Student Book

UNIT SEVEN FRONT SUSPENSION SYSTEM DESIGN

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LESSON ONE - SUSPENSION SYSTEM PARTS ......................................................................2 SPRINGS............................................................................................................................3 Damping ..........................................................................................................................3 Spring Design...................................................................................................................3 Coil Springs .....................................................................................................................4 Air Springs .......................................................................................................................6 Leaf Springs .....................................................................................................................7 TORSION BARS ................................................................................................................ 11 SHOCK ABSORBERS ....................................................................................................... 13 STABILIZER BARS ............................................................................................................ 15 STEERING KNUCKLE ........................................................................................................ 17 BALL JOINTS .................................................................................................................... 18 BUSHINGS........................................................................................................................ 20 CONTROL ARMS............................................................................................................... 22 LESSON TWO - TYPES OF SUSPENSION SYSTEMS............................................................ 26 SOLID AXLE FRONT SUSPENSION.................................................................................... 27 SHORT LONG ARM (SLA) FRONT SUSPENSION................................................................ 28 TWIN I-BEAM SUSPENSION.............................................................................................. 30 TORSION BAR FRONT SUSPENSION SYSTEMS................................................................ 32 MACPHERSON STRUT FRONT SUSPENSION.................................................................... 33 Modified MacPherson Strut Suspension............................................................................ 35 VARIABLE DAMPING SHOCKS OR STRUTS ...................................................................... 36 Air Shocks and Struts..................................................................................................... 36 Air Spring Suspension..................................................................................................... 37 Load Leveling Suspension ............................................................................................... 38 Nivomat Suspension ....................................................................................................... 39 LESSON THREE - DESIGN AND FUNCTION OF WHEEL BEARINGS....................................... 41 BEARINGS........................................................................................................................ 42 Tapered Roller Bearings .................................................................................................. 42 Bearing Cleaning and Inspection ...................................................................................... 44 Bearing Lubrication ......................................................................................................... 45 Seal Replacement .......................................................................................................... 46 Incorrect Component Alignment ....................................................................................... 47 Bearing Adjustment (Preload) .......................................................................................... 47 GLOSSARY.......................................................................................................................... 49

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UNIT SEVEN FRONT SUSPENSION SYSTEM DESIGN LESSON ONE SUSPENSION SYSTEM PARTS
TERMINAL OBJECTIVE
Successful completion of this Units enabling objectives (technical competencies) will allow you to meet the Integrated Curriculum Standards (ICS) listed in the right margin.
ICS 101 Basic Physics 102 Mechanics and Forces 155 Steering and Suspension Systems 156 Wheel Alignment, Wheels, and Tires

ENABLING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of Lesson Two, you should be able to:

KEY TERMS
You will see the following key terms used throughout this lesson. You may also refer to the glossary at the back of this book for definitions of these terms. Air Spring Leaf Spring Ball Joint Load Rating Body Roll Shock Absorber Bushing Stabilizer Bar Coil Spring Steering Knuckle Control Arm Torsion Bar Dampening

Deflection Rate

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SPRINGS
Suspension systems are designed to travel with the wheel assembly as the vehicle encounters abnormal road conditions. Springs accomplish a portion of this task by providing a cushion for road impacts. All suspension systems incorporate some type of spring. While the spring design may vary, its main task remains the same.

Damping
Spring's accomplish one of the two major tasks of the suspension system - they absorb bumps or jounces caused by varying road surfaces. Shock absorbers are used to accomplish the other task to control the rebound of the springs. Without damping, also known as dampening, the actions of the spring devices would not be controlled.

Spring Design
Springs are designed to have deflection rate and recoil frequency. A spring's deflection rate is the amount of bend that is induced with different weights. The rate is usually expressed as pounds needed to compress the spring one inch. A spring's recoil frequency is the time it takes to recoil or deflect in the opposite direction. Load does not affect frequency. The frequency depends on the spring's length, thickness and width.

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Coil Springs
Coil springs are made of spring steel; the rods are formed to provide the appropriate compression strength and spring rate. They can be designed to handle a wide range of loads and have increased strength under higher loads.

