USES OF ETHNOVETERINARY L KNOWLEDGE IN THE TREATMENT OF CAMEL MANGE IN GAROWE DISTRICT

This min thesis submitted as partial fulfillment for the award of the Diploma in livestock health science (DLH), in Sheikh Technical Veterinary School (STVS)|

July 2012

By: Abdiaziz Adan Hashi

Role number: STVS0098

Supervisor: Abdulahi Shiekh Mohamed

Declaration I Abdi aziz Adan Hashi, declare that this thesis is my original work and that all sources of material that are used for this thesis have been duly acknowledged. I solemnly declare that this thesis is not submitted to any other institution anywhere for the awards of any academic diploma, degree, or certificate.

Candidates signature:

Supervisors signature:

ii

Acknowledgment First and for most, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Alaah who allowed me to do this work easily. As well as my sincere thanks are due to the following people Dr. Abdulahi Sheikh Mohamed (my supervisor) for his guidance and assistance during this study and my promoters, the farmers who participated in taken questionnaire also their hospitable and given information about the camel mange and their traditional knowledge. I also, wish to acknowledge Dr. Mohamed Abdulkadir Botan (SAHSP Punt land vet area coordinator) and Dr: Mohamed Yusuf Isse (SAHSP consultant of epidemiology data management unit and epidemiology data management unit officer in ministry of Puntland livestock and animal husbandry ) for their support and contribution towards the conduct of this study. As well as this study was made possible through the financial support and material provided by STVS, I gratefully acknowledged. In addition, I am passing my sincere thanks that consist, with love and respect to my parent, sisters and brothers for their support during my long absences from home whilst working on this Diploma.

iii

Table of Contents
Chapter One: Introduction and Literature Review ......................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1 1.2: Literature Review .................................................................................................................... 3 1.2.1 Definition of Ethno Veterinary Medicine ......................................................................... 3 1.2.2. History of ethnoveterinary knowledge ............................................................................. 3 1.2.3. Advantages of ethnveterinary knowledge ........................................................................ 6 1.2.4. Challenges of ethnoveterinary knowledge ....................................................................... 7 1.2.5 .Camel rearing system in Somalia ..................................................................................... 7 1.2.6. Camel breeding ................................................................................................................. 9 1.2.7. Composition of camel diet in Somalia: ............................................................................ 9 1.2.8. Selection of foraging areas ............................................................................................. 10 1.2.9 Definition of the camel mange ........................................................................................ 10 1.2.10 Mange history in Somalia .............................................................................................. 11 1.2.11 Etiology of camel mange ............................................................................................... 12 1.2.12 Clinical signs of camel mange ...................................................................................... 13 1.2.13 Medicinal plants used for the camel mange and its applications .................................. 13 Chapter two: Objectives ........................................................................................................... 15 2.1 General Objectives ............................................................................................................. 15 2.2 Specific objectives .............................................................................................................. 15 CHAPTER THREE: Materials and Methods ........................................................................... 16 3.1 Study Area .......................................................................................................................... 16 3.2 Study design ....................................................................................................................... 17 3.3. Focus Groups ..................................................................................................................... 17 3.4 Field demonstration: ........................................................................................................... 18 Chapter four: Result and Discussion ............................................................................................ 19 4.1.0 Result ............................................................................................................................... 19 4.1.1 The knowledge of pastoralists towards camel mange and how they recognize it .......... 19 4.1.2 Usage of traditional plants and modern drugs in different villages of Garowe district . 20 4.1.3 Traditional plants used for the treatment of camel mange in Garowe district ............... 21 iv

4.1.5 Preparation techniques and/or methods used, and their administration procedures by table 4.4..................................................................................................................................... 23 4.2 Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 24 CHAPTERE FIVE CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ........................................... 26 5.1 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 26 5.2 Recommendation ................................................................................................................ 27

Chapter One: Introduction and Literature Review

1.1 Introduction
According to FAO statistics (FAO, 2004) there are about 19 million camels in the World, of which 15 million are found in Africa and 4 million in Asia. Of this estimated world population, 17 million are believed to be one-humped dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) and 2million two-humped (Camelus bactrianus). More than 60% of the dromedary camel population is concentrated in the four North East African countries Somalia, Sudan, Kenya and Ethiopia. Somalia with over 6 million heads has the largest herd in the world. Since, Somalia has most proportion of camel in the world by considering FAO statistics and other literatures, the Somali pastoralist uses multipurpose and utilizes variety ways, such as income issues, dowry, blood compensatory, charity, loaded etc. So we can say camel is a backbone of Somali economic income and other cultural system. There are many different camel diseases in the world, camel mange is the one of the most severe camel diseases in east Africa specially Somalia it is the second danger one after trypanosomiasis. Somali pastoralists used techniques based on ethnoveterinary/ traditional knowledge to prevent and treat their camels from mange. Ethnoveterinary knowledge (traditional knowledge) is the holistic, interdisciplinary study of local knowledge and its associated skills, practices, beliefs, practitioners, and social structures pertaining to the healthcare and healthful husbandry of food, work, and other income-producing animals. At times EVM is referred to as veterinary anthropology (Mathias and McCorkle, 1989) or traditional animal health care and practices (Mathias et al, 1996). Over cernturies several countries in the developing world started studing ethnoveterinary practices and utilize the acceptible ones in the animal health services. The delivery of veterinary, public health and other basic services in pastoral areas in the tropics is more problematic compared to areas where livestock are kept in intensive or semi-intensive conditions (Schwabe, 1996). In Africa there is traditional knowledge and the mandate to do indigenous practices for protection of animal and even human disease by used different species of plants. Unfortunately the resources available to run government veterinary services have not been maintained and veterinary departments cannot afford the rising cost within the veterinary sector. Though this is generally viewed as a success, particularly for intensive farmers, this is not the case in pastoral areas, specifically in Somalia and more especially in Nugal region. This is because of poor drug supply systems, 1

insecurity including banditry and animal rustling, inadequate understanding of herders' culture, and the high cost of drugs and professional fees. In addition there is a growing concern of organism resistance to modern veterinary medicines (Soll, 1997). Pastoralists have several misconceptions that contribute to drug resistance. These may include drug adulteration, mixing two or more different drugs, use of expired drugs, effective for one is effective for other diseases and a drug that is good for humans is also used for animals (Fielding, 1998). This worsening situation has stimulated a renewed interest in ethnoveterinary medicine, McCorkle (1989). Ethnoveterinary Medicine (hereafter EVM) has advantages that outweigh Modern Veterinary Medicine (MVM) as it is cheap, easily accessible, easily available and culturally acceptable (Mathias, 1996). Several studies have been conducted to elicit ethnoveterinary medicine in Somalia (Wanyama, 1997; ITDG/IIRR, 1996). Local plants remedies are usually less expensive and more ready available then imported drugs and they do not required special storage facilities (McCorkle and mathias- Mundy, 1992, Bizimana, 1994). Also published information and traditional veterinary practices among Somali pastoralists is limited. Somali are predominantly pastoral community 60% of the Somali population consists of nomads engaged in livestock rearing and in the marketing of animals and animal products. The Somali pastoralists kept large number of cattle, camel, sheep, and goats in under a traditional nomadic pastoral production system (extensive system). Animal diseases among infections which affect the animal has a great significant economic losses to animal production, productivity and also lose of herd growth, poor nutrition and death due to disease susceptibility and lack of immunization are major constrains to Somali animal health development. Under these conditions, Nugal animal herders and traditional healers confidently treat animals for an enormous variety of remdies exist. Many of these remedies are based on medical plants for the treatments of animal diseases and they rely on a whole range of indigenous practices.

