3

PROPERTIES OF GASES


3.1 GAS LAWS
To explain the condition of any gas, pressure, volume and temperature are
all considered. A change of any one of the factors affects the others. For a
fixed mass of any gas, relations between the pressure, volume and
temperature are termed gas laws.
3.2 BOYLES LAW
At constant temperature, the volume V of a given mass of gas varies
inversely as the pressure P. The product of the pressure and volume remains
constant. In this case, the gas expands at constant temperature with decrease
of pressure.
So
P
V
1
at constant temperature 3.1
or PV = constant.
3.3 CHARLESS LAW
At constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of gas changes by a
constant fraction |
.
|

\
|
273
1
of its volume at 0C for each unit degree Celsius
rise of temperature.
If V
0
be the volume at 0C and V
t
be the volume at tC then
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + =
273
1 .
273
1
0 0 0
t
V t V V V
t
3.2
Similarly,
at t C, volume V
t
= |
.
|

\
|

273
1
0
t
V
at 273C, volume V
273
= 0
273
273
1
0
= |
.
|

\
|
V
Thus according to the Charless Law at 273C, the volume of any gas
will be equal to zero. But in practical cases it is not true because gases begin
to liquefy and even solidify before it reaches 273C. However, it is
assumed to be true for perfect and ideal gases.










22 ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Absolute temperature : The temperature 273C is called the absolute zero
temperature. If this temperature is taken as zero of a new scale with the
same interval as celsius scale it is called absolute scale of temperature and
the temperature in this scale is called absolute temperature or kelvin (see
Art.1.10) denoted by K. Note that the first letter of kelvin (as unit) is not
capitalize but the first letter is capitalized when it is abbreviated. Also the
degree symbol of K is omitted i.e. instead of writing K, K is to be written as
suggested in 1967 by the International Bureau of Weights and
Measurements.
So TK = t C + 273 3.3
where T and t denote temperature in kelvin and C respectively.
If V
1
and V
2
be the volumes of a given mass of gas at temperatures t
1

and t
2
C respectively, then according to the Charless Law,
|
.
|

\
|
+ = |
.
|

\
|
+ =
273
1 and
273
1
2
0 2
1
0 1
t
V V
t
V V
so
2
1
2
1
2
1

273
273
T
T
t
t
V
V
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
= , from Eq.3.3;
T
1
and T
2
are absolute temperatures.
or constant
2
2
1
1
= =
T
V
T
V
3.4
So the Charless law may be expressed as : At constant pressure the
volume of a given mass of gas is proportional to absolute temperature,
i.e V o T 3.5

Example 3.1 : Two cubic metres of a gas are compressed to a volume of 1.5 m
3
at a
constant pressure of p kN/m
2
gauge when its temperature increases from t C to
2t C. Then the gas is again compressed at a constant temperature to 2t C, when its
pressure and volume become 2p kN/m
2
gauge and 0.8 m
3
. Find the initial
temperature in kelvin and pressure in absolute. The barometer reads 756.6 mm Hg.
At 1 mm Hg = 0.13332 kN/m
2
, so
757.6 mm Hg = 757.6 0.13332 kN/m
2

(i) V
1
= 2 m
3
, V
2
= 1.5 m
3
, T
1
= (t + 273) K, T
2
= (2t + 273)
At the first stage since the gas is compressed at constant pressure,
so by applying Charles law

2
2
1
1
T
V
T
V
= or
273 2
5 . 1
273
2
+
=
+ t t

or t = 54.6 C or T
1
= 54.6 + 273 = 218.4 K
(ii) P
1
= P
2
= (p + 101) kN/m
2
, P
3
= (2p + 101) kN/m
2
, V
3
= 0.8 m
3
.










