Chapter 1

COMPANY PROFILE
Introduction:
The KOTA SUPER THERMAL POWER STATION is ideally located on the left bank of Chambal River at the upstream of KOTA BARRAGE to produce Electrical Power for supply to Rajasthan Rajya Vidyut Utpandan Nigam, a state undertaking. K.S.T.P.S. is designed for ultimate capacity of 1240 MW, first two units of 110 MW each, another three units of 210 MW each and further the sixth & seven unit of 195 MW each. The state Rajasthan is predominantly rural and agricultural. While Rajasthan mineral sources for power generations werent commensurable with its requirements. The large expense of water, stored by the barrage provides, as efficient direct circulation cooling system for the power station thus avoiding installation of cooling towers. For bringing in coal for power station and machinery and equipment etc. a 15KM long private siding from the Gurla Railway Station on Delhi-Bombay broad gauge line has been laid-up to the Power Station.

Keeping in view, the higher demands of power, it was decided to house initially a 2 x 200 MW Thermal Power Station at Kota on techno-economical reasons as follows: Availability of clean water required for station. Location of station on Broad Gauge main Railway line. Proximity to Madhya Pradesh Coal fields. Concentration of load in Kota region due to large No. of industries located. The coal linkage for the power station is brought from dudhichua mines of Singrauli coal field which is about 800 km from Kota. The Dudhichua mines were developed and the coal is being made available from Gorba and Jayanti blocks of Singrauli coal.

The source of water is the reservoir formed by Kota Barrage on the Chambal River. The water is drawn from this reservoir and after use is released near the left main Canal of the Barrage. The consumptive use of water from barrage by the P.S. is 2.75 cusec for each 110 MW Unit. A single chimney of 180 M height with two separate flues for the two units each of 110 MW is provided. Similarly another chimney with three separate flues is also provided for another three units of 210 MW Each. The disposal of flue gases for fifth unit is also through second chimney. A seprate chimney of 180 M height with flues for both 195 MW Units is provided. Thus the units in K.S.T.P.S. are as:

STAGE I 2x110 MW STAGE II - 2X210 MW STAGE III - 1X210 MW STAGE IV - 1X195 MW STAGE V - 1X195 MW Total Generation capacity (2 x 110 + 3 x 210 + 2 x195) = 1240 MW For Thermal the other advantage for choosing Kota are: Availability of large amount of clean cooling water required for the station. Location of station on Broad gauge main Delhi-Bombay Railway line. Concentration of load in Kota city and Kota region. Constant power supply. Proximity to M.P. Coal fields. Transmission and Grid substation are quite nearer to the site.

The Kota Super Thermal Power Station is ideally on the left bank of Chambal River at Up Stream of Kota Barrage. The large expanse of water reached by the barrage provides an efficient direct circulation of cooling system for the power station. The 220 KV GSS is within Kms. from the power station.

LAND
Land measuring approx. 250 hectares was required for the project in 1976, For disposal of ash tank very near to power station is acquired which the ash in slurry form is disposed off through ash and slurry disposal plants.

COAL
Coal India limited owns and operates all the major coal fields in India through its coal producing subsidiary companies viz. Eastern Coal Fields Limited, Western Coal Fields Limited Coal India limited is supply coal from its coal mines of coal producing subsidiaries BCCL, SECL & ECL to Kota Thermal Power Station through railway wagons. The average distances of SECL, ECL & BCCL are 800, 950 and 1350 Kms. respectively.

WATER
The source of water for power station is reservoir formed by Kota Barrage on the Chambal River. In case of large capacity plants huge quantities of coal and water is required. The cost of transporting coal and water is particularly high. Therefore, as far as possible, the plant must be located near the pit rather than at load centre for load above 200 MW and 375 MW. The transportation of electrical energy is more economical as compared to the transportation of coal. The satisfactory design consists of the flowing steps. Estimation of cost. Selection of site. Capacity of Power Station. Selection of Boiler & Turbine. Selection of Condensing Unit. Selection of Electrical Generator. Selection of Cooling System. Design of Control and instrumentation system. The design of steam power station requires wide experience as the subsequent operation and maintenance are greatly affected by its design. The most efficient design consists of properly sized component designed to operate safely and conveniently along with its auxiliaries and installation.

Ch apter 2
GENERAL LAYOUT&BASIC IDEAS GENERAL LAYOUT:
A control system of station basically works on Rankin Cycle. Steam is produced in Boiler is exported in prime mover and is condensed in condenser to be fed into the boiler again. In practice of good number of modifications are affected so as to have heat economy and to increase the thermal efficiency of plant.

LAYOUT OF PLANT WORKING

Ch apter 3
ELECTRICITY GENERATOR AT K.S.T.P.S.
ELECTRICITY GENERATOR IN K.S.T.P.S:
Thermal power station burns the fuel and use the resultant heat to raise the steam which drives the turbo-generator. The fuel may be Fossil (Coal, Oil and Natural Gas) whichever fuel is used the object is same to convert the heat into mechanical energy to electrical energy by rotating a magnet inside the set of winding. In a coal fired thermal power station other raw materials are air and water. The coal is brought to station by train or other means travels from the coal handling system.

i. By conveyer belts to coal bunkers from where it is fed to pulverizing mills. ii. Mills grind it fine as face powder. iii. Then this powdered coal mixed with preheated air is blow into boiler by a fan
known as primary air fan (PA fan).

iv. When it burns more like a gas as solid in conventional domestic or industrial
grate with additional amount of air called secondary air supplied by Forced Draft Fan.

v. As the coal has been grinded so resultant ash is also as fine as powder. Some of
its fine particles blinds together to form lumps which fall into the ash pit at the bottom of furnace.

vi. The water quenched ash from the bottom of furnace is carried out boiler to pit
for subsequent disposal.

vii. Most of ash still in fine particles form is carried out to electrostatic precipitators
where it is trapped by electrode charged with high voltage electricity. The dust is then conveyed to the disposal area or to bunkers for sale.

viii.

