Yankee Dryers: Acoustic Emission Case Histories By Dennis White Inspection Systems and Services, Inc.

Abstract Acoustic emission (AE) has been used as a meticulous nondestructive examination (NDE) method for tissue and paper machine dryers for over 15 years. Structural integrity of cast iron pressure retaining parts may be quickly determined. This paper reviews some of the results from that application by the author. Topics covered, relative to Yankee dryers, will be: rib cracks, spigot fit cracks, bolt cracks, metal-spray cold splatter, leaks, casting shrinkage, and AE use in lieu of hydrostatic testing for jurisdictional authorities. Acoustic Emission Overview Acoustic emission (AE) is generally defined as the random elastic energy released from a source in a material under stress. Stress is applied to a monitored object by forces, such astemperature, torque, pressure, bending, etc. Deficient areas in the object can generate detectable bursts of energy in quantities proportional to the size of the source and the applied stress.

reliability. AE vessel exams are quick, cost effective, and volumetric

MARSE

Counts

Figure 1b. AE sensor hit electrical response signal and parameters. Application of the method involves placing sensitive AE sensors on the surface of stressed objects to detect high frequency sound from material anomalies (i.e., material deformation). Sound, from material deformation, is detected by the AE sensor (hit). The sound is converted into an electrical signal (Figure 1a). Risetime

AE System Examination Threshold

Amplitude

Duration

Figure 1a. AE sensor hit electrical response signal. Today, acoustic emission examinations are routinely used to improve object safety and Figure 1c. AE sensor hit electrical response signal and parameters.

Parameters of all sensor electrical signals are statistically categorized during the acoustic emission test. One such signal parameter, shown in Figures 1a , is relative energy (MARSE, or Measured Area under the Rectified Signal Envelope). Objects deform in different ways, Material deformation is a source of acoustic emission. Deformation depends on the object configuration, material, and applied stress. Some test conditions that change the AE signal parameters are, material characteristics, rate and type of applied stress, and temperature. It should be reiterated here that good cast iron material does not deform, and as a result produces no sources of acoustic emission. The system statistical summary of the AE signal characteristics provides insight into material deformation mechanisms and their origin. Success of acoustic emission examinations are dependent on the examiners experience with the material to be tested, the procedure used, follow-up nondestructive evaluation (NDE). AE Testing of Cast Iron Gray Cast iron can be thought of as steel with graphite flakes. It is a nonhomogeneous material. Cast iron is a mixture of constituents that maintain their own identities but are solidified together and should 2 therefore be considered a composite metal. Cast iron has a modulus of elasticity almost 2 that of steel. This information helps one to understand that the ratio of unit stress to unit deformation is a lower value in cast iron than in steel. An AE survey of a dryer is a volumetric examination of all the cast iron pressure retaining parts. Detected AE sources are localized for further NDE evaluation. Source location depends on constant material sound velocity. Sound velocity is not constant in 2 cast iron. Therefore, AE sources are localized in cast iron . No AE is expected from cast iron without anomalies. Damaged cast iron will generate AE within the cast iron dryers operating pressure range. A properly assembled Yankee dryer has no rubbing parts to create

AE data. AE examination does not replace thickness measurements or ultrasonic head bolt exams. AE examination of Yankee dryers has detected: 1. Cracked cast iron in the spigot fit. 2. Cracked cast iron in the ribs. 3. Head bolts with cracks. 4. Casting shrinkage/inclusions. 5. Growing cast iron cracks. 6. Head-to-shell steam leaks. 7. Metal spray nonuniformity. Acoustic emission examination in lieu of Yankee dryer hydrostatic test has been accepted by state jurisdictions. Yankee dryers are typically stressed through the application of steam, or pneumatic pressure. Stress levels are up to the operating pressure, or safety relief valve setting (the highest pressure value achieved within the last year). Acoustic emission examinations have shown that they can provide a quick way to determine the necessity for further examination of Yankee dryers. Any acoustic emission activity is localized and further examined with other nondestructive testing methods to determine the acceptability of the 2 source. AE evaluation criteria are published. Yankee dryers have been examined in less than 2 hours. The AE test has demonstrated the ability to find damaged cast iron material not found by other NDE methods. The AE examiner training, combined with his knowledge/experience of cast iron will play an important part in the success of the Yankee acoustic emission examination.

