Fuel

Fuel, a substance used to produce light, heat, or power. Most fuel materials unite chemically with oxygen to give off light and substantial quantities of heat. In nuclear reactors large amounts of energy are obtained by splitting the atoms of a fuel material.
Charcoal; Coal; Coke; Fuel Oil; Gas, Fuel; Gasoline; Lignite; Nuclear Energy; Peat; Petroleum.

History

The earliest fuels used by Stone Age man were wood, shrubs, dried bones, and dung. Oils from birds and fish were burned with wicks in stone lamps to give light. Later, wood was baked to form charcoal, which was the fuel for all ancient industrial processes. Greek and Roman civilizations used lignite and peat as fuel. Although coal from outcroppings was used for fuel in a few areas, it was not until the 13th century A.D. in northern Europe that it was actually mined for use as a fuel. Coke, which is produced from coal, was introduced during the 1800s as a fuel for the production of steel. Petroleum became important during the mid-1800s with the increased use of petroleum products such as kerosene for light.The industry expanded rapidly, and with the introduction of the automobile and the internal-combustion engine, gasoline, another petroleum product, became of primary importance. In the late 1800s manufactured gases came into use for lighting streets, homes, and factories, and later for heating. Since the mid-1900s manufactured gases have been mostly replaced by natural gas. Nuclear energy was first used for the experimental production of power in 1951 in the United States, and the first commercial nuclear power plant was started up in 1956 in Britain. Since then nuclear energy has played an increasingly important role in world power production. The changeover from use of one major type of fuel to another has occurred at widely different times in different parts of the world. For example, in some Asian countries dried dung is still the main fuel, while the United States has changed from wood, which was used until the late 1800s, to coal, which predominated until the mid-1900s, to oil and gas. In the future nuclear energy will likely be the main source of power.

Heating Values of Fuels

The heating value of a fuel refers to the amount of heat obtained from the burning of a unit weight of fuel. The heating value may be expressed in terms of British thermal units per pound (Btu/lb). For gases and liquids, it is generally more convenient to express heating value in terms of volume rather than weight. For example, the heating value of kerosene would be given in Btu/gal, while natural gas would be measured in terms of Btu/cu ft. In the metric system, the heating value is stated in terms of calories per gram. In some cases the heating value is expressed in terms of the therm, which is a unit equal to 100,000 Btu (105 Btu). Because of the vastly greater heating values of nuclear fuels, it has been found convenient to use a new unit, Q, which is equal to 1018 Btu.

Gross Heating Values of Fuels

Type of Fuel Natural gas Refinery gas Water gas Coke oven gas Gasoline Kerosene Heavy fuel oil (No. 5) Wood (pine) Peat Lignite Charcoal Coke Bituminous coal Heating Value 1,060 Btu/cu ft 1,500 Btu/cu ft 290 Btu/cu ft 575 Btu/cu ft 130,000 Btu/gal 137,000 Btu/gal 148,000 Btu/gal 8,000 Btu/lb 5,1009,300 Btu/lb 6,0007,400 Btu/lb 13,500 Btu/lb 12,500 Btu/lb 7,90015,000

Type of Fuel Anthracite coal Nuclear Reactions: Uranium-235 Nuclear Reactions: D2O Nuclear Reactions: LiH

Heating Value 9,00014,100 Btu/lb 3.5 x 1010 Btu/lb 0.7 x 1010 Btu/lb 9.0 x 1010 Btu/lb

Heating values are classified as the high and low values. The high, or gross, heating value is equal to the heat generated when any water formed by combustion is condensed and other products of combustion are brought to the initial conditions of temperature and pressure. The low, or net, heating value assumes that no condensation of water vapor occurs. The two quantities thus differ by the heat of vaporization of the water formed in the combustion process; in the case of hydrocarbons in the gasoline range, the difference between the two values amounts to about 7% or 8%. The lighter hydrocarbons exhibit an even greater difference, while the heavier hydrocarbons show less of a difference.
Types of Fuel
Solid Fuels

This group of fuels includes wood and a continuum of products resulting from the modification of wood and other organic materials by heat and pressure over great periods of time. Although there are no sharp dividing lines between these products, it is convenient to grade them according to properties. As the grades improve from wood to meta-anthracite, there are trends in properties and composition. For example, the content of moisture, volatile matter, and oxygen decreases from high levels in wood, peat, and lignite, to low levels in anthracite and meta-anthracite. On the other hand, the concentration of fixed carbon and carbon characteristically increases with higher rank. Heating values are higher for the intermediate ranksbituminous coalsbut this is probably because these substances have a lower ash content. Since they contain less ash, there is more combustible fuel available per unit weight.

