Chapter

S1SH11C

SC OHS

and At tirst sight the connection between geology

seism
ic

relatively uncomplisections might seem obvious and some of cated. Many modern seismic sections (and Older ones also] bear a striking resemblance to geological
cross-sections.

seismic section into geology? The seismic system sees

a biased eye.

with Suf fh Is it possible to translate all that we see i n a comparison?

But how far can we really

It can only detect lithological boundaries if

the aqgusiic impedance changes across the bo undw) and the change must be above the threshold limit of the
seismic system. So, at best, the seismic system detects only

and: When boundaries are closely spaced, interference affects

a

limited proportion

of boundaries;

t.l\

seismic response, complicating

or making impossible

our

~~~

is viewed, perception ofthe geology. That the subsurface not in depth but in terms of two-way time, is a f11rtlif handicap. The distortions that this last factor alone troduces, because of both vertical and lateral veloclfl changes, make a simple and direct link between gC0l0l and seismic sections more problematic. The information gap between what we observe in seismic section, and what the geology most probably has to be filled by the interpreter. The knowledge quired for this is twofold. Firstly, the interpreter able to identify and eliminate all events relating to Hmse the interpreter;must_m;p@y_ggn3gl;r5l);!19 logical skill, including knowledge of sedimentology, tigraphy, structural geology, etc., to convert the

into a plausible geological reality. knowledge enables the interpreter to conceive geOl0lC and models and opinions that can be used predictively
image

a guide to the interpretation. Although, at a local Unique, many 5e1SY processes driven by underlying cause produce an overall similar end example, delta will be unique

scale but

will share

prograding
many

P"0ST HdiI1g

Swsmic section relies on attributes ofthe single Und on the overall COnflgu1 Elil0Il ofthe characteristic and recognizable geometries. In
text, reflections are imP0rtant,

of the large-scale deltas. Recognition of such

tl1iS

not only for their i1ul1

__,_

__

Chamggeristics,

fjgnship fdsmfmdiflg Ihe link and seismic thus aiwofold between geologf sections First, we must establish the Significance ofthe Problem, - 1 reflec o and second establish the stgtu_ mdivtdua reflections to each other. gance of the relationship of
THE INDIVIDUAL REFLECFION

her

but also for their geomeaj- and

,-E1a_

Uf

CONTINUITY

._

Individual reflections have several measurable and de~

properties that can be related to geology. The Iitholattributes most easily linked to, and diagnostic
SC,-ipfive

amplitude, polarity, continuity, and spacing or frequency. Caution should always be used when analyzing reflection characteristics, since both procasing and noise can create potennal pitfalls.
ogy are reflection
REI-LEClIONAMPLI |. UDE

ommous

AMPUTU

""

Amplitude is the height

of a seismic reflection peak (or

Huh
__ _

trough) and is dependent on the reflection coeliicient, but this direct relationship may be lost during processing. Frequently, amplitudes on seismic sections are balanced

Low

ble to determine the relative strengths of retlecrion coefiicients. However, where amplitudes can be diti eren~
fiatedi The qualifying terms ofhigh, used (fig. 4.1). Vertical changes in

duringprocessing to produce what is thought to be more easily interpretable sections. Usually, however, this makes it dimcult and in many instances no longer possi-

FREQUENCY/ SPACWG

medium, and low are amplitude can be used

to help locate unconformities, whereas lateral changes be used to help distinguish seismic facies GreatcauUOH

must be exercised, however, as interference patterns tuning, multiples, etc., are responsible for many am~

Plitude changes observed

in seismic sections.

"
Low

Reflection

_ polarity can often be determined &om onlap _ _

maximum amplitude SCli0DS l combination with 55- 7.10 d 713 p 1 tv
on processed minimum- phaS sections, or
giiide to the likely Qauginga ;~gf]eC;i0n_ For example, in a shallow
Such

attributes: continuity, amplitude, fre__

Sees
f

hthologies

flllplitude

several kilometers

or mile

Young sequence

Tertiary of

the U.S.

Gulf

PI 0Us sand overlain by clav should produce a mediumnegative _

ways

tive

reflection

coefficient; a clav Ovcrlving a limestone almost produces a limqie reflection with a posiCoemcigm

in geological ter be iifluiflf ms changes in acoustic impedance and hence in ltthology. characteris of envi_ Discontinuous reflectors are, thus, _ tic ronments where rapid lateral facies change is the rule
ofdepositional (015 are characteristic Ul1ifOIm
(e_ g,,

very continuous to very discontinuous (fig. 4.1). Con. .

_ Co s). ntinuity

_ is graded from

tluvial, alluvial environments). Continuous reflecenvironments where

laterally extensive (e. g., deep-

comin ~ ,
Zflection. gnmem __;_ _ection
mtains Obvious are

of a
an

water environmen S also arise from disruption of r@f1eC_ tions by noise, such as, multiples, tnigration arcs, diffi-;1C_ these coherent type of dismp. tions, sideswipe. Usually Potential pitfalls

e or thre

Con traces. A

F;

51113

be as

ritlection

r f or an apprecr

tions can be connecting imaginayy)

by drawing discontinuities.

lim? (real or If the line

4. GEOLOGY

AND seismic sectrows

O O ._ _

- _

125 O

2.0
1.

_.

2.0

""

,vu
__

gf-

_.

|.. 3- O

3_ 0

fi! . ~

.ff ~
;_ _
,_

5\m"lf"-

,,

,_.

(ol
"CURE reflectwns
(a) A stacked section from a common shotpomt _gather of Wnthcttkalhf made seismib traces usinga random-number

(bl
enhancement

generator. The data has zero signal-to-noise ratio and all rqfwcrion alignments are apparent and not real. (b) Sectibn The
OFCES

provement

is

potential enemy ofthe interpreter. Reprinted by permission thf AAPG from Howard and Dunham, 1983. straight

G. appafefl lm. . entirelv false, and this type ofprocessmg is n.

ll lgflfllfll .

Ul U

spacing that gives an interval a character that _ lat easly across l _tical Changes SP3C1\1g C311 be used HS locd guide boundaries between depositional sequences, but sh0\1l not be used (if as the sole criterion. .possible) . ~ Changes Spacmg can uSed_ to lnfcr cies CIHHS
reflector

cor

of

However lateral Change

real. A more serious pitfall can arise when continuity is deliberately enhanced during processing (fig. 4.2). For seismic stratigraphic work, processing that has forced continuity into a section is a great disadvantage; unfortunately, it is done all too fiequently.

or hyperbolic, the discontinuity is probably not

character susceptible to noise and structuring. Multiples can 0 lf_ produce false increases in reflection spacing. The gradoe loss of higher frequencies with depth in n seismic sffilml has a marked effect on reflector spacing. The frequency over an interval ggtinqatcd by tneztsllmf the reflection spacing (fig. 2.15).
usrrnuvfu. vrar.oc|r\

If reflectors are spaced more

Reflection spacing or frequency describes the number ot It is pe unit by both atlectcd -. ;__ le

__

~ orm

..,.

rc .Ltor sp.tLmg), a imparts _ _ nd Sffifllllll, Figure 7.17, in chapter 7, shows

ct

ents

_ )L1lllLl

than about 100 ms apartto calculate interval velocity and possible inlbr litholotgn Mctliofls lbr Lletcrminixu; inlcrvzil Hom seismic data :ire described in chaptt- rG, __ Mil luuty to identity lnhulolg _ may not he Sunplt, _ tiguit, ~ _ _ 4_3 _
typical ance ofclitlbrcnt lirliolmnes.

l.)I

LlL(llll termsot

. _ _

to the sustntc eliarzicter isllc

,.~ ,

~ _

mul ztvotistn,

r.

._ _

_
enum. ,xt

us

a bed depos by both processes (c. g., ited top). Addit sand at its base through to clay at its iona there is a broad overlap in size of grains that fall in to lly, stratie1thei category. For groups of beds making up

;_ grap _ c unit, however, the conce tbecornes use cially on the scale of seismic resglution (i.e., for ~

Spor _

Ellis
1_0

LUG

mechanism for sands or elastic deposits, and suspension load the dominant transport mechanism for clays and other fine- grained deposits. The differences in transport mechanisms lead to fundamental dijferences in the over~ all shape of beds formed by sand-sized and clay-sized marked where particles. These differences are especially ofthe deposits-~in there has been little or no reworking

4-3

50"

sEGfmm Gardmr

graph. Reprinted by perrmls1974"

deep water, for example.

LITHOLUGICAL CHANGE AND REFLECTIONS Excepting reflectors from fluid contacts, practically all other primary reflections originate from acousticimpedance boundaries caused by lithological change. The significance of lithological change is thus a key to llnderstanding the relationship between geology and
seismic sections. In a bedded sequence, lithological change usually occurs at bed boundaries. Bedding planes arise fhmllgh multitude of Ca11SS change in deposi50931 C0HdiTi0I1S1

1irhi5Cati0n, Variation
etc. Bedding

in sediment sup-

planes invariably Sighity break in deposition. Bedding planes define the extemal shape of beds. Beds come in a great variety of ply, seasonal variations,
sizes and shapes, reflecting, to a large extent, the lithology fomting the beds, depositional process, and depositional

environment. Lithologies
groups;
1.

can be divided

into two main

ensure pension, may, however, be sufticient sized grains already in suspension remain in suspension. This effectively reduces or can even temporarily prevent rate of clay-sized grains is deposition. The deposition ve pl ocity. very sensitive to current The transport and depositional behavior of the two to that clay-

falls. Modest currents, that can neither induce traction of sand-sized grains nor pick up clay-sized grains into sus-

not only require much lower current velocities than sandsized grains to remain in suspension, but they also are deposited at a much lower rate once the current velocity

falls below the l articular threshold value for the ofsand- sized grains, transport ceases and debeing transported pogitign oceum, Sand-sized grains out rapidly once the partly by suspension load will settle current velocity falls. Clay-sized particles, although quite difficult to get into suspension because of cohesive forces between grains, onceinsuspension, are not so susceptible as sand-sized grains to variationsincurrent velocity. They loci

All other parameters being equal, once the current ve-

Sediments

deposited

ported by, and settled

2- 5CdimCntS

mechanically-that out fiom, a fluid

is, trans-

summarized groups may be

as follows:

-1 precipitated chemically fe- S rites) or formed biologically (e. g., reefs)

dominant transport and deposiiivnal Pro Sediments deposited mechanically can be Sub Con into two overlapping groups: (al and ststtng of grains transported by bedload movements, by suspenconsisting ofgrains, transported sion load, that As a have szgftlgd out front suspension. gf:ttet~ .1liz;1fiQn, them: gmups etitvespottd to sztnd-sized and clay-sized grains. Many beds V/Wil cotttairt a mixture of grains deposited by both pro_ _ _ will gram Wflilr 11tti- :size distribtttion, current tl Suhtiivision -. ~.-/hut
Based on the

etel, require a minimum current velocity to induce movecurrent velocity rising above ment and transportation. this threshold will transpott grains but deposit them immediately as
_ 2. CIay~sx

1. Sand- sized grains, depending on their shape, density.

it falls below this thresltold.

_ _

size) tu overt~ onte tn tettgrztttt co hesive torc es and get the _

etc.,

, o gmtns, dependtng_ tt their shape, dens:tj, , zcd

hltill

YhC\1

