are another family of polyphenols that chemists call condensed tannins or oligomeric proanthocyanidins (OPCs). OPCs offer

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RPMP Vol. 27 Ethnomedicine: Source & Mechanism I

antioxidant protection specifically against heart disease and cancer, two major risk factors for death. OPCs owe their current popularity to French scientists that were successful in finding uses for the waste produced by the paper pulp and winemaking industries. These scientists studied Maritime Pine bark and grape seeds and found that the OPCs they contained were perfect nutrients to build and maintain high energy levels. Some of the richest sources of OPCs are the nectars of grapes, bilberry, blueberry, cranberry, elderberry, prunes and apples. Grape nectar has the richest source of OPCs of all the botanicals in their seeds and peels. OPCs are important antioxidants by themselves. Grape OPCs have been shown to protect many different types of body tissues better than vitaminC, vitamin-E or beta-carotene. OPCs are also synergists that enhance the effects of other antioxidants. Grape OPCs in particular show this antioxidant recycling and potentiating ability. The cell membrane protecting ability of vitamin-E is improved in the presence of grape OPCs. OPCs can protect our cellular tissues from premature aging with special emphasis on protecting the cardiovascular system. OPCs have also been shown to be effective against several cancercausing agents. Grape OPCs are more effective at positively affecting the response of human mouth cells to the free-radical damage caused by smokeless tobacco than either vitamin-C or vitamin-E alone or even when both of these vitamins are combined(49).

Xanthones
Xanthones are close cousins to the polyphenol family and have strong antioxidant effects on the nervous system. The richest source of xanthones is gentian root nectar. The xanthones in gentian root include genistein, gentisin and several methoxyxanthones. Xanthones are among the bitterest compounds known. However, their mood-enhancing properties invoke some of the most agreeable, delightful feelings known. This is of great benefit to those who suffer from depression and obesity, acting to reduce appetites and obsessions. Gentain is known to delay stomach emptying and to trigger the release of cholecystokinin (CCK). This action then produces a series of hormonal reactions that result in satiety, a feeling of fullness and well-being triggered by dopamine release in the pleasure centers of the brain. Besides mood enhancement, xanthones are also useful in treating metabolic syndrome X, type-2 diabetes, lowering blood sugar and reducing insulin resistance(46). Xanthones have a common healing heritage with polyphenols, being both antiviral and antiinflammatory. The antioxidant activity of tannins in plants was demonstrated as follows: 1. Suporessingthe oxidation of ascorbic acid by Ca2+ blocking or by their radical scavenging activity e.g. geraniin.

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Antioxidant Natural Plant

2. Inhibition of lipid peroxidation induced by ADP and ascorbic acid or by ADP and NADPH e.g. pedunculagin, isoterchebin, the monomeric catechin analog (-)epigallocatechin galate and geraniin. 3. They free radical scavengers that have a significant inhibitory action on carbon tetrachloride and galactosamine hepatic cytotoxicity e.g. licorice phenolics. The antioxidant activity of most hydrolysable tannins are stronger than those of condensed tannins.

Phenolic acids
Phenolic acids and their esters have been reported as active antioxidants. Caffeic acid, chlorogic acid and its isomers, including 4-O-caffeoylquinic acid were isolated from sweet potatoes. chlorogenic acid and its derivatives e.g: 1,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid were isolated from many plant extracts(10,50,51).

Diterpenes
Rosmaridiphenol(50), carnosic acid, carnosol, resmanol and epirosmanol, were phenolic diterpenes isolated from Rosmarinus officinalis. They were shown to be effective to protect the biological systems against oxidative stresses(52). Diterpenes, totarol, totaradiol 19-hydroxytotarol totaral, 4b-carboxy19-nortotarol and sugiol were isolated from Prodocarpus nagi and evaluated as antioxidants. They inhibit linoleic acid auto oxidation but not generation of superoxide anion. Totarol protects mitochondrial respiratory enzyme activities against NADPH induced oxidative injury. These diterpenes are effective to protected biological systems and functions against various oxidative stresses(53).

Miscellaneous phenolics
Xanthone derivatives e.g: 1,2,5-trihydroxyxanthone and 1,2-dihydroxy-5,6dimethoxyxanthone isolated from the woods of Garcinia subelliptica have antilipid peroxidation, free radical and superoxide anion scavenging activity(54). Curcumin and curcumin related phenols e.g; 1,5-bis(4-hydroxy-3methoxyphenol)-1E,4E)-1,4-pentadien-3-one and1-(4-hydroxy-3methoxyphenyl)-5-(4-hydroxyphenol-1E,4E)-1,4-pentadien-3-one, were isolated from curcuma domestica. The related phenolics were show to have stronger antioxidant activity than curcumin(55). Curcuminoid mixture for curcumin, demethoxy curcumin and bis-demethoxycurcumin, isolated from curcuma longa has synergistic antioxidant effect between component of the mixture(56). The structurally similar lignans , dihydroguayaretic acid , guaycasiones-transferase and microsomal cytochrome and isopergomisin, isolated from

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porlieria chilensis are powerful antioxidants(57). Schisandrin B, is lignin with a dibezocyclooctadine structure isolated from Schisandra chinensis increases the activities of hepatic(58) glutathione. The depsidones e.g. pannarin and 1-chloropannarin, the linchenic metabolites isolated from protusnea malacea and palcopis sp. are efficient antioxidants(59).

Sesquiterpens
Chamazulen isolated from chamomile was shown to be a good antioxidant as it blocks the peroxidation of arachidonic acid(60). The sesquiterpens 7-hydroxy-3,4-dihydrocadalin and 7-hydroxycadain isolated from Heterothica inuloides have been found to inhibit autooxidative and microsomal lipid peroxidation(61).

