Structure as Architecture

Part A

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Aim of the book

This book seeks to change the view of structure as a purely technical component of architecture. It aims to raise architects perception of structure as an integral element of architecture. It also encourages architects to design structure themselves.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Main contents
The main contents of this book are:
An introduction about the issue. Two building studies. Relationships between architectural and structural form Building exterior. Building interior (including lighting) Building function and symbolism.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Introduction
The potential for structure to enrich architecture: . . . structure can be used to define space, create units, articulate circulation, suggest movement, or develop composition and modulations. In this way, it becomes inextricably linked to the very elements which create architecture, its quality and excitement.
Clark, R. H. and Pause, M. (1985). Precedents in Architecture. Van Nostrand Reinhold, p.3.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Clark and Pauses statement above begins by describing the architectural qualities of structure and then suggests how structure might enrich architecture. But is such a positive attitude to structure realistic? What was the last building you experienced where structure either created the architecture or contributed a sense of excitement to it?
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Often our day-to-day experience of structure can be described as unmemorable. In much of our built environment structure is concealed. Opaque faade panels hide structure located on a buildings perimeter.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Fortunately, in addition to this, sufficient precedents of positive structural contributions to architecture exist. Where structure is given a voice, it contributes architectural meaning and richness, sometimes becoming the most significant of all architectural elements in a building.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Two building study

The following two building study illustrate the considered use of exposed structure in very different architectural contexts. First, the BRIT School for art, London, is considered.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

While it displays an lively exterior structure, its structure as experienced from the interior adopts a more utilitarian stance. As the curriculum was still under development during the building design process, interior space had to be flexible enough to accommodate changing needs, including future expansion
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

BRIT School: Exoskeleton with the core behind it.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Free-standing masonry piers in front of the building.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

The architectural form contains a central three-storey core surrounded by a twostorey podium. Two contrasting structural systems, the load-bearing core and an exoskeletal framework, support the architectural form. The reinforced concrete masonry core satisfies acoustic requirements, while trusses are used to leave the first floor completely free of interior columns.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Exposed structure plays numerous architectural roles on the exterior. Along the building, the piers and the steel columns modulate and liven up exterior walls with their visual mass and diverse materiality.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Innovative details
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Roles reverse in the second building, the Baumschulenweg Crematorium, with its impressive exposed interior structure. The absence of exterior doors and conventional fenestration or other visual clues creates uncertainty in interpreting the buildings scale
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Crematorium, Baumschulenweg, Berlin, Germany. Front elevation.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Even from a distance, visitors become aware of the roof slab discontinuity. Above the two side-entry portals a roof slot reveals a glimpse of sky. Walls dominate the exterior elevations, functioning as both structure and cladding. Minimum structural details are used.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Light is admitted through the ceiling.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Light-slot between the side wall and the roof slab.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Columns are the primary architectural elements of the large interior. Their presence, together with an unusual lighting strategy, results in a space with a special environment that is well suited to its function. Their random placement recalls the spatial qualities of a native forest rather than an orderly plantation.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Scattered large diameter columns disrupt obvious linear circulation routes between destinations beyond the hall. columns subdivide the main floor area into four relatively large gathering spaces that can be used in the same time for different groups.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

This study illustrates the potential of structure to enrich architecture. While the exterior structure of the school makes significant aesthetic contributions, interior structure is notable only at the crematorium. Although both structures convey meaning, the contrast in how one reads them is striking.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Relationships between architectural and structural form

This chapter is the first of seven that imagine visiting a building and progressively exploring in greater detail the roles structure plays in various areas and aspects of its architecture. As such it observes and reflects on architectural issues arising essentially outside the building.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Practice Hint: From a location some distance away, the form or massing of the building, rather than any exterior detail, dominates visually and invites an exploration of the relationships between architectural and structural form.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

The most commonly encountered situation in the relationship between architectural and structural forms can be considered consonant. In some examples, and for various reasons, architectural and structural forms may contradict each other.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

The following slides consider seven structural systems that typically exemplify a synthesis between architectural and structural form. In these cases structure defines architectural form and often functions, at least partially, as the building envelope.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

The order in which the structural systems are discussed begins with shell structures that of all structural systems most closely integrate the two forms. The remaining systems then generally follow a progression from curved to more linear and planar forms.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

1. Shell structures
Shell structures achieve the most pure synthesis of architectural and structural forms. They resist and transfer loads within their minimal thicknesses. They rely upon their threedimensional curved geometry.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Interior of a concrete shell structure.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Palazzetto dello Sport, Rome, Italy.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Interior ribbed surface of the shell.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Shell structures can also be constructed from linear steel or timber members, as in geodesic or other braced domes. Although in these cases the many short structural members shape a faceted structural surface which must then be clad, structure nonetheless defines architectural form.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

The huge greenhouses of the Eden Project, Cornwall, are such examples. Hexagons, a geometrical pattern found in many naturally occurring structures, are the building blocks of these shells, or biomes as they are called.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Eden Project, Cornwall, England. A cluster of interlinked biomes.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Due to the long spans of up to 124 m, the outer primary hexagonal steel structure is supplemented by a secondary inner layer of tension rods. Although structure here acts as building skin in a very minor way, it defines an organic architectural form whilst achieving rational, economic and transparent construction.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Biome interior structure consisting of outer primary hexagons and an inner layer of braced rods.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

