TECHNOLOGY ON THE MARCH: STEADY PROGRESS IN SUPERCRITICAL ONCE-THROUGH TECHNOLOGY Stephen J.

Goidich, Foster Wheeler Development Corporation

ABSTRACT Most of the new power generation installed in the United States during the1990s was from gasfired, simple or combined cycle power plants which were chosen over "traditional" pulverized coal fired plants. However, soaring gas prices and concerns over gas supply and distribution have rekindled interest in firing coal. Along with the interest in firing coal came a renewed interest in the supercritical cycle. During the 1960s, large scale (>500 MWe) supercritical units were very popular and accounted for close to 50% of the capacity ordered at that time. However, various real and perceived problems with the higher-pressure cycle eventually caused the US power industry to stay with the subcritical cycle for coal-fired power plants. The power industry in other parts of the world continued to develop and build supercritical cycle plants mainly to take advantage of the reduced fuel consumption from the better plant heat rates that result from the more efficient supercritical cycle. Competitive pressures brought on by deregulation and concerns over power plant emissions will assure that a major portion of any future coal fired generation will adopt the supercritical cycle. This paper looks at the thermal/hydraulic requirements for a once-through utility (OTU) boiler, the commercially viable steam generator technologies, and the associated basic economics. INTRODUCTION Large fossil fuel fired utility boilers, which are used for the efficient and environmentally safe production of power, can be configured as either drum or once-through types. The selection of the circulation method dictates the configuration of the boiler and its auxiliary systems as well as the modes and method for operation and control.
PRINCIPLE NATURAL CIRCULATION (DRUM) ONCE-THRU

SUPERHEATER

EVAPORATOR

ECONOMIZER

In drum type units (see Figure 1) OPERATING PRESSURE 10...180 BAR 20...400 BAR the steam flow rate is controlled WATER WALL TUBING VERTICAL SPIRAL OR VERTICAL by the fuel firing rate. Superheat steam temperature is determined Figure 1. Utility Boiler Circulation Methods by the proper sizing of the superheater heat transfer surface and is controlled by spray water attemperation. In a once-through type boiler, the steam flow
Fb317

rate is established by the boiler feedwater pump, and the superheat steam temperature is controlled by the fuel firing rate. Since the once-through boiler does not rely on the density difference between steam and water to provide proper circulation and cooling of the furnace enclosure tubes, it can be operated at supercritical [>220 bar (3200 psia)] pressures. Operation above the supercritical pressure significantly improves plant heat rate (see Figure 2) and therefore efficiency which not only results in reduced fuel costs, but also has the environmental benefit of less carbon dioxide production (green house effect) and less emission of SOx and NOx (acid rain) that are characteristic of the fuels fired. In the United States, OTU supercritical boilers, especially for large scale (>500 MWe) units, were very popular in the 1960s and accounted for close to 50% of the capacity ordered at that time (Figure 3). However, this trend dwindled through the 1970s due to various real and perceived problems with the high pressure, first generation of OTU boilers and the general drop in the USA market for large scale steam generators due to rising interest rates, reduced rate of growth of electrical demand, and regulatory actions.

HEAT RATE IMPROVEMENT (%)

7 6 5 4 3
(b a
80

2 1 0 538/538 565/565 593/593

STEAM TEMPERATURE (C)

Figure 2. Heat Rate Improvement (Ref. 1)

CAPABILITY ORDERED (%) 100 80 60 40

OTU

DRUM
20 0 60

65

70 YEAR OF ORDER

75

Figure 3. USA Utility Boiler Orders, 1960-80 (Ref. 2)

Development and advances in OTU technology continued through the 1980s in Europe and Japan where there was a need for efficient, large scale units with the ability to cycle to meet load demands. The design of the Spiral OTU, which was first introduced in the 1960s in a configuration close to its current form, continued to incorporate design enhancements to make it the preferred configuration for current large OTU supercritical units. Continuing development of the technology lead to the introduction, in the early 1990s, of the BENSON Vertical OTU boiler which utilizes an evaporator circuit with a natural circulation characteristic and optimized rifled tubing. The features of this design provide for a simple, cost effective configuration which also provides increased operational flexibility. With a renewed interest in the United States for efficient and environmentally safe power production from coal combustion, there is much interest in the advantages that supercritical OTU power production can provide.