PROPERTIES OF GASES 23
At the second stage, since the gas is compressed at constant
temperature, so by applying Boyles law
P
2
V
2
= P
3
V
3
or (p + 101) 1.5 = (p + 101) 0.8
or p = 707 kN/m
2
gauge
P
1
= p + 101 = 707 + 101 = 808 kN/m
2
.
3.4 COMBINED GAS LAW
Let P
1
, V
1
, T
1
be the pressure, volume and absolute temperature respectively
of a mass of a gas. Suppose the gas expands and its pressure, volume and
temperature become P', V' , T' respectively. If the expansion takes place at
constant temperature, i.e. if T
1
= T' , then according to the Boyles law :
P
1
V
1
= P'V' (i)
The gas further expands and in this time let its pressure, volume and
temperature be P
2
, V
2
, T
2
. If the expansion takes place at constant pressure,
i.e. if P' = P
2
then according to the Charless Law.

2
2
'
'
T
V
T
V
= or V' = T'
2
2
T
V
(ii)
Putting the value of V' in Eq.(i)
P
1
.V
1
= P'. T'
2
2
.
T
V
= P
2
.
2
2
1
T
V
T since T
1
= T' and P' = P
2

or
2
2 2
1
1 1
T
V P
T
V P
= i.e
T
V P
= constant. 3.6
The constant depends upon the mass of the gas.
Example 3.2 : A certain volume of a gas at N.T.P. is heated until its temperature
becomes 300C and its volume is doubled. Find the final pressure.
P
1
= 1.0133 bar, T
1
= 0 + 273 = 273K
P
2
= ? T
2
= 300 + 273 = 573K

2
2 2
1
1 1
T
V P
T
V P
= or
573
2
273
0133 . 1
1 2 1
V P V
=

or P
2
= 1.06 bar.
3.5 GAS CONSTANT
If unit mass of a gas having a volume v is taken, the equation (3.6) may be
written as R
T
v P
= 3.7
where R is called the gas constant.










24 ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Pv = RT is called the characteristic equation of a prefect gas. If m be the
mass of any quantity of a gas, and V be its volume, then
m
V
is the volume of
unit mass.
So
T
m
V
P
T
Pv
= = R or PV = mRT 3.8
The gas constant for unit mass is different for different gases. In
engineering practice, the volume of 1 kg of a gas is taken. In SI unit R is
expressed in J/kgK and in technical metric unit it is in kgfm/kgK.

Example 3.3 : If one kilogram of air occupies a volume of 0.773 m
3
at normal
temperature and pressure, find the value of gas constant for air.

v = 0.773m
3
, T = 273K, m = 1 kg, R = ?
In SI units
P = 1.0133 bar = 1.0133 10
5
N/m
2

Pv = mRT
or R =
273 1
773 . 0 10 0133 . 1
5

=
mT
Pv
= 286.9 J/kgK.
In technical unit
P = 1.0332 Kgf/cm
2
= 1.0332 10
4
kgf/cm
2

Pv = mRT
or R =
273
773 . 0 10 0332 . 1
4

=
mT
Pv
= 29.26 kgfm/kgK.
3.6 NON FLOW PROCESS
The important non flow process of gases are as follows :
(i) Constant volume process
(ii) Constant pressure process
(iii) Isothermal process
(iv) Polytropic process
(v) Adiabatic process
The energy equation of a non flow process is
Q = U
J
W
+ (See Art 1.16)
where Q denotes heat transferred, W external work, U internal energy.











PROPERTIES OF GASES 25

3.7 CONSTANT VOLUME PROCESS
At constant volume process, the volume of a given mass of a gas remains constant.
(i) Relation between P, V and T
2
2
1
1
T
P
T
P
= = constant, V
1
= V
2
= constant 3.9
(ii) Work done, W = 0; as there is no change in volume.
(iii) Heat transferred, Q = mc
v
(T
2
T
1
) (see Art.1.12),
= U
J
W
+ = 0 + U = U
So heat supplied at constant volume increases its internal energy only i.e. Q = U.