Now after passing through ESP few gases are discharged upto chimneys by Induced Draft Fan.

Meanwhile the heat reloaded from the coal has been absorbed by kilometers long tubes which lies in boiler walls inside the tubes Boiler Feed Water which is transferred into turbine blades and makes them rotate. To the end of the turbine rotor of generator is coupled, so that when turbine rotates the rotor turns with it. The rotor is housed inside the stator having coil of copper bars in which electric is produced through the movement of magnetic field created by rotor. 5

The electricity passes from the stator winding to the transformer which steps up the voltage so that it can be transmitted effectively over the power line of grid. The steam which has given up its heat energy in changed back into a condenser so that it is ready for reuse. The cold water continuously pumped in condenser. The steam passing around the tubes looses heat and rapidly change into water. But these two types of water (boiler feed water and cooling water ) must never mix together. The cooling water is drawn from the river but the Boiler Feed Water must be pure than potable water (DM Water). Now the question arises why do we bother to change steam from turbine to water when it is to be heated up again immediately? Laws of Physics gives the answer which states that the boiling point of water is related to pressure. The lower the pressure lower the boiling point temperature. Turbine designer wants boiling point temperature as low as possible because it can only utilize the energy from steam when change back to water, he can get no more work out at it. So there is a condenser which by rapidly changing the steam into water a vacuum. The vacuum results in a must power at lower boiling points which in turn mean it can continue getting out of steam will below 1000C at which it would change into water. To condense volume of cooling water is huge and continuous volume of cooling water is essential. In most of the power stations , the same water is to be used over and over again, so the heat which the water extract from the steam in the condenser is removed by pumping water out of cooling tower. The cooling tower is simple concrete shell acting of air. The water is sprayed out at top of tower and as it falls into pond beneath it cooled by the upward draft of air. The cold water in the pond is then recirculated by pumps to condensers. Invariably however some of the water drawn upwards as vapor by the draft

Ch apter 4
Various Plants in KTPS
6

Coal Handling plant (Delivering of coal & unloading):In the thermal power station half of the total station exporting cost is on a account of coal and therefore problem of coal handling for a thermal station require careful consideration. The function of the coal handling system is to move coal from a receiving point to burner. Requirement of a good coal handling plant is that it should be reliable, simple and requiring a min. of maintenance. Besides the Plant should be able to deliver the required quantity of coal at destination during peak period. In K.T.P.S. the coal is supplied nearly from all coaleries in India. The coal is transferred by means of private railway station from Gudla to K.T.P.S. The total consumption of coal is 13000 MT per day.

Preparation:
The big size is received from coaleries and is unloaded in hoppers by wagon tippler. The coal passed from mesh is about of 200 mm of size. The stone and impurities are also removed by manual labour from the mesh. The coal from hoppers is taken to crusher house by conveyor belt. The size of coal is further reduced to 20 mm by hammer in crusher house then coal is taken to the bunker. When the bunker is fulfilled with coal, the coal is taken to the storage yard by conveyor belts. The storage open yard is called dead storage and in bunker is called live storage. From bunker coal is thrown to the furnace by primary air.

BOILER:To induce the gases the boiler is provided balance draught by force draught (F.D.) fan. Flue gases are utilized for heating secondary air for combustion. The boiler furnace is maintained at negative pressure. Ash is formed as a result of coal combustion. A small amount of ash (15%) is collect in E.S.P. called fly ash. This ash is disposed in pond in the form of slurry.

Basic theory &auxiliaries:

The boiler also termed as a steam generator. It is a container in which water can be feed and by the application of heat it can be changed into steam. The water contained in the boiler drum flows through the down comers water falls and then through back to the boiler drum.This makes closed circuit movement of boiler water. The water wall absorbs the heat energy from the furnace and thus water gets heated up. This give rise to the formation of steam bubbles in the water wall and wet steam. In Separator steam and water is separated. Then saturated steam is converted into dry steam by super heater. This steam is free water particles and called super heated steam. The temperature of super heated steam is 540c and a pressure of 144kg\cm.

FURNANCE The boiler at K.T.P.S. in stage-I is manufactured by Bharat Heavy Electrical Limited (BHEL). The two boilers are of 110 MW units weighting about 6000MT for pulverized coal firing with max. continuous output steam of 345 t\hr at 138 kg\cm pressure with a temperature of 540c. Oil burners are provided for initial starting and establishing of load. Two electrostatic precipitators having an efficiency of 99% are arranging to handle flue gases from boiler. The gases from E.S.P. are discharged into 180m high chimney. Induced draft (I.D.) fan is provided near the chimney.

Boiler water & steam circuit:

The raw water is taken from river and then feed into water clarifier. After that demineralization of water is done in D.M. plant, then D.M. water is feed into economizer inlet header. Here water is preheated before entering in boiler drum. Then water enters in boiler drum from the economizer outlet header. In boiler, water converts into steam due to heat absorption by water walls. This steam is called wet steam because it is mixture of steam and water. In drum separation of water and steam takes place. Thus water and steam circuit completed by passing following sections: Boiler drum Super heater Turbine Condenser Dearator L.P.&H.P. heater Boiler feed pump Economizer

Super heater:Super heater is meant to raise temp. of steam at the saturation temp. by absorbing heat from the flue gases. Super heater also eliminates the formation of condensate during the transportation of steam tubes. It is divided in to four sections namely platen, pendent, rear horizontal and steam sealed valve. The platen is located just above the furnace and pendent is in the back of screen wall tubes.