(lure tn suspension, grains, into :at1sp<:t1rtmt. __ ;tl_tlto unable to pick up much lmvtfr ClHl l?lli ngh flblv SffliH5 .trite it-nston otwtn: .xt . limit Since txttmttitttt in to qtuttttrsl.
_ up ,mtl __ _ bi __ _ mtl: ton tvt-uk to pu tt it>:attt\tt.\l HH! the tu* ve,- nt tlt, po:\ttt>\i Ulll
t ~lw:itv
tht tlepur~it1tm.\l
_ _

tmrvulifftitv, sinut- must tleposits contain

GEOLOGY .-um srirsmtc secrrrgxs

__

Shallow

water currents uno wave ccttvlty

sun water
_ _ <3 _ _Sedimentation from suspension _

Longest time gap

Onlap onto edge of elastic body

FIGURE 4.4 Fundamental

shape relatrorzslups

between deposIncreasing gap

gfsnnd-sized and :ldv-sized grains. (a) A current transporfi1(g saJ1d~si:~ed grainsjlows into a df.-ep water body ji-om lqt and slows down. A taperirtgf bed is deposited. Further
in the basin cldv- sized grains are deposited out from the suspension load. (b) The resulting sedimentary unit.

_._ .

__

_ _

__

Shortest time can

Figure 4.4 illustrates some of the consequences of the contrasting behavior of sand-sized versus clay-sized grains. The figure shows a basin containing a large body of deep water into which a currenttlow bearing a tr action load of sand-sized grains is introduced. The current slows on entering the larger water body, transportation ceases, and the sand- sized grains are deposited to fomr a sand

FIGURE 4.5 Sket/:hes showing how the shape 01" iflflwfrwf

ofa clasttr

body

bed with a thickness profile tapered in the downcurrent direction. Over the same time interval that the sands were being deposited, the cumulative thickness of clay-sized grains being deposited from suspension load in the basin center would be many orders of magnitude less. In fact, the current velocity, too slow to transport sand~sized grains, could be suticient, in the immediate area beyond
the edge

be observed in the seismic section. Instead, onlap is ally the predominant infill mechanism. It should be made clear at this point that we are discussing onlap 01l0 rapidly deposited feature, for example, a fan, part of delta front abandoned by avulsion of the main delta, etc. These types of deposits are invariably onlapped (fig. 4-5l-

at work to bring !l1l5 about; but variations of current activity caused by lhe deposit s morphology or its location are the most obvi0U5 influence- more active currents in the shallower water above the feature would inhibit deposition, while quieter
Several mechanisms are possibly conditions

in suspension, further reducing the short- term deposishape relationship illustrated in figure 4.4. A density flow (turbidity flow) of sand-sized particles into the basin would have the same effects and produce the same shaped deposit. This tapered shape is seen commonly in
seismic sections posits

of the sand deposit, to keep clay-sized particles

in the deeper water, adjacent to the

featur

tional rate. The end result is to produce the thickness and

would favor deposition from suspension load. The of a elastic unit, by influencing the form of the CISPOSI

tional surface, the water depth, and the current tlow, YUBY

control the site and rate of subsequent deposition.

For

and appears to be a characteristic of de-

formed of sand-sized and larger grains. On a small scale, these differences have little practical effect and are irrelevant to our considerations. For example, small- scale ripples at the top of a sand bed would be uniformly buried and draped, if the deposition ofclaySized grains followed the formation of the ripples. As the thickness and size of a elastic unit increases, however, its potential feedback on the deposition of succeeding beds
increases.

elastic units thicker than a few meters, for example; ills" will be a tendency, all other factors being equal, for Sub sequent fine~grained deposition to occur in the relatively deeper water near the edge ot, or beyond, the elastiC (fig. 4.5). Such a situation results in the clastic body bemg

onlapped by the fine- grained sediments. This type lap situation is quite distinct nom the more widespfeafl onlap of basin margins, which is a result of basic subs
dence processes (i/Vatts, 1982).

If the

episode

of elastic sedimentation ceases

and the area returns to sedimentation from suspension load, we would intuitively expect the newly formed basin

The thickness and shape can, in this circumstamlffw used to imply a time relationship. Clastics will tend onlapped by clays, and the time the Sand: gap between and clays at the top ofthe elastic unit will be greater

that in the basinal area (fig. 4.6). These

floor topography to be buried and draped by the succeeding sediments to produce an otflapping sequence (fig. -1.5). This, however, seems not to be the general case, at least on a scale where the features are sufficiently large to

shape relationships can be seen on all scalest small outcrop to units 1000 m thick or more. Figure 4.7 shows potential shape and time ships when several episodes of elastic deposition occurred, and the inferred time relationships-

If/r -__ --_.

Ulnllllllllll

_ *

(o) Llthologncol sequence

--> _ gap Increase

5U5195ll~~

Distance

Crown

nlmwlnu

(bl Time/ Lithologicul

nGUFjE 4-5 I"f3f "Ed

section _ . l.n/v/will - Mun :nm/ . nn/I ll(//r/wnllul fmllrrirlulwu mn

rl~

Inru/ rl/ul fzlrllrllrlrfrlmr rm:

"fl1f0"S)"P-9

ryhm

Nfllllllll

ronrnent. (a) Thickness relatxbnships.

(b) Time

/,IIYII/llf l

IIllll fl[L|

/mnlllurnrll ruxltx.

near the basin margin, encounters a sandy suquencrc. Well B, in a basinal shale scposition, encounters

quence. Age

dating indicates a similar age range for thu

deposits in wells A and B.

thicknesses of sand~sized
gaps

It

is impossible

tbl siniilm

deposits to be exactly equivalent in age. There must be

grain deposits and

flllli- g {\lIlG(l

lop. llufrc urn- lmmnuns lncrc lm lluf wnyrl In which wc ul thx* llqmrilllorllll [WOcurrclutc wcllu. ll|c cuss on vmylny; l7lIlI|fl\l vnfllwlly llllvlulvrl llull rimulzo must emc~ lln: llmv grip be atctrunnululvul
uesalve dcporzllluilnl rfplmulrvrl

llxlclufr (lic cllnnllv llnll llounl tfpltunlc, lluf

llu|l| |1lu tluulm clezpusillu |uulmln|<e llmc gup ul IIS

clear that fora given time interval or depositioual episode, clastics will tend to form a much thicker deposit than will
5H~ gTained

within the sandy sequence. Many variations on this theme are possible. If we accept these urgunicnls, it is
sediments deposited from suspension loud. lt

wlll clupuml on flu:

cuuslng llu: l?lllll1I|f vrellnflly

clc.),

ilu

lllrlvlh rilnrwmi, ll ln ulum Ilml :uuuls cunmn

is not possible to corre1ate1ikthiCkH@SSS 0fSiU\illll-l\gl2 clastics and clays without inferring both considcrublu

in the elastic sequence and an onlap rclationslilp and clays. We can conclude tlml 018566 sequences tend be full Qfgaps, record much less geological history than clay sequences, and that thc
gaps

between the clastics

llc tlelmullml ln the lftllllllllllli nuunm-r llmt lrl llnfuruturnlly hu cvluyulzurml HI /Illltl. (.luy-slzml puse4ll>lc (ll unlllufly) mln lmvr Klux llu: ollwr |m|vu1lu| ln lm grulnel, on lllIlflllll|)llll\|lll\ lu/ul lnxunwumrl (.l(fl)(J!lll(f(itflllllillllllllyil only xmulmit lmsln\vl1v| 14:t||~r|||l llvllvlly lu low, currcntleu muy lic xvrNl|m| ln|vu|l|| lu
sixspuurllun.

lln

tplm

am

num

m<lcx:| nl llu: llupmmlllmml mnlu<~ a~. (ilnr|l flf |uml|:a.

llmn tlw rim nl mnlmlmlcxitzv nl

untilm~|s1cxu ef~~

llu tirmlunl
~
~~

|\ |n1fsitlmml

lu
|u~ l|x|1u
_v

zu

rlnmlar

;::<
_

not dun lu n
lgup ul

nlmpv mi tlw
<ulln |~

imply

ai

llll((llliill lllll\ nl
(Juy
|llltY?l -

_.

liunrul Il1l lllIl1i||

lmw-

from
larsl

lo- \~.

nrwlvm lu will

Ullllilllil

ml;-fl ul ricusuu; ~,7A

vllrll
HH I elm

ill
_

lmlnl. lmw
lvw
:lm

uf
~.

nl flu

.,

tjluy
tlilrl<.< u l;\l~ml|v

~f

1\2ll\

wall

l11" inllmfie;| l1IA jfJI .sands mul

ll
fl-ilwrlu

l"11/ulvnlmil in
I/mi/

I/urr:r/111.11

l1|\ful\l|ll2 mills-i
ralmu
flnlw

lllllllltllllfl "
"

snflwilt
~

UU

"""

llml Luvml

twin

r//u_<{11llur/ff.

--~

grain deposits has not only lithological but imp licutions.. and that sandier do Se Sequences contain 3TC11fCf SUPS _ The idea is not new or original and has received recent yemS_ sees the stratigraphic record as a lot of holes tied together with sediment. Dott (1982) and Ager (1953) discuss the importance of the episodic nature of sedimentation amd the resultant gaps in the stratigraphic

or below. beddmg Plane <2rogS_ The srratmed sand bed below and parallel bedded will have different time Significance dependin _ On whether it is viewe orn S< I1 1 OP the clay above. From above, the bedding plane will appear
fi@P0sition. Viewe from belo Thi! Plane va11@S in a d w, _ ge, becoming younger in the of dip. It all depends on which side of a bedding plane (or reflection) you look at, as to or not what you represents a gap or a time hne. This may all seem fa remov from ed seismic However, we are now rm a positio to Judge the relation. n ship of seismic reflections to bedding plan es and thereby assess the possible time significance 0l"1I1d1V1dL reflecl1l tions. Seismic reflections can only arise at a bedding plane if there is also an acoustic- impedance change. Further, there are the problems of lateral and vertical resolution. To investigate the seismic response of bedding planes in different situations we will examine the most favor

parallel

time line marking

Onset 0f1==1y

rcC0rd_ Sadler (1981)

discussed

the

the sedimentary

record and the assumption

problem of gaps in of continuity

of deposition from a different view point. He compiled nearly 25,000 rates of sediment accumulation from a wide variety of environments. The calculated rates spanned more than 11 orders of magnitude. He showed that the longer the time span studied, the lower the calculated apparent sediment accumulation rate, and concluded that this was primarily the consequence of unsteady, discontinuous sedimentation-that is, the sedimentary record is full of gaps. Sadler demonstrates that the completeness of many sequences is probably no more than a few l er-cent. W here is all this lost time-where are the gaps? The vast majority are to be found at bedding planes. The gaps range from the irrelevant (for our purposes) to the highly significant (e. g., the gap developed at the top of a major clastic sequence recognizable in the seismic section of fig. 4.5). In elastic deposits the bedding planes are almost always gaps. If intemal structures, such as crossstratification, are present, both the upper and lower bounding bedding planes will be gaps- the gaps varying in magnitude along the bedding plane (fig. 4.5). If the intemal structure is absent, the base of a clastic deposit a (e. single turbidite) may approximate to a time line. g., The units top, however, will almost always be a gap. If the clastic unit is followed by finegrained deposits, an onlap relationship may be inferred. In fine- grained deposits bedding planes are generally subparallel and extremely laterally extensive compared to bed thickness. Deposition is almost entirely from suspension load, and bedding planes and lithological change result from lithification, variations in sediment accumulation rate, etc. In these cases bedding approximate planes, to, or parallel, time lines. Gaps, even if geologically Significant, will also tend to parallel time lines. From the relationship of thickness to lithology we can also conclude that time lines will be more closely spaced

case; that is,

shallow depth, 1O

m or s

able

plane may also change depending whether it is viewed from