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In some cases coil springs are mounted on the control arm, with the frame riding on top; in other cases they are mounted on struts, as part of a shock absorber and coil assembly. When mounted on a shock, the top is bolted to the chassis and held in place by a spring seat containing a rubber isolator. Although some struts are designed to rotate, springs do not. Coil springs are under load, even if the vehicle is raised or jacked up. The spring's length when unloaded is longer than the distance the suspension can expand. This tension holds the spring in place and supports the weight of the vehicle.

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Air Springs
Another type of spring is the air spring. The air spring is composed of an external air bladder, that when pressurized, provides vehicle support. The air spring is mounted between an axle or control arm and the vehicle's chassis and is either manually or automatically pressurized, depending on system design. Air springs are often used as supplemental spring force when carrying heavier loads with standard suspension systems.

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Leaf Springs
Leaf springs are generally made from steel, but some are composed of fiberglass, carbon fiber, graphite or other materials. The spring curve flattens as the spring is compressed. Some leaf springs are multi-leaf. Each leaf below the main leaf increases in arch. This creates more strength as the spring is compressed. The main leaf is the longest, flattest strip and has eyes (loops) formed at each end for attachment to the vehicle.

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The U-bolts fasten the leaf spring to the axle. The front eye of the spring is attached to a hanger on the frame. The rear eye is attached to a movable shackle or link that allows the main leaf to expand in length when the vehicle encounters a bump or dip.

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As the leaves compress, their ends rub against each other. This is a result of the different lengths and arcs. Liners, interleaves or inserts made of plastic, wax or zinc are often installed between the leaves to reduce the friction.

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Some vehicles designed with independent rear suspensions have one transversely mounted leaf spring.

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Other vehicles are equipped with a single-leaf type spring, which is different than standard designs. The single-leaf design has a thick mid-section and thins toward the eyes. This produces an increase in compression strength as the spring flattens (variable spring rate). Also, single-leaf springs are not as prone to wear because of the absence of additional leaves.

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TORSION BARS
Torsion bars are straight bars of round spring steel. On an independent front suspension system, an inline torsion bar can be used to apply pressure near the lower control arm pivot. If the vehicle hits a bump the wheel moves upward (compression). This causes the lower control arm to twist the torsion bar. When the wheel moves downward, the bar untwists. The twisting action provides the same result as a coil or leaf spring. Each front wheel has its own torsion bar.

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Torsion bars can be mounted inline or transversely. Front suspension transverse torsion bars are shown below. The bars are parallel to the crossmember and anchored at one end, opposite the wheels they serve. A pivot cushion bushing supports and isolates the bar where it turns rearward toward the wheel. The end attaches to the lower control arm in a rubber bushing. This design isolates all three connecting points of the bar, which limits the noise and road shocks reaching the vehicle. The bar acts as a lever from the control arm to the pivot cushion bushing as the vehicle encounters bumps and dips. The transverse torsion bar reacts the same as the inline torsion bar, but also replaces the strut rod/bar found on inline applications.

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SHOCK ABSORBERS
Shock absorbers provide damping for springs. When a wheel hits a bump, the spring is compressed; as the wheel passes over the bump, the spring expands. Without a damping device, the spring would continue to "oscillate", that is, it would contract and expand many times, until all the energy of the bump has been dissipated.

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A shock absorber dampens spring oscillation by pushing and pulling a piston through a column of oil. The piston contains orifices that allow the oil to flow through at a fixed rate.

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The piston rides up and down inside a two-chamber oil reservoir. There is a base valve that meters the flow of oil into the lower chamber of the oil reservoir. When the piston rises quickly (for example, when the wheel falls into a pothole), the base valve opens, to allow oil to flow into the lower chamber of the reservoir. A spring-loaded disc valve in the piston meters the flow of oil into the upper chamber of the reservoir. When the piston descends quickly (for example, when the wheel hits a big bump), the disc valve opens to allow oil to flow from the lower chamber of the reservoir, into the upper chamber.

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STABILIZER BARS
Stabilizer bars are used to help limit the effects of body roll while cornering. The bar acts much like a torsion bar. The bar is Ushaped and is usually connected to the two lower control arms and frame through bushings. It can be mounted in front of or behind the suspension. As the vehicle enters a turn, the vehicle rolls, causing the outside wheel to compress upward (jounce). This forces the stabilizer bar end upward. The bar then rotates in its frame attachment bushings and tries to force the opposite side down. Since it cannot force the other side down, it applies the pressure to the jounced wheel control arm, which counteracts the spring tension and vehicle weight. This helps to maintain the vehicle in a level position. Sway bar diameters can affect oversteer and understeer. They should only be replaced with Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) parts. Stabilizer bars are also used instead of struts on many vehicles, because they connect to control arms in the same fore and aft direction. Some vehicles use a sway bar with a vertical link. The vertical link attaches to a ball joint.