1.2: Literature Review

1.2.1 Definition of Ethno Veterinary Medicine
Ethno Veterinary Medicine (EVM) is the name given to the way in which most livestock keepers uses to treat animal health problems in traditional way (Ngeh J. Toyang et al, 2007). EVM is performed by traditional livestock healers. Many herders and farmers treat their animals themselves, especially if the disease is well known. The indigenous knowledge is passed on verbally generation to generation. Over centuries people have developed their own ways of keeping animals healthy and productive used age-old home remedies, surgical and manipulative techniques, husbandry strategies and associated magico-religious practices. Taken together these constitute what is now known as ethnoveterinary medicine (McCorkle, 1995). There is a wide variety of EVM treatment principles, according to the cause of the health problem disease, such as cauterization; bleeding; fuzzing, and minor surgeries; crushed leaves, tobacco leaves and fish waste, and oil for skin ailments; wooden splints for fractured limbs; meat and grains; grazing/browsing on certain plants; the use of different ashes including bone ashes, tree tar, wood oil, mineral springs, sea water, sulfur, bone marrow oil, sour milk ( Raziq et al, 2010). One of the most important elements of indigenous knowledge systems and practices is in the human and animal health care. Worldwide, there are many different traditional healing practices designed to cure, control or prevent human or livestock diseases (Mathias,1994; Mcorkle, 1986).

1.2.2. History of ethnoveterinary knowledge

Ethno veterinary medicine as practiced today has its roots in herbal medicine, as practiced in prehistory in China, India and the Middle East (Schillhorn van Veen, 1996).The literature indicates that Arabia was the world centre of ethnoveterinary and other medical Knowledge in the early Middle Ages. With the spread of Islam some of this knowledge made its way into Africa and was adopted by stock raisers (Schillhorn van Veen, 1996). Ethnoveterinary medicine was practiced as early as 1800 B.C. at the time of King Hamurabi of Babylon who formulated laws on veterinary fees and charged for treating cattle and donkeys (Schillhorn van Veen, 1996). Traditional veterinary practices have been around for a long time and were the only medicine available until nineteenth century (Mathias-Mundy, McCorkle and Schillhorn van Veen, 1996). In fact, all veterinary practices before the coming of the orthodox veterinary medicine can be called "traditional" veterinary knowledge (Mathias, Ragnekar and McCorkle, 3

1998). Years ago, first with a dog, followed by sheep and goats by 9,000BC in the Fertile Nile Valley, and then with cattle in Egypt from 4000BC and in Anatolia around 6000BC (Mellaart 1967). This evolution was followed by pig and horse cultures in view of their importance (Murray 1968). For instance, at around 3000BC horses, elephants, and other animals were highly regarded and were in good association with man in what is present-day, Sri Lanka and could be treated with Ayurvedic medicine (Anjaria 1987). These associations were based on economic, cultural, social and religious beliefs attached to each type of animal and it was during this time that veterinary medicine evolved specifically to take care of the health of animals, which were being domesticated (Thrusfield 1986). For instance, veterinary therapeutic techniques of Egyptian healers (priest-healers) are recorded in the veterinary Papyrus of Kahun (c. 1900 BC). They combined both religious and medical roles. Literary records of similar age, describing veterinary medical activities, are extant from other parts of the world, such as Indian Sanskrit texts from the Vedic period (1800-1200BC) (Thrusfield 1986). Since these ancient times, the succeeding civilizations all over the world had their herbal experts or doctors, being the local equivalents of university-trained doctors, who could help their fellows in adversities. Nevertheless, these simple traditional cures have continuously and slowly evolved over the centuries from nearly every country all over the world (Le Strange 1977). Some of these countries where, manufacturing of herbal remedies or phytopharmaceuticals have evolved along with other traditional health practices and even the products are sold either in-country or exported, include:- China, India, Germany, Singapore, Chile, USA, Britain, France, Spain, Japan, Italy, Republic of Korea, Pakistan, Thailand, Mexico, Madagascar, Egypt, Cameroon, Morocco, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Ghana, Nigeria, Argentina and others (Anonymous 1997). This evolution was more vigorous in advancing in humans than in veterinary pharmaceutical industry (Kofi-Tsekpo and Kioy 1998). However, it is important to note that since pre- historic times, the traditional folklore did not only have medicine for human treatment, but also animal health medicine as shown in the above history (Kofi-Tsekpo and Kioy 1998; Schillborn van Veen (1997). This has been particularly exemplified by the animal health care practices of the pastoralist communities worldwide, such as, the Maasai, the Turkana, the Pokot, the Boran, the Rendille, the Somali, the Sebei, the Karamajong of Uganda, the Fulani in West Africa, Peruviams, the Twareg, the Quechua, the Meau in Thailand, the WoDaaBe, the Andeans, the Baggara Arabs of Sudan, the Nuer, the Datoga of East Africa and the Hausas in the north belt of 4

West Africa (Ayensu 1978; Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle 1989).These livestock raisers, have used medicines locally prepared from plants and other traditional practices in treating and preventing diseases found to hamper livestock production in their respective environment (Bierer 1955), the recognition and subsequent appreciation of people' s traditional healthcare for animals, is a very recent one in both scientific and academic cycles, only its importance being made the focus of attention the beginning of mid-1970s and gaining its momentum from early 1980s (McCorkle 1986). Ethnoveterinary knowledge (EVK) continues to be recognized at a global level as a resource that reflects people's total commitment and experience in life, from origin through evolutionary stages to current situation. These experiences, stem from people's cleverness, credulity and above all, perhaps, their insatiable curiosity that over many centuries, they accumulated the current rich and resourceful traditional knowledge that has been passed on from generation to generation(Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle 1989; Kokwaro 1993; Backes 1998; Patricia 2001; Mweseli 2004). Ethnoknowledge focusing on ethnoveterinary animal health care has existed alongside human evolutionary history, taking many different forms. It comprises all ethnopractices approaches and traditional knowledge applied by humans with a view to alleviating health constraints afflicting their livestock and hence, improves their production and performance. This, may take the form of selective breeds and breeding practices, crowning and recognition of renowned ethnopractitioners, animal feeds and feeding behaviour, ritualism, herbalism, spiritualism, ethnoepidemiological knowledge on livestock vectors, pathogens, hosts and diseases and traditional 'institutions' and ecosystems in which this knowledge exist. Like any other knowledge systems, EVK is very dynamic in its evolution, management and practice. Because of this dynamism, many ethnopractitioners find themselves in a situation where they complement EVK with modern veterinary medicine, especially in cases where EVK is limited and or cannot work (Martin et al 2001; Mathias 2004).