Alkaloids
Several alkaloids of various structural types have been found to be potent inhibitors of singlet oxygen species(1O2) ,superoxide radical(O2) scavenger and liped peroxidation inhibitors. Tetrandrine is a bioscoclaurine alkaloid isolated from Stephania tetrandra was shown to be O2- and OH- scavenger and inhibitor for 5lipogenase(62,63).

Flavonoids as antioxidant
Chalcones are biosynthetic intermediates between cinnamic acids and flavonoids. They also show considerable antioxidant activity e.g. butein, and interestingly, chalcones with only two adjacent hydroxyl groups are almost fully effevtive. Intruduction of additional hydroxyl groups leading to only slight increase in their antioxidant activity. Hydrogenation ofrigalone B20. chalcone double bond increase their antioxidant activity(64,65) e.g.: pent hydroxyl dihydrochlalcone. Flavonoids exerts their antioxidant effects by neutralizing all types of oxidizing radicals including the superoxide and hydroxyl radicals and by chelation. Flavonoid can also act as powerful chain breaking antioxidant due to the electron-donating capacity of their phenolic groups. The potant antioxidant activity of flavonoids; their ability to scavenge hydroxyl radicals. May be the most important function of flavonoids and underlies many of their actions in the body(65). Flavonoids by acting as free radical scavengers were shown to exert a protective effect in perfusion ischemic tissue damage, and by acting as antioxidants exhibited several beneficial effects as anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, antiviral as well as anticancer activity. They have also been

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Antioxidant Natural Plant

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suggested to play a protective role in liver diseases, cataracts and cardiovascular diseases(66). They do not only have direct antioxidant activity but also have sparing effects on other antioxidants as vitamin C and E(67). And their capacity to modify membrane dependent process, such as free radical induced membrane lipid peroxidation, is related not only to their structural characteristics but also to their ability to interact with and penetrate the lipid bilayers(68). In addition to their effects on ROS, They have certain actions on RNS, polyphenolic compounds are especially susceptible to peroxynitritedependant reactions and they are powerful inhibitors of nitrous acid dependant nitration and DNA deamination in vitro, and the role can be exerted in vivo, thus flavonoids may provide gastro-protective effect when high levels of RNS are produced(69). Flavnoids have chelating activity which allowed them to chelate or binds to metal ions in our bodies to prevent them being available for oxidation. The aerobic oxidation of ascorbic acid in neutral or alkaline solution is catalyzed by copper (P) ions and thought to proceed through a free radical mechanism. The ability of flavoniods to inhibit aerobic oxidation has been attributed to their ability to act as free radical acceptors and to remove catalytic ions through formation of complexes with the metal. The effectiveness of flavonoids to form complexes with metal is undoubtedly influenced by pH of the system(70). Flavonoids and phenolic compounds with hydroxyl (or other electro donating) groups can interact with transition metal ions to form chelates, this chelates might be stable, or redox cycling might take place leading to the reduction of the iron or copper to a more pro-oxidant from and the oxidized flavonoid(69). The polyphenolic compounds generally present a tonifying action because of their natural antioxidant properties. Other action to be stressed are the stimulation of protein synthesis and the promotion of ammonia elimination. More specifically, the compounds cause a stabilizing of cell membrane components in cell organelles such as lysosomes and all above, a stabilizing of the plasmatic membrane of erythrocytes, mastocytes, fibrocytes, hepatocytes and other similar cells(71). Another pharmacological action of flavonoids is the protector effects on carcinogenesis by inhibiting the neoplastic effects of chemical carcinogens; their activity as antioxidants on microsomal mono-oxygenase promotes a detoxifying action with an antineoplastic effect(72). Allium sativam L. (Garlic), a food throughout the world, has been used as a remedy for various ailments since ancient times. More recently, organosulfur compounds, flavonoids, anthocyanins and other phenolics of garlic have been shown to have oxygen radical scavenging and antioxidant

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RPMP Vol. 27 Ethnomedicine: Source & Mechanism I

properties by several mechanisms as follows: Inhibition of Ca2+-induced low density lipoproteins (LDLS) oxidation, Antioxidant against hepatic microsomes stressed by ascorbic acid/Fe3+ . Hydroxyl radical (OH) scavenger, Prevent carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) induced cytotoxicity in liver cells, Inhibition of phorbol ester-induced oxygen radical formation by human granulocytes and Increase the tissues concentration of the enzymes glutathione-peroxidase and glutathione-disulfide reductase(12,73).

Casimiroa edulis Llave et Lex


Description Casimiroa edulis Llave et Lex (Rotaceae) is a species indigenous to temperate zones of Mexico, Africa, India and central America, and it is popularly called Zapote blanco, which has been known since prehispanic times for its interesting sedativelike effects and its use as a sleep inducer. The tree is cultivated for its edible fruits. In folk medicine, a concoction of leaves and occasionally of seeds is administered for sedative action. Chemical contents and biological activiteis New study was carried out and mentioned that fruit of this plant exhibit antioxidant activity due to the presence of two new flavones known as; 5-methoxy-6-hydroxyflavone(1) and its 6-O-b-D- glucoside(2) in addition to quercetin and its 3-O- rutinoside , were found to have antioxidant activity via scavenging by the ABTS%+ [2,2'-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazolone-6sulfonic acid)] free radical. Fractionation (using Diethylether,chloroform, ethylacetate and butanol) was carried out for this plant, these fractions were studied for their antioxidant activity. This study has revealed that the total antioxidant content ranged from 389 to 842 mol Trolox equivalent/g dry weight. Alcoholic and ethyl acetate extracts exhibited 842, and 712 mol Trolox equivalent/g dry weight; compounds 1 and 2 showed the rutinoside were found to have the highest activity (640 and 772 mol/g, respectively(74).