Turbine:The turbine installed is axial flow impulse type and rated 110 MW & 210 MW. It is a machine in which the shaft is rotated by the impact of reaction of current of steam. In turbine working substance is steam, which converts heat energy into mechanical energy. It has three stages: High pressure (H.P.) turbine Intermediate pressure (I.P.) turbine Low pressure (L.P.) turbine

Steam enters into turbine through two servomotor-controlled valves. Steam first enters HPT through bottom and from top it goes to IPT and finally enters into LPT. In turbine double shell is used to reduce stress and different pressure. 9

Condenser:The steam which comes out from turbine is at low pressure and temp. This steam is condensed into condenser. The condensed steam is collected in hot well. Raw water is used for cooling of steam in condenser. The condensed water (condensate) is pumped by condensate extraction pump (C.E.P.) to dearator through LPHs. The capacity of CEP of stage-I units is 160 t\hr. The temp. of outlet water is 40-50c. There are three CEP in each unit, in which one is stand by. The speed of CEP is 1450 rpm.

Dearator:The dearator is provided with constant pressure head. The dearator tank will be storage tank with capacity of about 115m. It is located at 42.6m level. The main feature of dearator is to remove oxygen from water. If it is not removed it will corrode the water tubes of boiler and turbine blades.

Boiler feed pump:The boiler feed pump (BFP) in stage-I units is one of the most imp. auxiliary. Function of BFP is to pump the water to water space of boiler. The pump is rotary feed pump whose water capacity is 4 KW. The feed water enters at 140-150 kg/cm. BFP is capacity is 445 t/hr. There are 2 BFP in each unit in which one is stand by.

Economizer:The function of Economizer is to remove heat which was carried away by flue gases and this is used for heating of feed water to the boiler. It is placed in the path of flue gases through the boiler.

Water treatment:The function of water treatment plant is to produce feed water, which should not produce any scale formation and rust on tubes and turbine blades. This type of water is called Demineralised water. It does not produce corrosion in the boiler. In water treatment plant first turbidity of water is removed by the addition of alum or PVC & chlorine.

1. The impurities present in water are as follows:a) Un-dissolved and suspended solid materials. b) Dissolved slats and minerals. c) Dissolved gases 10

d) Other minerals (oil, acid etc.). 2. a) Turbidity & Sediment. b) Silica. c) Micro Biological. d) Sodium & Potassium Salt. e) Dissolved Sales Minerals. 3. a) O2gas. b) CO2 gas.

After that sedimentation is done. Then water is passed through bed of concrete, sand layers. or demineralization, water is filtered and is feed to a bed of (+) ve and (-) ve ions. The cation exchange bed absorbs the cationic portion of the salt and before passing to anionic exchange bed water is passed through degasser to remove gases and CO2 from water. Then it is passed through anion exchange bed and mixed bed. HCL and NAOH remove the resins.

Turbo generator:The three synchronous generators in all the five units of KTPS are two poles with a speed of 3000 rpm for 50 Hz operations. The generator is coupled to the same shaft as of the three turbines. It convert mechanical energy into electrical energy by revolving the bar magnets in the stationary coil system. Special cooling arrangements are provided to keep temp. of various parts of generator under certain range of temp. the cooling agents are H2, oil and water. Specification of generator:KW=210 Connection= star-delta KVA=24700 Coolant= water and oil Hz=50 PS= 0.85 Rpm=3000 Phase=3

Ventilation:The turbo generator is designed for symmetrical closed circuit. Ventilation system optimum of coolant in different passes ensure by suitable design of their 11

geometry with a view to achieve balanced cooling is forced into the M/C by propeller fan at each of the three main parallel streams of flow namely rotor flow, air gap flow and rotor space flow.

Cooling system:For cooling of generator commonly H2 gas is to use. It satisfies the requirement for permitting higher current density for the same temp. rise and with more efficiency cooling property, which allows high operation. H2 is used because of its superior cooling property and its low density. Thermal conductivity of H2 is 7.3 times of air. Due to its low density it reduces winding losses in high-speed M/C like turbo generator.

Exciter:It is generally a DC generator which fulfills all the excitation requirement of the turbo generator. It has enough reverse capacity to take care of field forcing requirement of modern system with adequate speed. The exciter is assembled as a unit including base, housing and provision for ventilation. Electric connection is taken from exciter through the opening in the foundation frame. The exciter is direct coupled to the shaft of the generator through a gearbox.

Electrostatic precipirator:For general mankind, today an Eco friendly industry is must. As far as air pollution is concerned now a days various flue gases filter are there in service. The choice depends on the size of suspended particle matter. These filters are E.S.P. Fabric filter high efficiency cyclone separations and sitelling room. Fop fly ash , where the particle size vary from 0.75 microns to 100 micron use gradually use E.S.P. to purify the flue gases due to its higher efficiency & low running cost etc. In an ESP the dust lidder gas is passed through an intense electric field, which causes ionization of the gases & they changed into ion while traveling towards opposite charged electrode get deposited as particles and thus dust is electric deposited an electrode creating the field. It is continuous process.

Ch apter 5
SWITCHYARD
12

220 KV System Two 220 KV bus bars have been provided in switch yard and are interconnected through a bus coupler. Each of the two 110 MW generator is connected to this system through a step up of 125 MVA 240/ 11 KV yard generator transformer. There are two step down transformer each feeding 6.6 KV system ( Station Switchyard ) viz. BS-IS & SB-IB. Each station transformer has two windings one secondary side and is rated for 50/25/25 mva , 270/7/7.2 kva four feeder take off from 220 switch yard, two to SKATPURA ,GSS and other to HEERAPURA , Jaipur GSS. Each of four feeder are provided with bypass isolators which is connected across line breaker and breaker isolator. By closing bus coupler between 220 KV buses and 13

putting line feeders whose breaker required maintenance of any one bus through by pass isolators and all other line feeders whose breaker is by passed is then transformed to bus coupler breaker. A brief description of equipments of 220 KV system is as follows.

CIRCUIT BREAKERS:
Each of generator transformer, station transformer, line feeder and bus coupler is provided with minimum oil circuit breaker of BHEL make. It is rated for 245 KW, 2500 A and 13400 MVA circuit breaker is used to break the circuit either in load condition or in no load condition.