Example 3.4 : A closed vessel contains 5 kg of air at a pressure of 150 kN/m
2
and a
temperature of 30C. It is heated until its pressure becomes 250 kN/m
2
. Find the work done,
heat transferred and the change of internal energy. Take c
v
= 0.72 kJ/kgK.
As it is a closed vessel so heating will be at constant volume.
Work done W = 0
T
1
= 30 + 270 = 303 K

2
2
1
1
T
P
T
P
= or
2
250
303
15
T
= or T
2
= 505 K.
Q = mc
v
(T
2
T
1
) = 5 0.72 (505 303) = 727.2 kJ
Again Q = U = 727.2 kJ
3.8 CONSTANT PRESSURE PROCESS
If heat is transferred to or from a gas at constant pressure, it is called constant
pressure process.
(i) Relation between P, V, and T.
2
2
1
1
T
V
T
V
= = constant, P
1
= P
2
= constant 3.10
(ii) When there is a change in volume from V
1
to V
2
at a constant
pressure P, then from Eq.1.6.
Work done W = P(V
2
V
1
) = mR (T
2
T
1
), from Eq. 3.8.
(iii) Heat transferred Q = mc
p
(T
2
T
1
) (see Art.1.12)
Example 3.5 : How much heat must be supplied to 4 kg of a gas at constant pressure
to rise its temperature from 250C to 600C. Find also the external work done during
the supply of heat. Specific heat at constant pressure c
p
= 1.004 kJ/kgK, R = 286.9
J/kgK.










26 ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
m = 4 kg, t
2
t
1
= T
2
T
1
= 600 250 = 350
Heat supplied, Q = mc
p
(T
2
T
1
) = 4 1.004 350 = 1405.6 kJ.
Work done W = mR (T
2
T
1
) = 4 286.9 350 = 401660 joules.
3.9 INTERNAL ENERGY
Joules law states that the internal energy of a gas is a function of its
temperature only. So the change in internal energy will be directly
proportional to its change of temperature.
Change in internal energy U = a constant (T
2
T
1
) (i)
Q = c
v
(T
2
T
1
) = 0 + U as W = 0
or U = c
v
(T
2
T
1
) = a constant (T
2
T
1
) from Eq.(i)
Hence the constant in Eq.(i) will be equal to c
v
(T
2
T
1
) for unit mass of
a gas.
Therefore for a gas of mass m, the change in internal energy
U
2
U
1
= mc
v
(T
2
T
1
) 3.11
= heat transferred at constant volume
3.10 RELATION BETWEEN c
p
AND c
v

Let a quantity of gas of mass m expands at a constant pressure P from a
volume V
1
to V
2
when temperature (in absolute) increases from T
1
to T
2
.
Now Q = U
J
W
+
or mc
p
(T
2
T
1
) = ) ( ) (
1
1 2 1 2
T T mc T T mR
J
v
+
when heat is supplied at constant pressure
or c
p
=
v
c
J
R
+ 3.12
or c
p
c
v
=
J
R
or (c
p
c
v
) J = R
Denoting =
v
p
c
c
or
v
Jc
R
= 1 or
) 1 (
=
J
R
c
v
(i)
p
Jc
R
=

1
1 (ii)










PROPERTIES OF GASES 27
3.11 ENTHALPY
It is known from Eq.1.18 that the enthalpy of a body,
U
J
PV
H + = (i)
and it is measured from an arbitrary fixed temperature.
For gases it may be taken as 0C or 0K.
Let the enthalpy of a gas of mass m changes from H
1
to H
2
.
The pressure, volume and temperature change from P
1
, V
1
, T
1
to P
2
, V
2
,
T
2
respectively.
So initial enthalpy, H
1
=
J
mRT
T mc
J
V P
U
v
1
1
1 1
1
) 0 ( + = +
and final enthalpy H
2
=
J
mRT
T mc
J
V P
U
v
2
2
2 2
2
) 0 ( + = +
Change in enthalpy
H
2
H
1
= ) ( ) (
1 2 1 2
T T
J
mR
T T mc
v
+
= |
.
|

\
|
+
J
R
c T T m
v
) (
1 2

= m (T
2
T
1
) (c
v
+c
p
c
v
)
= mc
p
(T
2
T
1
) 3.13
= heat transferred at constant pressure.
The above relation is also true for other fluids.

Example 3.6 : Find the change of enthalpy, internal energy and the flow energy of 5
kg of a gas when its temperature increases from 100C to 150C due to heating.
Assume c
p
= 1.005 kJ/kgK, c
v
= 0.71 kJ/kgK.