The content of volatile matter, ash, and sulfur in a fuel is important with respect to air pollution. The properties of the ash, particularly its fusibility, are important in determining the degree of fouling that will be encountered in various types of burning equipment. The lower ranks of fuelwood, peat, and ligniteshow very low heating values. For economic reasons, these fuels cannot be transported for any appreciable distances. However, such fuels are useful in the areas in which they are produced. Thus peat bogs supply large quantities of fuel in Ireland, and a nearby source of lignite is the main fuel for an aluminum plant in Texas.
Liquid Fuels

Petroleum and natural gas are the sources of practically all liquid fuels. Crude petroleum varies from a heavy tarry substance with a density greater than water to a colorless or straw-colored liquid similar to gasoline. Because of this variation in properties, petroleum is normally distilled and separated into fractions, including gasoline, kerosene, diesel oils, jet engine fuels,fuel oils, and lubricating oil. Heavy residues of lower quality crude oil are frequently decomposed to coke and cracked products. An increasing amount of oil is being used as raw material for chemical products, such as plastics, although most of the oil produced is used as fuel. Each of the liquid fuels mentioned must meet certain specifications. Gasoline must be volatile enough to vaporize sufficiently to allow a motor to start at low temperatures, but not so volatile that it vaporizes in the carburetor and causes vapor lock. It also must not foul the engine with gum or other deposits. Kerosene is used largely as an illuminating oil, and it must vaporize and burn cleanly. It must also be safe to store and use. In this case safety depends on the flash point of the substance. Diesel oils must burn without substantial residue, and those used in high-speed engines must avoid ignition delay.Fuels for jet engines must allow the engine to operate under severe conditions and pressures and start as well as deliver power under these adverse conditions.
Gaseous Fuels

In the past most fuel gases were produced from coal, oil, or wood. However, these manufactured gases are now used only to a slight extent; they have

been replaced by natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), with a substantial improvement in economy and safety.
Rocket Fuels

Rocket fuels are classified as solid, liquid, or hybrid. All such fuels have a high available energy content per unit of weight and volume. Solid rocket fuels consist of a combustible substance, such as synthetic rubber, which is mixed with an oxidizer, usually ammonium perchlorate, and suitable accelerators. Early solid fuels often contained Thiokol, a form of polysulfide polymer.Other materials may be added to provide specific ignition behavior and physical properties. Powdered metals, such as lithium and aluminum, are frequently added to increase the energy per pound of fuel. The rate of burning of a solid fuel is determined by its chemical properties, its shape, and the amount of surface area exposed for burning, as well as the conduction of heat through the fuel. Once the reaction has started, it cannot be controlled, which is a serious disadvantage in the use of solid rocket fuels. In a bi-liquid propellant system a liquid fuel is mixed at the nozzle with an oxidizer. The fuel may be a petroleum fraction or any of various amines or hydrazines, or a mixture of the last two. Oxidizers include liquid oxygen and nitrogen tetroxide. A third type of rocket fuel system is known as a hybrid. It consists of a solid fuel, such as Thiokol. The fuel also contains an oxidizer, such as ammonium perchlorate, but this oxidizer is not present in quantities great enough to support combustion, and an oxidizing fluid, which may be gaseous or liquid, is added to supply the remainder of the desired oxidizer. Normally, the fuelwill also contain metal powder and other materials to accelerate burning. The burning of the hybrid fuel system can be better regulated than the burning of a solid fuel system.

Stages of Transformation of Vegetal Matter into Coal

Analysis on dry basis

Fuel Classificati on by Rank

Moistur e (as receive d)

VM FC

As h

H2 C

N 2 O2

Heatin g Value Btu (dry basis) 8,835 9,057 11,038 10,598 12,096 12,902 13,063 13,388 14,396 15,178 15,000 13,142 12,737

Wood Peat Lignite Subbituminous C Subbituminous B Subbituminous A Bituminous High Volatile C Bituminous High Volatile B Bituminous High Volatile A Bituminous Medium Volatile Bituminous Low Volatile Semianthracite Anthracite

46.9 64.3 36.0 22.3 15.3 12.8 12.0 8.6 1.4 3.4 3.6 5.2 5.4

78. 1 67. 3 49. 8 40. 4 39. 7 39. 0 38. 9 35. 4 34. 3 22. 2 16. 0 11. 0 7.4

20. 4 22. 7 38. 1 44. 7 53. 6 55. 2 53. 9 56. 2 59. 2 74. 9 79. 1 74. 2 75.

1.5 10. 0 12. 1 14. 9 6.7 5.8 7.2 8.4 6.5 2.9 4.9 14. 8 16.

6. 0 0. 4 1. 8 3. 4 2. 7 0. 4 0. 6 1. 8 1. 3 0. 6 0. 8 2. 2 0. 5. 3 4. 0 4. 1 5. 2 5. 2 5. 0 4. 8 5. 2 4. 9 4. 8 3. 4 2.

51. 4 52. 2 64. 7 61. 7 67. 3 73. 1 73. 1 74. 6 79. 5 86. 4 85. 4 76. 4 76.

0. 1 1. 8 1. 9 1. 3 1. 9 0. 9 1. 5 1. 5 1. 4 1. 6 1. 5 0. 5 0.

