CELL STRUCTURE

A cell is the smallest unit that is capable of performing life functions. I. Chemical Component of Cell Cell composed by protoplasm that contain organic and anorganic subtance. Inorganic Compounds Most elements and their compounds are by far the most common substances in the makeup of living organisms. They supply the greater part of materials needed in the chemical activities of life. Inorganic compounds consist of : a) Oxygen, as molecular oxygen, makes up nearly 21 percent of the mixture of gases in the atmosphere. Oxygen is necessary for most living things. b) Water is the most abundant inorganic compound. It is also the most abundant compound in organisms. Water forms from 65 to 95 percent of the substance of every living thing. It is the chemical source of hydrogen and some of the oxygen needed by living things. Protoplasm itself is made of materials dissolved or suspended in water. Water is the medium in which dissolved materials are taken in from the environment. It is the medium of transport for foods, minerals, and other substances in living systems. Water is necessary for life on earth. c) Carbon dioxide is an inorganic compound that supplies carbon as well as oxygen. Chemical products of organisms contain carbon. Thus, directly or indirectly, carbon dioxide is necessary to all life, d) Mineral compounds supply the other elements needed for life. Minerals may come from the soil, or they may be dissolved in water, or found as salts in sea water. Human beings cannot directly use carbon dioxide and many of the necessary minerals. They cannot build their bodies directly from carbon dioxide, minerals, and water. Like nearly all animals, people must rely on the green plants as a link to these inorganic compounds. The plants organize such compounds into the complex foods people use as energy sources and building materials. Organic compounds Consist of carbohydrat, fat and protein All organic compounds have one thing in common. They all contain carbon. The electron structure of a carbon atom allows it to form four covalent bonds with other atoms. And these bonds may be single, double, or triple depending on how many electron pairs are shared with other atoms. Carbon atoms can also link with each other. The carbon groups form a "backbone" to which atoms of other elements attach. In this way, they form very large, complex organic molecules.

a) Carbohydrates One important group of organic compounds are the carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CH2O). The proportion of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms is two to one, as in water (H2O). Examples of carbohydrates are sugars, starches, glycogen (animal starch) and celluloses. These substances are found in all plant cells except glycogen. Sugars are organized in plants, but as foods they provide the basic fuel for animal life as well. Corn and potato plants produce starches, as do rice, wheat, and other grains. Animal starch, or glycogen, is produced in the liver and stored in the liver and muscles. Chitin is another example of polysaccharides found in the most arthropods skeleton.

b) Lipids (Fats) The most common lipids are fats, oils, and waxes. Like the carbohydrates, lipids are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. In lipids, however, the ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms is much greater than two to one. The body can release much more energy from a given amount of fat than from the same amount of carbohydrate. This is because the molecules of fat have more bonds. The energy, then, is much greater in fats than in carbohydrates. Glycerol is an alcohol that consists of three-carbon atoms chain with three OH groups in its molecule. Functions of Lipids (Fats) They are component of cell membranes. They are also important molecules for storing energy. 1. Plants store oils in seeds. Some familiar oils are peanut oil, and corn oil. 2. Fat in animals also provide protection. Some animals have a layer of fat under the skin that acts like a layer of insulation against heat loss. 3. Fat deposits around some internal organs, such as kidneys and heart, protects them from physical damage. Although animal fats are storage products, they are not stored for long periods of time. Instead, they are constantly being broken down and replaced c) PROTEINS Proteins are organic compounds that contain nitrogen in addition to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. A few examples of the countless functions of proteins are: 1. Structural parts of cells and of body tissues, such as hair and nails, and the tough materials of cartilage and connective tissue. 2. Pigments in animal blood, skin, and eyes, and chlorophyll in green plants. 3. Hormones, the chemical messengers that regulate body functions in plants and animals. 4. Contractile material of muscle tissues. Actin and myosin 5. Antibodies, which protect animal bodies against foreign substances and disease organisms. 6. Enzymes, which enable complex chemical reactions to take place with precision and speed. I. Types of cells: There are two quite different kinds of cells; Eucaryotic cells, which have a recognizable nucleus and Prokaryotic cells, which do not. Eucaryotic cells have many more kinds of organelles than do prokaryotic cells. In particularly, procaryotic cells lack many of the membranous organelles possessed by eucaryotic cells. There are two types of eucaryotic cell, Animal cell and Plant cell