Change of enthalpy, H
2
H
1
= H = mc
p
(t
2
t
1
)
= 5 1.005 (150 100) = 251.25 kJ.
Change of internal energy
U
2
U
1
= U = mc
v
(t
2
t
1
)
= 5 0.71 (150 100) = 177.5 kJ.
Flow energy U H
PV
=
J
= 251.25 177.5 = 73.75 kJ.










28 ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
3.12 ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
During isothermal process, heat is transferred in such a manner that the
temperature remains constant during the operation. The pressure-volume
diagram being a hyperbola, this is also known as hyperbolic process.
(i) Relation between P, V and T
P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2
= constant, T
1
= T
2
= constant 3.14
(ii) Change of internal energy and enthalpy
As T
2
= T
1
, the changes of internal energy and enthalpy are zero.
(iii) Work done, W =
}
2
1
PdV from equation 1.8
=
} }
=
2
1
2
1
V
dV
k dV
V
k

as PV = P
1
V
1
= k (say), so P =
V
k

W =
1
2
log
V
V
k
e
=
1
2
1 1
log
V
V
V P
e
= mRT log
e
r 3.15
where r is the ratio of expansion.
(i) Heat transferred
Q = U
J
W
+ =
J
W
, as U = 0.
So in this process heat transferred = work done.
If an imperfect gas is compressed isothermally, then according to the
Boyles law, its volume decreases with increase of pressure. But it is
observed that at a particular highest temperature a particular gas begins to
liquefy with increase of pressure. This constant highest temperature at which
a gas may liquefy by means of pressure alone is called its critical
temperature. The minimum pressure necessary to liquefy a gas at its critical
temperature is called critical pressure. The volume occupied by unit mass of
a gas at its critical temperature and pressure is called the critical volume of
the gas.
Thus a gas may be defined as any substance at the gaseous state above
its critical temperature. Otherwise it is a vapour.

Example 3.7 : Two kg of gas at an initial temperature of 300 K are expanded
isothermally due to the supply of heat. If the ratio of expansion is 3, find (a) the final
temperature, (b) work done, (c) heat transferred and (d) change of enthalpy. Assume
c
p
and c
v
of the gas as 1.005 kJ/kgK and 0.718 kJ/kgK respectively.
(a) As it is an isothermal expansion,










PROPERTIES OF GASES 29
so its initial temperature = final temperature = 300 K = 27C.
R = c
p
c
v
= 1.005 0.718 = 0.287 kJ/kgK
Ratio of expansion r =
1
2
V
V
= 3 and PV = mRT
(b) W = mRT log
e
r
= 2 0.287 300 log
e
3 = 189.2 kJ.
(c) W = Q = 189.2 kJ.
(d) As T
2
= T
1
, so
H
2
H
1
= Q = mc
p
(T
2
T
1
) = 0
3.13 POLYTROPIC PROCESS
In the polytropic process, volume and temperature do not remain constant and
there is an interchange of heat between the gas and the surroundings. So it may be
considered as a general process and all other processes may be taken as special
types of this process.
It follows the law PV
n
= constant 3.16
The relation between P and V of different processes may be deduced from
Eq.3.16. When
(a) n = 0, PV
n

= PV
0
= P = constant
It is a constant pressure process denoted by OB.
(b) n = 1, PV
n

= PV
1
= PV = constant
It is an isothermal process denoted by OC.
(c) n = , PV
n

= PV

= constant
It is an adiabatic process denoted by OD.
(d) n = , PV
n

= constant or P
1/n
V = constant
or P
1/
V = P
0
V = V = constant
It is a constant volume process denoted by OA
(i) Relation between pressure, temperature
and volume
P
1
V
1
n
= P
2
V
2
n
= constant
(i)
and
2
2 2
1
1 1
T
V P
T
V P
= = constant
(ii)
The second equation is also a general equation applicable to any
process.
Dividing the Eq. (i) by Eq.(ii) we get
T
1
V
1
n1
= T
2
V
2
n1
= constant 3.17
Fig. 3.1 Expansion of gases