in fine~ grained sequences than in sand- sized grain deposits. time significance of bedding The planes, therefore, is vari It can range fiom the situation where they able. parallcl time lines, with the gap at the bedding plane ranging from the irrelevant to the very significant, to the situation where the bedding changes in age laterally- an plane uncont" orniity. The time significance of bedding

variable,

high-frequency seismic waves 0 e. g., a equencyo a ou 50 hertz), and low velocity (e. 2000 m/s). These g., parameters represent about the best that is likely to be encountered in a working exploration situation. An increase in depth, or velocity, or a decrease in Hequency will all have a detrimental effect on vertical and horizontal resolution. For these values of frequency and interval velocity, a bed must be at least 20 m thick (half the 40-m wavelength) for no interference to occur between reflections from beds top and base. From 2,0 m down to 10 m quarter wavelength, the tuning thickness), retlectior1S from the top and base ofthe unit will interfere.MaxirnuU1 constructive interference occurs at 10 m, the tuning lhiCk ness, for unit where the reflection a coefficients at the TOP and base are different in sign. At tuning thickneSS seismic reflection appears to be a simple wavelet at maximum amplitude (fig. 2.14). For thickness less than 10 m the seismic response is a simple wavelet of wavelength but with decreasing amplitude for pf051"e5 sively thinner beds. For isolated beds around 1 U1 Thick there will be a negligible seismic response. The Fresnel zone radius for these parameters is about 141 m for unmigrated seismic section. In basinal clay or shale sequences, deposition is dominantly from suspension load. Conditions of slow
and not necessarily continuous, sedimenl

cumulation typiiy such sequences. 0f Often depositi0f1 _ clay- sized grains is interrupted by rare event dep05l5 (e. g., turbidite flows induced by storms, earthqual<5 t etc.). Bed thickness in this type of sequence ranges from a few millimeters to a few tens ot ceI1fimelCr with the exceptional bed being more than a meter thick ln view ofthe thin- bedded nature of this type
seismic reflections from this dcpositional
SCfli11

71;

an
acoustioimpedance

interlcrencc

response frgm

ggvepal
at
nntcrnm

boundaries.

The reflections will,

however, follow the attitude of the bedding planes. Since bedding planes in this type of environment typically

seismic reflections and time as clay- sized grain deposits. The exceptions to this, however, would be sand-sized

time lines, the seismic reflections will not be precise time lines, but will certainly pau-allel them. Carbonates and evaporites are a special case of finewhich show the same relationship to grained deposits, parallel
IHOM

grains of carbonate transported and deposited under the influence of current action and biologically formed carbonate deposits (e. g.,

coral reefs). Carbonates have rela-

...--FIGURE 4.9 Sezlsmk response afclastnk

tively

low accumulation rates and produce deposits

units in

where time lines and bedding planes are usually parallel. In this environment, however, bed thickness typically ranges from a few millimeters to tens of meters or more.
criterion for Thicknesses greater than the no interference would not be unusual. In such cases, would follow exactly the bedding seismic reflections planes at the top and base of a bed and so follow time lines or gaps (depending on ones view point of what

P"USfdi"3 Hmitfor and

between [hg

unifs

constitutesa significant time unit). There are many possible exceptions to this admittedly simplistic view, An example given by Ager (1983, p. 62)

of supratidal deposits of the Trucial Coast on the southwest side ofthe Persian Gulf illustrates how not all claysized grain deposim are deposited synchronously across an area. All along the coast here, an algal mat is developed

beds more than

In a most favorable explorahon situts. ation, with a seismic waveform fre quency of 50 H1 and an interval velocity of 2000 m/s, no i nterfer ence occurs fo
water environmen

in

the

intertidal zone. This is formed mainly of blue-

deposits have been recognized in ancient sediments. But if one walks inland across the salt marsh and digs a hole, thc Same algal found, buried beneath windcan

green algae and makes an efficient sediment trap. Similar

for be r tuning m thick ds thickness and mdxvldual m thick. The thickness about elastic 20 m and is frequently less than less bodies i u s sually such elast units occurs
10 pinch-out typically 1n the tluclmess ra

of

blown Sand, Wilh layer-S gfanhydrlte and gypsum. In fact, inland for several miles there is a direct continuation of

forming on the present-day beach. that dating from layer more than km inland has old (Evans Pl0Vd the algal mat to be around 4000 years 4000 yearg of diachro1969)_ In. other
the algal

from beddlng tend some 300 km_ Scisrnic reflections the planes at the top or base of such units would parallel litl10Slcal boundaries but be unconformities. In
unVh.oumcl,5

halfa million years-almost negligible in algal mat could exgeglogical lc;-ms--the

where all the eeded thickness detail is contained within the amplitude of Fmm invariant wave m Predm f0I change in a facies thl that ckness ch be en vironmen tvml l clashc i anges amplitude an in nvarmnt o an apptec an waveform H/I pre p1ncl1~o ut on ll clude n
to re gis ter a s eismic res ponse),

Uh? Ufmlmum

nge

betwee

ic

wavelength

fYPCuY

shape

; that r likely produce adiscrcte rct lc ch gn.

makes xt un

for

nits

thinne

that

flus
un .uc gene its l. .

alll
ma

r potential for complex ela-

lateral sum up lot;

sk

between seismic reflections, are even more likely. There is for reflections to potential

tbllow both time lines and example, in gaps. For

, ._ body could

at

tur

1.

IhiCkt1_ub|d1(Lf

bn-

Seismic and lowm

t
~~

bllllllftm

un

ln other depositlonnl environments,

, _ _ _ _ _

lbllow Il time line.

of

:mtl time lines. lt internal

its

.tm

to u lon

.1

stzwztrttxm-

., , .

major
J-

~>

.fXtt~n:tve lmf:z~ nlly:1:s

are typtcul deposit.. from

tol the tupu1\db.1s both e\\1llbot lm\txttt,ux<~ :- hut not 2. Reflections iollow n>z\xul\_\ rvstzlrz; thcies l)t)\lllLlill lLS. l_(\lUl.ll tlurivs

_,

,__

-xr

GECLOGS

se;s:.t:C

Neil sms

_ _

(Cl) TYDiC0l
SSSSSSSSS

|llhfl95

SS_i_;SSS ~ _ _ _

sand FIGURE 4.10 Coincilicntal aligfnment of 1-ansgressive lawralfacics bodies to produce a seismic responsefrom the boundary. (a) Geological model. (b).SeLsm17;e.rpression.

_ osst bl e rea
onlup

rea

|ons

up

in a change of amplitude, waveform or spacing, and

fan type 3. Where thick elastic units form a submarine

Continuity.

FIGURE 4.11 Lithostratlgraphzi:

3?@SSi\/2 SU-fld~

of

(8) A

iypiwl

correlation fr-rllmplt Df the

ofa basal tors

kiwi
Of

deposit in deep-water depositional settings, reflections .

upper Surfaces and mtemal _ iufbldmc

e e
es.

Clasuc

ln

o marry zagram. is tmp te of actual lateral relationships. The basal sand consists numerous bodies, not all in lateral continuity, onlappfid

mu:

4. In shallow-water elastic environments, most individual units are so thin that they fall between the quarterwavelength). reflection (about quired to produce a Such reflections will vary only in amplitude as thick-

aP ;Ref1eCU5 en/ s may approinma

5ha1_.,_g_

relationships using Well logs or outcrop data has

wavelength tuning thickness and the limit typically re-

th in an altemative approach to correlation using d55 cept of diachronous rock-stratigraphic units, lithoSU raphy, centered on formations. This is still
tht?

ess
5.
_

Changes-

stratigraphic tool employed in the oil industiyt raphy - The formation is a body
lithic characteristics
o

and
~:

sequences, reflections result primarily Eiargillaeeous om interference and approximately parallel time

view of gradualistic, as opposed to a gappist,

dentitiabe f rock 1
pOSiU

lines

and stratigraphic

bl
It
possible,

tth Earth

bl in ;

in special circumstances,

that random

(l\l;rth
__

_
sand;
sE1sM

produce a coherent reflection following (fig. 4.10). Even in this case, lSh.1PS between the re13 C;;S
];1

Nomenclature, 1983), and is viewed as the _expression of a_mgrating depositional preeminence

;ni;f

of rock-stratigraphic units
on Stratigraphic Classification
and applicability

<;101

the codes of the North American

graphic Nomenclature (1983) and the Intemfmona _
COmm1ss1on

clusion to be drawn from the a bove _ d seismic ref] ti

ffl1m an that lithological information is rimaril co Wye d b ~ . e reflection attributes. Perha ps the m t lmpommt
fleP1

aseis

accept

points discussed above we must conclude -

11dlC10U5h1PS

_.

1976). The usefulness

graphic units is, however, increasingly

U00 (DDU, 1983; Anderson et al., 1984l. _ based
mCOmPaUb11ilY SUatlS" aPhY

Of fund;lll
die

iscussion

is that

of gradual geogmp hi mlgfauon

Sequence

ck faci51

mg Establishing time relationshi s h mno u an5"Pl\y> long been the goal of zftt emPtii to correrock However and often ne ar impossibimy actually onostratigraphic

diachronous formation boundaries to st1L\UST"l

an exploration tool. The following simple examples
sense

stratigraphy based on correlating

..
.._ .. ,.,,

__

Dry well

ll..

_ ___
cmy seal

_
on pool

__

Basal lransqresswe

sand

onlapped by basal transgressive sand. A dry well has been drilled on the structureis crest, but will onl have been a. valid wstjbr the entire strucgfthe onkzpping sands are in mural mmmy.

!lGURE 4.13 High structure

ncuxua 4.12 Block dmgram showing

Onll

series ofonlapping Same d"iUi"S -*ands Uf

continuous, closure may still exist on the structure s flank.

These examples

highlight the importance of time relation-

ships and the superiority

of chronosuatigraphy (time-

stratigraphicrelationships) over lithostratigraphy.

(lxihostratigraphy) can be when applied to typical exploration problems. Figure 4.11 shows a basal transgressive
sand above an unconformity.

The sand forms a lithostrati-

Seismic reflecdon profiles have the potential to bridge the gap between litho- and chronostraligraphy. Vail et al. (1977) argue the case for the chronostratigraphic (timestradgraphic) nature of reflections using examples from

graphic unit- it is identifiable as having been deposited under similar conditions, although its age is known to

log correlations and seismic sections. In favorable cir-

is a diachronous stratigraphic unit. Unforshown

e _

UPPEH BOUNDARY

is

o en t

en to

impy continuity in
saos\oNAr. rauNcA*noN

both time and space. That is, deposmonal envi-ron-lnents

it is tacitly assumed that the

Yann? couconmucs

ated across surface, continuously depositing a sheet of

gradually

useful with Their passage. While it is unquestionably depositional environments and ascertain their
Influe

__..._ouuv

LOWER BOUNDARY

reservoir properties, it is quite another mat~ t05lil1\$llfy deposition and continuity body- The continuous deposition of sand-sized ns is obviously impossible and we will otlen be at
nce on

--usfw--J
1.

uownmv

concnvwmcs

Condnuify figure 4.11.

also clear that well 1035

age.

_,

y be correlated for sands of a similar be incorrect, for example, to correlate wells A and
same Sure

It
DOWNLAP

o~LAp

au~osnLv|~G" u~com=onM|rv1

4.12. Log correlations

HO!

involve recognizing

and There_ lines

. dnued

e Asec
On

always

merely similar ones. Only the SH11d5 1-fl OrD and C, should, in fact, be correlated. the danger that by correlating SCFOSS time
Substitute

_-----""""
ofa
~
11-

may top

correlatabiliiy with condry we 11 01113PP ed by a ba58l

ond example (Hg. 4.13) shows

_ Hue

3351111

suucmre not and- The prospect, however, should . Wflffen If The various sands are not

relzztzbnships within an idealized (c) Rzjkctzbn ofthe AAPG from llugymg, Reprinted [qv perrmlsszbn _ _ 1977JIS , 108. PP Vail and Thompso