prokaryotic cell

Figure 1

Structure and Function Of Cell Cell as the smallest unit in the living things consist of : - Cell membrane - Cytoplasm - Nucleus . - Organelles cell that have special function Draw and show their location. And explain their functions. The cell membrane has several important functions. - It separates the cell's contents from its environment. - The cell membrane also controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell. - Give the cell shape and keep and protect the internal content of cell. CYTOPLASM : The cytoplasm is a watery material in which are dissolved many of the substances involved in cell metabolism. Many of the chemical reactions of cell metabolism take place in the cytoplasm. Also found in the cytoplasm are a variety of specialized structures called organelles. Each type of organelle carries out a specific function in cell metabolism Inside the cell membrane is gel-like liquid called cytoplasm. The cytoplasm contains the things needed by the cell to carry out life processes. The nucleus is the control center of the cell. Nucleus directs activities such as growth and reproduction.

II.

Picture 1. cell membrane

Inside the cell membrane is gel-like liquid called cytoplasm. The cytoplasm contains the things needed by the cell to carry out life processes. The nucleus is the control center of the cell. Nucleus directs activities such as growth and reproduction Cytoplasmic Organelles : a. Mitochondria: Mitochondria are the bean-shaped organelles. These structures are the energy power center of the cell. Mitochondria supply energy to a cell.

b. Ribosomes : Ribosomes are tiny, grains like organelles that make proteins
Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis in the cell. They are found both free in the cytoplasm and lining the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum. In cells involved in the synthesis of proteins that are to be transported out of the cell, the ribosomes are mainly attached to the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum. The proteins pass through these membranes into the canals, which carry them to the cell membrane and out of the cell. Where the products of protein synthesis are to be used within the cell, the ribosomes are generally free in the cytoplasm. Proteins synthesized on free ribosomes are usually enzymes that function in the cell cytoplasm.

c. Endoplasmic reticulum: Substances made by the cell must be transported to

where they are needed. In cells, transport is done by the endoplasmic reticulum The endoplasmic reticulum consists of a system of fluid-filled canals or channels enclosed by membranes. These canals generally form a continuous network throughout the cytoplasm. The canals of the endoplasmic reticulum serve as a path for transport of materials through the cell. In addition, the membranes of the network provide a large surface area on which many biochemical reactions are thought to occur. Also, the endoplasmic reticulum divides, or partitions, the cell into compartments, making it possible for a number of different reactions to be going on at the same time. The membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum are similar in structure to the cell membrane and nuclear membrane. In places the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum are observed to be continuous with the outer portion of the nuclear membrane. In electron micrographs endoplasmic reticulum has either a rough or smooth appearance. In rough endoplasmic reticulum, the outer surfaces of the membranes are lined with tiny particles called ribosomes. The ribosomes give the membrane a granular appearance. On smooth endoplasmic reticulum there are no ribosomes.

d. Golgi bodies: Golgi bodies are the packaging centers of the cell. e. Lysosome : Small sac structure contain chemicals to break down the food in the
cell. Lysosomes are small, saclike structures surrounded by a single membrane. These organelles contain strong digestive, or hydrolytic, enzymes. Lysosomes are thought to be produced by the Golgi bodies. They are found in most animal cells and in some plant cells. In one-celled organisms, lysosomes are involved in the digestion of food within the cell. In multicellular organisms, lysosomes serve several different functions. They break down worn-out cell organelles. In some animals they are part of the body's defense against disease. Lysosomes are present in white blood cells, which ingest disease-causing bacteria by phagocytosis. The lysosomes within the white cells break down the bacteria, Lysosomes are also involved in certain developmental processes. For example, as a frog develops from a tadpole to a mature frog, it loses its tail. Lysosomes are involved in the digestion and absorption of the tail.

f. Vacuoles: Cells also contain fluid-filled organelles called vacuoles. Vacuoles

serve as storage areas.

g. Plastids : There are three types of plastids

They usually store water and food. Plant cell vacuoles are much larger than those found in animal cells. In addition to water, these vacuoles contain sugar, starch, and protein. Plant Cells have extra organelles Cell wall is a rigid structure that supports and protects the cell. . Chloroplasts: The green , football-shaped organelles are chloroplasts, which are organelles that plants use to make food. The green color comes from chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is a compound that traps the energy in sunlight for the food-making process.