30 ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
From Eq.(ii) we get

n n
T
V P
T
V P
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
2
2 2
1
1 1
= constant (iii)
Now dividing Eq.(i) by Eq.(iii) we get

n n n n
P T P T
1
2 2
1
1 1
= = constant
or
n n n n
P T P T
/ ) 1 (
2 2
/ ) 1 (
1 1
= = constant 3.18

n n n
P
P
V
V
T
T
/ ) 1 (
1
2
1
2
1
1
2

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= 3.19
(ii) Work done W =
}
2
1
PdV =
}
2
1
dV
V
k
n
,
Taking
n n n
PV k V P V P = = =
2 2 1 1
or
n
V
k
P =
= k
2
1
1
1
2
1
V
V
n
n
n
V
k dV V
(
(

+
=
+

}
= | |
1
1
1
2
1
+ +

+
n n
V V
n
k

=
n
kV kV
n n

+ +
1
1
1
1
2

substituting for k =
n n
V P V P
2 2 1 1
= we get
W =
1 1
2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2

n
V P V P
n
V P V P
3.20
(iii) Heat transferred
Q = U
J
W
+ = ) (
) 1 (
) (
1 2
1 2
T T mc
n J
T T mR
v
+

Example 3.8 : Two cubic metres of a gas at a pressure of 6864.655 kPa expand to a volume
of 18 m
3
and a pressure of 441.3 kPa according to the law PV
n
= constant, find the value of
n.

n n
V P V P
2 2 1 1
=
Taking logarithms on both sides of the equation,










PROPERTIES OF GASES 31
log P
1
+ n log V
1
= log P
2
+ n log V
2

log P
1
log P
2
= n (log V
2
log V
1
)
n =
2
18
log
3 . 441
655 . 6864
log
log
log
1
2
2
1
=
V
V
P
P
= 1.249
Example 3.9 : Five hundred litres of air at 600 kN/m
2
expand to atmospheric pressure
according to the PV
1.35
= constant.
Find (a) the work done, (b) heat transferred and (c) change of enthalpy during the
process if the barometer reads 765 mm Hg. Assume = 1.4.
As 760 mm Hg = 101.325 kN/m
2

so 765 mm Hg =
760
325 . 101 765
= 102 kN/m
2

P
1
= 600 kN/m
2
, P
2
= 102 kN/m
2
, V
1
= 500 litres = 0.5 m
3


35 . 1
2 2
35 . 1
1 1
V P V P = or 600 0.5
1.35
= 102 V
2
1.35
or V
2
= 1.858 m
3

(a) W =
1
2 2 1 1

n
V P V P
=
1 35 . 1
858 . 1 102 5 . 0 600

= 315.668 kJ
(b) Q =
1

n
.W =
1 4 . 1
35 . 1 4 . 1

315.668 = 39.458 kJ
(c) H
2
H
1
=
1

(P
2
V
2
P
1
V
1
) =
1 4 . 1
4 . 1

(102 1.858 600 0.5)

= 386.694 kJ
3.14 ADIABATIC PROCESS
In an adiabatic process there is no interchange of heat between the gas and the
surroundings. But the total amount of heat in the gas may not be constant, because
some portion of it may be converted into work.
(i) Relation between P, V and T

2 2 1 1
V P V P = = constant, where
v
p
c
c
= 3.21
1
2 2
1
1 1

=

V T V T = constant 3.22
/ ) 1 (
2 2
/ ) 1 (
1 1

= P T P T = constant 3.23










32 ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
/ ) 1 (
1
2
1
2
1
1
2

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
P
P
V
V
T
T
3.24
(ii) Work done W =
1
2 2 1 1

