Edition No.

18

September 2003

ENGINEERING
S Y S T E M S O L U T I O N S

his issue of Engineering System Solutions provides a tutorial on the various types of filtration and their application in HVAC systems. In preparing materials for this article, we relied heavily on our sister company, American Air Filter (AAF). As the only major HVAC manufacturer with direct ties to a major supplier of filtration products, McQuay has unique access to expert advice on filtration and its application in HVAC equipment. But the relationship goes beyond free advice. McQuay and AAF work closely together in assessing the requirements of our customers and developing new filtration technologies to meet the needs of the HVAC industry. Feel free to contact your local AAF representative for assistance with your filtration needs or visit www.aafintl.com for more information. Contact your local McQuay representative for information on the many filtration options available in McQuay equipment, or visit www.mcquay.com.

Filtration 101
In addition to everything from heat load calculations to acoustics and building codes, filtration is among the long list of items that HVAC engineers are required to understand. For most building applications, ASHRAE Standard 62.1, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, defines minimum filtration levels. However, the amount and type of filtration should be given careful consideration for each building project because it can significantly impact both occupant comfort and equipment performance. This newsletter provides the basics of filtration what is available, how it is rated, when to apply the various types of filtration and when to get expert advice. What are we trying to filter? Filtration is used to control particulate, gaseous and biological contaminants. Some contaminants enter from outside the building, such as fly ash, diesel fumes or viruses. Other contaminants are generated within the building, such as man-made fibers, tobacco smoke and bacteria. Figure 1 shows the range of particle sizes. A typical cubic foot of air has 2.5 billion particles in it! While 99% of the individual particles are smaller than 1 micron, 70% of total weight comes from particles larger than 1 micron. This creates a need for two-part filtration one step to remove the bulk of the material and a second step to remove fine particulate. Gaseous contaminants normally pass through a particulate filter, so they require different filtration technology. Gaseous filtration is usually accomplished using some form of chemical treatment. Two common methods are carbon filters, which are effective for hydro-carbon contaminants, and Potassium Permanganate (sometimes referred to as Purple Pellets), which is effective for inorganic compounds such as Hydrogen Sulfide. Chemical filters will not remove particulate, and particulate filters will not remove chemicals. Therefore, both types may be required depending on the application. Biological contaminants are essentially particulate, so they can be controlled by an appropriate particulate filter. Ultraviolet lights provide another method for controlling biological contaminants. When applied properly, they can be effective at killing pathogens. However, in much the same way as chemical filters, ultraviolet lights do not remove particulates, so other forms of particulate filtration are required. Why do we filter air? We do not filter the air we breathe outside, so why is necessary to focus so much attention on HVAC filtration? The original focus of HVAC filtration was on protecting the HVAC equipment and avoiding unsightly staining of diffusers and ceilings. More recently, occupant health has become the main focus. From a human comfort and health point of view, buildings have much higher population densities and pollutant sources, so maintaining acceptable indoor air quality is more of a challenge. Dirty equipment can become a source of pollutants

Hugh Crowther Director of Applications McQuay International

Figure 1 Relative Particle Size

particularly biological and mold can propagate well in a dirty, moist environment. Process and healthcare applications also require a higher standard of filtration. Cleanroom classification is often based on the filtration level. A class 10,000 (ISO Class 7) clean room has 10,000 particles, 0.5 microns or less per cubic foot. A class 10 (ISO Class 4) clean room has only 10

particles per cubic foot. The latter requires an advanced filtration and system design. Health care facilities need to control biological contaminants. In critical areas such as operating rooms and intensive care units (ICU), the filtration should be able to stop most pathogens. How are filters rated? How is it that you can buy a High Efficiency Particulate Air Filter (HEPA)

for your home furnace while a HEPA system for institutional projects is a major undertaking? The answer is in the testing method. ASHRAE has an old and a new standard for filter testing. The old Standard 52.1, Gravimetric and Dust-spot Procedures for Testing Air Cleaning Devices Used in General Ventilation for Removing Particulate Matter, provides familiar ratings for most HVAC engineers. When