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STEERING KNUCKLE
Many different steering knuckle designs exist, but they all have the same function - to attach the steering/suspension system to the wheel assembly. Knuckles are forged as heavy, one-piece constructions and provide attaching points for components such as control arms, steering arms, tie rods, struts, and brake calipers, depending on the system used. Steering knuckles on rear-wheeldrive vehicles are often called "spindles" because they house the shafts on which the front wheels rotate. For front-wheel drive and four-wheel drive vehicles, hub units are mounted on the steering knuckles rather than spindles. Most spindles bolt directly to the steering knuckles, while others are integral or one piece.

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BALL JOINTS
Ball joints are ball and socket type joints that allow the steering knuckle to rotate when the suspension system is moving up and down. Ball joints consist of a ball stud that rotates on a socket. The rotation that a ball joint permits is similar to that of your shoulder. This type of joint is often used to connect steering knuckles to control arms. There are two main types of ball joints: tension and compression. A tension type ball joint is found on the bottom of the steering knuckle, with the stud bolted up through the knuckle. This configuration creates tension in the joint because the vehicle weight pushes down on the control arm, pulling the socket away from the stud. Tension type joints usually contain a spring or rubber spacer to keep tension in the joint, eliminating "free play" in the steering system. Compression type ball joints are used on top of the steering knuckle with the stud bolted down through the knuckle. The joint is compressed because the weight of the vehicle forces the upper control arm to push the socket against the ball stud.

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Load-carrying ball joints support most of a vehicle's weight. A nonload-carrying ball joint simply maintains a control arm to knuckle position without the vehicle load on it. Load-carrying ball joints generally wear at a faster rate than non-load-carrying ball joints.

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BUSHINGS
Bushings are often used in joints between moving components. They are designed to eliminate the friction that causes premature wear. However, the bushings themselves are subject to wear and can cause play in the component's connecting points. Bushings are manufactured with bronze or rubber compounds, depending on design requirements. Bushings should be tight and usually do not require lubrication. Leaf spring eyes contain bushings. The bushings allow the spring to rotate on the shackle and hanger as it compresses. All motion occurs inside the rubber bushing. The bushings do not rotate on the bolt or in the spring eye. If a bushing rotates at one of these points a squeak is likely to develop. Bushings are used on many suspension components for example: Control arms King pins Stabilizer bars Shock absorbers Lateral links Strut Rods Track bars

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CONTROL ARMS
Control arms are used to hold knuckles and wheel assemblies in their proper positions. They also provide a movable link between the vehicle's frame and the wheel assembly. Control arms are designed to control forces the wheel encounters when rotating. The various suspension systems mount control arms or links in different directions to control these forces. (Control arms are often called links). Many control arms are made from stamped steel. Control arms can also be made from cast and nodular iron, aluminum or galvanized steel tubing. Many vehicles today are equipped with both upper and lower control arms. The most common upper control arm is "A" (or triangular) shaped for improved strength. The base of the arm is mounted on a pivot shaft or bolt with bushings attached to the frame. The other end of the arm connects to the knuckle through a ball joint. The ball joint allows the knuckle to rotate, so that the spindle and wheel can turn. The joint also allows for up and down swiveling movement due to variations in road surfaces.

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Lower control arms can also be "A" shaped. If this type of lower control arm is used, attachment points are similar to those of the upper control arm. Some lower control arms are shaped differently, like rods or bars. In this design, the attaching points are similar to the "A"-shaped arm, but the strength of the arm is not comparable. For the rod-shaped control arm to be effective, an additional component must be added. Generally this component is a strut bar or rod. The rod controls fore and aft forces on the control arm.

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Other types of control arms are trailing arms, lateral arms and tracking arms. The various suspension systems incorporate these in different configurations in order to stop unwanted suspension movements. Each of these components has a specific task within that system. Remember, the control arm in one system may have a different task when compared to another system. Therefore, it is always important to refer to the proper Service Manual when diagnosing and repairing suspension system components.