PR ES SU RE

300 250 165

r)

OTU TECHNOLOGIES OFFERED BY FOSTER WHEELER Foster Wheeler offers the latest and most established technologies for OTU boilers. technologies encompass: The

Utility Boilers (Suspension Fired) up to 1350 MWe which burn pulverized bituminous coals, oil, or gas, and low volatile anthracite-fired units up to 1000 MWe, - Multi-Pass - Spiral - BENSON Vertical

Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB) Boilers up to 600 MWe which fire conventional solid fuels and waste fuels (petroleum coke, gob, culm) - BENSON Vertical

These terms for OTU technologies refer to the configuration of the furnace steam/water evaporation circuitry, the associated start-up system, and how they are integrated with Foster Wheeler firing and heat recovery area (HRA) systems. This paper will address the utility boiler requirements. A detailed discussion of CFB OTU boilers can be found in Reference 3. OTU DESIGN REQUIREMENTS The most important requirements for the configuration of the evaporative circuit in an OTU boiler include: Minimize peak tube metal temperatures Limit the temperature differential between adjacent enclosure tubes Prevent departure from nucleate boiling (DNB) Suppress dryout
SUPERCRITICAL OTU BOILER
T1

As illustrated in Figure 4, in a drum type unit which operates at subcritical pressures, large diameter tubes are used to minimize flow resistance so that a sufficient amount of steam and water can flow through the tubing by natural circulation (refer to Figure 1). By designing for a sufficiently high circulation rate, the water passing through the tubing never completely evaporates to steam and a liquid film is maintained on the tube wall so that DNB and/or dryout do not occur (see Figure 5). With the high heat transfer coefficient resulting from nucleate boiling, all the evaporator tubes remain at essentially the saturation temperature for the operating pressure of the boiler.

T2

T3

T4

T5

THERMAL STRESS

SMALL LIQUID INVENTORY = FAST RESPONSE

SUBCRITICAL NATURAL CIRCULATION BOILER

Tsat

Tsat

Tsat

ENG187

LARGE LIQUID INVENTORY = SLOW RESPONSE

Figure 4. Evaporator Tube Temperature

In a once-through boiler which operates at supercritical pressure, there is no distinction between liquid and vapor phases and there is a continual increase in fluid temperature. With unbalances in heat absorption and variations in flow rate due to hydraulic resistance differences from tube-to-tube, variations in tube temperatures occur. If the unbalance in temperature is not limited, high thermal stresses will result which can lead to tube failure. Figure 6 illustrates how heat absorption can vary within a pulverized coal fired furnace. There is an axial variation in heat absorption through the height of the furnace resulting from the high heat release intensity near the burner zone. Above and below the burner zone the heat absorption rate tapers off. It is within the burner zone that Figure 5. DNB and Dryout there is the most concern to adequately cool the tubing to prevent DNB from occurring. If operating in a variable pressure mode with subcritical pressures, concern must also be given to move the dryout point high in the furnace by providing a good heat transfer mechanism to prevent tube overheating.