Sisymbrium erysimoides Dess., Fl. Atlant (cruciferae)


Chemical contents and biological activities This plant was subjected to study to investigate it is pharmacological use and compounds responsible for these activities. All extracts of the plant under investigation (total alcohol, ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate and butanol) were tested for their anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities, all showed a significant effect, these were found to be very clear in it is ethyl acetate and butanol extracts and poor in chloroform and ether extracts. The activities were due to high flavonidal content (6.25%) and

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Antioxidant Natural Plant

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Fig 1. Plant images for Casimiroa edulis Llave et Lex (Rotaceae)

their antioxidant activity, this activity directed to isolation of seven flavonoidal compounds from the combination of butanol and ethyl acetate extracts. The isolated compounds were identified as apigenin, apigenin7-O-galctoside, apigenin-7-O-b-rhamnoside, apigenin-7-O-glucuronide, apigenin-7-O-rhamnosyl galactoronide, Kampferol, and kampferol-3xyloside-7-galactoside. The total antioxidant content ranged from 129 to 952 mol Trolox equivalent/g dry weight. Total alcohol extract was 952 mol/g both ether and chloroform extract showed the lowest amount of antioxidant (132 and 129 mol/g, respectively), while butanol and ethyl acetate fraction were found to have the highest amount (843 and 810 mol/g respectively). On the other hand, all isolated compounds have

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Fig 2. Image for Sisymbrium erysimoides Dess., Fl. Atlant (cruciferae)

closer activity to butanol but in lesser concentration (100 mg/kg). Compound 2 (apigenin-7-O-galactoside) showed the highest effect in the mean time and other compounds possesses nearer effect(75).

Atriplex lentiformis (Torr.) S.Wats.


Description Leaves are alternate, exstipulate, flat, petioled , mostly angled and toothed. Flowers are typically pentamerous , with a single whorl in both perigene and androecium, stamens opposite the perianth leaves. Reduced unisexual flowers are not infrequent. The unilocular ovary contains a basal campylotropous ovule. Fruit is a nut, seeds with a curved embryo bent around the floury perisperm. Cultivated successfully under saline conditions in South Sinai. Chemical contents and biological activities Two new flavonoids, Quercetin 6,4'-dimethoxy-3-fructo-rhamnoside and Quercetin 4'-methoxy-3-fructo-rhamnoside in addition to another five known compounds were isolated from Atriplex lentiformis (Torr.) S. Wats and identified as kaempferol-4'-methoxy-rutinoside, kaempferol 7rhamnoside, kaempferol 3,7-dirhamnoside, quercetin and kaempferol. All of the extracts and the isolated compounds were tested for their

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Antioxidant Natural Plant

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Fig 3. General view of Atriplex Lentiformis

antioxidant activity, the two new compounds were found to have the highest antioxidant activity with no side effect. The results of this study revealed that this plant is very good as antioxidant with no side effect on liver and kidney functions. The total antioxidant content ranged from 129 to 952 mol Trolox equivalent/gram dry weight. total alcohol extract was 952 mol/g both ether and chloroform extract showed the lowest amount of antioxidant (132 and 129 mol/g respectively), while butanol and ethyl acetate fraction were found to have the highest amount (843 and 810mol/g respectively) on the other hand all isolated compound have closer activity to butanol but in lesser concentration(76) (100 mg/kg). No side effects were detected for all extracts and some of the isolated compounds on both AST and ALT (liver and kidney function).

Solenostemma arghel (Del.) Hayne


Description Blue-green finely velvety-pubescent plant with numerous erect stem. Leaves elliptical lanceolate, acute. Umbels short-peduncled, rich. Corollalobed erect. Woody perennials. This plant grows widely in Sinai proper;

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south El Tih desert and the Islamic desert (El-Tih and the region North of Wadi Tumilat). It grows only in natural habitats(81). Chemical contents and biological activities Chemical investigation of the Solenostemma arghel revealed the presence of several contents such as: 6,7-dihydroxy-dihydrolinalool 3-O-bglucopyranoside and 6,7-dihydroxy-dihydrolinalool 7-O-b- glucopyranoside. A pregnane glucoside was also isolated and assigned as pregn-5-ene-3,14b-dihydroxy-7,20-dione 3-O-b-glucopyranoside together with the known compounds benzyl alcohol O-b-apiofuranosyl-(1b6)-b - glucopyranoside, 2phenylethyl O-a- arabinopyranosyl - (16)-b-glucopyranoside, astragalin and kaempferol-3-O-a-rhamnopyranosyl-(12)-b-glucopyranoside(79). Two pregnene derivatives 14b-15-dihydroxy-D4pregnene-3,20 dione and 3b-14b, 15a-16a hydroxy-20-oxo-D5pregnene-tetra-ol, in addition to a- and b-amyrin and b-sitosterol, were isolated from Solenostemma argel leaves(77). Two new pregnane ester glycosides, named stemmoside A and stemmoside B and a third new polyhydroxy pregnane, named(78). stemmin C. From the aerial parts of Solenostemma arghel, four new acylated phenolic glycosides sin apyl alcohol 9-O-feruloyl-4-O-a-rh amnopyran osyl-(12)-bglucopyranoside, solargin I (1), sinapyl alcohol 9-O-caffeoyl-4-O-arhamnopyranosyl-(12)-b-glucopyranoside, solargin II, sinapyl alcohol 9O-feruloyl-4-O-a-rhamnopyranosyl-(12)-a-rhamnopyranosyl-(12)-bglucopyrano-side, solargin III (3) and sinapyl alcohol 9-O-caffeoyl-4-O-a-

Fig 4. General view of Solenostemma arghel (Del.) Hayne.