or the gg/Lmmn relationships. (a) Relationships tthcb Of h LPS sequence. (b) Relatwns

Gizorocv AND seismic sizmioxs

_-

Subparallel

~ Even

Wavy (a)

Hummocky

Lenticular

a.

Sigmoid

d. Complex sigmoid- oblique

D1SfPf@d

Con t

rt d

Oblique

e.

Shingled Onlap fm rmgraded mi

b. Tangential

. onlap an owe,- gem su

_

_
c. Parallel

complex rin

tc)
Cum5tanCS, IflCfi0fl 191350U5hiPS can be Used to deduce chronology, whereas reflector configmation and attributes can be used to infer lithology and depositional

(dl
FIGURE 4.15 Exampks ofdiagnostib rqflectibn (al Parallel, subparqllel. r1fld_ divergent

MfdV5""S

evious discussion has focused on beddin ttin g Th _ _ long been recognized that the it planes and beds. has rock record is divisible into depositional sequences, comprising many individual beds, within which the strata are genetically related. Depositional sequences are bounded at their top and base by unconformities and/or their cor~ _ relative conforrnities (fig. 4.14). The term unconformity is used here in the sense of Mitchum, Vail, and Thompson surface of erosion or non(1977), who defined it as deposition that separatesyounger strata from older rocks and represents a signiticant hiatus (at least a correlatable part ofa geocbronologic unit not representedby strata). Unconformities are recognized by discordant reflection relationships, and, in seismic stratigraphic jargon, are

and AAPG]5.0mMitchum, 6, 11, 15, pp. 123, 125, 130, 133.

2.

lnfffpfef-ffl prograclmg clmoforrnsFill seismzkfaeies units. Reprinted by permission of U35 (d)

f;gS_

Paraunconformity: an unconformity between pfifillh strata where there has been little erosion. Puraullwll formities are also difficult to identity srisn1ically. _ 3. Angular unconformity: an unconformity where and erosion of strata below the unconformit} followed by deposition. 4. Other discordant relationships: tor example, gradation of inclined strata across underlying
lying beds.

termed sequence boundaries. clude:

1.

Sequence boundaries

in~

between \\ boundaries, rcprescnt ll geologic cpisodc during \ _ the dcposruonul cnviroruneutlsi and pr occsS(*l
Depositional sequences,

lying

Disconibrmity: an unconformity separating parallel strata whcrc thcrc has been signiiicant erosion. Gcncr. . . ally, pzilcontologxcul control is required for the reCog~ nition ol rliscoritbrrnltitzs and they are diilicult to recog

sentiully progrntling tlvlttt cocval basinal rnucls). At thc lcvcl .

seismic sequences uppruzxcli the

_ durmion ut

stratigrapllic stages (l3;ttltoni;m, tlxtiwtlixnx. ever, seismic escqucriccs :tru not tlxrcrtly

Erosional unconformities

Nondepgsii-tonal uncoriformiries

18

11 10 2 1 1 2 3

Erosional:

Angular/structuml

Toplap below

Downlap above

Onlap above 16

E:

Erosional: Angular/stnrctural

Tilting or original depositional attitude below

Onlgp nbovq

Downlap above J

zz
ld

Erosional:

Angular/structum]

Concordant below

onlap above

Concordant above
16

Erosionalz Angular/nonstructural

Cl1CUl d<1nlblW

Downlap above
4

Lapout reflection terminations

Chmnologic
3

Eros1onail:md irumirposilioxml Eroswrral: Angulnliriolmtructurul

_...._..._---

unmnibnrutirs

FIGURIJ 4.16 S<fiSllllC rejlectiun cnryizrvnitivs. Reprinlrzl prfrmi.s.<:t urz ll/owrl mn1I~i.sl1er, JU, p. 32.

Um!

4. GEOLOGY AND SEISB/IIC SECTIONS

Downlap " 19"

15 16 2 . Angilar. Erosiona

21

Concordam

onlap
17 16 Concord

Downlap

ant Angular: Erosional

Concordant
11 NOTE:

Downlap or onlap over an angular

horizontalunderlying strata may result in very complex hiarial relationships.

1 Toplap

(emsional) unconformity

with either tilted or

Onlap

Angular Nondepositional unconfoi- mities Lapout reflection termination Arrow in direction oi greater hiatus or time gap

ltlrpease Concordam

stratigraphic formations, which are based on lithostratigraphy and are commonly time diachronous.
. . . . Seismic interpretation using these concepts has become

FIGURE 4.17

inferring the relative magnitude ofa ing seismic-reflection configurations. Reprinted

Bmw"

1980*

J.

popularly known as seismic stratigraphy and has provided a whole new approach to relating seismic reflections to geology. Brown and Fisher (1980) provide a good discussion and introduction to the topic. Numerous papcrs in AAPG Memoir 26 (Payton 1977) provide further

_ _ ures 4.16 and 4.17 display possible Combirmuonh reflector relationships and how they can ln: usul mate the magnitude of unconformitics.

information. To help standardize this approach and provide basis for more detailed analysis, a set of terms has
been widely adopted to describe reflector relationships. Figures 4,1-t :mtl 4.15 display the suite ofreflection termi-

The following description of rclltfctor taken from Mitclium, Vail, and I lu>mp:;ou
Mitchum,

that define unconibrinztlile boundaries to deposinations

The typo

main criterion uecrl in rlcterriiinirxtg \" of |>t~ :.t itttlutwl

t- r<~.u>x\

Vail, and Sarigrm: (1077).

l>i>.ct>itl.tx1\

ttonnl suqucxrccs :md the internal scqucncc structure.

an uncoutormiry u-stills trout

.~

1-_\

iiLi;

to describe ar.or.s, andgeom/:try ~ . ofsezsmwfames

Retlcctton termxrtation s

tnce boundaries)

ations (Within sequences)

of- sc uenccs

seismic fumes units)

Onlap Do\\ul:tp T ala

Parallel Parallel

. _

ltuncation Ewsiviwl Srmcmml Coucurdtmce (no termination)

wergem Prograding clinoforms Sigmoid Oblique Complex sigmoid-oblique Shingled Hummocky clinoform Chaotic Reflection-li ee

Sh . Wedge

Bunk cns Mound pm

Modifying terms
_ Even Wavy Regular Irregular Uniform
Reprinted by

Hummocky Lenticular Disrupted Contorted Variable

S., 1977,

Whitt

C. E.. Seismtc

Mitchum. R. M.. Vail, P. R., and pcrtnission ofthe AAPG strnugraphy-applicanons to hydrocarbonexploration: Thompson.

Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Mem. 26.

The depositional sequence as tt lmslc unlt for stratigraphic analysts,

Clin be s ubdivided into more specitic categories, which are described below. Terminations are
5l

sultmg from postdepositional

I\vo main of termination are recognized. Lapout is tile la termmation of a stratum at its original deposi~ teral non limit. Truncation is the termination of a stratum reerosion. These two types

face produce an increasing depositional hiatus in the direction of dovvnlap or onlap (see fig. 4.17).
rormr

within a sequence pattem of discordance along a given surface. l0V Table 4.1 summarizes the terminology used to describe reflection terminations, configurations, and geometry.

greater confidence where several strata

determined with

,mn D0\VNlAP general term for lapout at the lower bounddepositional sequence (see figures 4.14, and 4.18 4.23). Two types are recognized. Onlap is baselup in which an initially subhorizontal stratum laps ntitagainst an initially inclined surface, or in which an mmaul inclined stratum laps out against a surface of initial inclination. Downlap is baselap in which inclined stratum terminates downdip against minally subhorizontal or inclined surface. Usually, l
Baselap
15

Hnsnuxxw om..u=

shows an example of a sequence(s) displaying nltlap, otilapping reflectors onlap preceding olllaps. This isa form oftoplap and the uppcrscquencc boundaxv follows the ofllap terminations.
Successive
1iwNo\1ioN,\Nomosioa Erosional truncation is the lateral

against the upper surface at a low angle. Toplztp is evidence of a nondepositional hiatus. Occasionally reflector relationships can be vcxy complex. Figurg

boundary asymptotically. On seismic sections, the re-solotion may be such that the toplap lapout interval is too thin to be resolved and the reflections appczu to truncate

Toplap is lapout at the upper boundary ofa depositional form beds and clinoforms may show this relationship. The updip terminations of reflections may taper and approach the upper
sequence (see figs. 4.14, 19, 23, and 25). It is offlap. Initially inclined strata such as foresct

and dowulap can readily distinguished; but SU\1Cruralcotn licati 0 n~ m a y necessitate reconstiucs

termination

depositional surface to determine the type ot

d()\Vnl;_|pa1-

Lptasttiunul

eindicafigns ofnondcpositional of strata at limits along the initial depositional surSuccessive terminations

stratum by erosion (see ligs. 4.17, IH, 24, 135, _ it occurs at the upper boundary ot depositional eat:ict-,, qtxtTruncation is evidence ofan hiatus. Ststitt-txzizvs toplap can (flute to llllll|ltl
resolution) and cltsttnctioii lwtwvtfn the two

difficult; but in the lttttvr tram tt- tlvrtiotira (cull

ttmy

m;oLot;\ mln

stismic sEC r1o\~ ..5

._
.. ..._

lOOms -

._ _~
-ny

"

.
..._

~ 7 _ ~

,, _
5 _ _~_

-. -

-~

onlapping sequence. Courmsy Norsk Hydro.

fill has been used to mark onto a inclined surface. The rode shown in figure 7.4 th! FIGURE 4.18 Setlsmzk: sectzbn showing onlap reverse drag withm scale, detached, listrzlg normal fault with associated njlzctor terminations. Note the possibk small-

__
.

Il-lOO

l\1S

22:
~-

..
~

_.

--

;;__.

A and B, with an intervening depositional sequerlff section showing two sequence boundaries, FIGURE 4.19 Seismir against A. Courtesy Merlin Projilers Ltd. downlap onto B and trunratzbn or toplap

ill]

_,

____

__

-~

__,

""
~

____
_,

IOO ms

3 KM 2 MILES

FIGURE 4.20 Sellsmll Sectzbn

showing subtle low-angleonhp. Courtesy Merlin Pmjilers Ltd.

--

vzf..
"~

"""

-~-

_
.-

_
~

~ _ _

i -

._

Fl

4.21

figuration. Courtesy

sectum

showing

d0W"l1PP"S

lg

d bv a

se ucnce

exhibiting cwnpltu: internal rtjlectum

Merlin Projilers Ltd.

GEOLOGY AND SElSMl( SECT!

87

.-

__

.
=f

--

,li

-I

.
-

,-.,

_ _

.-et-qv;

"

"

""~
.
,.
___,

",_ -

"

..~

rl . Ifirzw.

""""" r
_
_ 71

_
_

-..~ _

_ _

_ ~ _

.. _ _

KM 2 MQLES

FIGURE

4.22

sequence boundary.

Seismic section showing a progradin

Courtesy Norsk Hydro.

wed e, develo ed alan a ault sca

, downla

in onto an underh/ing

Htl

fs

gtfgf==Zfei=~

"<

~ -i

= _ ,
=ilfitf . _

GEOLOGY AND smsmxc SECTIONS

_ _
--~~

"

.__ _

__

. _ _ , __

(11)

_
-

_
_ _ _

--

--

_,

"
"
1

"

uvnuw _
~. .
" _

| _- ..
.__

100mS

,_,.

(b)

~
__

_
~_ "

(0)
-4

Gwpv-~
~

_,_
_

..
__ _ ~__
__ .

.,

xmas:
~-

.,

51;

--
~~

. ~

_
.. _

_ __

II2f" --

_,

___

_~
_

(d) 0
0

SKM 2M1Les

lI(;Ulu1 4.24 Seismic examples

oferoszbnal truncation.

a, b, and d, courtesy Merlin Pro_fiL:rs

Ltd.; c, courtesy Norsk

:_

lLl4V|\ll_ \

_ll

,__ "

__
__

__

<><>

_ _ _
__ _

,_ _ ~
~-

,_ _

lOO m5

__

KM 2 MILES

hill Rti +26

showing a subcrop sequcncc

_

i.
__

.\IcrlD1 Profilers Ltd_

whwh downlapped C is onlappedfi- om the left

build up
_

quitv tlutuilvtt l)lt i\ll ul ilu :a\|la:i|ii li\c:u

_
h, lmm|.

mtncr than taper to lt.

they terminate abruptly against the upper

section to

tion ot rctlctftiuns purnut

erosion, iiomlupositimi. tion :irc listutl in tnlilc

intbr s\\por|u:aitinx\.

ln

mlulnueaillmlnl

_ . tmncanon and hiatus ofa stratum can simzctural disruption, The truncation can bc tlinlnng. slumping, salt intrusion, igneous Distinction between structural and eronuzizmicii t11.2} be difticult but should be at. _klilznngli structural truncation may _ . produce _ rciiccnons and a ear to be a se uence _ _ sara: disruption has minor, if any, regional _ _ firm:;cs::~ .a:1gt~_:plixc sigjuticance with respect to uncon-

_ __ bcisnnc tauzics

untl utlivv :intl tlwn-LLB.

l
new lllm

._

ul

,-~ gl

_ana

Iimuses.

Fitted into this thx* l\|lIlll\l|\5 single rctlcction. _ _ _ 5l ou1Jctl into rivleilulu tcurl1 :\. \V|l"hwu . ri1i ten be (llI (!lTii\ lriimtlailmfil uitu ilu num! l|lul_V ilI1(l(ll})UHl(lUllI\l , ltwminitvl\l\\ul0}1,l" _ _. cxtcrnzil torin ot_ tliv writlltltiif, tlvlumtt vnu In __ sec, tor vxmnplu. thu :mit . - In tx ln ttgiam_