CIRCUIT BREAKER

ISOLATOR:
All the isolators are provided in 220KV switchyard and are motor operated. Triple pole double breaker type and power switch yard L&T make these and are rates for 245 KV and 1250 A. The four isolators are provided with earth switch.

14

ISOLATER

CIRCUIT TRANSFORMER:
All the 220 KV current transformers are provided for measuring and protection. They are BHEL make, single phase, oil filled nitrogen sealed outdoor type. All the E.T.S. are multi-cored with each core having specification upon duty it is to perform. Feeder circuit have 5 cores.

1) 2) 3) 4)

Bus bar protection core I 1250/250/IA. Distance protection core II 600-300/IA. O/C and E/F protection core 600-300 /IA. For metering and measuring 600-300/ IA. 15

POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER :
Each of 220 KV buses is provided with three P.T.S are core for each phase of BHEL make. There are single phase , oil filled outdoor. N2 sealed , elicitor magnetic type P.T. has two secondary windings on secondary side and selected for 220/53 KV, 10/53 KV. One secondary winding has O/P of 500 mva accuracy class .5 and is used for metering other secondary winding has O/) of 200 mva accuracy class 3 and used for protection.

LIGHTENING ARRESTOR:
For protection against lightening each of line feeder, generator transformer , station transformer has been provided with three L.A. (one for each phase). All the L.A. are 2 outdoor type and are rated for 198 KV these are manufactured by W.S. insulator. The L.A. of generator transformer and station transformer are located near them. It has larger value of capacitance and will change upto line voltage. If we have to do some work on line, first earth line through earthing isolator for discharging the line capacitance and then work.

Ch apter 6
MAIN CONTROL ROOM
16

CONTROL ROOM

In control room various controls are provided simultaneously various measurement are made various relays are provided here. Instrumentation Limited Kota is major supplier of apparatus. There is one unit control from which two adjacent unit of 110 MW each can be controlled. In addition are local panels at the boilers, turbo sets and boiler feed pumps. The operation of unit is basically controlled from unit control room. 17

The operation of various rents and chain are done locally as per requirement. The unit control room has a set of parameters panel for indicating or recording parameter of boilers or turbo sets. The parameters recorded in control room included per pr. and temp. of line steam, reheat steam, feed water, fuel oil flow, mill outlet temp. , mill differential, turbine speed, control valve operation, turbine shaft, axial shaft, back pressure in condenser, metal temperature etc. There is a data logger to ensure accurate lagging of essential data. The VCB also control panel for one generator and contains exciter synchronizing arrangement. The unit control room also houses most of electronic regulator , relay, recorders and other devices in near side of room. The scheme of control and instruction is provided to control the parameters and safe operation of equipment. Automatic control is provided for combustion for feed water regulation and reheat temp. The combustion control is designed to inlet maintain the desired steam pressure at turbine only variation thereof utilized to very fuel input to the boiler w.r.t. steam pressure. Ratio steam flow maintained automatically. The feed water regulation is based on impulses from drum level, feed water flow to boiler and steam flow for the boiler. Super heater temp. counted with feed water spray. The furnace draft control of draft fan. The boiler oil system is provided with itself control for ignition control and also provided with safety interlock to prevent operation under low oil pressure and temperature.

Ch apter 7
PROTECTION
PROTECTION:
18

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Field Protection. Pole Slipping. Plane Overload Protection. Inter-turn Fault Negative Phase Sequence Protection. Reverse Power Protection. Forward Power Protection. Under Frequency & Over Frequency Protection. Generator Voltage Protection. Rotor Earth Fault Protection.

General Protection:It is most important electrical equipment of many generating station. Tripping of even a generating unit may cause overloading of associated machines and even to system un-stability. The basis function of protection applied to generator is to reduce voltage to minimum by rapid discrimination clearance of faults. Unlike other apparatus the opening of C.B. to isolate faulty generator is not sufficient to prevent future damage. Since generator would continue to supply power to stator winding fault , until its excitation is suppressed. It is, therefore, necessary to open field stop fuel supply to prime mover & in some case breaking also.

Chapter-8
EQUIPEMENTS

Transformer :
19

Transformer is a static device which is 1. Worked on mutual induction. 2. Transfer electrical power from one circuit to other circuit. 3 . It does so without change of frequency. A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through a shared magnetic field. A changing current in the first circuit (the primary) creates a changing magnetic field; in turn, this magnetic field induces a voltage in the second circuit (the secondary). By adding a load to the secondary circuit, a current is made to flow in it, thus transferring energy from one circuit to the other.

The secondary induced voltage VS is scaled from the primary VP by a factor equal to the ratio of the number of turns of wire in their respective windings:

By appropriate selection of the numbers of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating voltage to be stepped up by making NS more than NP or stepped down, by making it less. A key application of transformers is to reduce the current before transmitting electrical energy over long distances through wires. By transforming electrical power to a highvoltage, low-current form for transmission and back again afterwards, the transformer allows electricity to be transmitted more efficiently, enabling the economic transmission of power over long distances. Consequently, transformers have shaped the electricity supply industry, permitting generation to be located remotely from points of demand. 20

All but a fraction of the world's electrical power has passed through a series of transformers by the time it reaches the consumer.

Transformers are some of the most efficient electrical 'machines', with some large units able to transfer 99.75% of their input power to their output. Transformers come in a range of sizes from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge gigavolt-ampere-rated units used to interconnect portions of national power grids. All operate with the same basic principles, though a variety of designs exist to perform specialized roles throughout home and industry.

This sub station have five transformer : TRANSFORME S NO R

1

RATING(K COMPANY V)

Transformer 1 Transformer 2

BHEL BHEL

132/33 132/33

Transformer 1

BHEL

33/11

Transformer 2

BHEL

33/11

Technical points
In the description above, several complicating factors have been ignored . We have assumed an ideal transformer consisting of two windings of zero resistance around a core of negligible reluctance. A voltage applied to the primary winding causes a current, which develops a magnetomotive force (MMF) in the core. The current required to create the MMF is termed the magnetising current; in the ideal transformer, 21

it is considered to be negligible, although its presence is still required to drive flux around the magnetic circuit of the core.