Figure 6. Furnace Heat Absorption Variation Example

In addition to the axial variation in heat absorption, the rectangular geometry of the furnace cross-section creates a radial variation in heat absorption. The center section of each furnace wall sees the highest heat absorption, while the corner tubes see the lowest. There is also a reduction in heat absorption for the tubes that must be bumped out of plain to form the burner openings as illustrated by the dips in the heat absorption for the vertical tubes in Figure 6. Further unbalances in heat absorption can also occur as a result of an unbalance in heat release from the numerous burners that are required on a large utility boiler. There can be an unbalance from left to right on furnace walls with burners as well as a variation from front wall to rear wall burners. In the example illustrated in Figure 6, these additional unbalances were assumed to be 15%. Tracking the resultant heat absorption in each tube that forms the furnace enclosure, with a vertical tube arrangement the variation in heat absorption can be significant. For the example in Figure 6, the highest heated vertical tube absorbs 28% more heat than the average tube. The least heated vertical tube absorbs 30% less than the average tube. This amount of heat absorption variation can lead to unacceptable tube-to-tube temperature differences. To adequately cool each furnace tube and to prevent unacceptable tube temperature variations, each of the OTU technologies offered by Foster Wheeler address the issues in different yet effective ways. Multi-Pass. The Multi-Pass design uses multiple, sequential fluid passes in the furnace circuitry as illustrated in Figure 7. Feedwater from the economizer is first passed up through the furnace front wall (Pass 1). From the front wall headers, the flow is fully mixed and piped down to the sidewall lower headers and then flows up through the sidewall tubes (Pass 2). From sidewall upper headers, the flow is fully mixed and piped down to the rear wall lower headers. The fluid passes up through the rear wall tubes (Pass 3). From the rear wall headers, the fluid is mixed and directed to the heat recovery area (HRA) enclosure pass. Transfer piping from the outlet headers of the HRA panels directs the fluid to the roof inlet header on the front wall side of the unit. The roof pass encloses the top of the furnace, aperture, and HRA and is the last heated, constant pressure circuit before the pressure reducing valves and Integral Separator Start-Up System (ISSS) steam separator bottles which are described in a subsequent section. Fluid leaving the separator bottles is piped to conventional primary and finishing superheater circuits in the HRA. Peak and differential tube temperatures are minimized as follows:

FROM ECONOMIZER

Figure 7. Multi-Pass Furnace Circuitry

Peak Tube Temperature. By breaking up the furnace perimeter into multiple (three) fluid passes connected in a series arrangement, the fluid flow rate through each tube is three times

greater than in a single pass arrangement. High mass flow rates, and therefore excellent tube cooling can be achieved using relatively large bore tubing. As a result, circumfercial tube cracking can be prevented. Differential Tube Temperature. As ENTHALPY CHANGE (% Total) shown in Figure 6, significant heat 120 absorption variations can occur which 25% UNBALANCE 8.3% can result in unacceptable temperature 100 M PASS 3 variations between adjacent furnace 33.3% 80 enclosure tubes. However, by using M PASS 2 60 multiple passes and increasing the fluid 100% 33.3% flow rate by a factor of three, the fluid M PASS 1 40 enthalpy change is reduced to one third SINGLE 20 of that which occurs with a single pass. 33.3% PASS The fluid temperature differential 0 SINGLE MULTI resulting from the heat absorption o Worst tube receives 25% more heat in both cases unbalance is therefore reduced to one o Complete mixing between multiple passes third as illustrated in Figure 8. Complete mixing between passes prevents any Figure 8. Multi-Pass Enthalpy Unbalance unbalance from being transferred to the downstream circuit. This reduces the outlet tube-to-tube temperature unbalance leaving each pass in a fundamental manner which lowers the required design temperature and extends the fatigue life of the membrane panel. There are therefore no cycling limitations imposed on the unit due to waterwall concerns. To minimize pass-to-pass stresses, special consideration is given to the weld line between adjacent furnace passes. Passes are sequentially positioned to limit the pass-to-pass temperature differential. The sidewall pass includes wrap tubes which consist of about 0.5 m of furnace front and rear wall width at each corner. These end portions of the front and rear wall panels are part FLEXIBLE FIN-ENDING of the sidewall pass so that the weld line between adjacent passes are not in a region where there may be structural discontinuities. Another feature Figure 9. Tapered Bent Plate Panel Ends developed by Foster Wheeler to limit panel stresses is the tapered bent plate configuration for panel ends which is illustrated in Figure 9. This configuration allows panels to tolerate greater differential temperatures than conventional configurations. Because of these features, FW units with over 20 years of operation have not experienced fatigue cracking.
MAIN FIN TAPERED BENT PLATE
31-184