1.2.3. Advantages of ethnveterinary knowledge

Ethnovet practices are important because they are easily available, inexpensive and effective, especially in rural areas where Veterinary services are absent or irregular and expensive. The importance of traditional medicine as a source of primary health care was first officially recognized by the World Health Organisation (WHO) in the primary health Care Declaration of Alma Ata (1978) and has been globally addressed since 1976 by the Traditional Medicine Programme of the WHO. At this level, indigenous animal health systems are used for emergency purposes (Ngehj. Toyang et al, 2007). Ethnoveterinary medicine deals with peoples knowledge, skills, methods, practices and beliefs about the care of their animals (McCorkle 1986). According to the World Health Organization, at least 80% of people in developing countries depend largely on indigenous practices for the control and treatment of various diseases affecting both human beings and their animals. Ethnoveterinary remedies are accessible, easy to prepare and administer, at little or no cost at all to the farmer. These age-old practices cover every area of veterinary specialization and all livestock species. The ethnoveterinary techniques include treatment and prevention of disease, extensive materiamedica preparation, ecto- and endo-parasite control, fertility enhancement, bone setting and poor mothering management (Ngehj. Toyang et al, 2007). Interest in ethnovet practices has grown recently because these practices are much less prone to drug resistance and have fewer damaging side-effects on the environment than conventional medicine (Ngeh j. Toyang et al, 2007). Many African cultures have a holistic perception of health and vitality. In a holistic view all living and non-living beings are connected with each other; nothing exists in isolation. This is also true for traditional healing practices, which are intertwined with the social, cultural and religious aspects of the community where they are found. In Africa, traditional healers and remedies made from plants play an important role in the health of millions of people. The relative ratios of traditional practitioners and university-trained doctors in relation to the whole population in African countries are revealing (Darshan Shankar and Bertus Haverkort, 2000). EVM often provides cheaper options than comparable western drugs, and the products are locally available and more easily accessible. In the face of these and other factors, there is increasing interest in the field of ethno veterinary research and development. Most EVM products are effective to some extent especially those with anthelmintic properties, for example Eucalyptus grandis was found to be effective against Haemonchus controtus (Bennet-Jenkins 6

and Bryant, 1996). Many plants have been implicated for the treatment of diarrhoea. Extension workers should encourage farmers to utilize bitter leaves in the treatment of diarrhoea, and other diarrhoea related ailments such as PPR. Interestingly, apart from plants, rural household farmers also use traditional/indigenous methods to treat some ailments especially those caused by pests. For instance, mange being the most serious pest is treated with palm oil/salt, dregs of palm oil, and palm oil amongst others. This finding supports the work of the ( Onwubuya and Chah 1999).

1.2.4. Challenges of ethnoveterinary knowledge

The nomads have no any scientific knowledge, so that lack of scientific validation of most ethnoveterinary therapies is obstacle that faces the traditional healers. Time consuming and inconveniences involved in their preparations and use and there is only seasonal availability of certain medicinal plants, also lack of integration with orthodox practices is another problem. Difficulty in standardizing herbal therapies as the concentration of active ingredient varies in different parts of the plants (Abubakar Swaleh, 1999)

1.2.5 .Camel rearing system in Somalia

Traditional livestock production systems in Somalia involve camels as a source of food, prestige and security against environmental disasters. Many livestock production planners and researchers, especially foreign experts, have overlooked the usefulness of camels for the Somali pastoralists and their importance in the national economy (Ahmed A. Elmi, et al, 1992). Ownership of camels in the Somali pastoral societies is well documented by Hussein (1984, 1987) and Hjort and Hussein (1986). In Somalia camels are individually owned and inherited. This individual ownership is not absolute. While camels are always considered as clan property, the Somali camelmen say "Kin owners herd camels together but each herder pays particular attention to his own individual camel". This famous proverb implies both individual and communal ownership of the animal. Camels are marked with a specific clan brand with a submark which is unique to individual or family. In time of adversity, when a family loses its animals, the individual owner has no absolute right to give or refuse to dispose of his camels. The kin or clan members decide the distribution of animals to the victim from its members. The animals collectively given to the 7

victim by kin or clan include lactating, pregnant and immature camels as well as sheep and goats. Before the donation is undertaken, kinsmen and sometimes friends who share the same habitat come together and examine the causes of herd loss to establish whether the loss was due to negligence, or to other causes beyond the owners control. If it is proven that the loss was the owners fault, a minimum number of animals is given with strong warning; otherwise, a substantial herd is given. On the other hand, the individual camel owner has the right to loan his camels to relatives and friends. Families without enough milk or transport animals are lent lactating or pack camels by either friends or patrilineal kin. These animals are returned to the owner without payment when the need has passed. Such decisions are made by the head of the family, usually by consulting family members. Camel ownership starts at the birth of a child. The father gives his son a young or newly born female camel and other animals as the base of his future herd (Xuddun Xidh). The child also receives gifts from his close relatives (elder brothers, uncles, etc). As he grows, his herd also grows. At marriage, a portion of the family herd is allocated to him. The allocated herd remains with the family herd. At his fathers death, the unallocated stock is shared out among heirs. A new cluster of family holdings emerges; but the animals may continue to be herded together. Camels are herded normally by unmarried young men and teenagers. Women take care of small ruminants and packcamels. If a labour shortage exists, young girls assume camel herding, milking and watering. Camels figure in poems, proverbs and songs, and are used in social rituals. As a Somali traditional system, when the new a man marriage or create new house without camel they give him camels. They do, however, pay camels for blood compensation and slaughter them for important religious gatherings or settling disputes between neighboring clans. Camels are the only animal used to determine compensation for homicide, a lost eye, teeth, broken bones, and so on, depending on the circumstance and social status of the victim and the aggressor. Each unit of a mans body is priced by a certain number of camels. Clan members collectively pay the compensation either in kind or in cash equivalence. Usually nomads have prefixed reparation for death or for severe injuries, depending on whether the action was done deliberately by negligence or by accident. The clan sheikhs and leaders determine the compensation to be paid to the victim.