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UNIT SEVEN FRONT SUSPENSION SYSTEM DESIGN LESSON TWO TYPES OF SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
TERMINAL OBJECTIVE
Successful completion of this Units enabling objectives (technical competencies) will allow you to meet the Integrated Curriculum Standards (ICS) listed in the right margin.
ICS 101 Basic Physics 102 Mechanics and Forces 155 Steering and Suspension Systems 156 Wheel Alignment, Wheels, and Tires

ENABLING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of Lesson Two, you should be able to:

KEY TERMS
You will see the following key terms used throughout this lesson. You may also refer to the glossary at the back of this book for definitions of these terms. Jounce MacPherson Strut Rebound Torsion Bar Variable Damping Shocks

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SOLID AXLE FRONT SUSPENSION
The solid axle front suspension system consists of a solid axle or axle housing which the wheels are mounted on. Solid front axles have great strength and are often used on the front suspensions of heavy-duty trucks. The solid axle is not an independent system since both wheels are connected to the same axle. When one of the wheels hits a bump or a dip, the other wheel is affected.

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SHORT LONG ARM (SLA) FRONT SUSPENSION
The short and long arm (SLA) suspension is one of the most widely used independent front suspension systems. Independent front suspensions provide a better ride and handling than non-independent suspensions. This is because when one of the wheels hits a bump or a dip, the wheel on the other side is not affected. In the SLA suspension system, the wheel is attached to a steering knuckle. The steering knuckle is attached through two control arms to the vehicle frame. The control arms pivot, to allow the wheel to move up and down, following bumps and dips in the road. A coil spring and shock absorber are mounted between the lower control arm and the vehicle frame.

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SLA control arms are of different lengths. The arc of the upper control arm is smaller than the arc of the lower control arm. The pivot point of the upper arm is closer to the steering knuckle than the pivot point of the lower control arm. As a result, when the wheel goes into jounce or rebound, the wheel does not move in toward the center of the vehicle. This reduces tire scuffing and wear. If the control arms were the same length, the wheel would move inward during jounce and rebound and the tire would be scuffed every time it hit a bump or a dip.

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TWIN I-BEAM SUSPENSION
The twin I-beam suspension is a combination of a solid axle and an independent suspension system. It has the spindle and radius arm connected to the beam's outer end. The spindle is mounted with kingpins. The radius arm controls fore and aft movement of the wheel. If the I-beam suspension uses leaf springs, no radius rods are needed. The leaf springs control the fore and aft movements. The inner end of the I-beam is mounted on the vehicle's frame rail opposite the wheel it controls. The inner end of the I-beam connects to a pivot bracket similar to a control arm. The twin I-beam helps limit roll due to the leverage on the beam's pivot point during a turn, but does not produce a large camber change. It does produce some side slip due to the length of the beam, which limits the vehicle's handling ability as compared to most other independent suspensions. The design is, however, very durable. The twin I-beam can also be modified to handle four-wheel drive vehicles. This suspension has better anti-roll and steering ability due to the beam's inner pivot point locations. During jounce and rebound, the twin I-beam causes camber changes.

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TORSION BAR FRONT SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
Torsion bars are often used in place of leaf or coil type springs. They are mounted to the lower control arm in SLA suspension systems. The torsion bars can also be mounted to front and rear suspensions that are in a trailing arm configuration. Torsion bar suspensions are mounted inline or transversely, depending on vehicle design. The torsion bar can also act as a lower control arm strut to eliminate fore and aft movement of the lower control arm. The torsion bar suspension is often adjustable for curb height, eliminating spring replacement due to sagging or fatigue.

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MACPHERSON STRUT FRONT SUSPENSION
The MacPherson strut suspension system is similar to the SLA suspension. The MacPherson strut eliminates the upper control arm and mounts a coil type spring over the strut assembly. The MacPherson strut is used on most current front-wheel drive vehicles with independent front suspensions. The suspension system consists of a lower control arm, a vertical strut with a coil spring, and a sway bar. A strut rod or link is used to control fore and aft movements if a lower control arm does not do this. The MacPherson strut contains upper/lower spring seats and a shock absorber for damping spring oscillations. The coil spring is offset on the strut to improve durability and reduce friction. An isolator is located on the top of the strut. The isolator bolts to the upper fender well reinforcement (strut tower) with several bolts. The isolator contains a pivot bearing that allows the strut, steering knuckle, and wheel to turn.