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rhamnopyranosyl-(12)-a-rhamnopyranosyl-(12)-b-glucopyrano-side, solargin IV have been isolated(79). Solenostemma arghel is used in folk medicine as a remedy for rheumatic pains, in cough, in common cold and in cardiovascular diseases, also it has antimicrobial activity(80). The plant was subjected to study for its pharmacological use and the isolate of compounds responsible for these activities. All extracts of the plant (total alcohol, ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate and butanol) were tested for their anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive and antipyretic effects. A significant effect was observed especially those of ethyl acetate and butanol extracts. The activities were due to high flavonidal content (5.76%) and their antioxidant activity. This activity was correlated to the isolation of two flavonoidal compounds from the ethyl acetate extract. The isolated compounds were identified as kaempferol-3, 4'-diglucoside and kaempferol 3-rutinoside. DPPH free radical scavenging activity reached 65.3%, 78.2%, 61.5%, 90.01%, 83.40% and 86.50% for butanolic, chloroformic, ether, ethyl acetate fractions, C1 and C2 respectively, corresponding to 87.8% for standard ascorbic acid at 100 M concentration

Alhagi maurorum Boiss.


Description Alhagi maurorum Boiss (Leguminosae). Richly branched intricate shrublet with short patent spiny-tipped twigs, woody perennials. Very common plant. It grows widely in the Nile region including the Delta, the valley and the faiyum, the oases of the Libyan Desert, the Mediterranean coastal strip from El-salloum to Rafah, the red coastal region and Sinai proper; south El Tih desert. A characteristic plant, especially of canal banks and waste places. Flourishing and flouring in summer. Mainly reproducting itself vegetatively by its long creeping rhizomes pushing up specimens to a wide distance. Hydrohalophytes, plants of wet and salty habitats; weed in fields on deep clayey soils(81). Chemical contents and biological activities Chemical investigation of the Alhagi maurorum revealed the presence of several contents mainly flavonoids, Twelve flavonoids were isolated from Alhagi maurorum. These flavonoids were identified as tamarixtin 3-Odirhamnoside, isorhamnetin 3-O-glucosylneo-hesperidoside, isorhamnetine 3-O-robinoside, isorhamnetin 3-O-rotinoside, Quercetin 3-O-rhamnoside, Kampferol 3-O-galactoside, Quercetin 3,7-diglycoside, isorhamnetin 3rutinoside, daidzein7,4'-dihydroxyisoflavone, calycisin 3'-hydroxyformononetin, isorhamnetin and tamarxtin aglycones. As well as Polysaccharide fraction form Alhagi maurorum contains soluble and

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RPMP Vol. 27 Ethnomedicine: Source & Mechanism I

Fig 5. General view of Alhagi maurorum Medic

insoluble fractions of sulphur. The soluble fraction contains galactose and arabinose in ratio 3:2 in addition to a small amount of uronic component(82). Six flavonoidal glycosides were isolated from the ethanolc extract of this plant they were identified as kaempferol, chrysoeriol, isorhamnetin, chrysoer iol-7-O-xyloside, kaempferol-3-galactorhamnoside and isorhamnetin 3-O-b-D-apio-furanosyl-b-D-galactopyranoside. These compounds showed various activates as anti-ulcerogenic due to its work as antioxidant Alhagi maurorum, is used in folk medicine as a remedy for rheumatic pains, bilharziasis, liver disorders, urinary tract infection and for various types of gastrointestinal discomfort(83). It was found that Alhagi maurorum has both peripheral and central antinociceptive activity on the dose of 400 mg/kg through its work as antioxidant. It exhibit anti-diarrheal activity in vivo (200 and 400 mg/kg). This effect was appeared to be due to calcium channel blocking effect(84).

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Conyza dioscordis (L.) Desf


Description Richly branched hairy shrub, often 2-3 m. height, with lanceolate acute serrate leaves. Heads numerous, corymbose, terminating the leafy branches. Flowers pale yellow or pink. Woody perennials. Very common plant. It grows widely in the Nile region including the Delta, the valley and the faiyum, the oases of the Libyan Desert, the Mediterranean coastal strip from El-salloum to Rafah and the part of the Arabian desert from Wadi Tumilat to Qena-Qosseir road(81). Chemical contents and biological activities Chemical investigation of the Conyza dioscordis revealed the presence of several contents such as: Six flavonoids named as; isorhamnetin 3-Orhamnoside, quercetin 4-glucoside, isorhamnetin 3-O-rutinoside, quercetin, quercetin-7-arabinoside and quercitrin. Sesqiterpenes hydrocarbons mainly, b-Maaliene and a-Elemene and oxygenated sesqiterpenes compounds mainly, a-Cadinol, Muurolol, Carryophyllene oxide isomer and sesquiterpene alcohol(85). Triterpenes as a-amyrin, b-amyrin, b-amyrin acetate and lupeol acetate(86). Fatty acids and sterols mainly, cholesterol, campesterol, stigmasterol, b-sitosterol and hexadecanoic, arachidonic and octadecanoic esters. It was found that Conyza dioscordis has both peripheral and central antinociceptive activity(83) on the dose of 400 mg/kg through its work as

Fig 6. General view of Conyza dioscordis (L.) Desf.

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RPMP Vol. 27 Ethnomedicine: Source & Mechanism I

antioxidant. It exhibit anti-diarrheal activity in vivo (200 and 400 mg/kg) and in vitro (0.4-2.8 mg/ml) and this activity appeared to be due to gangalionic blocking effect. The volatile constituents of this plant had promising antimicrobial activities against some tested micro-organisms. This plant also showed hypoglycaemic effects(87).