CASE HISTORY 1: Acoustic Emission Examination in Lieu of Hydrostatic Test Acoustic emission examination has been used during pneumatic and steam pressure tests in lieu of hydrostatic tests. There is alternative wording in the National Board Inspection Code that allows a nondestructive examination in place of hydrostatic test

(Part RC Repairs and Alterations of Pressure Retaining Items, page 97, 1998): Nondestructive examination (NDE) may be conducted when contamination of the pressure retaining item by liquids is possible or when pressure testing is not practicable. Concurrence of the owner shall be obtained in addition to the Inspector, and jurisdiction where required. NDE methods used shall be suitable for providing meaningful results to verify the integrity of the alteration Some of the states where acoustic emission examination has been used in lieu of hydrostatic test for acceptance of alteration or pressure rerate:

The emergence of acoustic emission testing as a viable technique for global, volumetric examination of Yankee dryers may provide the best compromise for the regulators perceived need for safe, pressure-only tests and the industrys need to comply with such tests in a safe, cost effective manner. Case History 2: Spigot Fit Cracks in a Yankee Dryer The TAPPI Yankee Dryer Safety Subcommittee sponsored a feasibility study of cast iron crack detection by applying the acoustic emission technology to three Yankee 3 dryers. One test was performed in the late summer of 1990 in Michigan. A Yankee dryer had been removed from service due to cracking in the spigot fit area of both heads. The deepest crack area was reported, by ultrasonic examination, to be up to 1/4 inch into one of the heads. The Yankee dryer was removed from the machine, placed on a flatbed rail car and shipped to a junkyard. (See Figure 2 for AE sensor locations on the Yankee dryer.)

1. Alabama 2. Idaho 3. Tennessee 4. Wisconsin The following is excerpted from the TAPPI Publication Yankee Dryers: Guidelines for Safety and Condition Assessment: Hydrostatic testing is most typically employed as an acceptance criterion of design and assembly prior to certification by statutory authorities. The following information can be learned from such a test 1. The cylinder has a 1:1 factor of safety against pressure-only loading at the test pressure and under test conditions. 2. The cylinder is free from leakage through and between the pressurecontaining walls and structural connections. In the case of routine, periodic hydrostatic testing for fitness for service, the (TAPPI Yankee Dryer) subcommittee believes that the above information is small return, however when the direct costs and hazards of the test are evaluated.

S p ig o t F it C ra c k s F ig u re 2

In the junkyard, the Yankee dryer was pneumatically pressurized to 125 psig (previous operating pressure) while monitoring with the acoustic emission technology. It was noted that both ends of the Yankee generated significant AE activity within the first 40 pounds of pressure application. To date, the amount of AE data acquired within the operating pressure range of this Yankee, has not been surpassed. Test termination is mandated when AE data occurs at an exponential rate relative to

applied load. The relationship of incoming AE data vs. pressure application, up to operating pressure did not become exponential. Upon reaching 125 psig, the pressure was held for a brief period (~10 minutes). AE activity continued into the hold period. This data would indicate an existing crack and continuing damage during a constant load. The pneumatic pressure was increased to 135 psig and the AE activity rate increased. Several high-energy acoustic emission events were detected within the 10-psig-pressure increase to 135 psig. Higher-energy AE events are generated crack growth. Pressure was removed from the Yankee and the stored AE data analyzed. Post-test analysis of the data produced several conclusions that have been supported by subsequent laboratory and field AE examinations of cast iron dryers and components: 1. Pressurization up to operating pressure is sufficient to produce acoustic emission in grey cast iron when cracks are present. 2. Acoustic emission from cracked gray cast iron will begin when load or pressure is in the 0% - 50% range of previous maximum pressures. 3. The quantity of acoustic emission is proportional to the size of the damaged area. 4. Pressure, beyond that seen during normal operation produces AE signals of high amplitude, indicating new material deformation is taking place.

side head, prior to reaching 50% of operating pressure. During post-test analysis, it was noted that the front side AE signals did not have the signal characteristics of cracked cast iron.

steam leak

Cracked bolts
Figure 3

The largest AE indication area was mapped. Extensive NDE examination of the front side head (interior and exterior cast iron surfaces), in the mapped area produced no rejectable NDE indications. Ultrasonic examination of the head/shell and journal bolts followed. Ultrasonic indications were noted in more than 10 of the head-to-shell bolts. The ultrasonic signal was not indicating a back surface reflection from these bolts. All of the bolts exhibiting this condition were within the AE mapped indication area of the head. Wet fluorescent magnetic particle examination produced flaw indications in the top areas bolt heads. Further visual examination of the bolts indicated an indentation (possibly from a hardness test) near the center of the bolt head. Passing through that indentation was a crack. The bolts were replaced with new bolts, and another acoustic emission examination was scheduled. The second AE examination produced a 0 smaller quantity of AE data about 180 from the previous AE indication area, near the manway. One additional cracked bolt was found with a crack in the surface of the head. This bolt was removed and replaced.