The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) across each winding. These EMF's are equal the voltages above only if the windings have no resistance or, more generally, no impedance. The primary EMF, acting as it does in opposition to the primary voltage, is sometimes termed the "back EMF". Other factors that cause transformers to deviate from ideality and perfect efficiency are discussed in the next section.

Practical considerations

Flux leakage
The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings. Such flux is termed leakage flux, and manifests itself as self-inductance in series with the mutually coupled transformer windings. Leakage results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply. It is not itself directly a source of power loss, but results in poorer voltage regulation, causing the secondary voltage to fail to be directly proportional to the primary, particularly under heavy load.Distribution transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance.

However, in some applications, leakage can be a desirable property, and long magnetic paths, air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may be deliberately introduced to a 22

transformer's design to limit the short-circuit current it will supply. Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury vapor lamps, and neon signs; or for safely handling loads that become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders. Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio-frequency transformers that have a DC component added.

Effect of frequency
The time-derivative term in Faraday's Law shows that the flux in the core is the integral of the applied voltage. An ideal transformer would, at least hypothetically, work under direct-current excitation, with the core flux increasing linearly with time. In practice, the flux would rise very rapidly to the point where magnetic saturation of the core occurred, causing a huge increase in the magnetising current and overheating the transformer. All practical transformers must therefore operate under alternating (or pulsed) current conditions.

Transformer universal EMF equation

If the flux in the core is sinusoidal, the relationship for either winding between its rms EMF E, and the supply frequency f, number of turns N, core cross-sectional area a and peak magnetic flux density B is given by the universal EMF equation:

The EMF of a transformer at a given flux density increases with frequency, an effect predicted by the universal transformer EMF equation . By operating at higher frequencies, transformers can be physically more compact because a given core is able to transfer more power without reaching saturation, and fewer turns are needed to achieve the same impedance. However properties such as core loss and conductor skin effect also increase with frequency. Aircraft and military equipment traditionally employ 400 Hz power supplies which are less efficient but this is more than offset by the reduction in core and winding weight.

23

In general, operation of a transformer at its designed voltage but at a higher frequency than intended will lead to reduced magnetising current. At a frequency lower than the design value, with the rated voltage applied, the magnetising current may increase to an excessive level. Operation of a transformer at other than its design frequency may require assessment of voltages, losses, and cooling to establish if safe operation is practical. For example, transformers may need to be equipped with "volts per hertz" over-excitation relays to protect the transformer from overvoltage at higher than rated frequency.

Energy loss
An ideal transformer would have no energy losses, and would therefore be 100% efficient. Despite the transformer being amongst the most efficient of electrical machines, with experimental models using superconducting windings achieving efficiencies of 99.85%, energy is dissipated in the windings, core, and surrounding structures. Larger transformers are generally more efficient, and those rated for electricity distribution usually perform better than 95%. A small transformer, such as a plug-in "power brick" used for low-power consumer electronics, may be no more than 85% efficient; although individual power loss is small, the aggregate losses from the very large number of such devices is coming under increased scrutiny. Transformer losses are attributable to several causes and may be differentiated between those originating in the windings, sometimes termed copper loss, and those arising from the magnetic circuit, sometimes termed iron loss. The losses vary with load current, and may furthermore be expressed as "no-load" or "full-load" loss, or at an intermediate loading. Winding resistance dominates load losses, whereas hysteresis and eddy currents losses contribute to over 99% of the no-load loss. The no-load loss can be significant, meaning that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on an electrical supply, and lending impetus to development of low-loss transformers.

Transformers are amongst the most efficient of machines, but all exhibit losses Losses in the transformer arise from:

Winding resistance
Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors. At higher frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding resistance and losses. 24

Hysteresis losses
Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the core. For a given core material, the loss is proportional to the frequency, and is a function of the peak flux density to which it is subjected.

Eddy currents
Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a solid core made from such a material also constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire length. Eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are responsible for resistive heating of the core material. The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse square of the material thickness.

Magnetostriction
Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known as magnetostriction. This produces the buzzing sound commonly associated with transformers, and in turn causes losses due to frictional heating in susceptible cores.

Mechanical losses
In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating electromagnetic forces between the primary and secondary windings. These incite vibrations within nearby metalwork, adding to the buzzing noise, and consuming a small amount of power.

Stray losses
Leakage inductance is by itself lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that 25

intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat.

Types
A variety of specialised transformer designs has been created to fulfil certain engineering applications, though they share several commonalities. Several of the more important transformer types include:

Autotransformer
An autotransformer has only a single winding with two end terminals, plus a third at an intermediate tap point. The primary voltage is applied across two of the terminals, and the secondary voltage taken from one of these and the third terminal. The primary and secondary circuits therefore have a number of windings turns in common. Since the volts-per-turn is the same in both windings, each develops a voltage in proportion to its number of turns. By exposing part of the winding coils and making the secondary connection through a sliding brush, an autotransformer with a near-continuously variable turns ratio is obtained, allowing for very fine control of voltage.

Current Transformer
A CT for operation on a grid

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A current transformer (CT) is a type of instrument transformer designed to provide a current in its secondary winding proportional to the current flowing in its primary. They are commonly used in metering and protective relaying in the electrical power industry where they facilitate the safe measurement of large currents, often in the presence of high voltages. The current transformer safely isolates measurement and control circuitry from the high voltages typically present on the circuit being measured.

Design
The most common design of CT consists of a length of wire wrapped many times around an annular silicon steel ring passed over the circuit being measured. The CT's primary circuit therefore consists of a single 'turn' of conductor, with a secondary of many hundreds of turns.