Convolvulus fatmensis
Description Calyx of 5 sepals. Corolla funnel- shaped with entire, 5-angled or 5plaited limb and no regular color strips. Style solitary with filiform stigmas. Capsule 2-valved. Herbs or shrubs of various habits with pedicels often bracteate, but bracts forming no involucre. Flowers only 1 cm. long on peduncles not exceeding the leaves, Annual and rare plant. This plant grows widely in the Nile region including the Delta, the valley and the faiyum, the oases of the Libyan Desert and the Western Mediterranean coastal region, including Rosetta. Weed in cultivated land, mainly in steppe and desert areas, and herbaceous formations. Chemical contents and biological activities The three organs of Convolvulus arvensis L. (flower, green parts and root) were phytochemically studied for their phenolic compounds content. Four coumarin compounds were isolated and identified as umbeliferone, scopoletin, asculetin and scopoline for the first time from the plant. Eleven flavonoidal compounds were isolated for the first time from different plant organs and identified by using 1H NMR, 13C NMR HMQC and UV

Fig 7. General view of Convolvulus fatmensis G.Kunze.

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shift reagent, these compounds were kaempferol, kaempferol-3-rutinoside, kaempferol-7-rutinoside, kaempferol-7-glucoside, kaempferol-3-glucoside, kaempferol-3-rhamnoside-7-glucoside, kaempferol-3-galactorhamnoside, quercetin, quercetin-3-rhamnoside,quercetin-3-rutinoside and kaempferol3-rhamnoside. A quantitative estimation of the total flavonoids in methanolic extracts of the three organs of the plant were carried out by spectrophotometic method. Pharmacological screening in addition to the side effects on both liver and kidney functions were carried out for different plant organ extracts.It was found that Convolvulus fatmensis has both peripheral and central antinociceptive activity on the dose of 400 mg/ kg(83) through its work as antioxidant.

Diplotaxis acris h.
Description Annual glabrescent herb with somewhat fleshy leaves of gargir-taste. Flowers large, purple. Pods numerous, erect, in dense racemes, common plant. It frows widely in the Islamic desert (El-Tih and the region North of Wadt Tumilat), Sinai proper; south El Tih desert and in sandy and stony desert valleys. Desert slopes, mainly on hard limestones, and wadis in extreme desert areas, grows only in natural habitats(81).

Fig 8. General view of Diplotaxis acris (Forssk)Boiss

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RPMP Vol. 27 Ethnomedicine: Source & Mechanism I

Chemical contents and biological activities Chemical investigation of the Diplotaxis acris revealed the presence of, isorhamnetin 3-O-glucoside, quercetin, kaempferol 3-O-glucoside, Diosmetin 7-rhamnoside, apigenin, apigenin 7-diglucoside, luteolin 7diglucoside, luteolin 7-rhamnoside and quercetin 7-rhamnoside-3'-methyl ether. Fatty acids and sterols as a-linolenic acid, b-sitosterol and benzyl benzoate in addition to the alkaloid cholin chloride(88). Diplotaxis acris was found to have both peripheral and central antinociceptive activity on the doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg(83) through its work as antioxidant.

Origanum syriacum
Description Leaves nearly sessile, densely hairy. Bracts small, 4-ranked, whitecanescent. Flowers-heads often cylindrical, panicled. Of mint-smell. It grows widely in the Islamic desert (El-Tih and the region North of Wadt Tumilat) and Sinai proper; south El Tih desert(81). Chemical contents and biological activities Chemical investigation of the Origanum syriacum revealed that the major constituent of the plant are ; Monoterpenes, oxygenated monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, mainly g-terpinene, carvacrol, p-cymene, bcaryophyllene, menthon, pulegone p-menth-1-en-4-ol and 1,8-cineole as well as monoterpene glucosides: thymoquinol 2,5-O-b-diglucopyranoside,

Fig 9. General view of Origanum syriacum L.

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carvacrol 2-O-b-glucopyranosyl, p-menth-1-ene-3,4-diol 4-O-bglucopyranoside, thymoquinol 2-O-b-glucopyranoside and thymoquinol 5O-b-glucopyranoside(89). The main action reported for this plant was their potent antioxidant effect on scavenging free radical and chelating with metals (90, 91). It also has nematicidal activity(92).

Euphorbia cuneata, Vahl.


Description It is a spiny plant. Trees (up to three meter) are non-succulent and the young twigs transformed into spines. Leaves alternate, spathulate, obtuse, entire. Cyathia in terminal or lateral umbel-like cyme, umbel-rays 3-5, each 5-15 mm long. Fruit is a capsule. Seeds brown and smooth (81). Anatomical features of the family Euphorbiaceae: Leaves with dorsiventral mesophyl. Lower and upper epidermises sometimes papillosed. Single or many layers of hypoderm are present beneath the upper epidermis. Sclerenchyma is said to be absent in Euphorbia(81). Laticeferous cells characterizing Euphorbia genus. Pericyclic fibers are discontinuous. Chemical contents and biological activities 8 phenolic compounds were isolated from the total alcoholic extract which were identified as, naringenis, dihydrokaempferol, apigenin, quercetin,

Fig 10. Photograph of the whole plant of Euphorbia cuneata, Vahl.