1.2.6. Camel breeding

The breeding system is based on successful management of male breeding camels. Considerable control of breeding males is commonly practiced by all Somalis. The breeding period is spring (Gu) and fall (Dayr) rainy seasons. Selection of future breeding males starts at birth. Two to three male calves are selected based on their ancestors history; Special care is given to them. They grow quickly, becoming sexually mature at the age of five years. They may not be used for carrying loads. As young potential herd sires, they are allowed to breed only a limited number of females. If the progeny are good, the number of bred is increased to 50 females at age of 8 or 9. A herd sires breeding life can last up to 20 years. A camel female can be bred for about 22 years. Sometimes, a pack male is used for breeding. During time, however, it is seldom used for transportation. Due to this dual purpose, the pastoralists believe that the breeding life of pack males is short (17 years), Gauthier- Pilters and Dagg (1981). Pregnancy female camel can be detected by the herders within 10 days after mating. The watch for the females pregnancy symptoms, such as coiling the tail backward to the hump, frequent urination, the head lifted up with ears pointed straight, and long neck curved back to Shoulder when a male camel or a man approaches. However due to their professional experience, the herders can correctly judge whether the camel is pregnant within a short period after breeding. The rutting male also detects the pregnancy after a week. Another hand, the role of a mature male is to transport water, nomadic house and utensils, very young children, weak or sick persons, lambs and kids, in the process of nomadic movement. The gestation period of camels is about 12 month (Abokor, 1987).

1.2.7. Composition of camel diet in Somalia:

The composition of camel diets was studied in Ceeldheer District, central Somalia in 1986/1987. Percentage of each individual plant species and its proportion in camel diets was calculated from actual bite counts. Nine forage classes were identified based on species physical and lifeform characteristics. Milking and non-milking camel diets were determined in both dry and wet seasons. Both camels consumed almost the same kinds of plants in any given seasons. Camels consumed a wide variety of available forage but not in the same proportion as availability. Even though milking camels seemed more selective than dry camels, the animals were extremely flexible and opportunistic in diet selection and foraging behavior (Ahmed A.

Elmi, et al, 1992). Camels have a reputation for adaptability to harsh arid and semi-arid rangelands. This adaptability may be due to in part to unique dietary selection. Other factors include drought resistance, spreading behavior when foraging and travelling long distances between one foraging area and other (Ahmed A. Elmi, et al, 1992). Camels may repeatedly brows some plant species season after season and may eventually kill them (McKnight, 1969; Gauthier-Pilters and Dagg, 1981). In Ceeldheer district, camels browsed certain evergreen shrubs and trees such as Cadaba longifolia, and Balanites rotundifolia. Camels utilize a diversity of vegetations in various ecosystems (Coughenour et al., 1985). Trees and shrubs are converted into milk more efficiently by camels than any other domestic livestock. When browse species shed their leaves and cease growth of new twigs in the dry seasons or drought periods, camels eat grasses and other herbaceous species in eastern Africa (Field, 1978) and northwest Africa (Gauthier-Pilters and Dagg, 1981). Camel browse forage species not within reach other domestic livestock. They can browse trees up to 3 or 5 meters high (Richards, 1979; GauthierPilters and Dagg, 1981). Due to their long neck, adaptive features of their mouth include slit upper lip, small tongue, had upper gum, obliquely protruding lower teeth. Camels browse thorny shrubs, trees, young twigs hidden inside hedged bushes, nibble leaves from spiny stems (El-Amin, 1979; Gauthier-Pilters and Dagg, 1981; Wilson, 1984).

1.2.8. Selection of foraging areas

The total annual rainfall, its spatial and temporal distribution, the effective rains after dry seasons and their variation, tick infestation and outbreak of flies are all important factors pastoralists considers when management decisions are made about camel foraging areas. Range land is communal except for small holdings individually owned for farming (Behnke, 1988).A knowledge of plant species commonly selected by foraging camles at different times of the year is also fundamental to effective grazing and browsing management (A.A. Elmi, 1989).

1.2.9 Definition of the camel mange

Camel mange is a widespread and highly contagious skin disease which causes severe itchiness, poor growth, low milking production, even death. It is one of the important and most common diseases in camels, especially in the temperate regions with cold winters or areas with long wet seasons. Camel mange is caused by mites (sarcoptes scabiei var cameli), which prefers areas of the body that have little hair (Mundy and Mathias, 1997). Numerous species of mites cause

10

mange in literally hundreds of species of wild and domestic birds and mammals. In fact, approximately 60 mite families have members that live in or on the skin, hair, or feathers of homoeothermic vertebrates and are potential mange mites. Specifically, on domestic hosts (i.e. livestock, poultry, companion and laboratory animals), about 50 mite species in 16 families and 26 genera may cause mange. Humans are host to the readily transmitted S. scabiei, and human scabies occurs most frequently in elderly nursing homes and childrens day-care centers. Some other mange mites may cause transient disease in humans, but infestations seldom persist (BORNSTEIN S. et al, 2001). Mites (Acari) are an extremely diverse, abundant, and ubiquitous group of arachnid arthropods with about 50,000 described species. Higher-level acarine classification is still an unsettled construct, but the following is a consensus system encompassing the mange mites. Acari comprises three major evolutionary lineages, Opilioacariformes, Parasitiformes, and Acariformes, but only certain acariform mites cause mange in domestic animals. Two lineages within the Acariformes contain mange mites Trombidiiformes and Sarcoptiformes. Trombidiiformes comprises the order Prostigmata and contains many families, five with mange mites.

1.2.10 Mange history in Somalia

Before 1960 mange was reported to be widespread in sheep and goats to be fairly common in camels, and there was apparently little or no change through the 1860s. Mares (1954) suggested, on clinical grounds only, that psoroptic mange had been seen in Somali sheep. Between 1969 and 1972 the overall impression was that sarcoptic mange was common and widespread in goats. It also occurred in sheep, showing as scabs on the withers and back, but although this condition, usually called Ambarr, was found in many different parts of the north it was not as common as mange in goats (A report of the British Veterinary Team, 1969-1972). Sarcoptic mites were found in skin scrapings taken from sheep and goats at Hargeisa, Edanka, Kalabaid, Rebit, Gebile, Dilla, Gedblud, and Zeila (A report of the British Veterinary Team, 1969-1972). A condition in camels, widely distributed but not particularly common, was thought to be due to sarcoptic mange, although the very few skin scrapings submitted to the laboratory showed no mites. these camels showed large areas of thickened skin with little scab formation, usually inside the thighs, upper legs, or on the belly (A report of the British Veterinary Team, 1969-1972). 11