41. 0 30. 3 15. 5 14. 6 16. 2 14. 6 12. 6 8.9 6.1 3.6 2.6 2.7 2.3

Analysis on dry basis Fuel Classificati on by Rank Moistur e (as receive d) VM FC As h S H2 C N 2 O2 Heatin g Value Btu (dry basis)

9 Meta-Anthracite 4.5 3.2 82. 4

7 14. 4

8 0. 9

6 0. 5

8 82. 4

8 0. 1 1.7 11,624

Abbreviations used: VM = Volatile Matter; FC = Fixed Carbon; S = Sulfur; H2 = Hydrogen; C = Carbon; N2 = Nitrogen; O2 = Oxygen
Nuclear Energy

With nuclear energy vast amounts of energy are obtainable from small masses of fuel. This energy may be produced in two ways: in fission the energy is obtained from the breaking up of large atoms, while in fusion larger atoms are produced by the union of two or more smaller atoms. The splitting of an atom of uranium-235 into several fragments is an example of fission, while the combination of four hydrogen atoms to form an atom of helium is a fusion reaction. All nuclear plants generate power from fission reactions. All nuclear fuel used in power plants consists of uranium-238 enriched with enough uranium-235 to allow continuous reaction.Plutonium derived from this mixture of uranium isotopes is also used as a fuel. Products that poison the reaction build up with use, so that when the fuel is 40 to 50% used, it must be replaced. Although fusion reactions are used in nuclear explosives, the controlled use of fusion reactions for the generation of power presents serious problems. The greatest difficulty is in designing a reactor capable of enclosing a very dense gas at a temperature of 100,000,000 K. If this type of reaction can be harnessed tremendous amounts of electricity can be produced very inexpensively. Also, with fusion reactions there are no radioactive wastes as there are with standard fission power plants.

World Fuel Reserves

As supplies of the richest and most easily extracted fuels are depleted, it becomes necessary to use lower grade fuels, which are uneconomical, and fuels made expensive by the high cost of extraction. Eventually, either the fuel supply becomes depleted or the cost of the fuel becomes prohibitive. In the early 1970s the world annual rate of energy consumption amounted to approximately 1.5 1017 Btu. This includes energy produced from all types of fuel. There are known fuel reserves that would be available at or near current prices amounting to about 147 Q (147 1018 Btu). At the current rate of consumption these known reserves would last about 1,000 years. However, there are also much less optimistic estimates as to how long these known fuel reserves will last. If the rate offuel consumption continues to increase, it has been estimated that the annual energy consumption of the world could reach 1 Q (1018 Btu) a year by the year 2000. If this figure is correct, there will be a crisis in energy production much sooner than had been anticipated. Of the fossil fuels the world's reserves of coal are the greatest. By some estimates, these reserves will provide enough coal for several hundred years. The known reserves of oil and natural gas are much lower, and the supply of these fuels, which are being used at an increasing rate, will be depleted relatively quickly. Of the fuels now in use, the nuclear fuels uranium and thorium

World Fuel Reserves

(Million metric tons)

Energy Source Coal: Bituminous coal/anthracite

Proved Reserves in Place 1,190,840

Estimated Recoverable Additional Proved Reserves Resources 521,318 517,769 25,063 3,835,228 4,396,686 353,188 n.a.

Coal: Sub-bituminous coal/lignite 740,587 Coal: Peat Oil: Crude oil 260,721 135,459

Energy Source Oil: Oil shale Bituminous sands Natural gas1 Uranium2

Proved Reserves in Place

Estimated Recoverable Additional Proved Reserves Resources 12,675 848 128,739 846,5703 n.a. n.a. n.a. 1,257,720

Gas, Fuel
Gas, Fuel.Gaseous fuels are of major importance both as sources of energy and as raw materials for the manufacture of many industrial chemicals. The most important fuel gas is natural gas, which is transported and stored both as a gas and as a liquid called liquefied natural gas (LNG). The other fuel gases are liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), which is derived from the processing of

natural gas and petroleum, and the manufactured gases, such as coke-oven gas, coal gas, and water gas, which are obtained from the treatment of coal, coke, or petroleum.
Measurement

Fuel gases are usually metered and sold by volume (cubic feet or cubic meters). Liquefied gases are sold by weight (pounds or kilograms) or capacity (gallons or liters). Since the amount of gas in a cubic foot depends on the pressure and temperature of the gas, the volume of gas as measured by meter must be corrected from actual cubic feet to standard cubic feet (scf) that is, to the number of cubic feet the gas would occupy at an absolute pressure of 14.7 pounds per square inch (1,030 grams/sq cm) and a temperature of 60 F (15.6 C). The volume of gas produced from a well is usually stated in thousands of standard cubic feet, or meters, per day (Mcfd). Larger gas quantities flowing through pipelines are expressed in millions of scf per day (MMcfd), while gas reserves are often given in trillions of scf.
Heating Values

Since most gas is used for heating, the heating value of a fuel gas is one of its most important properties. The heating value is the quantity of heat released when 1.0 standard cubic foot of gas is burned in air. In the gross heating value, which is the value usually given, any water vapor formed by combustion is condensed to a liquid, and other products of combustion are returned to the initial conditions of temperature and pressure. If the water formed is not condensed, the result is called the net heating value. Heating values are expressed in terms of British thermal units per standard cubic foot, Btu/scf.
Flammability Limits

The flammability limits of mixtures of gas and air are important in terms of efficiency and safety. Certain mixtures of gas and air will burn readily; others will not burn at all. Thus there is a lower and an upper flammability limit that may be expressed as volume percent of fuel gas in air. For example, mixtures of methane and air will burn if the methane concentration is between 5% and 15%.