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RPMP Vol. 27 Ethnomedicine: Source & Mechanism I

4\-methoxyluteolin7-rhamnoglucoside, kaempferol, gallic acid and apigenin 7galactoside. This plant has activities as antimicrobial, Analgesic(at dose of 2 gm/kg body weight), Antiinflammatory(at dose up to 2 gm/kg body weight after 2 and 3 hours only) and Antiulcerogenic at dose of 2 gm/kg body weight. The isolated flavonoid compound nargenin was found to be responsible about this activity due to its free radical scavenging and metal chelating properties(93) it had a good activity at a dose of 100 mg/kg body weight. Euphorbia cuneata showed no abnormal kidney and liver function when tested for two weeks administrations.

Chenopodium mural L.(Forssk)


Description Stems erect, branched, 1-6(-10) dm, glabrous (to sparsely farinose when young); proximal branches decumbent. Leaves nonaromatic; petiole 1-2.5 cm; blade triangular, ovate, or rhombic-ovate, 0.8-4(-8) 0.4-3(-5) cm, base cuneate to rounded, margins irregularly dentate, apex acute to acuminate, glabrous (rarely indistinctly farinose when young). Inflorescences glomerules in terminal and lateral panicles, 6-7 4-5 cm; glomerules subglobose, 2-4 mm diam., or some flowers not in glomerules; bracts absent. Flowers: perianth segments 5, distinct nearly to base;

Fig 11. Photograph of the whole plant of Chenopodium mural L.(Forssk)

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Antioxidant Natural Plant Table 1. Some plants having antioxidant activity Plant Name Acacia senegal Acalypha indica Alhagi maurorum Chemical content Phenolic compounds Phenolic compounds tamarixtin 3-O-dirhamno side , iso rhamne tin 3-O-glucosylne o he sperido side, iso rhamnetine 3-Orobinoside, isorhamnetin 3-O-rotinoside, Quercetin 3-O-rhamnoside, Kampferol 3-O-galactoside , Que rce tin 3,7diglycoside, isorhamnetin 3-rutinoside, daidze in7, 4 '-dihydroxyiso flavo ne , calycisin 3 ' -hydroxyformo no netin, isorhamnetin and tamarxtin aglycones. Phenolic compounds Phenolic compounds Phenolic compounds Quercetin 6,4'dimethoxy-3fructorhamnoside , Quercetin 4' methoxy-3 fructo- rhamnoside, kaempferol - 4/ methoxy rutinoside, kaempferol 7 rhamno side , kae mpferol 3,7dirhamno side , que rcetin and kaempferol. Phenolic compounds Phenolic compounds Phenolic compounds Phenolic compounds 6-Hydroxy 5-me thoxyflavone 5Me tho xyflavo ne 6-O-b -D-gl. QuercetinQuercetin 3-O-rutinoside Phenolic compounds 6-Hydroxy 5-me thoxyflavone 5Me tho xyflavo ne 6-O-b -D-gl. QuercetinQuercetin 3-O-rutinoside Kampferol , Quercetin,Kampferol-3-Oa-L-rhamnoside-7-O-b-D-xyloside(1-2)O-a-L-rhamno side , kampfe rol-3galactorhamnoside, kampeferol 3,7-Odirhamnoside, Kaempferol-4/-methoxy rutinoside, kampferol -7-O- rhamnoside.

25

Ref. 100 100

82, 83

Allophylus rubifolius Anogeissus dhofarica Artocarpus odoratissimus Atriplex lentiformis

100 100 99

76

Balanites aegyptiaca Becium dhofarense Bombax costatum Boscia senegalensis Burkea africana

103 100 103 103 104

Caparis erythrocarpus Casimiroaedulis

105 74

Chenopodium mural L.(Forssk)

94

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26 Table 1. (Continued) Plant Name Cleome arabica

RPMP Vol. 27 Ethnomedicine: Source & Mechanism I

Chemical content Phenolic compounds

Ref. 106

Conyza dioscordis (L.) Desf

isorhamnetin 3-O-rhamnoside, quercetin 4'-glucoside, isorhamnetin 3-O-rutinoside, quercetin, quercetin-7-arabinoside and quercitrin. Sesqiterpenes hydrocarbons mainly, b-Maaliene and a-Elemene and oxygenated sesqiterpenes compounds mainly, a-Cadino l, Muurolo l, 85, 86, 87 Carryo phylle ne o xide iso me r and sesquiterpene alcohol. Triterpenes as aamyrin, b-amyrin, b-amyrin acetate and lupeol acetate, Fatty acids and sterols mainly, cho le ste ro l, campe ste ro l, stigmaste ro l, b -sito ste ro l and he xade cano ic, arachido nic and octadecanoic esters kaempferol, kaempferol-3-rutinoside, kaempferol-7-rutinoside, kaempferol-7glucoside, kaempfe rol-3-glucoside , kaempferol-3-rhamnoside-7-glucoside, k ae m pf e r ol - 3- g al ac to r ham no s i de , quercetin, quercetin-3rhamnoside,quercetin-3-rutinoside and kaempferol-3-rhamnoside. Not identified Phenolic compounds Flavonoid isorhamnetin 3-O-glucoside , quercetin, kaempferol 3-O-glucoside, Diosmetin 7rhamno side , apige nin, apige nin 7diglucoside, luteolin 7-diglucoside, luteolin 7-rhamno side and quercetin 7rhamnoside-3'-methyl ether. Fatty acids and sterols as a-linolenic acid, b-sitosterol and benzyl benzoate in addition to the alkaloid cholin chloride. Gallic and ellagic acid Phenolic compounds Not identified Phenolic compounds Nargenine

Convolvulus fatmensis

83

Cordia perrottettii Curcuma longa L., Cussona barteri Diplotaxis acris (Forssk)Boiss

100 95 107

83, 88

Dorstenia ciliata Emblica officinalis L., Entada Africana Eucalyptus Camaldulensis Euphorbia cuneata, Vah