cxu:a:<-mwftiuuiia

:he _inalxsis ofstratal relationships with the _ _ :inc zzzdmdual rctlecuon, II IS 0Hen possible to

First, it scisniis: sli a\ti3;i:\pl1tu pal seismic filfl]\l!fl\( lN limi

thc truimlautluu ul r1\~|:.|ull two tllritlntl vritnlillnli

.

-u . -

limi.,

._

try llvnt|ly\l\H

:32

used in seismic
__
__ _

sections

interpreted

with imagination and intelligence

Seismlc

Pamme

G lo c t
Beddmg pane,-ns

t ti

rock properties etc Tables 4.3 4.4, 4~5 and 45t m . _ Brown and Fisher (1980), describe how this approach
can be implemented

can reveal details

of depositional environment,

Depositional processes Erosion and paleotopography _

Rdlecrion continuity
__ ampnu

and llfhofacles for parallel and divergent, progradational, mou nded and draped, and onlap and fill reflector configurafwfls- The
seismic facies, depositional environmentr

utilizing the relationsh1p_ betwe en

approach

con Bed spacing

as an seismic but can also be used in a predictive manner interpretational aid. . . . lin An example of seismic mlerpreta o inco rpora g
these ideas is shown southem

not only extracts more information from the

5-e uency

Bed thickness Fluid content

. in figure 4.27. The

_ _

sect1on>

50m

he

North

Sea basm, a minimum- pl1aS

lmewal velggity

Estimation of lithology Estimation of porosity

Fluid
F.<tex-

nal form and areal association of seismic

Gr

Se _;ss ment

depositional environment

times measured beneath sholpoint 2150 as a reference, the following gan be observed:
Tertiary: A zone of flections with poor continuity c at-ac erlze - _ . _ Interpretation of this Sl1211lOW U1 435 ms of the section. the process~ terval is made diflicult by muting effects of

Very Clear15 polarity display: Shvws and the faulting style. Usmg the two-wal stratigraphy

source

re

ra. cm.
em. _

fro

,R.M..V a l,P.R.,and unit fvr ;\r=-fisfarhic

hydmwbon

Seismic g d. This sections alilid/or b

v

_ _

d tailed each sequI1C HFC athm ictu hcation fromthis, b Posslble lithofacIes Selsmlc f acles h acterized by responses _ _ _ hal display distinctive reflection contu1u1tY ~ _ eXte ewa ;ml,

~~

Second, lesser

can be illustrated by individual seismic structural and isopach maps. _. reflection units and l11d1V1dUal reflections

_.

with interbe dd

ogica _ ;Sl1H1l0W section _ T he effects are parvly geoper _ _ Clays since the sequence ed thin sands and occasional carbonates. A sequence boun ary,
1CC03D1Z@

very For instance, the water-bottom reflecti on is attenuated. Great care should be taken in using reflecir1 th tion character in an intcrpreti e man

Pmmts greater through evaluation

__

_.

_ _

lun

amp

difficult to dems beneath shotpoint 2150, is extremely e _ chalk is present from 435 Cretagggug: Upper Cretaceous h to520ms.Thetopca lk is a seq_uence boundary-low _ can be seen to the right of shorpoint 2130. onlap
angle reflections can be used in The lapout of the onlapping to position precisely thetop this minimum- phase data the black peak (see fig. 7.12). pick at the onset of expect the pick to be This is exactly where we would the top chalk reflection coellicient is strongly as n peak, with trough osillve and so should appear data displayed with llbllow-cycle, in xniuimuin- lllmse width oftlie top chalk reflection, revel-Se polarity. The lrequency around 25 ms, can be used to demonstrate around 500 e tl 1 seismic resl ionse in _ _ _ about .10 liz ll)l The cliarzlcter and connninty o t the (see lig. 2.15). stnhlte. zu chzirucrvnsrxc Cll;|]ki ell(!CllUt1 is extremely

270 ms at o un erlYing reflections, is present at about Th se uence boundary at around 300 Sh0fPmt2350 _

C9Gt1l1A __ _ _ rioi}1 ecuon configmation is the shape

fH _;1 _S _l He

of a

re

eCtion

ce.

Some

depositional environments produce C

reflection configurations. PfdUCS

21

For

Characteristic ref1ECU SbPaf 31161 topset reflections, 111 t or _ clinoforms, and Sl1bPamu1 bonomset U1 the basinal area. Lth0 lo be inferred from 1 gy can IOC and individual _ 9-tam re are Slgmoidal configurations prograding
o Cqmigu

be shale mli01is g1

prone than are oblique um stend to occui - ms halt:- PVOUU aSSumt>ti0f1imP

is n

__

or llont laterally extensive ,_ - _ __ _ lk linrzictwizcd iv ix xiv=;.\ti\c _ _ ll nntivlpntc trouglt tolloxwd vlbeflicient (wc
is also
l-

_
UI

Lscussion

mccllilflltill

llml Seismic interpretation

following

peak)
_

5L(llIl ll

tTt.

l)l)\llltl& }

ll

cm;

of

lfof

reflectors through

beyond this prosaic

- Llllllllllllll-

Seismic

__um,. m.ll

l-fluvliowl lil ltltl\.l(\

the :oliow

/_

GEOLOGY AXD SEISMIC

TABLE

0fsfJtl$l11l1 fflt2S clzaracterieed

parallel and divergent

Depositional environmentsSertin5S _

fades
Reflection conggumgion

Shelf7PlaIf0I m
Parallel/slightly divergent; highly divergent near rare growth
f_-

DELTA mom/DELTA PIALW

Delta pladbrm:

Al1\1\m| Distal fan de tix

Pafalleli Eene fauy basmward

Basmal

plain

Parallel/slightly divergent on highly divergent near growth faults

,ups

in deep-water deltas

Lithofacies and
Composition

Altemating neritie limestone and shale; rare

sandstone;

shallow marine delta from sandstone/

undaform

deposits

channels; prodelta facies excluded except where toplap is absent; undaform deposits

grading upward into subaerial delta plain shale, coal, sandstone

shale

into 01 into s e p a omi facies Meanderbelt and channel~5ll s andstone and tloodbasin
mudstone; marine reworked fan delta sandst0nS/Pmfhn shale; undaform de-

may
11110

laterally

dl l till; moundfrgent

Altemating hemipelagc clays and slltstong; careousfa nd composition; fgndofonn deposits

Geometxy and structure

Sheetlike to wedgeshaped or tabular; very stable setting; uniform subsidence

Sheetlike to wedge-shaped or tabular on sheltlprismatic to lenticular basinward of subjacent shelf edge

subsidence on shell; rapid subsi~ dence and faulting in deep~water delta

growth faults and roll-over anticlines; relatively stable, uniform

wit_h

posits Sheetlike to Wedgeshaped (individually elongate ribbons or

lobes), commonly
tilted and eroded

Lateral rela-

tionships

May grade landward

into coastal facie; and basinward into sheltlmargin carbon-

May grade landward

bonate mounds

ate facies; local car-

tems and basinward into prodelta/ slope clinoforms (on shelf) or growth-taulted pmdelta/slope facies
(deep-water setting)

into alluvial sys-

Grade Iandward

into

Nature of upper/lower

Concordant, coastal onlap and/or baselap

Ol/Cl* UPPEI 5-l| aCEi f

upper SUYYGCC may be eroded by Sub-

Nomzally concordant at top but may be rarely onlapped or baselapped; upper surface may be eroded by submarine canyons; basal surface
generally toplapped

reflection-free, high sandstone facies; alluvial facies grade basinward into upper delta plain; fan delta facies grade basinward into shelt7platform or into slope clinoforms Upper surface may be
Qnlapped by eoaslal facies; top may be

Sheeflike to Wdge~ shaped; may he slightly wavy draped over sublacmt mounds; ble to uniform 5b51 dertfrei erally into active structural areas Commonly grades SPWV7 vvard into mounded turbidites, or slope clinoforms; mdy End

laterally into

ter mounds Or tilts

m-Hmf CGHYOUSS basal CUFICOPdant, low-angle baselap OF (Fare)

toplapped by subjacent clinotbrms Amplitude _
__

over anticlines

slope clinoforms (on shelf); rarely concordant with prodelta on shelf but common in deep-water, roll-

by prodelra/

angular unconformily; base in gener. ally egneordant; fan deltas rarely overlie elinofomis (toplap)

Generally concordaut al nrt. lop and base; lap eroded slope clinoforms or emdfd

mounds;upper rarely eroded

High

High

High in delta 6-ont and coal/lignite or marine transgressive lacies delta plain; low/moderate in most delta plain and in prodelta where in continuity with delta front
High in delta COG]/lignite and marine transgressive facies; low/ moderate in remainder of delta plain and prodelta where in lateral continuity with delta Front Va broader in delta tiont; ria ble; coal/ lignite and marine transgrcssive Eucies m oderate; narrower in other delta plain and prodclta where in continuity with delta front

Variable- low/high

Lov/10 moderate -

Discontinuous;

con-

tinuily elelgmascg landward

High

~ l requv:ney

(cycle breadth)

Broad onmot lit~ lerate; tlc variability

Variable; gencmny rolver shelf/platform

ctr.:

monly uniform bwntltll

Sllllillcattce

of seismic

reflections, in C.

li.

Srxuxtic

lfseismibfaczbs chorocterihed
-_ -

configurations

Slope: ASSOCIATED WITH

wrm rnoommwc sneer ostxm on SHELF-MARGIN DELTA; on Slope: Assocmren wrrn PROGRADING Nsnrrxc snenr surrusn remootomnr sr sneir
Prodelta/Slope: Assocwrso
DEL- |~,,,FAN

mzootmnixo
edema con.

SHELF/PLA 1FOR.M

Dim- A

Sigmfiid C 10ffIUS_ li1 U1 d1P Pl0515 parallel

Oblique

clinoforms

lilliohcies and wmposmon

to disrupted and mounded in strike pI05l SIOPE 1HCiS upper/

Proyadational in dip profile; hummocky, progradational to mounded in strike profile; mounds more common in deep-water slope than in prodelta/slope on shelf
On shey? prodelta (upper) and shallow slope facies (mid-clinoform and lower clinotbmi); deposited on submerged shelf;
composition generally terrigenous clay, silt and sand; sand concentrated in submarine fans at base of clinoform Beyond shelfedge: (1) prodelta and deep-water slope associated

mid-clinoform; submarine ians

10WI C1il10f0I 1Il I11ally calcareous clay, silt and some sand UJHSC of C1iI10f0rm); clinoform deposited in deep water beyond Shelf edge
00111111011 111

sociated with prograding neritic shelf supplied periodically by shelf deltas/fan deltas; clay, silt and sand (in basal submarine

with shelfmargin delta; may be growth-faulted; clay, silt and sand (in basal submarine fans); and (2) deep-Water slope as~

Geometry

and

Lens-shaped

slope system; poorly

fans) Complex fan geometrywith apices at shelfedge point sources;

structure

may intersect facies to define parallel to slightly mounded conflgurations; rarely affected by growth faults; represents low rate of

defined individual submarine fans and point sources; strike profile

each submarine fan resembles a bisected cone; total slope system lens- to wedge-shaped; strike profiles intersect fans or cones to display complex mounds; seismic facies deposited rapidly relative to subsidence and/or sea level rise; highly unoWth faults, stable slopes associated with deep-water deltas

(g

roll-over anticlines)

sedimentation under relatively unifoml sea level rise and/or subsidence rate
Literal relaP5

flmpmude

Grades uP diP throu h Platform edge facies into parallel/divergent she1t7platforrn (undaform) retlections; may grade downdlp into basinal plain (fondoform) or mound/ dr seismic facies; grades along ape to similar facies; may change ptrtke andward to oblique facies Generally concordant at top and downlap fbaselap) terminations at base; Upper surface of outer or distal sigmoids may be eroded by submarine erosion and eroded surface commonly onlapped

Terminates uP diP a ainst base of delta platform or shelH Platform _ (undaform) facies and may grade downdxp into basinal plain (fondoform), or mound/drape facies; may change basinward into sigmoid facies; grade along strike into mounded facies

and locally submarine canyon-fill facies

Toplap termination at top and downlap (baselap) termination at base; may contain local or minor submarine erosion/onlap seoblique clinoforms commonly eroded quences; outer or distal and submarine canyon cutting; eroded by submarine erosion rise facies

___

by continental rise facies

Mode,-me high;

.
Moderate to high in upper clinoform; moderate to