V P V P
3.25
(iii) Heat absolute, Q = 0
Again Q = U
J
W
+ or 0 = U
J
V P V P
+

) 1 (
2 2 1 1

U =
J
W
J
V P V P
=

) 1 (
1 1 2 2

3.26
So, in adiabatic process, the change of internal energy is numerically equal to
work done.
Example 3.10 : 120 litres of a gas at a pressure of 10 bar expand adiabatically to a volume
of 500 litres. Find (a) work done, (b) change of internal energy, (c) change of enthalpy and
(d) heat transferred. Take the specific heat of the gas at constant pressure 1.4 times the
specific heat at constant volume.
V
1
= 120 litres = 0.12 m
3
, V
2
= 500 litres = 0.5 m
3
,
P
1
= 10 bar = 10 10
2
kN/m
2
, =
v
p
c
c
= 1.4

2 2 1 1
V P V P = or
4 . 1
2
4 . 1
5 . 0 12 . 0 10 = P or P
2
= 1.356 bar
(a) W =
1
2 2 1 1

V P V P
=
1 4 . 1
5 . 0 10 356 . 1 12 . 0 10 10
2 2

= 130.5 kJ
(b) U
2
U
1
= W = 130.5 kJ
(c) Change of enthalpy, H
2
H
1
= (U
2
U
1
) = 1.4 (130.5) = 182.7 kJ
(d) Heat transferred Q = 0
Example 3.11 : With no transferred of heat, 0.5 kg of gas is compressed in such a
manner that the ratio of final pressure to initial pressure becomes 5.25. If the initial
temperature is 100C, find (a) the final temperature, (b) the work done and (c) the
change of internal energy. Assume = 1.4 and R = 287 J/kgK.
M = 0.5 kg, T
1
= 100 + 273 = 373 K, P
2
/ P
1
= 5.25
(a)
/ ) 1 (
1
2
1
2

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
P
P
T
T
or ( )
4 . 1 / ) 1 4 . 1 ( 2
25 . 5
373

=
T
= 1.606
or T
2
= 1.606 373 = 599 K = 326C
(b) Work done










PROPERTIES OF GASES 33
W =
1
) (
2 1

T T mR
=
1 4 . 1
) 599 373 ( 287 5 . 0

= 81.07 kJ
The negative sign indicates the work is done upon the gas.

(c) Change in internal energy
U
2
U
1
= - W = 81.07 kJ
Example 3.12 : An oxygen cylinder with a capacity of 10 m
3
contains oxygen at a
temperature of 20C and a pressure of 9806.65 kPa abs. if 20 kg of oxygen has been
pumped into it at a constant temperature of 20C, find the increase in pressure. Take
density of oxygen at NTP as 1.429 kg/m
3
.
V = 10m
3
, T = 273 + 20 = 293 K
P = 9806.65 kPa
Mass of oxygen pumped into the cylinder is 20 kg, its volume at NTP,
V
0
=
429 . 1
20
= 13.996 m
3
, when T
0
= 273K and P
0
= 101.332kPa, its
volume be V' (say)
When T' = T = 293K and P' = P =9806.65 kPa
so
0
0 0
'
' '
T
V P
T
V P
= or
273
996 . 13 332 . 101
293
' 9806.65
=
V

or
273 65 . 9806
293 996 . 13 332 . 101
'

= V = 0.1552m
3

Let equivalent volume V
1
= V + V' = 10 + 0.1552 = 10.1552 m
3
when
pressure P
1
= P = 9806.65 kPa. Now let it be assumed that V
1
be compressed
to V
2
at a constant temperature T.
Where V
2
= V = 10 m
3
.
So by applying Boyles Law
P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2
or 9806.65 kPa 10.1552 = P
2
10 or P
2
= 9958.85kPa.
Increase in pressure = 9958.85 9806.65 = 152 kPa.
Example 3.13 : A tank contains acetylene at 200 kN/m
2
abs. and 27C. After some
acetylene was used, the pressure was 140 kN/m
2
abs. and temperature was 25C.
What percentage of acetylene was used?
P = 200 kN/m
2
, T = 27 + 273 = 300 K,
P' = 140 kN/m
2
, T' = 25 + 273 = 298 K.
Now
'
' '
T
V P
T
PV
= or
298
' 140
300
200 V V
=