The CT acts as a constant-current series device with an apparent power burden a fraction of that of the high voltage primary circuit. Hence the primary circuit is largely unaffected by the insertion of the CT.

Common secondaries are 1 or 5 amperes. For example, a 4000:5 CT would provide an output current of 5 amperes when the primary was passing 4000 amperes. The secondary winding can be single ratio or multi ratio, with five taps being common for multi ratio CTs.onstructed wideband transformer provides a voltage output that is proportional to the measured current. Another type (called a Rogowski coil) requires an external integrator in order to provide a voltage output that is proportional to the measured current. Unlike CTs used for power circuitry, wideband CTs are rated in output volts per ampere of primary current.

Usage
Current transformers are used extensively for measuring current and monitoring the operation of the power grid. The CT is typically described by its current ratio from primary to secondary. Often, multiple CTs are installed as a "stack" for various uses (for example, protection devices and revenue metering may use separate CTs).

Connections
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Typically, the secondary connection points are labelled as 1s1, 1s2, 2s1, 2s2 and so on. The multi ratio CTs are typically used for current matching in current differential protective relaying applications.

For a three-stacked CT application, the secondary winding connection points are typically labelled Xn, Yn, Zn.

Safety precautions
Care must be taken that the secondary of a current transformer is not disconnected from its load while current is flowing in the primary, as this will produce a dangerously high voltage across the open secondary, and may.

Accuracy
The accuracy of a CT is directly related to a number of factors including: burden rating factor load external electromagnetic fields temperature and physical configuration.

Burden
The burden in a CT metering circuit is essentially the amount of impedance (largely resistive) present. Typical burden ratings for CTs are B-0.1, B-0.2, B-0.5, B-1.0, B-2.0 and B-4.0. This means a CT with a burden rating of B-0.2 can tolerate up to 0.2 of impedance in the metering circuit before its output current is no longer a fixed ratio to the primary current. Items that contribute to the burden of a current measurement circuit are switch blocks meters and intermediate conductors. The most common source of excess burden in a current measurement circuit is the conductor between the meter and the CT. Often, substation meters are located significant distances from the meter 28

cabinets and the excessive length of small gauge conductor creates a large resistance. This problem can be solved by using CT with 1 ampere secondaries which will produce less voltage drop between a CT and its metering devices.

Rating factor

Current transformers used in metering equipment for three-phase 400 ampere electricity supply Rating factor is a factor by which the nominal full load current of a CT can be multiplied to determine its absolute maximum measurable primary current. Conversely, the minimum primary current a CT can accurately measure is "light load," or 10% of the nominal current (there are, however, special CTs designed to measure accurately currents as small as 2% of the nominal current). The rating factor of a CT is largely dependent upon ambient temperature. Most CTs have rating factors for 35 degrees Celsius and 55 degrees Celsius. A CT usually demonstrates reduced capacity to maintain accuracy with rising ambient temperature. It is important to be mindful of ambient temperatures and resultant rating factors when CTs are installed inside padmounted transformers or poorly ventilated mechanical rooms. Recently, manufacturers have been moving towards lower nominal primary currents with greater rating factors. This is made possible by the development of more efficient ferrites and their corresponding hysteresis curves. This is a distinct advantage over previous CTs because it increases their range of accuracy. For example, a 200:5 CT with a rating factor of 4.0 is most accurate between 20 A (light load) and 800 A (4.0 times the nominal rating, or "full load," of the CT) of primary current. While previous revisions of CTs were on the order of 500:5 with a rating factor of 1.5 yielding an effective range of 50 A to 750 A. This is an 11% increase in effective range for two CTs that would be used at similar services. The relative cost of a 500:5 CT is significantly greater than that of a 200:5.

Physical configuration

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Physical CT configuration is another important factor in reliable CT accuracy. While all electrical engineers are quite comfortable with Gauss' Law, there are some issues when attempting to apply theory to the real world. When conductors passing through a CT are not centered in the circular (or oval) void, slight inaccuracies may occur. It is important to center primary conductors as they pass through CTs to promote the greatest level of CT accuracy. In an electric metering circuit, the most inaccurate component is the CT.

Special designs
Specially constructed wideband current transformers are also used (usually with an oscilloscope) to measure waveforms of high frequency or pulsed currents within pulsed power systems.

Potential Transformer

The potential transformer is an instrumentation transformer designed to meet the specific need of measurement and instrumentation and also for relaying safety , which 30

accept the voltage in the range of 0-120 volts and current of 5 ampere. In the power system the voltage can be a high as 765 KV and currents of several kilo amperes. There measurements require accurate ratio voltage transformation which is done by the potential transformers.

It must transform the input voltage accurately to the output voltage both in magnitude and phase the impedances by the instruments on measurements iv the measurement system to transformer output terminal is called burden.

It is mainly resistive in nature and has a large value like the resistance of voltmeter. The circuit model of the potential is same as that of ordinary transformer with very few differences. The current drawn by the burden causes a voltage drop in (R2+jX2) ant this current referred to primary plus the magnetizing current causes a voltage drop in (R1+jX1). Therefore V2/V1 differs from the desired value of N1/N2 in magnitude and phase resulting in magnitude and phase error. The error is to be kept within the limit defined by the precision required. In order to achieve this a potential transformer is designed and connected to have low leakage reactance , low loss and high magnetizing reactance that is low magnetizing current.

Low reactance is achieved by interlacing primary and secondary both on core limb. High magnetizing reactance requires minimum iron path and high permeability steel. Low loss requires low-loss steel and very thin laminations. Most important thing for low potential transformer errors is to make burden as high as feasible.

Construction of P. T Core
The core may be core or shell type of construction. Shell types are normally used for low voltages. Special precaution should be taken to assemble and interleave the core lamination so that the effects of air gap at the joints are minimized.