An advantage and a disadvantage of the Multi-Pass design is that the furnace must operate at supercritical pressure over the once-through operating load range. The advantage is that by there is not a concern for problems associated with twophase steam/water flow such as DNB, dryout, and static and/or dynamic instability. There are also no restrictions of feedwater preheating to the furnace circuit. The unit can operate in a dual pressure mode (constant furnace pressure, variable superheater pressure) and be capable of cycling service with hybrid variable pressure operation (Figure 10). However, a pressure reducing station is required at the furnace outlet, and there is a slightly higher auxiliary power loss at low loads due to full pressure operation of the boiler feedpump.

Figure 10. Dual Pressure/ Hybrid Operation

Spiral. With this concept (refer to Figure 11), the furnace tubes are inclined and wrapped around all four furnace walls to form a single upflow pass that extends up to a transition header located below the furnace nose and above the top row of burners. Above the transition header, heat fluxes are low enough to use vertical tubes with a mass flux lower than required for the inclined tubes. The Spiral configuration addresses requirements in the following ways: the OTU design

Peak Tube Temperature. By inclining the tubes, fewer tubes are required to form the enclosure wall perimeter. With fewer tubes, high mass flow rates can be achieved to provide good heat transfer, and the proper steam/water flow regime to cool the tubing and to avoid DNB and dryout. Differential Tube Temperature. By wrapping each furnace enclosure tube through each of the four furnace enclosure walls, each tube goes through approximately the same variation in heat absorption, both axially and radially. The example in Figure 6 shows that for the specified heat absorption variations, the maximum tube heat absorption is only 5.4% above the average tube, as compared to 27.9% for a vertical tube configuration. The minimum tube absorption is only 9.3% lower than the average tube, as compared to 30% for the vertical tube configuration.
FROM ECONOMIZER

By using a single upflow pass in the high heat flux furnace Figure 11. Spiral zones, the Spiral design can operate with full variable pressure Furnace Circuitry (Figure 12) without concern for uniformly distributing a twophase steam/water mixture to downstream passes. Flow enters and leaves the transition header at

essentially the same location with a high steam quality and minimal liquid content. With the capability to operate with full variable pressure, the unit can be used over the once-through operating load range to match the steam and turbine metal temperatures required for cycling service. By having the furnace and superheaters operate in a variable pressure mode, pump power consumption, and therefore fuel consumption is reduced at low loads. The inclined tubes are not self supporting and a special support system is required. As illustrated in Figure 13, support straps must be attached to the spiral panels to transfer the load to the vertical panels. The support straps are attached to the standard FW buckstay configuration that permits differential thermal growth of the spiral panels (see Figure 14).

300

STEAM PRESSURE (BAR)

CRITICAL PRESSURE 200

100 RECIRC. ONCE-THRU

20

40

60

80

100

STEAM FLOW (%)

Figure 12. Variable Furnace Pressure Operation

BENSON Vertical. In the BENSON Vertical OTU boiler design, the furnace is formed by a single pass of vertical tubes as illustrated in Figure 15. The lower portion of the furnace has rifled tubing, while the upper furnace has smooth bore tubing.

VERTICAL BUCKSTAY

VIEW A-A

33-312

TENSION TIE
33-311

Figure 13. Support of Spiral Panels

Figure 14. Panel Attachment to Buckstay

The BENSON Vertical design addresses the OTU design requirements in the following ways: Differential Tube Temperature. In the Multi-Pass and Spiral designs described above, peak and differential tube temperatures are limited by ensuring sufficiently high steam/water mass flow rates through the tubes over the operating load range. This mode of operation has what is termed a once-through characteristic because an excessively heated tube will have a reduction in flow because the friction pressure loss is a significant fraction of the total pressure loss. This phenomenon is illustrated in Figure 16.