2. Fabric structures
Fabric or membrane structures represent another type of surface structure. These structures, where tensioned fabric initially resists self weight and other loads, also rely upon their three-dimensional curvatures for structural adequacy.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Fabric form, thickness and strength must match the expected loads, and all surfaces must be stretched taut to prevent the fabric flapping during high winds. Like shell structures, there is no distinction between the architectural and the structural forms.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Fabric structures, however, require additional and separate compression members to create high-points over which the fabric can be stretched. Arches, with their curved forms, are well suited and aesthetically the most sympathetic to the curving fabric geometry.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

However, masts and cables which are more common, introduce dissimilar geometric forms and materiality. Their linearity, density and solidity contrast with the flowing doublecurved, light-weight and translucent fabric surfaces.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Stellingen Ice Skating Rink and Velodrome, Hamburg, Germany. Overall form.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Contrasting architectural qualities of fabric surface and interior structural elements.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

3. Catenaries
Catenary structures, like fabric ones, transfer loads to their supports through tension. The simplest example is a draped cable spanning between two high points. They are usually designed so that the roof self-weight exceeds wind suction.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Reinforced concrete is sometimes chosen as a catenary material for this reason. Catenary tension members are usually distinct from the cladding and exposed within or outside the building envelope.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Dulles International Airport, Washington, DC, USA. Inclined piers support the catenary slab.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Hall 26, Trade Fair, Hanover, Germany. Three catenaries span between masts.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Exposed steel catenary members connect to an interior mast.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

4. Ripped structures
Ribbed structures can also become almost synonymous with enclosure. They generate and define architectural form, although their skeletal character often necessitates a separate enveloping system. Ribs usually cantilever from their foundations or are supported near their bases.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Licorne Soccer Stadium, Amiens, France. Curved ribbed walls enclose the spectators.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Wall ribs, props and longitudinal girts.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

The integration of girts with ribs to form these multi-bay frames avoids the need for diagonal bracing, which is more economical. This is intended to preserve the orthogonal pattern of ribs and girts.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

If ribs are inclined or curved in elevation they may be supported by other opposite ribs to achieve equilibrium, as in the case of a ribbed dome. Ribbed structures generally enclose single volumes rather than multistorey construction.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

The Reichstag Cupola, Berlin, Germany, Foster and Partners, 1999. Radial ribs and circumferential tubes.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

A similar combination of primary structural ribs and secondary horizontal tubes defines the architectural form of the Reichstag Cupola, Berlin. In this case, ribs lean against each other via a compression ring at the top.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

5. Arches
Arches also offer a potential synthesis of architectural and structural form. At Ludwig Erhard House, Berlin, repeated arches structure a vault-like building form.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

The Great Glasshouse, Carmarthenshire, Wales, Foster and Partners, 1998. Arched roof.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

This is an example of reasonably conventional arch, where arches are regularly spaced and aligned vertically. But at the Great Glasshouse, arches form a curved roof. In the latter case, arches are unsymmetrical.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Clarity of the arched structural form is undiminished by the small diameter tubes. These tubes run longitudinally to tie the arches back at regular intervals to a perimeter ring beam. This beam also prevents the arches from buckling.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

6. Framed structures
Synthesis of architectural and structural form extends beyond curved forms. Most orthogonal beam-column frameworks integrate well within prismatic architectural forms. Office building is a typical example.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

La Grande Arche, Paris, France. Frames within a frame.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

An interior vierendeel truss to the right.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

La Grande Arche, Paris, itself a huge open frame when viewed in frontal elevation, comprises a hierarchy of frames. The long-span roof and the structure that spans over are also framed in the form of three-storey deep vierendeel trusses.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Vierendeel truss elements are exposed within the roof exhibition areas. Although their chamfered top-chord sections depart from the orthogonality of most of the structure they do resonate with the overall chamfered building form.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Uncompromising orthogonal strictness characterizes the cubic form and perimeter frames of the San Cataldo Cemetery columbarium. The exterior surfaces that are penetrated by unglazed openings can also be considered as highly pierced walls (simulating extermination).
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

San Cataldo Cemetery columbarium, Modena, Italy. Rigorous orthogonality.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Pitched portal frames are another example. This structural form integrates with architectural form in the Princess of Wales Conservatory, London. In this building, the architect manipulates basic multi-bay portals

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Princess of Wales Conservatory, London, England. Pitched portal frame variations.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

The form is geometrically simple but enriched with the fine transformations that introduce unevenness. However, unlike most portal frames, the side rafters connect directly to the perimeter foundations, to reduce the buildings visual impact on its surroundings.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

7. Walls
The wall is another structural system capable of participating in the integration of architectural and structural forms. As exemplified by the Faculty of Journalism, Pamplona, walls not only dominate its faades, but also define interior spaces.
Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

Faculty of Journalism, Pamplona, Spain. Walls visually dominate the exterior.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

An interior architecture of walls.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.

The linear form of the walls strengthens the orthogonal architecture they support, enclose and subdivide Careful attention has been paid to surface textures, and lightening of the concrete colour.

Ref.: Andrew W. Charleson, 2005. Structure as Architecture. London: Architectural Press.