108 95 109 110 93

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Antioxidant Natural Plant Table 1. (Continued) Plant Name Ficus lutea Glinus oppositifolius Gongronema latifolium Gynandropis gynandra Hypaene thebaica Lannea vilutina Leptadenia hastate Mangifera indica L Mangifera pajang Momordica charantia L., Moringa peregrina, Mallotus oppositifolium Myrothamnus flabellifolia Olea europaea, Origanum syriacum L Pelargonium reniforme Pluchea arabica, Pulicaria crispa, Rhoicissus rhomboidea Rhoicissus tomentosa Rhoicissus tridentata Sacoglottis gabonensis Santalum album L., Sesbania pachycarpa Sisymbrium erysimoides Chemical content Flavonoid Flavonoid Flavonoid Flavonoid Flavonoid Flavonoid Flavonoid Phenolic compounds Phenolic compounds Flavonoid Flavonoid Flavonoid Phenolic compounds Not identified flavonoids, terpens Proanthocyanidins, catechin, epicatechin & fisetinidol Quercetin Quercetin Phenolic compounds Phenolic compounds Phenolic compounds Flavonoid Phenolic compounds Flavonoid apigenin, apige nin -7-O-galctoside , apigenin -7-O-b-rhamnoside, apigenin -7O-glucuronide, Kampferol, apigenin -7O-rhamnosyl galactoronide, kampferol-3xyloside-7-galactoside, Quercetin -6,4' dime tho xy-3fructorhamno side , Que rcetin 4' metho xy-3 fructorhamnoside

27

Ref. 100 111 112 103 103 111 103 95 99 95 100 113 114 100 89, 92 115 100 100 116 116 116 117 95 103

103

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28 Table 1. (Continued) Plant Name Sorbus domestica

RPMP Vol. 27 Ethnomedicine: Source & Mechanism I

Chemical content Phenolic compounds Phenolic compounds Phenolic compounds Quercetin, kaempferol. Not identified Not identified Not identified Flavonoid

Ref. 98 95 118 79, 80 96 103 97 119 95

Swertia chirata Buch-Ham, Sutherlandia frutescens Solenostemma arghel (Del.) Thai indigenous Tapinanthus globiferus Terras Madeirenses Trichilia roka

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Phenolic compounds

lobes ovate, 0.5-0.8 0.6-0.7 mm, apex acute to obtuse, keeled abaxially, farinose, covering fruit at maturity; stamens 5; stigmas 2, 0.2 mm. Achenes depressed-ovoid; pericarp adherent, pustulate, becoming smooth with maturity. Seeds lenticular, round, 1-1.5 mm diam.; seed coat black, minutely rugose to smooth(102). Chemical contents and biological activities The phytochemical investigation of Chenopodium mural L.(Forssk); family Chenopodiaceae, afforded Seven flavonoids identified as, Kampferol , Quercetin, Kampferol-3-O-a-L-rhamnoside-7-O-b-D-xyloside(1-2)-O-a-Lrhamnoside, kampferol-3-galactorhamnoside, kampeferol 3,7-Odirhamnoside, Kaempferol-4/ -methoxyrutinoside, kampferol -7-Orhamnoside. The ethyl acetate, ether, chloroform, butanol and total ethanolic extracts and the isolated compounds of Chenopodium mural L.(Forssk); were tested for their antioxidant activity. Among all the tested fractions and compounds, Kaempferol-4/-methoxyrutinoside exhibited the strongest antioxidant activity followed by kampeferol 3,7-0-dirhamnoside, giving 810 and 770 (mol Trolox equivalent/gram dry weight). Moderate activities were detected for the other tested materials(94).

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RPMP Vol. 27 Ethnomedicine: Source & Mechanism I Rice-Evans, C.A., Miller, N.J. and Paganga, G. 1997. Antioxidant properties of phenolic compounds. Trends in Plant Science 2: 152-159. Frankel, E.N., Kanner, J., German, J.B., Parks, E. and Kinsella, J.E. 1993. Inhibition of oxidation of human low-density lipoprotein by phenolic substances in red wine. Lancet. 341: 454-457 Fuhrman, B., Lavy, A. and Aviram, M. 1995. Consumption of red wine with meals reduces the susceptibility of human plasma and low-density lipoprotein to lipid peroxidation. Am. J. Clin Nutr. 61: 549-554. Nigdikar, S.V., Williams, N.R., Griffin, B.A. and Howard, A.N. 1998. Consumption of red wine polyphenols reduces the susceptibility of low-density lipoproteins to oxidation in vivo. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 68: 258-265. Halliwell, B. 1999. Establishing the significance and optimal intake of dietary antioxidants: The biomarker concept. Nutr. Rev. 57: 104-113. Muldoon, M.F. and Kritchevsky, S.B. 1996. Flavonoids and heart disease. Brit. Med. J. 312: 458-459. Chung, K.T., Wong, T.Y., Wei, C.I., Huang, Y.W. and Lin, Y. 1998. Tannins and human health: a review. Crit.Rev.Food.Sci.Nutr 38: 421-464. Bravo, L. 1998. Polyphenols: Chemistry, dietary sources, metabolism, and nutritional significance. Nutr. Rev. 56: 317-333. Chung, K.T., Wong, T.Y., Wei, C.I., Huang, Y.W. and Lin, Y. 1998. Tannins and human health: a review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 38: 421-464. Kaul, A. and Khanduja, K.L. 1998. Polyphenols inhibit promotional phase of tumorigenesis: relevance of superoxide of superoxide radicals. Nurt. Cancer 32: 81-85. Pannala, A.S., Razaq, R., Halliwell, B, Singh, S. and Rice-evans, C.A. 1998. Inhibition of peroxynitrite dependent tyrosine nitration by hydroxycinnamates: nitration or electron donation?. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 24: 594-606 Okushio, K., Suzuki, M., Matsumoto, N., Nanjo, F. and Hara, Y. 1999a. Identification of (-)-epicatechin metabolites and their metabolic fate in the rat. Drug Metab Dispos 27: 309-316. Okushio, K., Suzuki, M., Matsumoto, N., Nanjo, F. and Hara, Y. 1999b. Methylation of tea catechins by rat liver homogenates. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 63: 430-432 Mcanlis, G.T., Mceneny, J., Pearce. J. and Young, I.S. 1999. Absorption and antioxidant effects of quercetin from onions, in man. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 53: 92-96. Manach, C., Morand, C., Crespy, V., Demigne, C., Texier, O., Regerat, F. and Remesy, C. 1998. Quercetin is recovered in human plasma as conjugated derivatives which retain antioxidant properties. FEBS Lett 426: 331-336. Morand, C., Crespy, V., Manach, C., Besson, C., Demigne, C. and Remesy, C. 1998. Plasma metabolites of quercetin and their antioxidant properties. Am J. Physiol. 275: R212-R219. Yang, C.S., Chen, L., Lee, Mj., Balentine, D., Kuo, M.C. and Schantz, S.P. 1998. Blood and urine levels of tea catechins after ingestion of different amounts of green tea by human volunteers. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 7: 351-354 Donovan, J.L., Bell, J.R., Fasim-karakas, S., German, J.B, Walzem, R.I., Hansen, R.J. and Waterhouse, A.L. 1999. Catechin is present as metabolites in human plasma after consumption of red wine. J. Nutr. 129: 1662-1668. Pietta, P.G., Simonetti, P., Gardana, C., Brusamolino, A., Morazzoni, P. and