Windings
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The primary and secondary windings are coaxial to reduce the leakage reactance to minimum. In order to simplify the insulation problem the low voltage winding is put next to the core. The primary winding may be a single coil in low voltage transformer but must be subdivided into numbers of short coils in high voltage transformer in order to reduce the insulation needed between the coil layers.

Insulations
Cotton tape and varnished cambric are used as insulation for coil construction. Hard fiber separator is used between the coils. At low voltage the transformers are usually filled without compound but potential transformer for use at voltage above 7 kV are oil immersed. Dry type porcelain insulated transformer has been developed in the continent for use up to 45 kV.

Characteristics of potential transformer Effect of secondary current (VA)

If we increase the secondary burden the secondary current is increased and therefore the primary current increases .Both primary and secondary voltage drops increases and thus for the given value of primary voltage the value of secondary voltage decreases and hence the actual ratio increases as the burden increases.

Effect of Power Factor of secondary burden

If the power factor of the secondary circuit burden is reduced the angle is increased. This makes primary current to shift towards no load current. The primary voltage and secondary voltage come more nearly into phase with primary winding induced voltage and secondary winding induced voltage respectively since the voltage drop are almost constant . Therefore the transformation ratio increases as the power factor of secondary burden increases.

Effect of Frequency
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For a constant voltage , the flux is inversely proportional to frequency . Increase in frequency reduces the flux and therefore magnetizing component of no load current and iron loss component of no load current are decreased and therefore the voltage ratio decreases . The decrease is not so much as with increase in frequency the leakage reactance increases and therefore leakage reactance drops are increased giving an increase in ratio . Thus changes in voltage ratio because of change in frequency are dependent upon relative values of no load current and leakage reactance since the effects produced by them oppose each other .

Effect of Primary Voltage

There is no wide variation of supply voltage to which the primary winding of P.T is connected. Therefore the study of variation of ratio and phase angle errors with supply voltage is of no importance.

Polyphase transformers
For three-phase supplies, a bank of three individual single-phase transformers can be used, or all three phases can be incorporated as a single three-phase transformer. In this case, the magnetic circuits are connected together, the core thus containing a threephase flow of flux. A number of winding configurations are possible, giving rise to different attributes and phase shifts. One particular polyphase configuration is the zigzag transformer, used for grounding and in the suppression of harmonic currents.

Instrument transformers
A current transformer is a measurement device designed to provide a current in its secondary coil proportional to the current flowing in its primary. Current transformers are commonly used in metering and protective relaying, where they facilitate the safe measurement of large currents. The current transformer isolates measurement and control circuitry from the high voltages typically present on the circuit being measured. Voltage transformers (VTs) are used for metering and protection in high-voltage circuits.They are designed to present negligible load to the supply being measured and to have a precise voltage ratio to accurately step down high voltages so that metering and protective relay equipment can be operated at a lower potential.

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Classification
The many uses to which transformers are put leads them to be classified in a number of different ways: By power level: from a fraction of a volt-ampere (VA) to over a thousand MVA; By frequency range: power-, audio-, or radio frequency; By voltage class: from a few volts to hundreds of kilovolts; By cooling type: air cooled, oil filled, fan cooled, or water cooled; By application function: such as power supply, impedance matching, output voltage and current stabilizer, or circuit isolation; By end purpose: distribution, rectifier, arc furnace, amplifier output; By winding turns ratio: step-up, step-down, isolating (near equal ratio), variable.

DIFFERENT PARTS OF TRANSFORMER

In a power transformer, there are following main parts:1. Main parts:- core Winding Tank cover Base changer L.V. & H.V. side bushing Tap changer Earth terminals Rating plate 2. Auxiliary parts:- Radiators Cooling fans Conservator tank Breather Buchholzs relay Arcing horns

TANK

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The tank is of welded mild steel plate construction sand/shot blasted on inside and outside to remove scale formation. Tanks are designed to withstand a vacuum in line with CBIP recommended on transformer.The cover is either belt type or flat and remains mounted on the top of the tank or bolted to the tank rim. In tank insulating oil is filled and it provides house for oil.

TAP CHANGER
Adjustment of voltage is done by changing the effective turns ratio of the system. Transformer by proper selections of tapping on the winding. There are two type of tap changing: 1. Off load tap changing 2. On load tap changing In first form as the name implies it is essential to switch off the transformer before changing the tap. On load tap changers are employed to regulate voltage while transformer is delivering normal load. Tap changer is provided on the outer winding or H.V. moreover the H.V. side has no. of turns. During transition, two adjacent taps are momentarily connected and the short circuit current is limited by automatic insertion of impedance between the corresponding tapping.

CONSERVATOR TANK
As the temperature of oil increases or decreases during operation there is a corresponding rise or fall in the volume of oil. To account for this an expansion vessel (conservator) is connected to the transformer tank. The tank has a capacity of a oil level equal to 75% of the total oil in transformer. This is provided with magnetic oil level gauge on one of the end covers which has a low oil level alarm. The oil level alarm is suitable for 240 v d.c. or a.c. a prismatic oilgauge is also fitted at the other end. A value is fitted at the lowest point of the tank for draining and sampling of oil. On the feed pipe buchholzs relay is mounted.

BUCHHOLZS RELAY
The transformer is fitted with double float buchholzs relay. It is fitted in the feed pipe from conservator to tank and is provided with two set of mercury contacts. The device comprises of a cost iron housing containing the hinged floats. One is upper part and the other part is the lower part. Each float is filled with a mercury switch leads of switch are connected to a terminal box. This alarm detects minor or major faults in transformer. The alarm element will operate, after a specified volume of gas has collected to five an alarm indication. Such faults are :1. Broken down core-bolt insulation. 2. Shorted laminations 3. Bad contacts 4. Over heating of part of windings.

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The alarm element will also operate in the event of oil leakage or if air gets into oil system.The trip element will be operated by an oil surge in the event of more serious faults such as:1. Earth faults 2. Winding short circuits 3. Puncture of bushings 4. Short circuit between phases. The trip element will also be operated if a rapid loss of oil occurs.