Natural Gas

Natural gas is the most widely used and least expensive of the fuel gases. It is found throughout the world in reservoirs under land and offshore waters, alone and in association with crude oil. The growth of the natural gas industry has been rapid and worldwide. Discoveries of giant gas fields, improvements in pipelines, and the use of liquefied natural gas have all contributed to this growth. Natural gas now supplies over 20% of the world's total energy requirements, and its use is increasing. In the United States one third of the total energy used is supplied by natural gas. As the use of natural gas has increased, demand for manufactured gases has decreased.
Uses

Natural gas is used as a fuel to produce heat and light and as a raw material for the production of chemicals. As a fuel, natural gas is used for many household appliances, including stoves, furnaces, hot-water heaters, air conditioners, clothes dryers, refrigerators, incinerators, and garbage disposers. The chemicals produced from natural gas include antifreeze, detergents, fertilizer, herbicides, pesticides, plastics, solvents, and synthetic fibers. Carbon black, acetylene, and ethylene are also made from natural gas. Air and natural gas are used to make ammonia, urea, nitric acid, and methanol.
Origin

Natural gas probably was formed from the decay of organic matter. Large accumulations of plant and animal remains were buried under layers of sediment on the floors of the ancient oceans. Over long periods of time, pressure from the many layers of overlying sediment and heat from the core of the earth converted the organic materials into coal, petroleum, and natural gas.

Occurrence

Natural gas is found deep within the earth, usually under thousands of feet of sedimentary rock layers in areas called sedimentary basins. Since the density of the gas is less than that of the surrounding rock, the gas tends to rise through pores and fissures in the rock until it becomes trapped underneath an impermeable rock layer called caprock. There are many types of geological traps. One of the simplest is the anticline, a caprock that is concave downwards. The gas is contained in porous, permeable rock, such as sandstone, limestone, or dolomite. The impervious layer of caprock may be composed of shale or anhydrite.

Composition

Natural gas contains several different gases in proportions that vary from basin to basin. It consists mostly of methane, CH4, a saturated hydrocarbon compound. Other components include heavier saturated hydrocarbons, such as propane and butane; cycloparaffins, such as cyclohexane and methyl cyclohexane; aromatic hydrocarbons, such as benzene and toluene; carbon dioxide; hydrogen sulfide; water; and gaseous elements, including helium, argon, and nitrogen. None of these gaseous elements supports combustion; hence they tend to reduce the heating ability of the gas when they are present. Although helium is present only in small quantities, natural gas is the only commercial source of the element. Carbon dioxide, CO2, is frequently present in natural gas. The amount is usually small, but since it is noncombustible, it is removed at the wellhead by chemical absorption. Hydrogen sulfide, H2S, is a component of natural gas in many reservoirs. Gas containing this compound is called sour gasbecause of its strong odor. Gas that is free of hydrogen sulfide is called sweet gas. Hydrogen sulfide, which is poisonous and corrosive, is removed from natural gas by chemical

absorption. Significant quantities of by-product elemental sulfur have been recovered from the hydrogen sulfide in natural gas. Water, either as a liquid or as a gas, is present in all natural gas reservoirs. In the presence of liquid water, natural gas can form solids, known as hydrates, which resemble ice. For example, methane and water form a hydrate at 15.6 C (60 F) under a pressure of 140 kg/sq cm (2,000 pounds per sq inch). Approximately four water molecules combine with one methane molecule to form the methane hydrate. Water leads to pipeline corrosion. Hydrates are troublesome because they plug up pipes. A typical sweet gas contains 82% methane, 4% ethane, 3% propane, 3% butane, 2% hexane, and 5% heptane and heavier hydrocarbons. A typical sour gas contains 52% methane, 8% ethane, 11% propane, 10% butane, 5% pentane, 3% hexane, 2% heptane and heavier hydrocarbons, and 9% hydrogen sulfide. By the time the gas reaches the pipeline it has been treated for the removal of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide. The heavy hydrocarbons have been removed to make natural gasoline, and most of the propane and butane has been taken out to be sold as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Such a gas might consist of 93% methane, 5% ethane, and 2% propane.
Properties

Purified natural gas is colorless and odorless. It is usually given an odor by the addition of sulfur-containing compounds calledmercaptans. The strong mercaptan odor makes it possible to detect a very small gas leak before the gas forms an explosive mixture with the air. The specific gravity of a typical natural gas, which is the ratio of the density of the gas to the density of air at the same temperature and pressure, is 0.6. At the well, before undergoing any treatment, the gross heating value of natural gas ranges from 900 to 1,300 Btu/cu ft. Gas from a pipeline, which consists mainly of methane with small amounts of ethane and propane, has a gross heating value of 1,030 to 1,100 Btu/cu ft. The gross heating value of methane is 1,012 Btu/cu ft; ethane, 1,783 Btu/cu ft; and propane, 2,557 Btu/cu ft.
Production

The production of natural gas involves exploration, drilling of wells, gas treatment, transportation, distribution, and storage of the gas. The various stages of gas production are often handled by separate companies. Some specialize in exploration, others in drilling. Producing companies operate the gas-field equipment. Pipeline or transmission companies contract to buy quantities of gas from producers and to deliver the gas to a certain destination. Utility companies buy gas from the pipeline and distribute it to individual customers.
Exploration.