uniform

low in lower

Qlnununy

Generally continuous
rll1eny

clinoform; highly variable Generally continuous in upper clinoform; discontinuous in midclinoform and lower clinoform; may exhibit better continuity near base
Where beds Bmadcsl at top an d generally decreases downdip as beds thin;

Bro

adcst in

Tddf

B., 1977, Chionastrzxttgrnphic and Am. Assoc. Pct. Geal. Mem. 25| 150-155

signilicnncc

ofscisuitc

rctlections,

in

C.

li. Payton. Seismic st1ntl5r:tpiiy..._

,_

-l. GEOLOGY AND SEISMICI S|iC ll(lHtl

4.5 Suuuunry qf s~lsn1tl:jin:lvs

law

mmmrlrrl and draped rqlection conjigzmtzuri

Dcpositional

"
. _ _

Reefs and banks:

properties
seismic
facies

simnr/xu.\ ro\asl l\l|\RG\N, mme sui:l.r luzurs

AND

3lllJl111\l ll\~3

CHHYOU

and lower slope:

vnoxxmax. Tmmrnrriss,

lumrs

snumrisn cmsrics Mounded; complex and variable

AND LOWER

U"d~"1.Vl"ll .

Reflection con-

Mounded,

figuration Lithofacies and

composition

chaotic, or retlectortree; pull-up or pall-down common Shallo\v~\vatcr carbonate biogenie builclups; 5.umeWm. k

mu101S acc _

Sand and shale submarine

fans;

_
f*l5

not exhibit i1:el-tbrmlng

may or may

Geometryand
structure

Elongate lens-shaped (shcll7

slides/debris flows; clinoform/ tbndoform deposits Irregular fan-shaped to mounded

not 80mi1 C0mm0n y5 stricted to unstable basins

mounds; l111biditY OWS other grain flows, submarine land-

complex gravity- failure fans or

tcommo
pension plumes an mp
clouds; fondoform
Sheet to blanket
dupoullzl

ll. old

platlbrm edge and barrier

lung

reefs); elongate to subcircular lens-shaped (patch and pinnacle reels/banks); torm

dm?"

CQmmU Sldmg bi-sms

on stable structural elements Lateral relationships

Shelt7platt orm

updip into parallel/divergent shelt7plattorm facies; grade downdip into talus and sig-

tixcies grade

May grade shelfward

_ Nfifllre of

reegbank tiicies grade updip and downdip into parallel/ divergent shclt7plattbrm facies; pinnacle and barrier facies grade downdip into talus clinotbrms and to basinal plain (fondotbmi) facies

moid clinoforni tacics; patch

till, or pinch out against eroded slope; may grade basinward

gradational clinoforms (normally oblique), canyon onlap

into pro-

Commonly gr

laterally or ades basinward into lJ1lSlIlUl Pllll" (fondoform) facies; may grtldt.

shelti/vardinto

subxrnarluc cun-

and laterally into bamnal plain (tondotorm); onlap fills or drapes

yon onlap

till;

may onlap

eroded slope

upper/lower boundaries

Upper surface concordant or

may be onlapped by flank retlections; basal surface
concordant, baselapping,

Upper surface commonly erosion-

may overlie clinotbrm toplnp;

PU11~UP OP PLll1d0\\/ll

or

al and onlapped, baselapped, or concordant (with drape);

Upper surface commonly

C0I\UU"

basal surface irregularly

may onlap (mounded

dant, but may be onluppcd baselapped; basal surllure

erally concordant but may un-

basal surt ce common a Amplitude

of

baselapping; may appear concordant (low resolution), or

lap eroded mound or

alopd

High along boundaries; may be

moderate to lO\V-lll\l}l

fill)

onlap

commonly reflector-free Continuity

lll\ll}

Variable; generally low; some _._ amplitudes may__ be thin hemipelagic drapes Discontinuous to chaotic

,
-

High along boundaries; interually discontinuous to retlcctor~ ee

ti

Low to moderate; some (well ed on liigli-tiwzquenuyt Slmllux data High

Frequency

(cycle

Bmad; cycle may diverje into

massively bedded bulldup

Hi

lil varia l - Commonly

breadth)

._ Nmmw

-~ .

I
..

gwnfnarjv

characterised

onlap andyill rqlectrbn corrfiguratrkms

Coastal (paralic) onlap facies

ggdectioa

Continental rise: SLOPE-mom rim. AND omnr crasrrcs Onlap Parallel/divergent; platform or sheliyvard onlap Sand and shale deposited in submarine fans by turbidity flows; hemipelagic terrigenous/ca1care~ ous clays; distal pelagic oozes

Other deep-water fill deposits: Momvnrv, CHf\0"C Submarine

canyon-till deposits
Parallel/divergent; landward and lateral onlap Sand and shale deposited by turbidity tlow in submarine fans near base; hemipe~ lagic and neritic shale/calcareous clays in middle and upper sequence, respectively; locally may contain coarse proximal turbidites Elongate; 16115-Shaped in transverse section;

STRUCTURALLY BASINS

Acrrvr:

con-

Parallel;

C035f2l1

i-gurarion i

chaotic, m0l1Udd
01112-P

Lirhofacies

and mmpcsiaon

Delta/alluvial plain and medial fan delta sands and shales; supratidal clastic/ carbonate facies; rarely beach/shoreface clastic facies

and shale eposSa nd ited by turbidity flow in submanpe

fans; hemlpelaglc
tezrigenous/calcare-

imal turbidltes

ous clays; pelagic oozes; locally prox-

Geometry and
szn_rc:ure

Sheetlike or tabular; uniform subsidence durln deP osition; periodic tilting and erosion; deposited near

Wedge- shaped lens; ma be fan-sha Ped view; slow subsidence

1\lSShaPdS

or lobate in plan

may bitiircate updip;

pinches out updip; slow subsidence

commonly irregular; _

reflects bathymetnc
contiguration of structural depresSion; Slow to rapid subsidence

basinal hinge-line during

Lalffal 1112+ subsidence and/or sea level rise Pinches out landward; grades basinward into lower delta plain distal fan- delta, or shell7platform facies; may grade laterally into marine embayment facies Upper surface commonly tilted, eroded, and onlapped by similar deposits; base of facies onlaps

Pinches out updip; grades basinward into basinal plain or hernipelagic drape facies; continuous laterally for tens of kilometers

Pinches out updip and laterally; grades downdip into contincntal rise mOL1Ildd turbidites, or large submarine fans

Pinches out in every

direction

boundaries

Upper surface commonly baselapped by prograding clinoforms; basal surface

be Upper surface may With concord-ant overlying shelf or platform reflections

Upper surface may be concordant with

hemjpelagic drape or baselapped by

pmgrading 1in0_ forms; basal surface onlaps in all direc_
firms

unconformity, ggmmgnly angular

onlaps updip against eroded slope (and commonly outer shelf); may show
lfaslap basinward against mounds or bathymetric highs

or commonly baselapped by pr0grading prodelta and

_
Variable; locally high normally low to moderate Variable; hemipelagic to facies high; clastics ow to moderate Moderate to tinuous reflections m response to hennpelagic facies

slope facies; basal surface onlaps updip and laterally; baselap onto basin floor rarely observed

Variable; generally low to moderate

Variable; generally

low

to moderate

Low in clastics; higher in Carbonate facies; decreases

Variable? Senemul 10W I0 moderate

lnndward

Vflfitlblf- ; poor in chaOtic or mounded till; high in low- density

pcla C V1Uif1b1<f$ Commonlv
may
CIYHSC

turhidites and he1ni~

Variable;
creadxh)

to Harrow

gcnerallv rnoderate

Narrow; UFlif0lm

Varmble

narmw

ward
~~

breadth to.

1plorntiu|\1Am. Assoc, Pct. (Ecol. Mem. 25.

reall,

G.,

sdngfa-

.J u., turf.

if

C~

U-

tf .,

l tt
vt

all

llilt ll ~. ~ : lglll =l=

l.

llllk

\
lll

\~

<1

\\- "

-~
~

ll

fwflff

.I

_ \
-~ -~

lr
.:

ptt=>tltlf"-t<tl

tiff

lit
flew
t 5 ~ ~ \

:tl

J:

Peg);

reflection. ter~ of the base a poor criterion to use tor locating the

quence

of eolian dune sands. The eolian dune

sacztis

have a very distinctive seismic expression.

bonate.

pick. position fmm the characteristic reflection coefficients, is little else that can be observed in the seismic is immediately indicative of a chalk or carThe interval is _just about thick enough, howvelocity to be assessed from a

of

and

Carbongfrousrlnfigure 4;27 the Carboniferous C311 be

(faulting Spoils the continuity) that truncate beneath the basal Permian unconformity; a lower sequence of subparallel,low- 6equency1 eilections(e. g~> 1350 ms shotpoint 2100), onlapped by reflections in the overlysubdivided into two main sequences; an upper S~ reflections quence ot high- to moderate-continuity

display (this is considered seismic velocity analysis chap. 7).

interval ever, for its

in

ing interval.The upper sequence consists

of Upper Car-

A Lower
570 ms.

Cretaceous sequence is present

fiom 520 to

The thin interval is identified using the seboundaries developed at its top and base. Both quence sequence boundaries are characterized by truncation
below, from which the negative reflection (at least at shotpoint 2150) can be deduced. The thinness of the interval mitigates against the development of characteristic reflections, as does the

boniferous Coal Measures which onlap the underlying Lower Carboniferous Limestone. The positive nature of the top Lower Carboniferous Limestone reflection coefficient can be determined iiom the onlap relation-

ships. The strong top-limestone reflection has a duration of around 40 ms (&om the onset of the lead halfl can be used to demonstrate that the seismic section has a frequency of about 25 Hz at this depth.
Cycle Pe ak to end

predominantly clays

reflection coefficients indicate a lower interval

with some sands. The negative at top and base of the sequence
velocity than that ofthe chalk

probable lithology-

of the follow halflcycle. trough) and

Figure 4.28, part ofa seismic section through part ot a

complex shallow-water prograding sequence, shows ex-

and the Triassic sediments below. above _ Trtassw: The Triassic interval is beautifully depicted by the seismic section. In this part of the basin the Triassic

amples of clinoforms, onlap, downlap, toplap, and truncation. Apart from the characteristic overall shape and

characterized bY three intervals durin which eva Pontes a.nd associated carbonates were deposited, the
is

intemal structure, other imP0rtant dia

tics seen here are the changes

ostic characteris-

in amplitude and conare lowest

Muschelkalk, and Keuper. These lithofacies pro~

duce packages _ reflections which

tinuity. Amplitude

and continuity

in the ba-

high-continuity can be Picked easilY between 640 and

of high-amplitude,

sinal area, although reflector spacing is closest there. This ical of fineined, Parallel- bedded seismic facies is

ms, 830 and 920 ms, and 1060 and 1050 ms, respectively. The excellent ofthe seismic data enables

detailed relationships of the lateral facies to be maPped. The intervening intervals, consisting of clayl respo and :_;iI _;;_ types nse, _ in Silts, and sandstones produce

quality

Amplitude and continuity increase graduallv up the clinoforms with some ofthe highest amplitudes in
sediments.

the upper part ofthe clinofomi zone. Reflection spacing is also at a maximum here. This is the zone where shallow-

a less striking

it these intervals
present

is difficult to recognize individ-

without the help ofwell _

1285 to 1470 ms,

The Permian,

subparallelhigh-amplitude, good-continuity reflecngns the topset sequence, which, in this particular case probably consists of interbedded sands, clays, and 1ig;;i;@5_

water sands and silts and more basinal clays have a maxreflection pass up imum interfingering. These s

ot two sequences. An upper sequence (the _ te Group) carbonates"depositechtiarginally rn

of

sequenceis very complex. The ulti~ detail, the pr ograding mate goal of any interpretation, within the limitations and individual hthologles. The examples in figums 4.27 and 4.28 show how difficult this can be in practice Other examples of seismic sections can be found in Brow. "
constraints imposed by resolution, data quality . _ . _ _ . etc "

~-

Rotltcgend

Evapotite basin and a lower sequence (the

. .

of water- laid sandstones and silts. echstein carbonates easily recognized by their _ high-amplitude reflections. These maintain