34 ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
=

=
300 140
298 200
'
V
V 1.419V.
Acetylene used = V' V = 1.419V V = 0.419V.
Percentage of acetylene used =
419 . 1
100 419 . 0
= 29.53.
Example 3.14 : One cubic of air at 10 bar is expanded hyperbolically until its
volume becomes 4.5 m
3
. Then it is heated at constant volume until it comes to the
original pressure. Find the work done, change of internal energy and heat transferred
during the whole process. Take = 1.4.
V
1
= 1 m
3
, V
2
= 4.5 m
3
, P
1
= 10 bar,
Refer Fig. 3.2.
(a) During hyperbolically expansion at 12
As hyperbolic process of gas is also an
isothermal process, so T
1
= T
2
.
U
12
= mc
v
(T
1
T
2
) = 0
W
12
= area 12ba =
1
2
1 1
log
V
V
V P
e
= 10
10
2
1
1
5 . 4
log
e

= 1504.08 kJ.
Q
12
= W
12

= 1504.08 kJ
P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2
or 10 1 = P
2
4.5 or P
2
= 2.222 bar
(b) During constant volume heating at 23
V
2
= V
3
= 4.5 m
3
, P
3
= P
1
= 10 bar,

) 1 (
2 2 3 3
23

V P V P
U =
) 1 4 . 1 (
5 . 4 10 222 . 2 5 . 4 10 10
2 2

= 8750.25 kJ.
W
23
= 0, Q
23
= U
23
= 8750.25 kJ
Example 3.15 : A closed cylinder made of non-
conducting materials except its right had end,
contains a frictionless non-conducting movable
piston at the middle. Left hand side of the
cylinder contains a heating coil. On each side of
the piston there is 1 m
3
of air at 0.5 MN/m
2
.
Heat is supplied to the air in the left hand side
until the piston has compressed the other side to
1.2 MN/m
2
when its volume becomes 0.51 m
3
.
How much heat is rejected by the right hand side
and how much heat is added to the left hand side
? Assume = 1.41. Fig. 3.3 shows the system.
Fig. 3.2

Fig. 3.3










PROPERTIES OF GASES 35
Let the state of the gas at the right hand side be denoted by the subscript
r and that of the left hand side by l.
P
r1
= P
l1
= 0.5 MN/m
3
, P
r2
= P
l2
= 1.2 MN/m
3
V
r1
= V
l1
= 1m
3
,

V
r2
= 0.51m
3

At the right hand side, let the compression takes place according to the
law PV
n
= constant. P
r1
V
r1
n
= P
r2
V
r2
n
or 0.5 1
n
= 1.2 0.51
n

or log 0.5 = log 1.2 + n log 0.51 or n = 1.3
Work done upon the air of the right hand side
W
r
=
1
2 2 1 1

n
V P V P
r r r r
=
1 3 . 1
10 ) 51 . 0 2 . 1 1 5 . 0 (
3

= 373.333 kJ
Heat transferred at the right hand side
Q
r
=
1

n
W
r
=
1 41 . 1
3 . 1 41 . 1

( 373.333) = 100.16 kJ
So heat rejected at the right hand side = 100.16 kJ
At the left hand side, let the expansion takes place according to the law
PV
n
= constant.
Volume of the cylinder excluding the piston,
V = V
r1
+ V
l1
= 1 + 1 = 2 m
3

so V
l2
= V V
r2
= 2 0.51 = 1.49 m
3

P
l1
V
l1
n
= P
l2
V
l2
n
or 0.5 1
n
= 1.2 1.49
n
Log 0.5 = log 1.2 + n log 1.49 or n = 2.195
W
l
=
1
2 2 1 1

n
V P V P
l l l l
=
1 195 . 2
10 ) 49 . 1 2 . 1 1 5 . 0 (
3


= 403.13
Heat transferred at the left hand side
Q
l
=
1

n
W
l
=
1 41 . 1
195 . 2 41 . 1

+
403.13 = 3544.6 kJ
So heat added at the left hand side = 3544.6 kJ

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Deduce the expression
T
PV
= constant with the help of Boyles Law and Charless Law.
2. What is the physical significance of gas constant?
3. What is the difference between isothermal process and adiabatic process?
4. Critical temperature of steam is 374.5C. Express this temperature in Kelvin (K). 647.5K.
5. A vessel contains 50 litres of air at a pressure of 10 bar. If one-fifth of the air is removed,
what will be the pressure of the remaining air, the temperature being unaltered. 8 bar.
6. An air receiver has a volume of 0.5 m
3
and contains air at a pressure of 2
kgf/cm
2
abs. and at a temperature of 15C. Taking specific volume of air as