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Camber is usually negative during jounce and positive during rebound on strut-equipped vehicles. This is because the strut is tilted slightly inboard. Strut suspensions usually have less camber change during jounce/rebound than SLA suspensions. The change in camber can help the vehicle make a turn because the wheel leans into the turn, or is held vertical if the turn is taken at higher speeds. The MacPherson strut suspension has fewer components than an SLA suspension. The strut is close to vertical, which lowers camber changes compared to an SLA suspension. Struts also lower vehicle weight, because the upper control arm is eliminated.

Modified MacPherson Strut Suspension

The modified strut system uses one control arm, with the strut mounted in the same manner as a MacPherson strut. The main difference is that the coil spring is mounted on the lower control arm, which is usually an "A" arm. This allows for placement of the coil spring and controls fore and aft movements.

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VARIABLE DAMPING SHOCKS OR STRUTS
Some suspensions have shocks and struts with variable orifices called variable damping shocks. The variable orifice controls jounce and rebound rates. The settings are soft, normal and firm. The settings are sometimes controlled by electric motors, which rotate the shock's internal piston to vary the orifice size. The orifice size is determined by the shutter valve location. As the shutter valve is turned, the shutter can open up a compression and rebound orifice allowing more oil flow and a softer ride. Orifice location can be driver or computer controlled.

Air Shocks and Struts

Air shocks and struts are similar to air springs in that air pressure is used to dampen forces. In air shocks, a flexible air bladder is mounted between the shock piston rod and chassis attaching point. Air struts mount the bladder inside the upper portion of the strut assembly, below the pivot bearing and isolator. Both components provide a means of adjusting damping force and improving ride quality.

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Air Spring Suspension
One particular system is the Automatic Air Spring Suspension System. These systems are also referred to as "electronic height control systems". They use a compressor and an Air Spring Control Module (ASCM) to regulate the air pressure in each air spring unit. The ASCM controls vehicle height and keeps the vehicle level. The system operates using inputs from the height position sensors located in each shock absorber. The inputs are used by the controller to determine which air spring is to receive or exhaust air through its individual solenoid. The ASCM also uses door, trunk, throttle position, braking, and cornering inputs to adjust the suspension only at the proper time. Unlike conventional springs, air spring suspensions allow for adjustments to vehicle height. The air spring suspension can compensate for different loads and also maintains the proper headlight alignment.

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Load Leveling Suspension
Another system that uses air shocks is the Automatic Air Load Leveling System. This design uses air shocks to supplement the suspension system when carrying heavy loads. The air shocks are located on the rear of the vehicle. A height sensor provides an input to the system's control module regarding rear vehicle height. When the control module determines that vehicle height is lower than the desired level (carrying a heavy load), it activates an air compressor mounted under the vehicle. If the control module determines the vehicle height is too high (load removed), it activates a pressure release solenoid in the compressor, which releases air from the system. Using the air shocks, the rear vehicle height is automatically adjusted.

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Nivomat Suspension
Another type of load leveling system is called Nivomat, which is German for "level automatically". The Nivomat System does not use air shocks or a compressor to adjust vehicle ride height. Instead, each rear shock absorber contains a hydraulic pump that pressurizes the hydraulic charge inside the shock absorber. The hydraulic pressure acts upon the surface of the shock piston to raise vehicle height. A valve, also internal to the shock, controls the pressure to maintain the correct vehicle height. The internal hydraulic pump is mechanically activated as the shock absorber travels through jounce and rebound. When the shock is experiencing light action, the pump strokes are short and the hydraulic flow is low. When the shock is experiencing heavy action, the pump strokes are longer and hydraulic flow increases. Since pump operation is dependent on shock operation, the time or distance traveled before the system is raised to ride height may vary with road conditions and the load carried. When the load is removed, the system should return to ride height within a few seconds.