1.2.11 Etiology of camel mange

Camel mange has only one causal agent, a mite of the family sarcoptidae, sarcoptes scabiei var cameli (Sacoptidae).Although, there are Psoroptic (Psoroptidae, Psorotes sp.), Chorioptic (Psoroptidae, Chorioptes sp.) and Dermodectic mange (Demodicidae, Demodex sp.) with little incidence in dromedaries. The sarcoptic Scabiei mite is practically confined to the genus camelus; human beings are infected occasionally. The life cycle of the mite lasts for 4-5 weeks. Fertilized females dig burrows into the epidermis, causing inflammation and intense pruritus. Mange is an ectoparasitosis which is described in all the publications concerning diseases of camels. It is widespread and, according to Curasson, the commonest disease of camel. Direct transmission takes place by contact between animals, when larvae, nymphs or adults are transferred from an infected camel to a healthy one. Infestation can also be contracted indirectly from objects which have come into contact with an affected camel, such as harnesses, tents and tree trunks, and may also be acquired through contact with soil. The parasite survives off the host for a maximum 2 weeks. However, current conditions under which camels are kept and utilized have reduced the importance of this skin disease (D. Richard, 1987). Sarcoptids mites are all obligate, burrowing skin parasites of mammals, with over 100 described species. Survival time under moderate conditions for mites off the host is limited to about 10 days or less. Because of their activities in the epidermal layers of the skin, mange caused by these mites is generally more severe than that caused by mites dwelling above the surface of the skin. The body outline of sarcoptids is generally rounded, dorsoventrally flattened, and the cuticle is striated. The pulps are one-segmented, and the legs are usually short. This disease is common in camels and is recognized by many to be second to trypanosomiasis in importance. The infected animal characterized by, skin becomes wrinkled and crusty (hyperkeratosis), loses condition and weight (Guuleed et al, 1987/88).

12

1.2.12 Clinical signs of camel mange

Clinical signs of camel mange were documented well by (Mundy and Mathias, 1997). Mange usually starts in the armpits and going, and spreads from there to the rest of the body include the head, base of the neck, mammary gland, prepuce and flank. One of the first sings is that the animal rubs and scratches the affected areas with its teeth or against trees, so spreading the disease to new areas. In the early stages, the skin is covered with small bumps. Hairless patches develop, and skin becomes rough from scratching, and begins to weep. Scabs develop, and in serious cases, the skin becomes grey, thickens, becomes also wrinkled and cracked, like dried mud. The camel spends its time scratching itself rather than eating and resting. It loses weight and becomes weak and anemic. If the disease is not treated, secondary bacterial infections can develop and may become more susceptible to trypanosomiasis and other diseases, such as pneumonia. Many camels in the herd may be affected at the same time.

1.2.13 Medicinal plants used for the camel mange and its applications
Camel mange (locally known as Cadho geel) many of the local remedies for camel mange in Somalia were based on the milky saps of the Eurphorbia species such as Dharkeyn ( Euphorbia robechii), Falanfalho (Euphorbia somalensis) or Cinjir (Euphorbia gossypina). For mange in camels the sap was used undiluted and was usually applied after the affected areas had been abraided with a stone until the skin bleed. The camels were cast and tied for this procedure. For sheep and goats the skin was considered to be more fragile than that of camels and the sap diluted by varying degrees depending on the plant used if Dharkeyn was used the dilution may be as high as 1:1000. Other remedies for mange included: boiling the seeds of Kiriiri (solanum somalense, solanum coagulans) with camel urine and black sap of Qurac ( Acacia tortilis). The hot mixture was applied to the camel skin. The roots of the plant gogobood(Iphonia 13

rotundifolia) were crushed and mixed with water. The solution was applied to the skin which had been abraided with a stone. The gum found in the large caves in the northern mountain of Sanaag region was called habag god. The gum was rubbed the lesions of mange (cadho) after abraiding the skin with a stone. Saturated salt solution was also used to treat mange. For example the well at Bohol in El-Afwayne district was reknowned for its salty water and herders would travel there to treat their camels for mange. The wood of the tree Garas(Dobera glabra) was burnt and the ash applied to the camel skin, Ahmed A.M & Andy Catley (1996). Tie the animal down so you can reach all parts of its body. Shear the animal, for example by rubbing ash from acacia mellifera on the skin and pulling the hair out. Then using a stiff brush, a piece of coarse sacking or bleeds. And then apply the camels to roll salt pans, or plaster them with salty mud. People can catch mange from camels though this is rare. It often affects the palms of the hands and between the fingers. (Bizimana, 1994). Study justification Since 1991, when central somali government collapsed, there was no effective and sufficient livestock services as well as well oganized institutions or organizations aiming towards animal production and healthcare. However, pastrolist community of Nugal region were practicing uses of traditional remedies to treat their camels . Therefore, this study aims to investigate the uses of herbal medicines for camel mange in Garowe district.

14

Chapter two: Objectives 2.1 General Objectives

1) The aim of this study is to investigate the ethnoveterinary knowledge practiced by camel pastoralists and the medicinal plants used by them to treat camel mange in Garowe district.

2.2 Specific objectives

1) To identify the existing traditional medicinal plants used to treat camel mange by camel herders in the study area, and to relate with their botanic names. 2) To find out the techniques and methods used to prepare the medicinal plant parts and their application/administration mode by the camel herders.

15

CHAPTER THREE: Materials and Methods 3.1 Study Area

Garowe district is located in Nugal region in between two valleys namely garowe valley at north and Lan ali firin valley at south. Garowe is the seat of the regional parliament, the presidential palace and government ministries of Puntland state of Somalia. Garowe is the third largest city in Puntland after Bosaso and Galkacyo. Garowe district has many different historical and prominent places, including; Puntland State University (PSU), Garowe Teachers Education College (GTEC), East Africa University (EAU), secondary schools such as Ganbool, Imamu-nawawi, Nugal and Alwaha secondary school and many primary schools. Garowe has one general hospital, and numerous operational small health clinics. In 2010, a local non- profit organizations also established the regions first mental health centre. Also the city has an International Airport a well established foot ball Stadium called Mire Aware Stadium. The total population of Garowe district is around 57,300 as reported in the last registration (2009). The climate of Garowe is arid (Muchiri, 2007). Orographic and coastal influences are significant and cause a high degree of rainfall variability (Barry and Richard, 1992). The highest amount received in Garowe town averages 51mm and occurs in May. Mean annual rainfall is estimated at 10.8mm. The highest temperature in Garowe is between 32 oC (60oF) to 33.3oC (57.6oF) and the lowest temperature is between 21 oC (37.8oF) to 23.5oC (42.3oF). Garowe is at the elevation of 250m above sea level (Ombretta et al., 2008). This area, also known as the Old Airport is the most developed part of the town. On the edge of this area, there are two IDP settlements. Lan Alifirin is a seasonal stream and Togga-Garowe, the larger valley receives more water especially after occasional rains in the upstream areas and that stream water never stopped during dry seasons until harsh droughts. Garowe town is linked socio-economically to the urban and rural areas within Somalia. There are also significant links with the Diaspora. The town serves as a market for local quality livestock and livestock products as well as a transit point for export quality livestock. The town is the source of goods that are retailed in the village markets in the rural areas. Garowe town provides a key source of income (casual labour opportunities) for IDPs, urban poor and surrounding pastoral communities (Hawd, Nugal, Addun, Sool Plateau) in times of crises. The town is also a market for local cereals (maize, sorghum), fruits and vegetables from southern Somalia. Figure one 16

shows the study area. Garowe has one drilling water borehole which supplies the whole town, although there are special owned small boreholes in the villages, but they are not so important.