SMOOTH TUBES

RIFLED TUBES

A strongly heated tube will have hotter fluid and therefore a lower density than occurs in the average tube. The pressure loss resulting from hydrostatic head will go down. However, because the fluid density is lower, fluid velocity will increase, increasing the friction pressure loss. Although there is a reduction in hydrostatic head, FROM ECONOMIZER the increase in friction loss dominates and the circuit Figure 15. BENSON Vertical total pressure loss increases. The increased pressure loss Furnace Circuitry will result in a reduction of flow in the excessively heated tube to maintain the average pressure loss in the circuit. This combination of high heat input with reduced flow can cause an increase in steam temperature and therefore tube metal temperature that can result in tube failure. In the BENSON Vertical design, the furnace vertical enclosure tubes are selected so that a relatively low mass flow rate (about 1000 kg/m2-s) results at full load. This mode of operation is termed to have a natural circulation characteristic because an excessively heated tube will have an increase in flow because the hydrostatic pressure loss is much greater than the friction loss (see Figure 17). The reduction in hydrostatic head is greater

Figure 16. Once Through Characteristic (Ref. 4)

Figure 17. Natural Circulation Characteristic (Ref. 4)

than the increase in friction loss so that the excessively heated tube receives more flow. The steam temperature rise in this circuit is limited because of the corresponding increase in fluid flow through the tube. Figure 18 illustrates an example for a large-scale unit where a worst case tube receives 25% more heat input than the average tube. As shown, the fluid flow in the strongly heated tube increases, and the resultant differential steam (and tube) temperature stays within acceptable limits.

MASS FLUX (kg/m2-s) 1,200

MASS FLUX

TEMPERATURE

TEMPERATURE (C) 600 500 400 300 200 100 0

1,000 800 600 400 200 0

Q=100%

Q=125%

Q=50%

Figure 18. BENSON Vertical Flow and Peak Tube Temperature. Normally Temperature Change vs. Heat Input (Ref. 5) the drawback with using low fluid mass flow rates is that with smooth tubes, there is a resultant low fluid side film heat transfer coefficient and DNB or dryout will occur at relatively low steam qualities. This means that cooling of the furnace tubes will not be as effective as with high mass flow rates. Also, since dryout occurs at a lower steam quality, it occurs lower in the furnace where the heat flux is the greatest. If the deterioration in internal film heat transfer coefficient occurs low in the furnace, tube failure can result. However, unique to the BENSON Vertical technology is the use of optimized rifled tubes to eliminate this problem.

As illustrated in Figure 19, dryout in a smooth tube can result at relatively low steam qualities. In the example illustrated, it occurs at about 55% quality at which point there is a sudden increase in tube wall temperature. With an optimized rifled tube, the tube wall can be keep wet to a steam quality over 90% even with low mass flow rates. The main advantage of the BENSON Vertical design is that it can operate with full variable furnace pressure for cycling service using vertical tubes with a standard, simple support system (Figure 20). There is no associated limit on the change rate of waterwall fluid temperature due to fatigue limits of the support straps, since they are not required. Also, the load carrying ability of Figure 19. Rifled Tube Heat Transfer the furnace is greater in the event that slag Improvement (Ref. 6) accumulates in the hopper. If repair is required, standard, simple tube replacement procedures can be used.

Other advantages include lower pressure loss (Figure 21) which results in a lower design pressure which reduces pressure part weight, lower boiler feedpump auxiliary power, and lower minimum BENSON load. By using a natural circulation characteristic, the minimum oncethrough load is not dictated by a minimum fluid mass flow rate. A minimum load of 20% can be achieved with the potential to eliminate the start-up recirculation pump and use the boiler feedpump for rapid unit start-up.
Acceleration Static Friction

Pressure Drop [bar]