Table 1 Comparison of Clean Ratings From Federal Standard 209 and ISO 14644-1.
FS 209 Class 0.1 mm Particles IS0 FS 209 ISO Class Parts/ft3 Parts/m3 Parts/m3 1 10 2 100 3 35 1230 1,000 4 345 12,200 10,000 5 3450 122,000 100,000 6 34,500 1,200,000 1,000,000 7 345,000 1.22 x 107 8 3,450,000 1.22 x 108 9 3.45 x 107 1.22 x 109 0.5 mm Particles FS 209 ISO Parts/ft3 Parts/m3 Parts/m3 4 35 352 3,520 35,200 352,000 3,520,000 35,200,000 5.0 mm Particles FS 209 ISO Parts/ft3 Parts/m3 Parts/m3

1 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000

1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000

35 353 3,530 35,300 353,000 3,530,000

7 65 700

247 2,300 24,700

29 293 2,930 29,300 293,000

Note: Values shown are the concentration limits for particles equal to and larger than the sizes shown. Cn = N(0.5/D)2.2 where Cn = concentration limits in particles/ft3, N = FS 209 class, and D = particle diameter in mm. Cn = 10N(0.1/D)2.08 where Cn = concentration limits in particles/m3, N = ISO class, and D = particle diameter in mm.
Copyright 2003, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. www.ashrae.org. Images reprinted by permission from ASHRAE 2003 Applications Handbook.

a filter is referred to as being a 35% efficient pleated 2-inch throwaway, the filter was rated using the 52.1 Standard. Standard 52.1 initially rated filters on their ability to arrest material that would have an adverse effect on the HVAC equipment. The arrestance test uses a defined mixture of particles and is the average performance over the life of the filter. The filter is able to arrest more material as it gets dirtier. Over time, the tests evolved to include a dust spot test to rate the filters ability to stop fine particles that could soil the building and its contents (e.g. the stains around diffusers). The dust spot test uses atmospheric air which can vary from test location to test location. When a single efficiency number is given (say 95%), it is the average because there is a portion of time when the filter is not as efficient as its nominal filter efficiency suggests. In fact, the filter goes through a wide range of efficiencies as it goes from clean to dirty. This is why the filter manufacturers provide a range of efficiencies in their catalogs for each filter. A filter with a 25% dust spot efficiency will usually have an arrestance above 90%. The percent efficiency we refer to is the dust spot efficiency. The new standard is ASHRAE Standard 52.2, Method of Testing General Ventilation and Air Cleaning Devices for Removal Efficiency by Particle Size. Standard 52.2 is focused on minimizing health risks from particulate matter. This standard requires testing the filter with a controlled aerosol (potassium chloride) instead of typical air. A particle counter is used to measure the arresting ability of the filter over 12 size ranges from 0.30

Figure 2 Standard 52.2 Filter Efficiency Curve

100 90 80 Initial Efficiency

Filtration Efficiency (%)

70 60 50 40 30

After 1st loading

After 2nd loading

After 3rd loading

After 4th loading 20 10 0 0.1 1 10 After 5th loading

Particle Diameter (micrometers)

Table 2 Comparison of MERV Rating to the Dust Spot Efficiency by Standard 52.1 Method.
Standard 52.2 (MERV) 15 14 11 8 6 Approximate Standard 52.1 Dust Spot Efficiency Arrestance >95% N/a 90-95% >98% 60-65% >95% 30-35% >90% <20% 85-90% Particle Size Range 1 1 2 3 3

micron up to 10 microns. The filter is loaded in increments from clean to dirty with a pre-defined dust mixture and then re-tested. Once this is done, a chart can be drawn that shows filter efficiencies for different particle sizes from clean to dirty (Figure 2). The performance of the filter is then compared to a predefined set of parameters called a minimum efficiency

Table 3 National Primary Ambient-Air Quality Standards for Outdoor Air As Set By the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Contaminant Particles (PM 10) Carbon Monoxide Carbon Monoxide Oxidants (ozone) Nitrogen Dioxide Lead
a b c