lafil over large areas and facilitates mapping cter 111 lateral seismic facies. When tied to well _ _ e seismic facies maps can be used to make

G roup) _

comm]

and Fisher (1980), Payton (1977), Am. Assoc, Pet. Memoirs 29, 30, 32, 34, J oumals such as Bull. soc. Pet. Geal., Geophysics, Murine and Pezroleunt
ogy, and occasionally in other journals. depositiotittl envirutintunt

< _
2250)

predictions concerning the lithofacies of the cm-bonates. The undc1lyingRotlicgend scdia less cha1,qcte1istic seismic expression at
The interval is scismically quiet, its base using the low- angle trunctitiun of the

It is possi-

much simpler to idcntifv a seismic tiicivg,

and consisting ot st- iu1 ul ple lithological cotnliinxttiotis, rutlict than to idcutiij indi-

vidual litliologies.

Carhonit e1ous
_

towird iasin ~- Illtllnlll lL _ U-laid sediments pass laterally into

(e. g., at 1-160 ms, slintpoint

O st:-

__

__ -

it

lou

nrcoomzixo Ltrnotooy
*

bfo dtl

expressions of lithology __ P05lUQa _ "f1V1f0Hmr1tS. However, there are occasions when lithology or rock type can identmed W__h c some degree The following ertainty. _ discuss the Cmena ldeflllfylng lithology pages using Seismic and Show some examples of seismic records from 5ne_g-rained c1aStiCS_ ca__bOnateS_

Ilqie o _

f this

ooh seismic

. to attempt

int"

provide

___

and Wsee,
sequences

(1977) suggest that oblique progradational are more sand prone than sequences with sid-

. de setting and aunplitude positional e.g., ng. 4.28). As a generalization, Sangree _

structure. Figure 4.31 shows a part ofthe ID) Shallow- water clastic complex

-.

ge

th

has

5l1t-like

and igneous I.OCks_ snfrs

Salt

base

CLAYS

AND

complex has a tapered edge that is onlapped by baThe sinal shales. In a shallow- water environment, intemal structure may be the product not only of depositional Processes but also of erosional or reworking processes.
Figure 4.30d ofthe same clastic complex; and, shows part although about 400 thick internal ~ . . _ . are e 1 t1re1y lacking and seismic character here lS
_s _

form and gently inclined clinoforms.

whatever the depositional

tend to be
. tions

Clays and sms include sediments Semed from Sus

(relative to other reflection spacings for a particular seismic section) (fig. 4.29). If the de ositional area is ex. _ tensive, the reflections generall show mod r t t d continuity Etude tend O
trffCfS)_ re etrtlon pattems are diagnostic of finesediments, as they indicate deposition Undef grained conditions where subsidence and sedimentation rates are of similar magnitude. Not uncom acoustic- impedance contrasts are S0 rnonly, l0W that the lnterval appears reflection (fig- 4-2981 Altematively, destructive interference by beds of a thickness wavelength or less, can also produce reflectionfree intervals. Chaotic reflection patterns can result from deep- sea current activity or slumping, and from flowage due to loading, elevated pore pressure, or slope instability

thin bedded and produce closely spaced renee

_

environment - Such

en s

a ;qn

_r__

Offof-

en _

Poorvbut

offshore Norway, where the elastic target uiterval lacks diagnostic features. The reservoir interval, middle
Jurassic Brent Gp. sandy sequence, although more than 100 m thick, has asheet-like external form, and is too thin

___ case figure seismic section across part of the giant Oseber . _

field

aI1d

to produce seismic features diagnostic

of its elastic nature.

CARBONA-E5 Normally, reflections from the top boundary

ate

ofa carbonunit have a large positive reflection coefficient because

carbohafes usually have high velogity and density Compared to other common sedimentary rocks. Only in cases

where the carbonates are very porous or fractured are reflection coefficients of upper boundaries likely to be
negative. The usually high interval velocity introduces a potential resolution problem. Not only do thick sequences appear thin in time on seismic sections due to high velocifor adequate ties but the minimum thickness

4_39)_

Cmsncs

interpreter group 0f1ifh01OglS that every Would like to be able to identity with certainty: PPear in l Iat variety Ofthicknesses, shaP3 and lateral
Clastigg are

required vertical resolution can be quite high. Interval velocities un for between 4500 and 600 comm pn older 2 Ona Carbonate

extent. They are deposited in all environments. and Widmier (1977) discuss seismic criteria

val Velocitl
an _

only 35
-

Anstey 1980b
_ _

evo es a 3) The

book

l0P1C

Wavelength thickness for no interference between reflec-

Imcwal Velocity good deposmonal the rely heavily on co11ii_g u;~ation, uiterna

dons from top and base is 110 m and the quarter-

s
_

lgnffth tuning thickness is 55 m. seismic vieWP0int, cnrbonates can be co11ve_

_mo _hrcc gmupS_

iicics association. Assuming that the de posits tenougli to be resolved, deeper- water c lasnc
tt hr1;~ actc1.izcd _

tnounded cotillgtn-ations like torzns. Becatise of their high accuxnulnti pn tht: l1;1vt> the ability to o >l floor znirl thus itifluencc the dvpositioti t_
lL fll _
.

an< o _

deposits: ll1t:sc are oticn extretiicly

e:<ttf1isi\ t:

o| (j;1l( Lll"JUlll~l microtnssils mrpositetl trout

______ ____

ttiicritic litncsttuies, tfl1.1ll;, l l1c~,1: tltrpoxiits

siinilat to

:ln ll .nu l
111

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an/1 ci, of elastic b and c, courtesy Merlin Ir<yilcrs courtesy Norsk Hydro; Ltd. FIGURE 4.30 Sezlsmic aramples

_,

_
;

5:

~-

Q
._

.,.

_ :T

.~.

fi

i
ii;

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Direti
_

mntvr ~lmemal pant-ms star mum"

undmy

contiguranon

_.

__ FIG

_ 4.33

nate buildu

s most easily recogP~

Mrcfrom Bubb
lndirect
Effects _ Basin architecture

and Hatlelnli, 1977: fig~

135-

. deposits are usually characterized by C0DflgU interval velocity. Figure 4.32 shows refleCti0I1 _

Subdwlded seismic profiles. Bubb and Hatlelid (1977) iYP5 carbonate buildups into four major deposition. tively deep water on both sides during ii. Pinnacle buildups-roughly equidimenstona l flfil

ration criteria for recognizing

carbonate

buildup

OH

turessurrounded by deep water during deposition. features with Shelf margin buildups-linear OUICFwater on one side and shallow water on the iv. Patch buildups-usually formed in shallow to shelf margins OF either in close

proximity

broad, shallow seas.

HGURE 4.32 Carbonates:
mryig11fl1fi0"S-

Iiramples

of diagnostic rqkction
Uffhf

Rfpfinfed
188

interpretation pitfall. Tuff beds have high interval veproducinga seismic response similar to that of bedded carbonates. locities and arelatefallyfejctensive,
2. Bioclastic deposits:

volcanic ash

or tuif beds for carbonates is a potential

Consisting of sand-sized carbonate

the Figure 4.34 shows a carbonate shelf buildup from Aptian/Albian of Rodessa- Mooringsport Fm. of central Louisiana. The back shelf margin to the north consists of an interbedded sequence of limestone and shalcs, with a seismic response of parallel high-frequency, low- ampliot" tude reflections. The shelf margin buildup consisting high~energy porous deposits, has poorly developed interval reflections. The basinal area to the south, consisting of
downlap and lateral amplitude variations. Figure 4.35 shows a seismic profile through an Upperjurassic patch buildup or reef in the Smackover of the U.S. Gulf Coast. 30- 40 rn thick, with a lateral extent of several The dim spot on the square kilometers, is associated with
fine- grained calcareous deposits, is characterized by

setting as other noncarbonate clastics. Bioclastics may

deposited by high- energy curgrains transported and rents, these will have the same form and depositional

higher interval possibly be identined by their expected velocity and higher reflection amplitudes. Other conOgnizable associated lithologies may aid an identitication. In many cases, however, it may be impossible to

siderations, such as the paleogeography

and other rec~

differentiate between
Clastics.
3.

bioclastics

and noncarbonatc

Buildups, reefs, biotherms, banks, mounds, etc.: This of deposit has a large biological element COll1pI lS~ type [he skeletal remains of living organisms. These

Smackover reflection. A grid ofgood seismic data, often with special process ing and always with meticulous interpretation, is rcquired to define the shape and depositional environment of carbonate buildups. The (often) relative small the buildups compared to vertical :mtl liorizoutul rcstmlw tion limits is always a potential problem (sue. thx ex-

.t.

tzttmouv .wo tililtilvllli sttL; run<~,

atopic.
tfxuxnplc.

4,36 and 4.37). Indirect methods. using lor

\~eit>t1ity

lrom synclincs to anticllues, the

Trushcim (1960).

turtle :ttnm - _

putl~up or push~do\\~n etiects beneath a

buildup. or dltlerentinl compaction ot overlying layers, can sometimes he used to overcome the problem (see figs.

Postdiapir stage: During this Sttlgtrt dil1piratttny[,,

the sediment surface (assuming there ht

and The loss ot reflection amplitude otlcn associated with

not al\va)s a good indication ot lower acoustic tufts tntpednncc and high porosity. Nath (1975) describes how tictoctisitxgt by dispetsion ot the seismic signal from the coastal owns ot Silurinn pinnacle reefs in Michigan, causes dim spots on the unmigrated seismic sections, due to the convex shape ot the surface. Ihe apparent fall in mtlcetion cocilieient, in these cases, is entirely geometric

for continued movement) despite continued

dence. A small, ollen flanks the diapir. subtle, tertiary rltn

still

Not all diapirs, however, P1185 through ull three ttyl, The reflector configuration pmduced hy ethnic can be the same as that produced by salt tllapirs. tors are present beneath the rliaph , the two lltlttiltzgim usually be distinguished by velocity effects. Salt

:uid not ttecessarily related to increased porosity.

shale diapirs should Produc; produce a pull-up while

stu&\lt (sec (ig. 4.38) and associated evaporites are quite common in many sedimentary sequences. Salt has a low density (2.2 gm/cma), lower than that of most other comsediments. When deposited in suflieicntly thick laycts, it becomes inherently unstable if it is hut-ted; and tt density inversion between the overburden and salt is achieved. In such circumstances, salt flowage is initiated and passes through three widely recognized stages ot plllowing, diapirism, and postdiapirism.Bishop (1878) discusses the complex interaction between depositional history ot the surroundingscdiments and growth of monly occurring whether the dominant processes in development
the salt structure. Controversy surrounds the question of

in

push-down

(See ligz. 3.34 and the absence of deeper reflectors, lt may be on deeper reflectors

distinguish the two lithologies. Lohmzmu(1979) seismic criteria for the recognition ol salt features are associated with quently, collapse dissolutionof salt (fig. 4.40). _lenyon (1984) tliactttxwet formation of collapse features above salt structure:; :mtl seismic criteria for their recognition. Potentlttlly, ditsoltt. tion can occur in deeply buried salt structures by undeisaturated water deep in the subsurhtcc bein" brought into contact with the salt. increasing brine sity causes gravitational flow and removal ol salt
son and Kirkland, 1980), Altematively, in the shallow

section, meteoric waters can come into contact with

ofa salt

dlapir involve intrusion or extrusion ofthe salt.

Regardless ofthe mechanism responsible for salt move-

shallow diapir or salt layer and cuusc dissolution, Shale diapirs would not normally be expected to exhibit eo).
lapse features. Care must be taken, however, to tllsttit.
fi~ guish true collapse features due to dissolutiott~ tmt