Figure 3.1: Map of the study area

3.2 Study design

Out of Seventeen villages of the district, ten villages namely (Kalabaydh, Dudumaale, Dacare, Birta-dheer, Awr-culus, Reebanti, Jalam, Yoonbays, Rabaable, and Sinujiif) were purposively selected on the basis of the camel population and accessibility.

3.3. Focus Groups

At each village, 11 camel herders were selected as focus group to discuss and determine the common medical plants used for camel mange treatment as figure 3.2 shows. Figure 3.2: The enumerator facilitating a group discussion in a village 17

3.4 Field demonstration:

The highest renowned traditional healers were asked to demonstrate some of the plants they use to treat camel mange and the techniques they use to prepare the plant parts as shown by figure 3.3.

18

Figure3.3: A traditional healer demonstrating a medical plant called (Dacar) and explaining, its importance and how to use it.

Chapter four: Result and Discussion

4.1.0 Result
4.1.1 The knowledge of pastoralists towards camel mange and how they recognize it All pastoralists who were met know the clinical sings of camel mange and they are very familiar with the diseases and how they distinguish from other diseases. As they told me the clinical sings of camel mange that pastoralists recognizes either the camel has got mange or not include; 19

nodules come out and scattered from all the skin, scratching with trees and its teeth, hair loss, skin cracking, skin bleeding, weight loss, milk reduction of lactated ones, abortion, hardness of the skin, reducing of the grazing time and sometimes death. The way that they ensure the camel mange is to palpate skin of animal and observe its behavior. 4.1.2 Usage of traditional plants and modern drugs in different villages of Garowe district From the focus group discussion also came out that the majority of the respondents use specifically the traditional medical plants while others use traditional plants with modern drugs as shown by table two. None of the respondent informed the use of only modern drugs to treat camel mange in the study area. Table 4.1: Options for mange treatment of the camel herders Villages No of respondents used traditional No of respondent both traditional treatment Kalabaydh Birta-dheer Dudumaale Rabaable Reebanti Sinujiif Tuulo-Jalam Yoonbays Dacare Awr-culus 9 8 5 11 11 9 3 11 6 8 81(73.6%) Total & % and modern treatment 2 3 6 0 0 2 8 0 5 3 29 (26.3%)

20

4.1.3 Traditional plants used for the treatment of camel mange in Garowe district
According to traditional healers and camel owners experience, there are many plants used to treat camel mange in the area namely, Gogobood, Dacar, Dharkayn, Cinjir, Garas, Qurac, and Wamme as shown by table 4. Table 4.2: Shows the most important plants according to the number of respondents from each village.

Number of respondents from each Villages Medical BirtaDheer Percentage 38.47% 19.79% 13.18% 8.79% 3.29% 6.59% 9.89% 100% 21 Kalabaydh Rarbaable Dudumale Awr-culus Yoonbays plants Reebanti

Sinujiif

Dacare

Jalam

Gogobood Dacar Dharkayn Garas Wamme Cinjir Qurac Total

4 2 0 1 0 1 2

6 1 0 0 0 2 1

8 3 0 0 0 0 0

2 0 3 0 0 0 0

1 2 1 1 1 0 0

5 1 2 2 0 0 1

3 4 2 0 0 0 1

3 0 1 0 0 0 0

2 3 3 3 2 1 1

1 2 0 1 0 2 3

35 18 12 8 3 6 9 91

Total

Pictures of some the medicinal plants used for the treatment of camel mange are shown in fig. 4.4. Figure 4.4: Some plants used to treat camel mange in Growe district and their local names

Gogobood

Qurac

Dacar

The traditional healers use several different parts of medicinal plants in the area. Table 5 show the plant and the parts used for the treatment of mange. Table 4.3: Traditional medicinal plant parts used for camel mange, their local and botanic names Local names Gogobood Qurac Dacar Garas Wamme Dharkayn Cinjir Botanic names Iphonia rotundifolia Acacia tortilis Aloe somelensis Dobera glabra Moringa ocalifolia Euphorbia robechii Euphorbia gossypina Parts of plant used Roots Branches Leaves Branches Roots Milk sap Milk sap

22

4.1.5 Preparation techniques and/or methods used, and their administration procedures by table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Medicinal plants Gogobood Parts used and Preparation techniques The roots of Gogobood are digging from the soil and crushed by a pestle and mortar, then mixed with water soaked for at least 12huors. Qurac The branches of Qurac, are burned when it becomes ash is mixed with water. Dacar The leaves of Dacar called ears (dhagoh) are prepared in three methods; 1-smoking of Dacar, then warm leaves are applied to the animal. 2. Dacar leaves sliced boiled with water then applied to the animal (warm). 3bringing the camel to the area where the Dacar is more and breaking the leaves then applied directly to the camel without adding any other solution, this system is called dhegjebis(ear breaking) Garas and Cinjir The branches of Garas are burned after that the ash is mixed with milk sap from Cinjir tree. Wamme The soft root of wamme is crushed and mixed Topical with hand dressing with water, soaked at least 24hours. Dharkayn The milk sap of Dharkayn, is applied on the skin after animal being scratched with stone until the blood oozes. Topical with hand dressing Topical with hand dressing Topical with hand dressing Topical with hand dressing Route of administration Topical with hand dressing

The traditional healers also believe that the Nugal valley sand has anti mange properties. They stated that after when the camels with mange rolled on the sand of Nugal valley will recover.

23

4.2 Discussion
This study shows that camel pastoralists in Garowe district use and mostly practices traditional treatment as shown by table two. In fact, 81.33% of camel herders use medical plants to treat and control ecto-parasite infestations while 18.66% uses both modern veterinary drugs and traditional remedies. This is because; mostly camels are kept in remote and not accessible rural areas, where the availability of veterinary services and drugs is very limited. For these reasons they have chosen to use the traditional medical plants as the main treatment for camel mange. In addition to that, this study also highlighted that the use of medical plants for camel mange treatment is a common practices in Garowe district, while modern drugs are not mostly used due to their less access and expensiveness. The 7 therapeutic traditional plants identified by traditional healers to be used for camel mange treatment and of ecto-parasites infestation were also related to their botanical names from different literature. In the current study, Gogobood was found to be the most widely used plant in case of camel mange and to be effective than any other plant, this study is consistent with study of M.O. Liban (2011), Davis et al, (1995) and Bachaya et al, (2008), flowed by Dacar. In Garowe district, the camel pastoralists emphasized during the study that the use and traditional practices of this plant (Gogobood) was adapted since long time. The community expressed during the period of this research that they rely much on this plant due to its wide spectrum and anti-mange mite properties that was proven by experience. When Gogobood and Dacar are applied to camel with mange, clinically the animal condition improves and recovers from the disease, gaining weight and milk production as well as increases of the growth rate of young animals. Also hair and skin becomes soft after recovery from mange, as they mentioned. Although there is no evidence on their effectiveness and scientifically not proven traditional medical plants are widely used and the confidence of camel herders on this plants are very high in this regard. Nevertheless, traditional medicinal plants are not with no harm to pastoralists or they are not only beneficial. As camel herders described, the parts of some medical plant has some challenges. Eg; Dharkayn (Euphorbia robechii), milk sap is very dangerous if it gets in contact with the users skin, eyes, or mucus membranes and it can cause the blindness and skin burned, 24

Gogobood (Iphonia rotundifolia) also damages the skin of the human. In addition to that the preparation of these plants is very hard and needs a lot of effort as they mentioned.