Exploration for natural gas begins with a study of surface geology. The probable arrangement of rock layers beneath the surface is assessed from rock outcroppings and rock formations in nearby areas. Promising locations for gas fields are found by geophysical measurements. The three principal methods employed are seismic reflection, magnetic survey, and gravity survey. Seismic reflection is the best exploration method. An explosive charge near the surface sends sound waves downward, which are reflected from the various rock layers back to the surface where they are detected by microphones and recorded.Computer analysis permits charting of the shape of the rock layers to reveal structural traps in which oil or gas may be found.Seismic reflection is particularly well-suited for offshore exploration, where sound waves from explosions at the surface reflect off rock formation beneath the floor of the ocean.
Measuring Reserves.

A gas field must contain sufficient gas to justify the expense of drilling development wells and installing pipelines to market areas. The estimated recoverable quantity of gas in the reservoir is called the reserves. Reserves are usually stated in trillions of cubic feet or cubic meters. For economic reasons, reserves of a new well must be sufficient to supply a pipeline for at least 20 years. To estimate the reserves in a reservoir it is necessary to determine both the volume of the reservoir that is filled with gas and the pressure of the gas. Pressure can be measured accurately and directly by means of pressure gauges, but volume must be estimated by indirect methods.

The pore-volume method estimates the total volume of the gas-filled pores in a rock layer, using geological data on the porosity of the rock, its thickness and extent, and the proportion of the rock that is permeated with water instead of gas. In the pressure-decline method the gas-filled volume is estimated by measuring the gas pressure of the reservoir, removing a measured quantity of gas, and then measuring the pressure again. A large drop in pressure between the two measurements indicates that the gas-filled volume of the field is small; a small drop indicates that the volume is large.
Drilling and Well Management.

Most natural-gas wells are drilled by the rotary method, using a drilling rig that raises, lowers, and rotates a long string of pipe. A drill bit at the bottom of the pipe rotates against the rock and chips it away to form a hole.Drilling mud is pumped down through the pipe and flows up outside the pipe, bringing the rock chips with it.

When gas is discovered, the flow rate is tested to determine the deliverability of the well. The well is then completed by running pipe, called casing, into the hole and cementing it into place. Smaller pipe, calledtubing, is usually lowered through the casing, and the gas is brought to the surface through the tubing. A cluster of valves and fittings is attached to the casing and tubing at the surface to control or shut off the flow of gas. This wellhead assembly is called a "Christmas tree" because of its appearance. In some reservoirs the permeability of the gas-bearing rock is so low that the gas cannot pass through it readily. The flow of gas from such reservoirs is often stimulated by hydraulic fracturing, acidization, or use of explosives. In hydraulic fracturing, a suspension of sand in water or oil is pumped into the rock under sufficient pressure to cause cracks in the rock to form and grow. The sand enters the cracks and props them open so that the gas can pass through. The acidization process uses acid to dissolve the rock, thereby leaving flow passages to the well. Cracks and fissures are created by exploding nitroglycerine or nuclear devices at the bottom of a well. On December 10, 1967, the first peacetime application of nuclear blasting, called Project Gasbuggy, occurred in a gas field in New Mexico.

Treatment of Gas.

Most natural gas requires treatment before it is sent into a pipeline. Treatment may include removal of water, hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. Separation tanks are used to remove liquid water and liquid hydrocarbons from natural gas. The liquid hydrocarbons are sold for gasoline manufacture. Additional hydrocarbons may be recovered from the gas by oil absorptiona process in which the gas is bubbled through the oil to dissolve the hydrocarbons, which then are recovered by heating the oil. The hydrocarbons may also be removed from the gas by adsorption on solid particles. Carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide are acidic gases that are removed by absorption in basic solutions, such as aqueous monoethanolamine. Water vapor must be removed from natural gas to prevent condensation and corrosion in the pipeline. It may be absorbed in ethylene glycol or adsorbed in beds of a solid desiccant or calcium chloride. Much natural gas is then distilled at very low temperatures to recover valuable components, such as helium, ethane, and propane, and to remove incombustible nitrogen.
Pipelines.