5 4 3 2 1 0 Spiral Type
1800/900 kg/m2s

Vertical Type
1000 kg/m2s

Figure 20. Vertical Tube Support System START-UP SYSTEMS

Figure 21. Furnace Pressure Loss Comparison

Part of the evaporative circuit of a once-through boiler is the start-up system which is used to warm the boiler steam/water pressure parts and the steam turbine and bring them on-line in a safe and controlled manner. To do this, a load is defined below which the unit is controlled in a manner similar to a drum type unit (firing for pressure/steam flow). In-line separators are provided to collect steam for warming the superheater pressure parts and the steam turbine. Water collected is returned back to the furnace to maintain a minimum mass flow rate A for proper tube cooling. Above this defined A minimum load, the unit is operated and controlled as A-A a once-through boiler (firing for steam temperature). The type of system used to start a once-through B B boiler will depend on the type of furnace circuitry. For the Spiral design, the minimum once-through load (termed BENSON load) is typically between 35% and 40% load. A minimum mass flow rate of 35% to 40% is maintained through the furnace walls by using a recirculation pump to superimpose a recirculating flow onto the flow provided by the boiler feedpump. The water flow leaving the furnace is passed through several tangential steam separators

B-B
33-295

Figure 22. Tangential Steam Separator

(see Figure 22) which are configured in parallel (a typical 600 MWe unit would have four separators). The water collected in the separators is drained to a single water collecting vessel which feeds a single boiler recirculation pump which pumps the water to the economizer feed line. The water level in the water collecting vessel is controlled by a valve which allows excess flow to be dumped to a flash tank. Steam collected in the separators flows through the superheater circuitry and is dumped to the condenser via the high pressure bypasss station, the reheater, and the low pressure bypass station during the initial start-up phase, and later, via the high pressure turbine, the reheater, and the intermediate/low pressure turbine. For BENSON Vertical units, a BENSON load of 20% can be used because of the natural circulation characteristic features of the design, which were described above. Because of the vertical rifled tubes, the minimum mass flow rate can be 20% or even lower to adequately protected the evaporator tubing. With this low flow rate, a recirculation pump is not required. Water collected in the separator and drained to the water collecting vessel can be directed to the flash tank and then to the condenser. The minimum mass flow rate can be maintained by the boiler feedpump. Because the minimum load is low, it can be achieved quickly, minimizing start-up time. Heat losses are about the same as with a recirculation pump maintaining a minimum 40% flow. Although steam flashing losses are higher, water loss to the condenser is lower because of the lower minimum flow rate. Since a hold period is not required to transition a recirculation pump in and out of service, the transition to once-through operation is smooth without temperature changes that occur during the hold period which affects pressure part life and steam turbine life. The start-up system described above for the Spiral design call also be used for the BENSON Vertical design; in this case a BENSON load of 25% is recommended. Multi-Pass OTU units, which operate with constant supercritical furnace pressure and variable pressure superheater outlet pressure, are designed with the Integral Separator Start-Up System (ISSS) that was developed by Foster Wheeler. With this system, a pressure reducing station controls the furnace upstream pressure to 242 bar. Downstream of the pressure reducing station, steam and water enters the Integral Separators. Separated steam flows to the superheaters, and then to the steam turbine. Drain flow leaving the separators is collected in a drain manifold and is routed through breakdown valves to heat recovery sub-loops and/or the condenser. A typical 600 MWe unit would required about eight (8) separator bottles. A typical ISSS separator bottle is illustrated in Figure 23. A more detailed description of the start-up systems can be found in Reference 7.
Figure 23. Integral Separator

EVAPORATOR PRESSURE PART COMPARISON In order to compare the furnace evaporator pressure part differences between a subcritical drum type boiler and the supercritical OTU technologies offered by Foster Wheeler, pressure parts requirements were computed. An operating 880 MWe Multi-Pass unit was used as the reference. Holding the furnace dimensions fixed, the tubing arrangement for each configuration was computed as shown in Figure 24. The resultant relative weight of for each of the configurations is shown in Figure 25. The weight calculation begins with the first evaporator inlet header and end at the steam discharge of the steam separators/drum.