36 ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
0.773 m
3
/kg at NTP, find the pressure in the receiver at 15C, after 1 kg of
additional air has been pumped into it. 1.684 kgf/cm
2
.
7. A balloon of 1500 m
3
capacity rises from the ground to a certain height. During this time
the pressure falls from 98.06 kPa abs. to 58.84 kPa abs., and the temperature decreases
from 40C to 27C. If the balloon be filled with hydrogen, what amount of it must be let
out during the ascent in order that no stresses might develop in the material of the
balloon? Assume the density of hydrogen at NTP to be 0.0899 kg/m
3
. 42.57 kg.
8. Determine the gas constant for hydrogen if the specific volume of hydrogen at NTP is
11.13 m
3
/kg. Also find the two specific heats of the above gas, assuming the ratio of the
two specific heats as 1.407. 4.13 kJ/kgK, 14.23 kJ/kgK, 10.13 kJ/kgK.
9. What is the mass of 0.29 m
3
of a gas at a pressure of 5 bar absolute and 47C? What will
be the temperature of this air if the volume changes to 0.5 m
3
and the pressure rises to 8
bar absolute? Assume the characteristic gas constant for air as 0.29 kJ/kgK.1.56kg,
611.2C.
10. Eleven kilogram of a gas occupy a volume of 1.65 m
3
at a temperature of 127C. Find the
pressure of this gas, if the characteristic gas constant R is 294 J/kgK. What will be the
volume if this amount of gas is heated at constant pressure to 900C ? 7.85 bar, 4.84m
3
.
11. Ten kilogram of air are compressed adiabatically from 1.5 bar and 18C to 10.5 bar and
then cooled at constant pressure to the original temperature. The air is then expanded
adiabatically to the original pressure. Find the temperature after compression, the final
temperature and calculate the heat extracted during cooling at constant pressure. Take =
1.4, and c
p
= 1.005 kJ/kgK. 234.8C, 106.2C, 2178.8 kJ.
12. One kilogram of gas at a temperature of 200C expands adiabatically to three times the
original volume. Find the work done. c
p
= 1.005 kJ/kgK and c
v
= 0.71 kJ/kgK. 122 kJ.
13. Find the heat absorbed by 1 kg of gas when it expands at a constant temperature of 30C
from a pressure of 980.665 kPa to a pressure of 147.1 kPa. c
p
= 0.996 kJ/kgK and c
v
=
0.7074 kJ/kgK. 166.01 kJ.
14. Two kilogram of air at a pressure of 686.465 kPa occupy a volume of 0.3 cubic metres.
The air expands to a volume of 1.5 cubic metre. Find the final temperature and work done
if it follows the law PV
1.2
= constant. R = 286.45 J/kgK. 12.4C, 283587 J.
15. Two kilogram of a gas at 100C are heated to twice its original volume at constant
pressure. Find what fraction of the heat supplied is converted to work done and what
fraction is absorbed as internal energy. The gas constant for the gas is 260 J/kgK and ratio
of specific heats is 1.4. 0.286, 0.714.
16. A certain quantity of a gas at a pressure of 980.665 kPa expands from a volume of 0.5m
3

to 1.2m
3
. Find the amount of heat supplied and change of internal energy when it expands
(a) isothermally and (b) adiabatically. = 1.4. (a) 429.04 kJ, 0, (b) 0, 362.7 kJ.
17. Calculate the enthalpy of 5 kg of a gas that occupy a volume of 10 m
3
at 1471 kPa abs. if
its internal energy is 2511.48 kJ per kg. 27262.11 kJ.