Pipes have always been of primary importance in gas usage. Early gas pipes were bored logs that were tarred and rammed together to form wooden pipes, which lasted up to 75 years. The first important iron pipeline was built in 1872 to supply gas for the city of Titusville, Pa. Steel pipe was first used in 1887. Electric welding of major pipeline was first done in 1931. Pipelines are the most economical means for bulk overland transportation of liquids and gases. Approximately one fourth of the cost of natural gas as delivered to the customer is due to the pipeline costs. These costs include surveying and mapping the proposed route and acquiring right-of-way. A communications network, maintenance facilities, meter stations, compressor stations, corrosion prevention, valves, and safety equipment must all be provided.

Distribution to Users.

Local utility companies receive gas from transmission companies and distribute it to individual users. The gas is distributed through pipes that vary in size from large street mains 3 to 36 inches (7.590 cm) in diameter to small pipes to each home 3/4 inch (1.8 cm) in diameter. The street mains are kept at pressures ranging from 25 to 36 pounds per square inch (1.752.5 kg/sq cm). Gas in pipes to the user is kept at a slight positive pressure by pressureregulating devices. While most existing gas-distribution pipes are of steel, much plastic pipe is being installed.
Storage.

Wide variations in demand for gas occur throughout the year. Underground reservoirs near the market can be filled with pipeline gas during the summer for use during the winter, when demands are great. Pressure in the reservoir varies from a high value in the fall to a low one in the spring. Gas present in the reservoir at this low pressure is called cushion gas; it represents a large investment in gas that is not available for production. Gas is stored in the pipeline by increasing the pipeline pressure and packing extra gas into the line. Aquifers, which are geological traps consisting of porous rock overlain by caprock, are also used for gas storage. An aquifer has all the characteristics of a gas reservoir except that it initially contains water instead of gas. The stored gas displaces the water.Aquifers provide economical and practical storage for large volumes of gas. However, gas leakage to the surface often occurs.
World Production

The leading natural-gas-producing countries (in order) are the United States, the former USSR, Canada, Romania, Mexico, Italy, Venezuela, the Netherlands, France, Germany, Argentina, and Hungary. In the early 1970s the total world production of natural gas was approximately 35.3 trillion cubic feet (1 trillion cu meters) annually, with the United States producing over 18 trillion cubic feet (500 billion cu meters) a year. The former USSR produces about 5.7 trillion cubic feet (200 billion cu meters) a year.

Major Gas Fields.

Certain geographical areas are prolific sources of natural gas. Some of these areas consist of a single enormous gas reservoir. Other areas are a collection of individual fields having similar geological characteristics, which are grouped together as one gas-producing region. Much natural gas is also produced from oil fields. Algeria has the giant Hassi R'Mel field, discovered in 1956, which is noted for the first large-scale development of LNG. It also has the large Rhourde-Nouss field. The largest gas field in western Europe is the Groningen field in the Netherlands, which was discovered in 1965. There are large gas fields in Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan,Ukraine, and the Russian Federation. The United States has many gas-producing regions. Thirty states, led by Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Kansas, and California, produce natural gas. The largest gas field is the Hugoton field, discovered in 1922, which extends through parts of Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas. Principal Canadian gas fields include the Crossfield, Medicine Hat, Cessford, and Westrose fields in Alberta, the Charles Lake field in British Columbia, and the Coleville-Smiley field in Saskatchewan. Mexico produces gas from the Reynosa, Macuspana, and Veracruz areas. Argentina has the sizable Comodoro Rivadavia field, and Bolivia the Monteagudo field.
World Reserves

The world total proven reserves of natural gas in the early 1970s was over 1,400 trillion cubic feet (42 trillion cu meters). The countries with the greatest proven reserves (in order) are the former USSR, with 423.5 trillion cu ft (12.5 trillion cu meters); the United States, 290 trillion cu ft (8.7 trillion cu meters); Algeria, 140 trillion cu ft (4.2 trillion cu meters); Iran, 110 trillion cu ft (3.3 trillion cu meters); the Netherlands, 82 trillion cu ft (2.4 trillion cu meters); Canada, 48 trillion cu ft (1.4 trillion cu meters); Kuwait, 40 trillion cu ft (1.2 trillion cu meters); Saudi Arabia, 35 trillion cu ft (1 trillion cu meters); Venezuela, 32 trillion cu ft (960 billion cu meters); and Great Britain, 25 trillion cu ft (750 billion cu meters). No information is available on the gas reserves of the People's Republic of China.

With discoveries made between 1950 and 1970, the USSR became the nation with the largest potential natural gas resources.In those two decades about 400 gas fields, including numerous giant ones, were discovered. In the early 1970s the potential gas supply of the USSR was estimated at over 2,900 trillion cu ft (83 trillion cu meters)more than twice that of any other country.
Regulation of the Natural Gas Industry in the United States

Government control has shaped the history of the natural gas industry. Pipeline and distribution companies are public utilities regulated by state and federal laws. Producers are also under government jurisdiction. Regulation is accomplished by assigning the quantities of gas that may be produced or sold, fixing the price of the gas, specifying operating practices, granting marketing franchises, and issuing certificates for construction. Federal, state, and municipal governments regulate the industry through legislation administered by public commissions subject to the review of judicial courts. State commissions customarily regulate production quantities and practices. The Natural Gas Act of 1938 authorized the Federal Power Commission to regulate interstate operations through certification of facilities and other means. In 1954 the Supreme Court added the fixing of producer prices to the duties of the Federal Power Commission. Municipal governments ordinarily issue franchises for the marketing of natural gas.
Liquefied Natural Gas