Long Term Concentration Averaging g/m3 ppm 80 0.03 1 year 50b 1 year

100 1.5

0.055

1 year 3 monthsd

Short Term Concentration Averaging g/m3 ppm 365a 0.14 24 hours 150 24 hours 40,000 35 1 hour 10,000 9 8 hours 235c 0.12 1 hour

Not to be exceeded more than once per year Arithmetic mean. Standard is attained when expected number of days per calendar year with maximal hourly average concentrations above 0.12 ppm (235 g/ m3) is equal to or less than 1, as determined by Appendix H to subchapter C, 40 CFR 50. d Three-month period is a calendar quarter.
Copyright 2001, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. www.ashrae.org. Images reprinted by permission from ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62-2001 Ventilation For Acceptable Indoor Air Quality.

reporting value (MERV). MERV values range from 1 to 20. Table 2 shows a comparison of the MERV Rating versus the Standard 52.1 method. How Does ASHRAE Standard 62 Fit In? ASHRAE Standard 62.1 defines the minimum ventilation rates required to obtain acceptable indoor air quality. The premise is that the outdoor air is of acceptable quality, and that ventilating a building with it will control indoor contaminants through dilution. Table 3 was developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and provides ambient air quality standards for outdoor air. About 60% of the U.S. population lives in non-attainment areas, where conditions exceed the EPA table. Standard 62 requires that the outdoor air be treated if it does not meet the levels required by the U.S. EPA table. Addendum S has now been added to Standard 62 and requires that filters with no less than MERV 6 (or 25% efficiency) be used upstream of all cooling coils or

other condensate-producing devices. Addendum R requires that each ventilation system with an outdoor air intake have the necessary devices to clean the air prior to its introduction into occupied spaces in locations where the outdoor air is not acceptable. For particulates, filters with a minimum MERV of 6 are required. Addendum Z also addresses unacceptable outdoor air, requiring a minimum 40% efficient ozone removal system be included if the ozone is too high. If you elect to use the indoor air quality procedure of Standard 62, then you must identify indoor contaminants and maintain them at the same level as acceptable outdoor air. This will require some level of filtration, depending on the contaminants. HEPAs and ULPAs HEPA filters are tested in a different manner than other commercial particulate filters. A HEPA filter is 99.97% efficient at arresting a 0.3 micron particle. They are tested by exposing the filter to DioctylPhthalate (DOP) particles, which are 0.3 microns in size. For every 10,000 particles, only 3 can get through the filter. A ULPA filter is 99.999% efficient at stopping 0.3 micron particles. What about buildings and extraordinary events? Recent events have drawn attention to how buildings will respond in extraordinary (terrorist) incidents. ASHRAE has teamed up with the

particulate needs to be filtered. Filters should not be specified by just MERV or dust spot efficiency, but on their ability to arrest the particle size in question. For example, the particle size for a paint line is around 4 microns, so the filter should be effective specifically around 4 microns. Different filters with the same MERV number may be more or less efficient at arresting 4 micron particles, so it is important to review the filter effectiveness curves that are available from filter manufacturers. Pre-filters vs. Final Filters As mentioned earlier, the bulk of the weight of particulate matter comes from particles larger than 1 micron. The purpose of a pre-filter is to remove as much of this mass as possible. The final filter is then used to remove the high count (but small weight) of fine particulate. A typical maintenance arrangement will require the pre-filters to be changed quarterly and the final filters to be changed annually (although this ultimately is controlled by usage). Both filter banks can be held by the same filter rack at the front of an air handling unit, which can help to minimize the unit length. The filters are usually the first component after the mixing box, which is a common arrangement for high-end office and institutional applications. Some applications, such as health care buildings, require that the final filters be the last component in the air stream so they can capture any dust that is introduced into the air handling unit through servicing or infiltration. In this arrangement, the Table 4. Filter Efficiencies for Central Ventilation and Air Conditioning pre-filters remain at the front of the Systems in General Hospitals unit to protect the equipment. Area Designation No. Filter Beds Filter Bed #1(%) Filter Bed #2(%) It is strongly advised not to use a blow All areas for inpatient care, through fan arrangement with final treatment, diagnosis, and those filters in the final position. McQuay 90 30 2 areas providing direct service or will not build the equipment in this clean supplies such as sterile configuration without a clear and clean processing, etc. understanding of the application. The Protective environment room 99.97 30 2 issue is that the cooled air will most Laboratories 80 1 likely be saturated, and the pressure Administrative, bulk storage,
soiled holding areas, food preparation areas, and laundries 1 30