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UNIT SEVEN FRONT SUSPENSION SYSTEM DESIGN LESSON THREE DESIGN AND FUNCTION OF WHEEL BEARINGS
TERMINAL OBJECTIVE
Successful completion of this Units enabling objectives (technical competencies) will allow you to meet the Integrated Curriculum Standards (ICS) listed in the right margin.
ICS 101 Basic Physics 102 Mechanics and Forces 155 Steering and Suspension Systems 156 Wheel Alignment, Wheels, and Tires

ENABLING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of Lesson Two, you should be able to:

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BEARINGS
Tapered Roller Bearings
Adjustable tapered roller bearings are found mainly on the front spindles of rear-wheel drive vehicles such as light trucks, vans and older cars. They are also found on the rear spindles of some front wheel drive cars. A tapered roller bearing consists of a cone assembly (inner race, tapered rollers, and a cage) which is mounted on the stationary spindle. A cup, or outer race, is press fit into the rotating hub and rotor assembly. The races and rollers carry the load while the cage keeps the rollers evenly spaced. Two bearings, an inner and an outer, are used on each wheel. Both bearings require periodic lubrication and adjustment (preload) at specified service intervals. Refer to the Service Manual or Owner's Manual for service intervals. Caution: Vehicle weight should not be allowed to rest on bearings unless the bearings have been properly torqued or adjusted (preloaded).

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Bearing Cleaning and Inspection
Adjustable tapered roller bearings must be cleaned at and repacked for service at intervals specified in the Service Manual and Owner's Manual. Before cleaning the bearings, examine the condition of the grease. A milky, white grease usually indicates that water has entered the bearing through the inner seal. A strong odor may indicate grease oxidation due to high temperatures. Metal particles may indicate that a bearing is spalled. Bearings should be cleaned in a parts tank with an approved cleaning solvent. Be sure that there is proper ventilation and protective clothing is worn. After cleaning, allow the bearings to dry thoroughly. Use lint-free towels or allow the bearings to air dry. Excess solvent can be blown off with compressed air. When doing this, direct the air stream from one end of the roller to the other while holding the cage with your thumb. Warning: Never spin a bearing with compressed air. The force of the compressed air may cause the rollers to be expelled from the cage at a high speed, possibly causing personal injury. The bearing should be carefully inspected for damage after cleaning. Inspect the bearings for corrosion, abrasive wear, signs of overheating, spalling, handling damage, brinelling, etc. Rotate the rollers by hand to check for binding or a bent cage. Any bearings that show damage should be replaced with a new bearing. Also inspect the spindle and hub for burrs and wear, and replace as necessary.

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If one portion of the bearing assembly (the outer race, for example) is replaced, the mating assembly should also be replaced. The use of a damaged bearing could cause serious component damage or failure. New bearings are coated in a preservative. This preservative is compatible with the wheel grease and does not need to be removed before installation. If a used bearing is being used again, it can be immediately repacked with grease once the cleaning solvent has dried. If the bearing is not repacked immediately after cleaning, it should be coated in a light oil to protect against corrosion. Bearings usually fail as the result of one of the following: Ineffective sealing Lack of lubrication Defective bearing seats for inner and outer races Incorrect shaft/housing fit Misalignment of components Vibrations when the bearing is not rotating

Bearing Lubrication
Lubrication is critical to bearing life. Wheel bearings do not require a lot of grease, but the grease must be constantly available. Lubricant should be of the NLGI GC-LB type. Wheel bearings should never have different types of grease intermixed. Possible incompatibility between lubricants could occur, causing thinning and lack of lubrication. If lubrication is not supplied, even for a short period of time, a bearing can become so hot that the rollers or balls weld to the race. Often the heat is enough to cause small particles to come off and weld to another location.

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This is referred to as "smearing" or "scoring". In tapered roller bearings, the first signs of inadequate or lack of lubrication appear as scoring on the large ends of the rollers. This soon progress into heat discoloration on the large end of the rollers and races. The large end of the rollers is the area of sliding contact within a tapered roller bearing, and thus, is the most difficult area to prevent scoring, especially when lubrication is not readily available. If operation under these conditions continues, the damaged bearings eventually soften the material, with the end result being bearing seizure other component damage. Bearings can also develop "peeling", which gives the races or rollers a frosty appearance. Peeling may indicate the presence of high operating temperatures or low lubricant viscosity. Bearings must be packed with appropriate grease (refer to the Service Manual for specific applications). A mechanical bearing packer is easiest, but hand packing is acceptable. When hand packing; force the grease into the bearing at the large end of the rollers until the grease begins to come through the small end of the rollers. With either method of packing, the important issue is to fully pack the bearing with grease.

Seal Replacement
You should replace the inner seal along with the bearing (newly lubricated), to prevent leaks. Seals should always be cleaned and lubricated before reassembly, and replaced if torn or damaged. Seals are usually replaced when rotors are turned. Housings in which seals are installed must be clean to prevent misalignment. Most wheel bearing seals are of the lip design and are press fit with the proper driver or arbor press to prevent misalignment and damage.