Supercold natural gas at atmospheric pressure condenses to form liquefied natural gas (LNG). LNG is an economical form for the storage and transportation of natural gas. When the gas is needed, the liquid is easily vaporized by adding heat. LNG can be stored or transported in insulated containers. Tanks can hold large quantities of LNG, since 1 cubic foot of liquid is equivalent to 620 cubic feet of gas. Steel tanks cannot be used to hold LNG because the metal becomes brittle at low temperatures. Special magnesium-aluminum and nickel-steel alloys are used to build LNG storage tanks. Some of these tanks can hold up to 12 million gallons of LNG (48,000 cu meters). Oceangoing tankers capable of carrying over 30 million gallons (120,000 cu meters) are used to deliver the LNG.

Liquefied natural gas is so cold that several refrigeration steps are used to produce it. LNG is mostly methane that has been carefully purified. The gas is passed through three refrigeration units operating with propane, ethylene, and methane as the refrigerants. It liquefies at a temperature of 258 F (161 C).
Liquefied Petroleum Gas

Liquefied petroleum gas, which is also called LPG or LP gas, is a product manufactured in natural-gas treatment plants or in oil refineries. It consists primarily of the hydrocarbons propane and butane (actually a mixture of butane isomers), which are separated from natural gas or refinery fluids by absorption or distillation. The heating value of LPG is from 2,000 to 3,500 Btu/cu ft. LPG must be kept under sufficient pressure to maintain the mixture in liquid form at ordinary temperatures; it is readily converted to a fuel gas by vaporization at low pressures. Because liquids ordinarily occupy much less space than gases, the use of liquefied petroleum gas has solved the transportation problem in many cases.
Uses

Liquefied petroleum gas is used as a heating fuel, engine fuel, and as a chemical raw material. The largest use of LPG is for heating in locations not served by gas pipelines. Many trucks, buses, and tractors are fitted to use LPG as a fuel instead of gasoline. Propane and butane are increasingly used in chemical plants for the manufacture of plastics, synthetic fibers, solvents, and other organic chemicals.
Transportation

Liquefied petroleum gas may be transported in pressure tanks or product pipelines. The pressure tanks may be mounted in ships, barges, railroad cars, or trucks. Tanks range in size from very large railroad tank cars through tank trucks, portable tanks, bottles for homes or trailers, pressure containers for workshops or camping equipment, to pocket-size cigarette lighters.Product pipelines carry large amounts of LPG. Large shipments of LPG are made by water: barges are used on inland water routes, and special oceangoing vessels deliver LPG to markets around the world.

Manufactured Gas

The earliest form of commercial fuel gas was gas manufactured from coal. Before the transportation of natural gas by long-distance pipelines or in liquefied form became possible, manufactured gas was the only fuel gas available in many regions. In the mid-20th century, with the construction of extensive systems of pipelines for transporting natural gas, the use of natural gas increased dramatically. Natural gas virtually displaced manufactured gas, whose annual production in the United States dropped by about 95% in the period from 1945 to 1965. In the mid-1970s, however, shortages of natural gas led to increasing interest in manufactured gas. Petroleum and coal are the two basic sources for producing manufactured gases. The processes used in the production of these gases include thermal decomposition and chemical reaction with steam or air.
Gases from Petroleum

Petroleum is the source for oil gas, refinery gas, and some liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Oil gas is produced by the thermal or catalytic decomposition of petroleum. Air is often added to cause partial combustion to supply the heat necessary for the reaction. The heating value of oil gas, which consists of a mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons, varies from 500 to 1,000 Btu/cu ft.
Gases from Coal

Coal is the source for various fuel gases, including coke-oven gas, low-Btu gas, and substitute natural gas.
Coke-Oven Gas.

Coal may be heated in the absence of air to produce solid coke and volatile gases by thermal decomposition.Approximately 20% of the coal is thus converted to coke-oven gas, which is also called coal gas. Coke-oven gas has a heating value of about 500 Btu/cu ft and mainly contains hydrogen, methane, and carbon monoxide.

Low-Btu Gas.

Fuel gas may be produced by passing air and steam through a bed of hot coal. When only air is used, producer gas with a heating value of 135 to 180 Btu/cu ft is formed. Water gas is made when only steam is used. Water in the steam reacts with the carbon to form a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide having a heating value of about 300 Btu/cu ft.Because this mixture can also be used as a chemical raw material, it is called synthesis gas. Both air and steam are used in the Winkler process and other processes for making low-Btu and synthesis gas. Low-Btu gas normally is used industrially as a fuelfor furnaces and gas turbines. It is a clean fuel because sulfur and ash components of coal are removed during its manufacture.
Substitute Natural Gas.