Case History 3: Cracked Bolts An acoustic emission examination was performed on a Yankee dryer to determine fitness for continued service, prior to a shell metal spray operation. The Yankee dryer was pressurized with steam, up to operating pressure. The steam pressure was held for 30 minutes. A significant steam leak was noted at the rotary joint on the front side journal. No other abnormal visual conditions were observed. During the AE exam a large quantity of acoustic emission was detected from the front

Laboratory Tests Some of the removed bolts were examined in the laboratory. The bolts were placed in water. An acoustic emission sensor was placed on each bolt. The water was heated to the boiling point. Once the temperature increased to over 0 200 degrees F acoustic emission was detected from each bolt. This heated water (thermal stress) test scenario was repeated several times. Larger bolts, with cracks under the heads, were tested under the same heated water conditions. These bolts generated acoustic emission activity also. It was noted that for the same temperature the amount of AE activity was proportional to the size of the crack. Bolts without cracks were tested in heated water. No AE activity was noted from noncracked bolts. Case History 4: Shell Centerline Shrinkage A Yankee dryer, manufactured in the 1950s, was scheduled for a surface grind and metal spray operation. To demonstrate vessel integrity, it was decided to volumetrically examine the pressure retaining parts of the Yankee via an acoustic emission examination. A first AE examination occurred during pneumatic pressurization to operating pressure. AE activity was detected from the shell. The most significant AE data was localized to a 4 x 6 foot area of the shell on the drive side of the Yankee near the manway. AE examinations were repeated with steam pressurization. The drive side shell area was again the source of significant quantities of acoustic emission. The AE signal energies and data rates indicated the source was a discontinuity localized in the shell near drive side head. It was decided to perform other NDE examinations of the AE indication area of the shell. Ultrasonic (UT) and radiographic (RT) methods were used. An extensive examination of the area was performed with UT pulse echo devices. The evaluation criteria for the UT examination

required a continuous back surface return signal (as specified in ASTM E 1001). One UT indication was noted, in the mapped AE indication area. The Yankee was cooled, and prepared for entry. Internal examination of the shell area of this plain bore Yankee did not reveal surface discontinuities. A team was called to radiograph the areas. Several radiographs were taken and developed on-site in an eight (8) hour period. Review of the radiographs indicated shell shrinkage porosity in the AE and UT indication areas. Radiographic film classifications were made according to ASTM E 802.

Shell Centerline Shrinkage

Figure 4

The radiograph of the UT indication area was evaluated as Type 5 level (as indicated by square area, Figure 4); with two (2) contiguous area of type 4 severity level. Other radiographic film produced within the perimeter of the AE indication area were evaluated as having Type 2 and 3 severity level indications.

Case 5: Rib Cracks In Two Yankee dryer Two Yankee dryers were examined on separate occasions. One was in operation and the other was stored as a spare. The

operating Yankee dryer had mechanical changes to the drive side head, including: a. Reducing diameter of drive side head, b. Jacking out the head, c. Removing the corrosion between the head and the shell flange, d. Drilling larger size bolt holes in the head and shell flange, and e. Installing larger diameter. head/shell bolts. f. Reassembling the head/shell joint, After mechanical modifications were completed, the Yankee underwent an acoustic emission examination to assess pressure vessel integrity. The AE exam was performed on the Yankee dryer during the application of steam pressure up to operating pressure. Steam pressure was increased in 10 psig increments to operating pressure and held for 30 minutes. AE data was detected from the shell of the Yankee during the increase in steam pressure prior to reaching 30 psig. AE data continued to occur during the pressure hold. Highenergy acoustic emission activity from the shell was detected. AE signal signatures from the shell had the characteristics of cracked cast iron. The sour5ce areas of the AE data were mapped.

A second Yankee dryer was in storage as a spare. Prior to service the Yankee underwent an acoustic emission examination, during pneumatic pressurization to operating pressure (70 psig). AE data were noted from several areas in the shell. The internal components of the Yankee were removed. Nondestructive examination with wet fluorescent magnetic particles produced relevant indications of rib cracking in 16 areas of the shell. The rib cracks were removed, the internal components replaced, the Yankee was installed in the tissue machine, and reexamined with acoustic emission during initial steam pressurization. No significant acoustic emission activity was detected and the Yankee was judged fit for service.

Case 6: Metal Spray Indication A spare Yankee dryer was installed in a tissue machine after alterations. Ultrasound, and magnetic particle examinations were performed on the Yankee components. The acoustic emission NDE method was used to demonstrate the integrity of the pressure retaining parts. AN AE examination was performed in lieu of hydrostatic testing to satisfy state R stamp requirements. It was a one (1) hour acoustic emission examination during steam pressurization to operating pressure, with a 30-minute pressure hold. The Yankee dryer successfully passed the acoustic emission evaluation criteria, and was readied for service with the stipulation that it be reexamined with AE in three (3) months. The shell was metal-sprayed following the AE examination.