U.S. Army Corp of Engineers to evaluate buildings in these circumstances. At the January 2003 meeting, ASHRAE published a 75page report on their findings. This can be downloaded from their website at www.ashrae.org. Assessing a buildings vulnerability is a topic on its own, but filtration can play a key role in defending against several kinds of biological and radiological particles. One of the recommendations of the ASHRAE report is to consider filters with the highest MERV feasible because most biological and radiological particles are in the range of 0.1 to 10 microns. A filter with a MERV rating of 14 to 20 can be very effective in defending against these particles. During noncritical times, the building will benefit from cleaner air and a better environment. General Guidelines For Filtration Application The following are some guidelines in the application of filters for HVAC applications. What level of filtration is required? As a minimum, the designer should meet the requirements of Standard 62.1, taking into account the recent addendums that address cooling coil filtration and the quality of outdoor air. For healthcare applications, the designer should follow specifications outlined in the AIA guide to hospital design or the new ASHRAE design manual of healthcare design (Table 4). For process applications, it becomes important to understand what size

Notes: 1. Additional roughing or prefilters should be considered to reduce maintenance required for filters with efficiency higher than 75 percent. 2. Filtration efficiency ratings are based on average dust spot efficiency per ASHRAE Standard 52.1-1992.
2001 Edition Guidelines for Design and Construction of Hospital and Health Care Facilities, The American Institute of Architects, Washington, D.C.

drop through the filters will lower the partial pressure. This can result in moisture condensing on the filters, creating an IAQ issue. Draw through fan arrangements add the fan motor heat to the supply air and raise it above dew point, making condensation less of an issue. The designer should consider a plenum fan for filters in the final position. The plenum fan will evenly distribute air across the entire filter bank and it may allow the air handling unit to be shorter in length. In addition, an Arrangement 3 fan (typical scrolled fan) without ducting connected to it has about the same efficiency as a plenum fan. What filter static pressure should be used? As filters accumulate particles, their static pressure increases. Filter manufacturers provide both clean and dirty filter pressure drops. The change can be significant. Consider clean 30% pre-filters and 95% bag filters. The pressure drop is only 0.6 in. w.c. when they are clean, but it climbs to 2.0 in. w. c. when they are dirty. If the HVAC system is designed based on clean filters, the airflow will not meet design conditions as soon as the filters begin to load up. In critical airflow applications, such as space pressurization and air change rates, this may not be acceptable. Alternatively, designing a system based on dirty filters will provide the required airflow all the time, but it will be more costly to build and operate. For most applications the mean of the aggregate filters will provide satisfactory results. In addition, choose a fan with a very steep fan curve so changes in static pressure result in only small changes in air volume. For critical applications, particularly where HEPA filters are used, the system should be designed for the dirty filter static pressure. It may also be necessary to provide a method for modulating the fans to maintain the design airflow rate. Using the fan curve, check the airflow rate at both

