Glossary

Context Clue Words in a sentence or paragraph that enable readers to reason out the meaning of unfamiliar words Synonym Clue A definition of the word or another word (synonym) that means the same thing as the unfamiliar word. Look for phrases such as is defined, means, is known as, refers to, in other words, that is, etc. Contrast Clue An antonym (opposite word) for the unfamiliar words. Look for words and phrases that indicate opposites such as but, in contrast, however, on the other hand, although, instead of, etc. Example Clue Examples that illustrate the meaning of the unfamiliar word. E.g. for example, to illustrate, such as, like, namely, etc. Topic The something that the author writes about (who or what). Also known as the subject or the subject matter. Look for a heading/title, words in special print, repeated words or phrases, a word/name/phrase/idea mentioned at the beginning and then referred to throughout the text. Stated Main Idea / Topic Sentence A sentence in a paragraph that tells an authors most important point about the topic. The main idea sentence contains the topic, makes complete sense by itself and sums up the details in the paragraph. Main ideas are general; details are specific. Supporting details The additional information that the author provides so that the reader can understand the main idea completely. Details are specific; main ideas are general. Examples of supporting details: examples, explanations, descriptions, proof, statistics, and other specific information that help explain the main idea. Implied Main Idea When authors imply (hint) their main point rather than stating it as a single sentence, it is called implied main idea, and the reader must formulate a sentence that expresses the authors main point. There are 3 formulas to identify implied main idea: 1. Add essential information to a sentence in the paragraph that almost states the main idea; 2. Combine into a single sentence two sentences from the paragraph that together expresses the complete main idea; and 3. Summarise details into one general sentence or combine several important ideas into one sentence. Fact Information that can be verified (proven true) is called a fact. Information can be verified by research, observation, experimentation or experience. 1

Opinion Information that cannot be proved or disproved; a statement that represents someones judgement or belief. Distinguishing Facts from Opinions Writers sometimes try to make their opinions sound as if they were facts so that the reader will accept what they say. To avoid being manipulated, you must know how to distinguish between facts from opinions. When you read an opinion, decide how well supported the opinion is. That means, you must determine whether the opinion is supported by relevant facts and/or by expert opinions that relate directly to the topic or issue. A well-supported opinion is as valuable as a fact. Predictions about what might happen in the future are opinions (refer to pp. 205-206 Elder, J. (2008). Clues that you are reading an opinion also include: judgement words such as better, sad, successful and words and phrases like It seems likely that, In my view, Experts interpret this to mean, It appears that, perhaps. Inference A logical conclusion that is based on what the author has stated. Conclusion A decision, opinion or judgement reached after thoughtful consideration of the material you have read. It is based on information you have read but it goes beyond what the author states.

AUTHORS PURPOSE An authors reason for writing: To inform (give information) to tell, explain (about),describe, discuss To instruct (explain how to do something) to describe how to, explain/tells how to, give steps To persuade (to convince readers to do or believe something) encourage, motivate, inspire people to do or accept something To entertain (to present humour or other enjoyable material - to amuse readers, make readers laugh, tell a funny story

AUTHORS TONE The authors use of words and writing style to convey his or her attitude toward a topic. (e.g. enthusiastic, concerned, angry, indignant, optimistic, sarcastic, excited, apologetic, sincere, etc.)Tone helps readers understand the authors intended meaning, or what the author wants the reader to understand even if the words appear to be saying something different. Look for authors word choice and writing style. (refer to pp. 253-255. Elder, J. (2008) ) AUTHORS POINT OF VIEW An authors position on an issue. In other words, the authors opinion or belief regarding an issue, whether in favour or against it or neutral. An author has bias if he or she takes a position in favour of one side of a controversial issue. (Chapter 11 explains about authors bias). The authors point of view is often the main idea.

AUTHORS INTENDED AUDIENCE The people the writer has in mind as the readers: a specific person, a particular group of people or the general public. Issue The controversial topic the author is discussing AUTHORS ARGUMENT The writers point of view on an issue. Or, the opinion or belief that the author wants to persuade the readers to believe. Pro In support of favour of something, pro-something (e.g. pro-environment) Con Contrary or opposing point of view, anti-something (e.g. anti-war) AUTHORS ASSUMPTION The things the author takes for granted without presenting any proof, the things the author assumes to be true

TYPES OF SUPPORT The kind of evidence the author uses to back up the argument Support can include research findings, cases studies, personal experience or observation, examples, facts, comparisons and expert testimony or opinion. Evaluating the support A support has relevance if it is directly related to the argument Relevance of support: Objectivity The authors argument has objectivity when the support consists of facts and other clear evidence. When authors are experts on their topics, they can generally give strong, verifiable support for their opinions and beliefs. Subjectivity Support that is based only on the writers personal feelings, on emotions, unsupported opinions or limited personal experiences.

Completeness of an argument An argument has completeness if the authors presents adequate support and overcome opposing points. Wise authors, whenever possible, include and refute (prove false) information that seems to support the other side of the argument. For example, they will introduce opposing points by saying, Although it might appear that.... or Critics might argue that..... Then they refute or counter those points. (for more info, refer to p 275 of Elder, J. (2008)) Validity of an argument (whether it is logical) The authors argument has validity if it is logical or well-reasoned.

Credibility of an argument (whether it is believable) The authors argument has credibility if it is believable or convincing. To be credible, an argument needs to be wellsupported and well-reasoned. Determine whether the author has given precise sources of information rather than vague references. Look for authors credentials

REASONING: Inductive argument An inductive argument presents several specific observations, reasons, or facts that lead to a logical generalisation based on them. An inductive argument will be convincing if specific pieces of support logically lead to the conclusion Observation 1: The size of computers has decreased dramatically during the last several years. Observation 2: Cell phones have also become more significantly smaller. Observation 3: Even video games that once had to be played on large monitors are now available on handheld units. Conclusion: It is clear that as technology has improved, technological devices have become smaller. Deductive arguments start at the opposite end. A deductive argument opens with a general statement or rule, followed by the premises on which it is based. Premises are specific examples, reasons, cases or other details that support (prove or explain) the general statement. This type of reasoning is sued in geometry and law. For the general statement to be true, the premises must be true. If they are faulty, the deductive argument will be false. Example: General statement: College students should participate in at least one campus organisation. Reason 1: It provides a way to make new friends and become part of the college community. Reason 2: It also provides them with opportunities to hold leadership positions. Reason 3: Moreover, it can be helpful to be able to list the experience on their resume. Flawed reasoning Fallacies and propaganda techniques that appeal to emotions rather than the intellect. 4