25

CHAPTERE FIVE CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion
This study has shown that there is potential ethnoveterinary knowledge that has not been previously unearthed and there is a high risk that this knowledge can disappear in the near future if not fully documented. Somali pastoralists have their own confidently used traditional remedies for camel mange and other infectious diseases of animal and human. Ethno Veterinary Medicine (EVM) is the name given to the way in which most livestock keepers use to treat animal health problems in traditional way. EVM is performed by traditional livestock healers. Many herders and farmers treat their animals themselves, especially if the disease is well known. Over centuries people have developed their own ways of keeping animals healthy and productive used age-old home remedies, surgical and manipulative techniques, husbandry strategies and associated magico-religious practices. Ethnovet practices are important because they are easily available, inexpensive and effective, especially in rural areas where veterinary services are not available or irregular and expensive. Camel mange is caused by mites (sarcoptes scabiei var cameli), which prefers areas of the body that have little hair. After asked prepared questionnaire to the camel owners and traditional healers, the researcher found certain useful medical plants used to camel mange, also ways of preparation, route of administration/application as well as their local names. The most interviewed community members were able to identify the common health problems that affect their camels.

26

5.2 Recommendation
This study revealed and documented some of the traditional medicinal plants and their uses in Garowe district. But due to the current ecological, climatologically and socio-economic changes as well as lack of proper veterinary services and lack of institutions keeping and conserving the traditional heritage of and know how in Somali ecosystem the following points are recommended: 1) As a consequence of recurrent droughts and rapid deforestation, Somalia is losing much of its plant genetic resources. Therefore, a national campaign is urgently required to identify, collect and document important traditional medicinal plants in all over Somali ecosystem. 2) Traditional healers association should be formed to save and conserve and improve this valuable information. 3) Traditional healers should be given some incentive, such as being appointed as veterinary scouts. Such an initiative would also expose traditional practitioners to training in modern veterinary medicine, and would narrow the differences and reduce the bias between the two approaches, leading to better integration. 4) There is straight way need for research to be done to establish and develop scientific study to separate, test the pharmacological properties, and validate the safety, quality, dosage of the active ingredients present in plant parts used.

27

REFERENCE Abdul Raziq, Ph.D. Applied Animal Scientist.(2010). Ethnobotanical profile of some plant resources in Malam Jabba valley of Swat, Pakistan. Abokor, A.A. (1987). Classification and role of pastoral poetry. In: A. Hjort (Ed.): The Multipurpose Camel: Interdisciplinary Studies on Pastoral Production in Somalia. EPOS, Uppsala University, Sweden (1987). Abubakar Swaleh. (1999). Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Ormaland Kenya. Ahmed Aden and Catley, A. (1993a). Report on a visit to Ceeryan, Goof and Durdur. ActionAid-Somaliland. Animal Health Programme, ActionAid, Hamlyn House, MacDonald Road, Archway, London N19 5PG, United Kingdom. Ahmed Aden and Catley, A. (1993b). Report on a visit to Jidali, Kulmiye, Midhisho and Hamas. ActionAid-Somaliland Animal Health Programme, ActionAid, Hamlyn House, MacDonald Road, Archway, London N19 5PG, United Kingdom Ahmed, A. Elmi, T. L. THurow,and T.W. Box. (1992). Composition of camel in central Somalia. Nomadic peoples, number 31,1992. Andy Catley & Ahmed Aden Mohamed (1995). ethnoveterinary knowledge in Sanaag region, Somaliland (Part 1): notes on the local descriptions of livestock diseases and parasites. Nomadic peoples, 36/36, 1995. Anjaria, Jayvir V. (1996). Ethnoveterinary pharmacology in India: Past, present and future. In: Constance M. McCorkle, Evelyn Mathias, and Tjaart W. Schillhorn van Veen (eds.). Ethnoveterinary research & development. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, UK. Pp. 137-147. Anonymous, (1997). Medicinal Plant Conservation. Newsletter of the Medicinal Plant Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission. Vol. 3. Bizimana, N. (1994)-Traditional veterinary practice in Africa. Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), Eschborn, Germany, pp. 917. 28

Bizimana, N. (1995) Traditional veterinary practice in Africa. Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), Eschborn, Germany, pp. 917. Bornstein, S. (2001). Skin diseases of camels in: Camel keeping in Kenya. Ed. Evans, J.O., S. Piers Simpkin and D.J. Atkins. Range Management Handbook of Kenya. 3 (8):7-13. Bornstein, S. 1988. A disease survey of the Somali camel-A Pilot study. Report to SAREC. Unpublished. British Veterinary Team, (1972). Animal diseases in Somalia. London: Overseas Development Administration. Catley, A. and A.A.Mohammed (1995). Ethnoveterinary Knowledge in Sanag region, Somaliland. Notes on local descriptions of Livestock diseases and parasites. Nomadic peoples, 36/37, 3-16. Catley, A. and Mohammed, A.A. (1996). Ethnoveterinary knowledge in Sanaag region, Somaliland (Part II): Notes on local methods of treating and preventing livestock disease. Nomadic Peoples, 39, 135-146. Catley, A.P. and Mohammed, A.A. (1994) The Use of Livestock Disease Scoring Edelsten, R.M. (1995). Livestock Diseases in the Northern Regions of Somalia. A Report of the British Veterinary Team, 1969-1972. 1994 Condensed Version. VetAid, Midlothian. Elimi, A.A.(1989). Camel Husbandry and management by ceel dheer pastoralists in central somalia. Pastoral development network paper No27d.London:ODI Gauthier- Pilters, H. & A.T, Dagg (1981). The camel: its evolution, ecology, behavior and relationship to man. Chicago: Univ. Of Chicago press. Guleed, H. A. and S. Bornstein.1986, B-Vitamins cured a case of Wryneck Syndrome (shimbir or Gudaan) in a camel, camel Newsletter, ACSA, 3:2. in the Design and Monitoring of an Animal Health Programme in Sanaag Region, Somaliland. VETAID, Edinburgh. Length Polymorphism. Pakistan Vet. J., 28(1): 13-16.