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Incorrect Component Alignment
Often bearings wear or become spalled due to improper component alignment. This type of damage appears at the edges of the contact areas because they see abnormally high stress. Misalignment is usually caused by worn or bent spindles, burrs on backing shoulders or in housings (hubs). Wheel bearing settings that are too loose can also contribute to misalignment. Extremely loose bearing settings also cause vibrations as the tire and wheel bounce over the road.

Bearing Adjustment (Preload)

Proper wheel bearing adjustment is extremely important to operation and component life. The Service Manual should be referred to for specific adjustment procedures on each vehicle. There are several different types of adjusting and locking mechanisms (cotter pins, keys, double jamb nuts, etc.) and each variation requires a unique adjustment procedure to obtain the correct bearing setting. Perhaps the most used adjusting device on light vehicles is the single nut, retainer, and cotter pin mechanism. A typical adjustment procedure (refer to the Service Manual for specific procedures) consists of the following: Torque the adjusting nut to 10 - 20 ft. lbs. while rotating the hub to seat the bearing Back-off the nut until it is loose (approximately 1/2 turn) Tighten the nut finger tight (10 - 20 in. lbs.) Install retainer and cotter pin With this setting, bearing end play should be approximately .0003" - .005" end play

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An alternate method is to torque the nut to 10 - 20 ft. lbs., then backoff the nut 1/6 to 1/4 turn and install the retainer and cotter pin. Regardless of which method is used, almost all bearings should be set with a slight amount of endplay. Endplay provides a slight amount of clearance between the rollers and races to allow for expansion due to heat during normal operation. Bearing endplay measurements are taken with a dial indicator. The dial indicator (with a magnetic base) is attached to the face of the hub and the indicator tip is positioned at the end of the spindle. By pushing and turning the hub inward with approximately 40 - 60 pounds of force, the inner bearing is seated. Then, by pulling and twisting the hub outward, the outer bearing is seated. At this point, a direct outward force on the hub should be applied and the dial indicator reading taken. Endplay is equal to the total amount of travel of the indicator.

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GLOSSARY
Air Spring A pneumatic spring which controls vehicle curb and
ride height. Ball Joint A component used to provide movement in two planes: rotational and vertical. The joint is like the ball and socket in ones shoulder. Body Roll Shifting of the vehicle body weight to one side during a turn. Bushing A component which separates two other components to allow for movement. Also cushions shocks and reduces friction. Coil Spring A helical steel rod, wound in a special form. The distance between loops contracts and expands as a vehicle enters jounce and rebound. Control Arm A suspension component used to contain lateral and fore/aft forces to maintain proper alignment of a vehicle. Dampening Reducing movement or vibration such as a shock absorber dampening a springs oscillation. Deflection Rate Distance a spring bends under a given load or pressure. Jounce The upward movement of a wheel from its normal position, usually caused by a road bump or weight transfer onto the wheel. Leaf Spring Spring made from flat strips of spring steel. Usually strips are stacked one on top of another. Load Rating A tires weight-carrying ability, usually indicated on the tire sidewall.

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MacPherson Strut A suspension component that uses a coil
spring mounted around a shock absorber. The strut assembly has a bearing on top to allow steering movement. It is normally attached between the upper end of the steering knuckle and a strut tower. Rebound The downward motion of a wheel, such as when the tire enters a hole. Stored spring energy is released from compression due to the hole. Shock Absorber A device placed at each vehicle wheel to regulate spring rebound and compression. Stabilizer Bar A bar used to transfer weight from one side of a vehicle to the other during turns. A torsion device which twists when a vehicle enters jounce and transfers the force to the vehicles rebounded wheel. Used to help maintain a level body in turns. Also referred to as an anti-sway or anti-roll bar. Steering Knuckle A component used to allow rotational steering movement and to support the wheel. The knuckle has an integral spindle and steering arm or a mount for the spindle and/or steering arm. The forging often serves as a mount for the tie rod, wheel bearing/hub unit and caliper. Torsion Bar A spring steel bar which uses a torsion (torque or twisting) resistance for spring action. Variable Damping Shocks A shock absorber or strut which has multiple orifices to increase or decrease damping rates.

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