Leucoplast: Leucoplasts are colorless plastids in which glucose is converted to starch, and in which starch and other plant nutrients are stored. Chromoplast: Chromoplasts contain the pigments that give bright colors to fruits, flowers, and leaves. These pigments are synthesized within the Chromoplasts

THE STRUCTURE OF PLANT CELL : Plant Cells have extra organelles Plant cell has the structure of cell membrane, cell nucleus, cell organelles that not far different with animal cell, in plant cell not found lysosome and cenriole. But in plant cell has cell wall, plastid and vacuola. 1. Cell wall is a rigid structure that supports and protects the cell 2. Plastid There are three types of plastids. Chloroplasts: The green , football-shaped organelles are chloroplasts, which are organelles that plants use to make food. The green color comes from chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is a compound that traps the energy in sunlight for the food-making process. Leucoplast: Leucoplasts are colorless plastids in which glucose is converted to starch, and in which starch and other plant nutrients are stored. Chromoplast: Chromoplasts contain the pigments that give bright colors to fruits, flowers, and leaves. These pigments are synthesized within the Chromoplasts. 3. Vacuoles Cells also contain fluid-filled organelles called vacuoles. Vacuoles serve as storage areas. They usually store water and food. Plant cell vacuoles are much larger than those found in animal cells. In addition to water, these vacuoles contain sugar, starch, and protein.

Differences between plant cells and animal cell . Animal cells . . Plant cells . 1. Relatively smaller 1. Relatively larger 2. Irregular in size 2. Regular in size 3. No cell wall 3. Cell wall present 4. Vacuole small or absent 4. Large central vacuole 5. Nucleus at the center 5. Nucleus near cell wall 6. No chloroplast 6. Have chloroplast 7. Store food as glycogen 7. Store food as starch 8. Have lysosomes 8. No lysosomes A. PASSIVE TRANSPORT THROUGH CELL MEMBRANES 1. Diffusion Movement of molecules (liquid or solid ) from a region of their higher concentration to aregion of their lower concentration down a concentration gradient,without energy assist. Diffusion is the net movement of molecules (or ions) from a region of their high concentration to a region of their lower concentration. The molecules move down a concentration gradient. Molecules have kinetic energy, which makes them move about randomly. As a result of diffusion molecules reach an equilibrium where they are evenly spread out. This is when there is no net movement of molecules from

Factors that influence diffusion process are as follow : a. Temperature, the higher temperature, the larger possibility of diffusion b. Concentration, larger concentration difference between two diffused solutions, the larger diffusion c. Molecule size, the larger molecule size, the slower diffusion happens d. Medium, diffusion in air is easier than diffusion in solution e. Surface area, the larger diffusion surface, the larger diffusion happens Molecules that diffuse through cell membranes: 1. Oxygen Non-polar so diffuses very quickly. 2. Carbon dioxide Polar but very small so diffuses quickly. 3. Water Polar but also very small so diffuses quickly. 2. Facilitated diffusion

Large polar molecules such as glucose and amino acids, cannot diffuse across the phospholipid bilayer. Also ions such as Na+ or Cl- cannot pass. These molecules pass through protein channels instead. Diffusion through these channels is called FACILITATED DIFFUSION. Movement of molecules is still PASSIVE just like ordinary diffusion, the only difference is, the molecules go through a protein channel instead of passing between the phospholipids. Molecules will randomly move through the opening like pore, by diffusion. This requires no energy, it is a PASSIVE process. Molecules move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

3. Osmosis The passage of water molecules from a region of their higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration, through semipermiabel membrane without energy assist .

B. Active transport Transport that need energy to get in and out of ion or molecules substance through plasm membrane FLUID Transport protein OUTSIDE CELL

Active transport in two solutes across a membrane Endocytosis, exocytosis , Phagocytosis,Pinocytosis A moment when solid substance or liquid substance get in and out through membran Endocytosis, Is the case when a molecule causes the cell membrane to bulge in ward, forming a vesicle Exocytosis, Phagocytosis, Is the type of Endocytosis, where an entire cell is engulfed. Pinocytosis, is when the external fluid is engulfed Receptor mediated endocytosis occurs when the material to be transported bind to certain specific molecules in membrane. Examples include the transport of insulin and cholesterol into animal cell

To apply transport concept through membran. To use that concept for food preservation, such as sweetening fruit, salted fish, etc