29

Martin, M, McCorkle M C and Mathias E (2001) Ethnoveterinary Medicine. An annotated bibliography of community animal healthcare. ITDG Publishing, London; ISBN: 1853395226, pp. 611 Mathias E. (2004) Ethnoveterinary medicine: harnessing its potential. Veterinary Bulletin 74(8): 27N - 37N. Mathias, E. (2004). Ethnoveterinary medicine: harnessing its potential. Veterinary Bulletin 74(8): 27N - 37N. Thrusfield M 1986 Veterinary Epidemiology. Butterworths, pp. 1-10. Mathias, E., McCorkle, C., Schillhorn van Veen, T., (1996). Introduction: Ethnoveterinary Mathias-Munday, E. McCorkle, C.M. and Schillhorn Van Veen (1996). Introduction. In: C.M. McCorkle, E. Mathias and T.W. Schillhorn van Veen (eds.). Ethnoveterinary Research and Development. Intermediate Technology Publications. London pp 1-23. Mathias-Mundy, E. & McCorckle, C.M. (1992). Ethnoveterinary practice in Africa. Africa, 62:5993. Gauthier-Pilters, H., 1979. Some ecological aspects of the camel in Western Sahara. IFS Symposium, Sudan, 387398. McCorkle, C .M. (1989a). AVeterinary Anthropology. Human Organization 48 (2): 156-162. McCorkle, C. M. (1986). An Introduction to Ethnoveterinary Research and Development. Journal of Ethnobiology. India. McCorkle, C.M (1989b). Veterinary Anthropology on the Small Ruminant CRSP/Peru. In: The Social Sciences in International Agricultural Research: Lessons from the CRSPs. (McCorkle M C (ed.)), Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder, Colorado, USA, pp. 213-227. McCorkle, C.M. (1978). Mathias, E., Schillhorn van Veen, T. (Eds.) Ethnoveterinary Reseach and Development. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, pp. 1-23 McCorkle, C.M. (1989c). Toward a knowledge of local knowledge and its importance for agricultural RD and E. Agricultural and Human Values 6(3): 4-12.

30

McCorkle, C.M. (1998). Ethnoveterinary Medicine: Ethnoscience or just Anti-Science? In: Complementary and Alternative Veterinary Medicine: Principles and Practice. (Schoen A M and Wynn S G (editors)) Mosby, St. Louis. Moallin, A.S.M. (1988). Observations and control of diseases of dromedary in Central Somalia. Camel Seminar, 28 November 01 December 1988. Faculty of Veterinary Medicne and Animal Husbandry. Mogadishu, Somalia. Mares, R.G. (1954). Animal husbandry, animal industry and animal disease in the Somaliland Protectorate. Br. vet. J. 411-448. Mundy and Mathias. (1997). On a field manual of camel diseases (book). Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz.,. (1987). Diseases of camel in the Sudan 6 (2), 475-477. Murray, J. (1968). Some aspects of ovicaprid and pig breeding in neolithic Europe. In: Studies in Ancient Europe. Eassays presented to Stuart Piggott, (Coles J M and Simpson D A A (editors). Leicester University Press, Leicester. Ngeh, J. Toyang, Jacob Wanyama Mopoi Nuwanyakpa, Sali Django (Authors), (2007). Editor: Hanneke Mertens. Illustrator: Barbera Oranje Design: Eva Kok. Translation: Sara van OtterlooButler (language editing). Printed by: Digigrafi, Wageningen, the Netherlands. A practical approach to the treatment of cattle diseases in sub-Saharan Africa. Richard, D. (1987). - Dromedary pathology. Proceedings of the Khartoum workshop on camels. December 1987. 481-488. Richards, C. (1979)- Study of the pathology of Dromedary in Borana Awraja (Ethiopia).I.E.M.V.T. France. Schwartz, (2008). Evaluation of six camel breeds for heterozygocity through Restriction Fragment: Uk. Schwartz, H.Z. & Dioli M. (eds) (1992). The one-humped camel in Eastern Africa. A pictorial guide to diseases, health care and management. Verlag Josef Margaf, Schonwald Druck, Berlin, 282 pp.

31

Sweden, (1993). Mathias, E. Rangnekar, D.V. and McCorkle, C.M. (1998). Ethnoveterinary Medicine, Alternative for Livestock Development. Proceeding at International Conference held in Pune, India on November 4-6, 197. Volume 2.

32

Annex one Field questionnaire of ethnoveterinary medicine in Garowe district Name of farmer/keeper/ camel owner------------------------------------------------------Name of village --------------------------------------------------------------------District ---------------------------------------------------------1. Do you ever see or head mange? 2. Is it affected your camel herd? Yes 3. If yes, how many times? One time Yes No two times or more No Date: --------

4. How do you recognize the mange? ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5. What are the most areas those the camel mange is affect?

Inguinal area Ambits Lateral sides Mouth Ventral area Dorsal area Forelimbs Hind limbs Neck All

33

6. Is the camel mange affected all ages? All ages Certain age 7. Is it seasonality dependence? If yes, which season? Winter spring summer fall

8. If the camel mange affected in your herd, what traditional treatments do you use? a. b. c. d. e. f. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

9. Which part of the plants do you use? Leaves Roots Stem Branches 10. Preparation method-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

34

11. Application method-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------12. Besides the traditional veterinary medicine (TVM), do you use modern veterinary medicine? Yes No

If yes, when do you prefer to use modern veterinary practices? When TVM does not show improvement When TVM is not known Others specified

13. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using TVM over that MVM? Advantages a. b. c. d. e. f. g. Disadvantages

14. Do you have traditional healers? Yes No 15. How do they treat to your animal? a) --------------------------------35

b) c) d) e)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

16. What are the side effects or negative impacts that you study of uses of ethnoveterinary treatment? List: a) b) c) d) e) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

17. How could you know the side effects of traditional treatments (clinical signs)? ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

18. If you really study the side effect of one or more medicinal plants of camel mange, is there any other things anti-dote?------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

36

Annex two

Acacia tortilis tree

Extracting of Euphorbia roduntifolia

Taken questionnaire from camel hrders

Euphorbia roduntifolia

Aloe somelensis

camel grazing 37

38

Annex three Scientific classification of some plants Class order Family

Local names of plants Cinjir

Kingdom Phylum

Genus

Species

Type of plant Tree

Plantae

Magnoliophyta Magnoliopsida Euphorbiales Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia Euphorbia gossypina

Dacar

Plantae

N/A

Angiosperms

Asparagales

Xanthorrhoeaceae Aloe

Aloe somelensis

Unpalatable succulent plant

Qurac Gogobood

Plantae Plantae

N/A N/A

Rosids N/A

Fabales N/A

Fabaceae N/A

Acacia N/A

Acaciatortilis Tree Iphonia rotundifolia Moringa ocalifolia Shrub

Wamme

Plantae

Magnoliophyta Magnoliopsida Brassicales

Moringaceae

N/A

Unpalatable succulent plant Tree Vascular tree

Gara Dharkayn

Plantae Plantae

N/A N/A

Aniosperms

Brassicales

Salvadoraceae

Dobera

D.glabra

Magnoliopsida Euphorbiales Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia Euphorbia robechii

39

40