BREATHER
Breather phenomenon: - When the transformer is loaded or un loaded the oil temperature Inside the transformer tank rises or falls. Accordingly the air volume inside the tank changes by either sucking in or pushing out the air. This phenomenon is called breathing of the transformer . The air which is being sucked in contains either foreign impurities and or humidity which changes dielectric strength of transformer oil. Hence, it is necessary that the air entering into the transformer is free from moisture and foreign impurities.

OIL TEMPERATURE INDICATOR

This is a distance thermometer operating on the principle of liquid expansion. It provides local indication of the top oil temperature at the marshalling box. The connection between the thermometer bulb and the dial indicator is made by flexible steel capillary tube.The bulb enclosed in the packet in is fixed on the at the hottest oil region . The packet has to be filled with transformer at the hottest oil region. The oil temperature indicator is provided with a maximum pointer and two mercury switches one for alarm and other for trip. Switches are adjustable to make contact between 50 c and 120 c.

WINDING TEMPERATURE INDICATOR

This indicator operating on the principle of liquid expansion provides local at the marshalling box of hot spot temperature of winding. The winding hot spot to top oil temperature differential is simulated by mean of CT current fed to a heater coil around the operating bellows. Thus winding temperature indicators temperature readings are proportional to load current plus top oil temperature. The indicator is fitted with maximum pointer and four mercury switches. One is used for alarm and second is used for trip and third is for fan and the forth for over the entire working range of the instrument. All mercury switches for 132V A.C or D.C.

COOLING OF TRANSFORMER
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Due to internal heating in the windings of a transformer, cooling is a recessive partOf any power transformer. There are three types of cooling:1). ONAN (Oil natural Air Natural) 2). ONAF (Oil Natural Air Forced) 3). OFAF (Oil Forced Air Forced) When the oil get hot it spreads and get into the radiators provided to the outside of tank,and come directly in contact to air. Thus it is known as ONAN cooling. In ONAF cooling, cooling of oil is made by starting the fans situated near the radiators to cool down the temperature of oil. In OFAF cooling system, the oil is meshed by means of a centrifugal pump and thus the temperature of oil calm down. OAF is as similar as above system. All the cooling system can be operated in the ways of manual or automatic.

Insulator :
In order to prevent the flow of current to earth from support the transmission lines or distribution lines are all secured to the supporting towers or poles with the help of insulators. Thus the insulators play an important part in the successful operation of the lines. The chief operation or requirements for the insulators are:1) 2) 3) They must be mechanically very strong. Their dielectric strength must be very high. They must provide very insulation resistance to the leakage

currents. 4) They must be free from the internal impurities.

5) They should not be porous. 6) They must be imperious to the entrance of gases or liquids. 7) They should not be affected with change in temperature. 8) They must have high ratio of puncture strength of flesh over voltage. There are many types of insulators in power system, but at extra high voltage transmission only three types of insulators are used. They are 1) Pin type insulator 2) Suspension type insulator or disc type insulator 3) Post type insulator 37

Pin type:A pin type insulator is small, simple in construction and cheap. It is used on line upto and including 33KV lines. The conductor is bound into a groove on the top of the insulator which is cemented on to a galvanized steel pin attached to the cross arm on the pole of tower. to avoid a direct contact between the porcelain and the metal pin, a soft metal (generally lead) thimble is used. An adequate length of leakage path is obtained by providing the insulator with two or three petticoats or rain sheds. These are so designed that even when the outer surface of the insulator is wet due to rain, sufficient leakage resistance is still given by the inner dry surfac

FIG.:PIN TYPE INSULATORS Figure shows two pin insulators. In its electrical behavior, a pin type insulator may compared To a complicated series of condenses with resistances in series and shunt. The petticoats with the intervening air spaces from the condenser system and the leakage paths over the surface and through the body of the material and represented by the resistances. In modern pin type insulators the surface of petticoats or rain sheds,confirm to equipotential surface of electrostatic field between the pin and conductor while the body of insulator confirms to the lines of electrostatic field. Pin type insulators are used only upto about 33KV because for higher voltages they tends to very heavy and more costly than suspension type insulators.

Suspension type insulator:suspension type insulator are used for lines above 33KV. They are also known as disc insulator or string insulator. A suspension insulator consist of porcelain disc units mounted one above the other. Each disc consists of single shed of porcelain groove on the under surface to increase the creepage distance.The upper surface of each disc is inclined at suitable angle to the horizontal in order to ensure field drainage of water. Each disc is provided with a metal cap at the top and the metal pin underneath. The cap is recessed so as to eke the pin of another unit and thus a string of any required number of units can be built up. The most commonly used disc is cemented cap as shown in figure. The conductor is suspended below the point of support by means of the insulator string (and hence the name suspension insulator).

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suspension insulator The suspension has many advantages:i) Each disc is designed for a low voltage and the required degree of insulation is achieved by using a suitable number of discs. In the event of failure of on disc, only that disc, and not the string needs replacement. ii) Since the line is flexibility, the mechanical stress is reduced. iii) if it is proposed to increase the line voltage, the line insulation can be increased by adding the appropriate number of discs the usual diameter of discs are 255 mm and 280 m.

Post type insulator:These are used for supporting the bus-bar and disconnecting switches in sub station. apost insulator is similar to that of the pin type insulator but has a metal base and frequently a metal cap show that more than one unit can be mounted in series.

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CONCLUSION

KOTA SUPER THERMAL POWER STATION is one of the big concerns in the field of generating electricity. In the period of 30days, I see and learn about various field of plant. Engineering is a way of education in which we see a clear balance between theoretical aspects of anything. The practical work done in the college during B.E. is not sufficient; therefore it is essential to go under particle training. Overall training was really an experience towards industrial environment. It improves practical knowledge about management and other organization setup to good concern.

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