Concern over limited future availability of natural gas has led to interest in processes for producing a substitute natural gas (SNG) from coal. This is a high-Btu gas that can be distributed along with natural gas in existing pipeline networks.

Both natural gas and SNG consist primarily of methane. The methane in SNG is formed by passing synthesis gas from coal over a catalyst. The carbon monoxide and hydrogen in the synthesis gas react to form methane and water in a process called methanation. Carbon monoxide also reacts with water to form hydrogen. The purified SNG has a heating value of 900 to 1,000 Btu/cu ft. Processes for the manufacture of SNG include the Lurgi, Hygas (Illinois Institute of Technology), Bi-Gas (Bituminous Coal Research, Inc.) and Synthane (U.S. Bureau of Mines) methods. (See also Coal Gasification.)
History of the Gas Industry

Fuel gas has been known to man since early times. It is possible that the oracle at Delphi in ancient Greece and a temple of Zoroaster near Baku in the Caspian Sea region had continuously burning fires fed by natural gas from the ground. At the time of Julius Caesar a "burning spring" of gas was observed at Grenoble, France.

Natural gas was first put to use by the Chinese. The gas was derived from wells, some of which are said to have been over 2,000 feet (600 meters) deep, and was transported by bamboo pipes. The gas apparently was first discovered in wells drilled in search of pools of salt brine, which was evaporated to yield salt. By 615 B.C. natural gas was being produced from similar wells in Japan. However, the use of natural gas in the Orient was abandoned over 1,700 years ago, before the rest of the world had learned about it. North American colonists were familiar with several natural-gas seepages. George Washington once owned a small tract of land on which there was a "burning spring." In 1815 gas was found near Charleston, W.Va.
Manufactured Gas

The first gas used for fuel or light in the West was manufactured from coal. The Flemish alchemist Johann Baptista van Helmont first isolated a flammable gas from the combustion of charcoal and other organic materials in the early 1600s. Dr. John Clayton, a Yorkshire minister, in the 1660s conducted experiments in which he obtained a flammable gas by heating coal in a closed vessel. In 1784, the Flemish chemist Jean Pierre Minckelers lighted gas distilled from coal in a demonstration to his class at the University of Louvain. Progress in the development of gas was slow. Wax and tallow candles were still the common method of illumination in the late 18th century, when William Murdock attempted to produce enough gas from coal for use as a lighting fuel. By distilling coal in an iron retort, Murdock, about 1792, succeeded in lighting his home in Cornwall, England. Murdock, who was an engineer for James Watt, the inventor of the steam engine, built an apparatus at Watt's factory to demonstrate the possibilities of gas illumination. For the celebration of the Peace of Amiens in April 1802, a public display of the new lighting was made. The following year Murdock increased the scale of operations of his apparatus and lighted Watt's factory with gas. In September 1799 in France, Philippe Lebon obtained a patent for making gas by distilling coal or wood, and in 1801 he used gas to light his home and gardens.

First Gas Company.

On May 18, 1804, a German promoter, Frederick Winsor, obtained the first English patent for making gas. Despite opposition and ridicule, Winsor obtained the support of a large and influential body of shareholders in his company, and the first public street lighting with gas took place on Pall Mall in London on Jan. 28, 1807. This demonstration did much to dispel many of the doubts about the practicability of gas. In April 1812, Parliament granted a charter to Winsor's Westminster Gas Light & Coke Company. Following the success in London, gas lighting spread quickly to other countries. Baltimore, in 1817, was the first city in the United States to use gas for lighting its streets. Some of the streets of Paris were illuminated by gas before 1820, and by 1832 they were all lighted by gas. Other cities were slow to follow the example of Baltimore. Used first for illumination of streets, gas lights were next installed in public buildings and eventually in private homes. However, they did not attain widespread use in homes until the decade 1865 to 1875.
Commercial Development of Natural Gas

The first well drilled intentionally for natural gas production was located in Fredonia, N.Y., near Buffalo. Here, in 1821, a local gunsmith named William A. Hart drilled a 27-foot (9-meter) well near a gas seepage in an effort to obtain a larger flow of gas.He was successful and in the following year piped gas to illuminate nearby houses and stores. He began by using wooden pipes, which were replaced by lead pipes in 1825. This marked the birth of the natural gas industry. In 1839 a well dug for water at Findlay, Ohio, struck gas, which was piped to a nearby house and used for domestic fuel and light. In 1841, in the area around Charleston, W.Va., natural gas began to be used as fuel in the manufacture of salt from brine.The Fredonia Gas Light and Water Works Company, the first natural gas corporation, was established in 1865. For many years natural gas was used only in places that happened to be near gas wells. Because there was no way to transport it to market areas, natural gas was often an unwelcome discovery in the search for salt brine or oil. Gas was allowed to burn off in flares or torches. In some places gas street lights

burned day and night, since the cost of turning them off in the daytime was greater than the value of the gas saved. Before modern drilling methods were developed, it was considered necessary to stop drilling and let the gas blow freely into the air until the pressure was so far reduced that it was safe to resume work. Where oil and gas were found together, the gas frequently was allowed to blow into the air.