clean and dirty and see if the space pressurization remains acceptable. What velocity is best? Filters have a maximum allowable velocity. Most are rated at 500 fpm, which is the typical face velocity for a cooling coil in an air handling unit. Some packaged DX rooftop units operate at much higher face velocities. At a minimum, the filter face velocity should be ascertained and confirmed to be acceptable. It may be economically justifiable to use a face velocity below 500 fpm, particularly for constant volume units with high operating hours (health care, pharmaceutical, etc.). Reducing the internal static pressure drop can often provide enough fan power savings to offset the higher capital cost. The increased filter area reduces the frequency of filter changes as well. McQuays Energy Analyzer can be used to check the available annual energy savings. Bag filters vs Cartridge filters Bag and cartridge filters have the same efficiency, but bag filters take up more space (they are 12 to 24 inches longer than cartridge filters) and they can sag at part airflow (VAV applications). In some cases, the bag filters must be hung from hooks to stop them from collapsing. However, bag filters are about half the price of the equivalent cartridge filter, and they have an abundance of surface area which can result in less frequent changes being required. Where filters will be challenged and have to be changed frequently, consider bag filters. For other applications, particularly VAV, use cartridge filters. Front loaded vs. Side loaded Front loaded filters fit into a rack that looks like a grid. The dirtier the filters get, the more the pressure seals the filters in the frame. Because they generally seal better, front loaded filters can offer better performance. Side loaded filters do not require an access section upstream to allow filter changes. On smaller units, where it is difficult for a person to enter the unit, side loaded filters can be an advantage.

Where is the best place for HEPA filters? HEPA filter applications are specialized. It is possible to install HEPA filters in the air handling unit, but this is not common. HEPA filters generally are designed to operate at 250 fpm (special high flow units are available) and the air handling unit will have to be designed for the lower velocity. More often, the HEPA filters are integrated into the space through the ceiling grid. As much purified air as possible is recirculated to minimize filter loading , although this is not always possible in health care applications). In most applications, the air handling unit should have 30%, 60% and 90% filter banks to minimize the load on the HEPA filters. In many clean room applications, it is not unusual for HEPA filters to last the lifetime of the application (e.g. integrated circuit manufacturing). What about gas phase filters? The use of carbon filters and potassium permanganate filters is generally limited to industrial applications. On occasion, poor outdoor air quality requires gas filtration for conventional HVAC applications. These are specialized filters that require expert assistance. They are also expensive to maintain. In many cases the customer would be better served by trying to avoid gas filters. A common problem is truck and car exhaust fumes are entrained by the intake of an air handling unit. The designer should look for all possible methods to relocate the intake before considering carbon filters. What about UV Lights? UV lights can kill bacteria, viruses and spores when applied properly. They can enhance medium range particulate filters that are not efficient enough to arrest the pathogens. In addition, they can minimize bacteriological growth in the air handling unit while it is shut down. Refer to Edition 15 of Engineering System Solutions, UV Lights and Air Handling Equipment, on www.mcquay.com for more information on UV lights.

Electrostatic technology Small scale electrostatic filters operate by charging a grid that causes particulate to adhere to the grid. Once the grid is dirty, it requires cleaning. The advantage of this system is the low static pressure drop. They are particularly attractive for small terminal units and residential applications. The disadvantage of electrostatic filters is that their efficiency decreases as they become dirty. Disciplined maintenance is the best method to maintain good performance. On a larger scale, there are systems such as Cosatron that are considered filter enhancers. These systems charge

particulate causing it to stick together so the conventional mechanical filter can arrest the larger particle size. They are very popular in casino applications where there is a lot of tobacco smoke. Conclusion Filtration is more than just looking after the equipment and avoiding stains on ceiling tiles. It is a key component in achieving acceptable indoor air quality. In addition, filtration can play a critical role in defending against extraordinary events. Filtration costs money, both in terms of capital cost and operating cost. McQuays Energy Analyzer can be used to evaluate

the operating cost of the higher pressure drops caused by more effective filters. This can lead to a clear discussion with the owner about the minimum filtration, the advantages of enhancing the filtration and the capital and operating costs that go with it. Filtration in process applications can become very complex. This is a good time to get assistance from filtration professionals who can be a source of information on what works in similar industries. They can even perform mockups and tests to make sure the proposed solutions can work as intended.

For comments or suggestions, please call or write: Chris Sackrison, Editor McQuay International 13600 Industrial Park Boulevard Minneapolis, MN 55441 Phone: (763) 553-5419 E-mail: chris.sackrison@mcquay.com For more information on McQuay products and services, or to speak with your local representative, call (800) 432-1342, or visit our web page at www.mcquay.com. 2003 McQuay International