Figure 24. Evaporator Tube Arrangement Comparison

Although the Multi-Pass uses smaller diameter tubes than the drum boiler, the tubing weight is comparable because of the high design pressure and temperature, and tighter pitch for the MultiPass arrangement. Both the drum and Multi-Pass arrangements use interconnecting piping. However, the drum boiler has a significantly larger amount of piping in order to create a low pressure loss to provide the required amount of natural circulation. The drum boiler has a large 1676 mm inside diameter (ID) steam drum for steam-water separation. The Multi-Pass arrangement utilizes twelve (12) smaller 584 mm ID diameter Integral Steam Separators.

The Spiral and BENSON Vertical arrangements have comparable tubing weights which are significantly less that the drum and Multi-Pass designs. The Spiral tubing is slightly lighter because of the wider tube pitch with the vertical tubes in the upper furnace; the BENSON Vertical design holds a constant tube pitch through the height of the furnace. The Spiral tube panel weight also includes the transition header.

PRESSURE PART WEIGHT (% Drum Total) 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Drum/Sep Piping Tube Panel

DRUM

MULTI-PASS

SPIRAL

VERTICAL

Figure 25. Evaporator Weight Comparison

Both the Spiral and BENSON Vertical design have a small amount of interconnecting piping as compared to the drum and Multi-Pass designs. They also use six (6) tangential steam separators and a water collection vessel as compared to twelve ISSS separators for the Multi-Pass. As can be seen the Spiral and BENSON Vertical design have much lighter evaporative circuits. Although the Spiral design has a slight weight advantage over the BENSON Vertical design, the special support system required for the Spiral design increases the boiler island cost about 2% higher than the vertical design. CONCLUSION Project specific requirements such as unit size, modes of operation (base load, cycling, etc.), fuels to be fired, emission requirements, site specific logistics, and customer preference are all factors which dictate which OTU technology is preferred for a given project. The Multi-Pass boiler is suitable for any fossil fuel. It is best used for base loaded operation where cycle efficiency at partial loads is not an important issue. The Multi-Pass design is the best OTU technology for supercritical arch fired boilers for firing low volatile coals. It is also easily applied to all utility boiler sizes by varying the number of passes in the furnace circuitry to achieve the proper mass flow rates. The Spiral design is the most widely accepted boiler design for full variable pressure operation. It has been successfully applied for all fossil fuels. The design can be applied throughout the capacity range for utility boilers by adjusting tube angle, diameter and tube-to-tube spacing to achieve the proper mass flow rates. The BENSON Vertical design includes the most recently developed enhancements to OTU technology. The design provides the most economical full variable pressure operation. A minimum BENSON load as low as 20% is achievable, and can eliminate the need for a recirculation pump. It is also suitable for all fossil fuels. Its use in suspension fired utility boilers may be limited to units 300 MWe and greater in size based on the furnace periphery requirements to maintain the necessary steam/water mass flow rates.

REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. K. M. Retzlaff and G. Schlottner, Steam Turbines for Ultrasupercritical Power Plants, POWER-GEN 98 Europe, Milan, June 9-11, 1998. W. P. Gorzegno and D. Tsao, Variable Pressure Once-Through Steam Generators Experience & Development, American Power Conference, Chicago, April 1981. S. J. Goidich, Integration of the BENSON Vertical OTU Technology and the Compact CFB Boiler, POWER-GEN International, Orlando, November 14-16, 2000. Siemens BENSON Boiler Brochure, Research & Development at the BENSON Test Rig, by Siemens AG, Power Generation KWU. J. Franke, R. Cossmann, and H. Huschauer, BENSON Steam Generator with VerticallyTubed Furnace, VGB Kraftwerkstechnik, Vol. 75, No. 4, 1995. H. Griem, W. Khler, and H. Schmidt, Heat Transfer, Pressure Drop and Stresses in Evaporator Water Walls, VGB PowerTech, Vol. 1, 1999. Foster Wheeler Once-Through Utility (OTU) Boiler Technology, Foster Wheeler Publication 6872r.vp, January 2001.