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RPMP Vol. 27 Ethnomedicine: Source & Mechanism I Kubo., I., Caudhuri, S.K., Kubo, Y., Sanchiz, Y., Ogura, T., Saito, T., Ishikawa, H. and Haraguchi, H. 1996. Cytotoxic and Antioxidative Sesquiterpenoids From Heterotheca inuloides. Planta Med. 62: 427-430. Cao, Z. 1996. Scavenging Effect of Tetrandrine on Active Oxygen Radicals. Planta Med. 62: 413-416. Catherine A. Rice-Evans, Nicholas J. Miller and George Paganga 1996. Structureantioxidant activity relationships of flavonoids and phenolic acids. Free Radical Biology and Medicine Vol. 20, pages 933-956. Mathiesen, L., Malterud, K.E. and Sund, R.B. 1995. Antioxidant Activity of fruit Exudate and C-Methylated Dihydrochalcones From Myrica gale. Planta. Med. 61: 515-519. Merfort, I., Heilmann, J., Weiss, M., Pitti, P. and Gadana, C. 1996. Radical Scavenger activity of Three flavonoids metabolites Studied by inhibition of Chemiluminescence in Human PMNS. Planta Med. 62: 289. Lin, Yong, Shi, Ranxin, Wang, Xia and Shen, Han-Ming 2008. Luteolin, a Flavonoid with Potential for Cancer Prevention and Therapy. Current Cancer Drug Targets, Volume 8, 634-646. Lotito, S.B., Actis-Goretta, L., Renart, M.L., Caligiuri, M., Rein, D., Schmitz H., Francene, M., Steinberg, Carl L. Keen and Cesar, G. Fraga 2000. Influence of Oligomer Chain Length on the Antioxidant Activity of Procyanidins. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. Volume 276, 945951. References and further reading may be available for this article. To view references and further reading you must purchase this article. Antonella Saija, Mario Scalese, Maria Lanza, Daniela Marzullo, Francesco Bonina and Francesco Castelli (1995): Flavonoids as antioxidant agents: Importance of their interaction with biomembranes. Free Radical Biology and Medicine.Volume 19, 481-486 Rice-Evans, C. 2001. Flavonoid Antioxidants .Current Medicinal Chemistry, Volume 8, 797-807(11). Havsteen, B.H. 2002. The biochemistry and medical significance of the flavonoids Pharmacology & Therapeutics. Volume 96, 67-202. Adzet, T, Camarasa, J., Laguna, J.C. 1987. Hepatoprotective activity of polyphenolic compounds from Cynara scolymnus against CCl4 toxicity in isolated rat. J Nat Prod. 50,612-7 References and further reading may be available for this article. To view references and further reading you must purchase this article. Elliott Middleton, Jr., Chithan Kandaswami and Theoharis C. Theoharides. 2000. The Effects of Plant Flavonoids on Mammalian Cells:I mplications for Inflammation, Heart Disease, and Cancer. Pharmacological Reviews, Vol. 52, 673-751. Idel, N., Nelson, A.B. and Lau, B.H.S. 1997. Aged Garlic Extracts and Its Consrituents Inhibitor Ca+-Induced Oxidative Modification of Low Density Lipoprotein, Planta Med. 63: 263-267. Amani, S. Awaad, N.H., El-Sayed, Maitland, D.J. and Mabry, T.J. 2006. Phenolic Antioxidants from Casimiroa edulis Leaves. Pharmacutical biology. Vol. 44, No. 4: 258-262. Amani, S. Awaad, Maitland, D.J. and Soliman, G.A. 2006. Antioxidant, and other Biological Activities of Sisymbrium erysimoides Dess., Fl. Atlant. Egyptian Journal of Biomedical Sciences, Vol. 21, pp.34-46. Amani, S. Awaad, D.J., maitland, A.M. Donia, Hashem, AI. and Soliman, G.A.

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