Rib Cracks

Figure 5 During post AE investigations, it was reported by mill personnel that there were cracks in the ribs of the shell. These cracks resulted from condensate header support bracket screw attachment to the ribbed shell. These cracks were removed, and the vessel is still in operation today.

A second acoustic emission examination was performed within the subsequent three (3) month interval. The examination detected significant AE activity from the Yankee shell. Data indicated several AE sources in the shell (Figure 6). A review of Yankee records for the previous three (3) months found:

(1) The Yankee had passed the AE examination, three (3) months earlier. (2) The owner had no reports of operational incident(s) that would affect the shell. (3) The shell had been metal-sprayed just after the first AE examination. (4) The doctor blade was picking near the center and the back edge of the shell. Ultrasonic examination of the metal spray, at the back edgedetected numerous nearsurface interfaces, indicating lack of complete metal spray bonding. Ultrasonic examination had corroborated AE examination results; another AE examination was planned. After the last AE test, a shell profile grind was performed. During the shell profile grind, several areas of metal spray in the middle of the shell an at the edges were found to have metal spray cold splatter and were repaired.

Another AE examination, during steam pressurization, was performed, and no AE data was noted. Case 7: Shell Casting Inclusions An operating Yankee dryer, manufactured in the early 50s was examined with acoustic emission to demonstrate the structural integrity of the pressure retaining parts. The AE examinations were performed during steam pressurization, up to operating pressure, to a procedure referencing, Section V, ASME Article 12. Acoustic emission examination detected and located a source area of AE activity in the shell near the drive side head. The signal characteristics of the AE activity did not indicate cracked cast iron. The area was examined with ultrasound to further corroborate the source of activity. A UT pulse echo examination of the AE indication area was performed. The evaluation criteria for the UT examination specified a continuous back surface return signal per ASTM E 1001. Two UT indications were noted, in the AE indication area.

Metal Spray Indication

Figure 6 Note: Cold splatter occurs during the metal spray operation. Molten metal (at the outer edge of the spray cone) cools significantly prior to arrival at the hot substrate on the Yankee shell. The cooler metal droplet does not bond well with other deposited metal on the shell -- this creates small areas with little or no metal bonding between molten metal droplets. This lack of bonding creates contiguous metal surfaces, or flaws, that further deform during the application of pressure. Another profile grind was scheduled after the next AE examination.

Shell Casting Inclusions Figure 7

These areas were radiographed and the resulting film reviewed. The film density was less in two areas near the drive side flange. Since the radiographic indications were lighter than the surrounding area of cast iron, the material producing the lighter indications

would be expected to be denser than the surrounding cast iron material. A review of the early 50s casting procedures revealed that copper was used in the molten cast iron. Some other materials that would appear as denser material inclusions on a radiograph would be zinc, nickel, or tin.

Bibliography 1. Materials and Processes for NDT Technology, American Society for Nondestructive Testing, 1981. 2. White, D, Examination of Dryers and Determining Tensile Strength, TAPPI Proceedings, 1992 3. Allevato, C and Williams, D., Acoustic Emission Evaluation of Yankee Dryer Shell Material, 1991, TAPPI Proceedings, 1992. 4.Corboy, W., Yankee Dryers: Guidelines for Safety and Condition Assessment, TAPPI Press, 1992

Conclusions Cast iron can be considered a composite material, with predominantly metal components. Cast iron will redistribute stresses throughout its pressure retaining parts, when pressure is applied. 1.When stress is applied, undamaged cast iron will not generate acoustic emission, when the pressure retaining parts redistribute stress. 2.When stress is applied, damaged/flawed cast iron will generate acoustic emission from the abrasion of crack surfaces rubbing together, when the pressure retaining parts redistribute stress. 3.When thermal stress is applied to metal (i.e., steel) attached to cast iron, without flaws no acoustic emission will be generated. 4.When thermal stress is applied, metals attached to cast iron, with flaws acoustic emission will be generated. 5.Abrasion of properly assembled dryer parts during pressure testing is not expected, and if abrasion/part rubbing is detected, further NDE examination and corrective action should be taken. 6.Crushing of corrosion products during pressure testing is not expected, and if orrosion crushing/part rubbing is detected, further NDE examination and corrective action should be taken. 7.Acoustic emission examination, when applied by an examiner knowledgeable in cast iron metallurgy and properly trained in acoustic emission, is an asset to a Yankee dryer preventative maintenance program.