ment, tlow otsalt into a growing structure createsawith-

drawal basin that is a structural low and an isopach

crestal faulting that typically occurs in competent unit;

thick. Figun: 4.39, a schematic diagram from Seni and jackson (1983), showing the three main growth stages of
salt diapirs observed in the East Texas basin, has more figure 4.39 can be general applicability. The model in used as a basis to interpret seismic-reflector configuretions. Diagnostic contiguratious for the various smges are:

due to extension-above any type ofanticlitutl featttru. Interpretation problems can arise in mapping sztlt diapir flanks, a common location of potential trap.
Reflections from the steep clips or even ovtzrhantgittgwall. typical of salt-diapir flanks, are diflicult to record or tit. play correctly on normal seismic profiles. May and tjevt, by niztny llltllliJtl describe how inverse _ can be used to reconstruct steeply dipping stmetttrus. Salt, because of its low density, has a much lmttr acoustic impedance than would he expected velocity. In young basins, such as the U,5_ Gulf where salt diapirs intrude relatively uncotnpttmetl and sands, the acoustic impedance ot salt large enough to ensure a moderate positive coeflicient. In basins where salt pushes up or intruti

Pillow stage: Syndepositional thiruting of sediments over

the
the

this stage. Only minor thickening usually develops into the primary rim syncline. Dinpir stage: Withdratval of the salt into the growing diupir leads to tt collapse ofthe flanking sequence that thinned toward the original pillow. A secondary rim
syncline, its axis immediately adjacent to the

pillow crests and flanks, developed in response to pillo\vs grmvtlt, is the most diagnostic feature of

diapirs

edge,develops above thc collapsed area. The secondary

more compacted sediments, the acoustic-itnperlttnrttrast between overlying llthologies and salt may ht:
small to produce good top~salt reflection. This; can locztttftl serious problem potential prospects are salt diapirs (fig. 4.41). It is very tfllll)lll l1lSfilllg to tlrtllzttt

rim synclineis usually more extensive than the primary rim syncline and also ttccmnulates a thicker sequence. lhe thickened sequence in thc primary rim syncline is usually outside of the collapsed zone and, in interdomul locations, undergoes passive structural reversal

if

a prospect and then to (ind the resctvolr intetvnl .tl

and top salt much higher than expected. tn :such

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t_ _ _ . ._ ~ _ t -

ftf _

FIGURE 4.35 Seismic section across Srnackover recfsection, U.S.

porous Upperjuruststt
The ree is imliccttezl f

by a dun spot on the Smackover rc/lcctwn. Reprinted by tr~~ mission of the A.lPGf om Barth et aL, 1982, jig. 21), p. 1473).

_ . _

._

are

.ff _.wt
g,.1
1

_ _

;-15 . . , _ _ ~
f " ,
;,

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still

FIGURE 4.36 Phase sectzbn over a reef in Western Canada, compaction over the rerjand R = reef Note the velocity pull- up below. The dwifzrential compact can
be seen to affect

uncoryorrnity U. Courtesy Seiscom

Delta.

asses

ali*

- _,_

:
P
Ee: (al

:az

3""

-__,.

-tgaiggz

az- .

---
_

1 km
-

, . _ ~ .

Ps-P
_
_-

.ua

-nt.

(bl nouns
grew
Ls

can re s, the one on the ht havi higher than the two on the left. (bl
reefs. Reprinted Hatlelid, 197/1 by penntlssion
8, 10,

4.37 Patch reefs. The labeled P and the reefs are labebrd R.

ta)

Thu smoai.

the

pp. 193,

SGNOOES Nl 3lN|.l. AVN\

O/V\_L

_ _

til

_ f

~ ~ _

~ _
~~

ur trrrnn ~ . ~
.
0\51ltc

ll.~\hlN

Sediments are

Maximum

prltnztty low.
trace

_
p|\F1\l

Area extends 100 to

_
BIUZ5 ropogmphm

(~\0

to 150
Per-

truce of

swell

of elongate upltll. rated by t0 to 20 lun

nttnins :too (120

gvtte rll _ to 1.2 mil- 510k

_
_

.. .

._

__

rtttuw

.
_

pending on size of pillow. thickmting, 10 to 30%. Recognition r

of

tiered by interference ofnenrby sul!

p itnnty peripheral sink muy be

hm-

If- ::23~

;::::: ..... .......

Thm
and Carbonm include

_ mfs
:mst of pillow includ
lluvinl-deltnic deposits Thick.

_ -W7 pmP*"""l
Upr:-

0"

cum-

. mc \ tn pnmnxy pet \plu:r.\l channel und dcltmc nxcs 1\ggrndntmn common ln topugrnp

fluviul-dcltnic deposits

and high-

ep0S~ cally low area of sunk. Carbonate its in sink would include low-energv litcies caused by increase: ln wnter

depth. Wpir nb

m\H1d

_ _
"md dP

jfnl -0 ml

dome. An

Sediments are thickened up

flanks

around dtpendmg on size

dvme.

to secotxtlttxy peripheral sink. Stnks up In 1,000 in OXICIII are (390

215% in

equiclimensionul to elongate, and they px-v:lexw:ntit\lly surround single or multiple domes; several sinks flank domes;

Diupir ZZ
Rim swgt-

thickening ranges from 50 to

Tunic
_;-:~

Fades
stage

Synclinc

Fncies

...
_.

12

__ _
__ __ _ __ Base ofsalx

.......
_ _ smk

Facies immediatelv _ over dom cres n t ot because of ptervlng dll\pll o ut the youngest strata. band

bodies commonly punch out against dome

with

~~ Expanded section ot marine times - dnm~ mates, including limestonest <:l\nlkS :md mudstonesz generally sink is tilletl

caused by increased water depth. Elcvalcd snddlvcs between

withdrznvnl bu~

sins are fhvored sites

accumulated lxigh-enertg cnrbonnte deposits

Geunmctty Strata

of reef gTo\vtl\ and

thin or absent in small

(4 to 20 area

10 to 50

Sediments udtlxin 20 to 200

over crest and

(IDU

(8 to ll()

\
.

Small topographic law

aiijatent tddome: area depends onsize ot dome and dip ot tlanl<s_

ened 010 -10%, commonlv by

tertiary peripheral

sink
30

\
_

trace ofclungate to equiditncnsiunul sink surrounds or flanks at single dome, ur connects

li).

series oftlotnes.

syncline

Dmp
stage

Pacies

Fncies

.
Te.

anddgne ~~-~~~

Facies and srrata over crest ofdome not preserved in places oi complete pterce-

Llodvsrn analogs
mon in subsiding strata would include

channel axes in thick snmls

Modern analogs have intvzrchatnnel and interdcltaic facies in uplifted

ment.

Linrbonate

area. Mounds above dome include tlxin sands. Carbonzxte strata would include

reef nr

deposits: cmsion

. . .sscc=are< z srmra auore and txmtuul stil: sr/ ofdom/: growth and varzkzziorzs in c Uflhe AfLPG_/rom Semi arzdjackson, 19S3,_/i_g1 1333 stages

fill;-:L

_ _

___

__

,_

l0:

r-

-" .

._

-_

__

_ _

~.

~
_

__

._

"

""
-

_
=~ _ . _

|"
FIGURE 4.40

3km

and associated collapse jature (A). BT- CU, Uppertlrm ceous chalk; TZ, top Zechsfein salt; BZ, base Zzcltsteirzst Repr1htedj?om_Ienyon,M. K., MARINE AND PETROL~ GEOLOGZ 1984, fig. 3, p. 30, by permission oftl1?~1C lishers, Butterworth 65 Co. (Publishers) Ltd.

seismtb section across a

'.

-able.

rf
the

in

salt ethod

section iS I0 U80 the pull- up the seismic One 15 developed (fig 4~41)reflection,

though not foolprooi solution to locating

if

is subjective. As a porosity indurated rocks will bc chz1ractcriz its definition

reflections

Y ;my
on bCCZ\Ubf-3

work,

for the
also

such

sediments adjacent to the salt ofsalt and ofthe that the base-salt reflector is planar in assume a situation any structure on the base-salt
be due to the assumed to

li 15 Ueffessafy

know

infer-

although the actual acoustic-impedance

reflectionswith poor continuity W111

aC0uStiC- impedance contrasts

and PCO" ,

high,

woul

pull-up effect ofthe

difference

invelocity betweenthe salt and adja-

ksis U10 calculated from ull-up can be =

- - wn the thickness of salt re uired to ro-

tPuP
2(Vs

VL

Vs

VL)

P reservoirs from man different basins, for fields of the near billion-barrel La Paz field, Venezue 1 airs the Central Kansas Uplift, etc. Basement characterized by thick reservoir -USU y porosity and permeability are _ reserves production rates are typically high and When overlaxn by igneous and volcanic rocks,
xctveous

Structural closure involving eifhef iYPe rdcd dls never be immediately downgraded a with gc igment rock describes oil and gas (1982)

mn voummc nocxs

= observed pull-up, velocity in adjacent lithology,

__

11

velocity Salt,

sam
There

definitions of basement rocks; igneous or alline rocks or economic basement sedimentary roc ks th at h ave no dumted low-porosity, _ tenfial. Neither type ofbasementnecessarily
CWS talline _

Gravity and magnetics can be invaluable ai d s to seismic OH data in identifying igneous and volcanic: r0Cl<S~ can be b asis of their eometry intrusive igneous rocks laccomhs and into major bodies-fo
grouped

trusive rocks, are characterized by ties, positive reflection coefficients, reflections- Very Poor dafa

. _ lithol0e5 sedimentary _ x_ in trusive

Sl

fld
-

shows an example of shallow Figure 4_42,a eath t.he strong top~basement basement ~ ..

has

reflection regedipn coethcient) the seismic recor isre flec4-421 Shows Crystal*

and seemingly dead a l basement outCfOPPlg_ mulup ; es. imernal reflections are

dead intervals ~ The intrusive nature of the body _ evident from upmmmg Of The a@3Cet

batholiths, dikes (near vertical intrusions); rall ext sheets). _ seismically arge m sive 0dies eng;-ally produce _ mdl . . .

lii:

Iwslfls mu P
that crystal-

iniigure 3.11 are devel0Pd basement usually Pro uces

visible

only Could Prove

and so care line basement is not confiised

seismic response, can produce a
Shale

with other hth

sa

thaf

sion known as the Great Stone Dome, 100 km E of New

Baltimore Canyon Basin The center and eous stock was immded

two pgssibilities seismically. Figto ure 4.43 shows a seismic profile through the matic intru-

similar response; for ex amp p

and

diapim 5efPlY buried

wh

of shallow- water marine sandstones and shalcs.

are the main features of the seismic section. Upl disruption associated with the intrusion are evident

diicultt

1d identify. The top crystalhne basement s ou lain b

intrusion itselC The effects ofthe intrusion, rather than the _ _ _ an

Pmcdcaul anl Sedimemaly rock;

f
reduCe .
reservoir

up to

may
don coedicient

16 km away. Differential compaction has caused SlTUClL1l~

but may also produce potential

basement
does

of the overlying Cretaceous and Tertiary Sediments

tcher 1983)
difl- icult to recognize

FTPfm5UYSTAU-5-95

figures

and 442b Presence can produce

P"lm31Yf@flC5n5~

elretiections, however,

not preclude the

"i ging seismic section is unsuite d to is generally tures In addition, the lateral extent of dikes

_ as the reflection tba-

basement. Weathering
(5S~

can intemal layering or structural zones basement internal 4-42Cl-

below Linear (likes are porhorizontal resolution in many cases. and may
llere F
to follow the course ofa tliltr diffractions from its top through :i seismic: grid. PPing

If

easily recognized on iinmigrziterl

sections,

good

3-CCI1OlIllC

Cfysfauifle basement hi5hl-mWa1VelCitY basement is more difficult to defin> because

mal

it may be possible

uently dikes and sills occur togettivr ttigy.

till* . ._
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-

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,

l.,,

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-T

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* =,m,ttt:aif=1ilf"~t*
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base gal!
.

li?"

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Hif *lt

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mi-*B

vm

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*fit* .

="T

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iir.t1iu:

4.41 Salt

dwpir wizhoutgvvd

Aflrfrlill Pl0_/YIIIFS Lid-

Sfllf

T .

_
__

I
-

~ _ _
_.

~ _
-T _ _ _ _ -

~.

T.
.

, ;
.

T _
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.
_ _

t
_

C:

__

~ .

: _

rise.
._

._

=~

-; _

Kia:-1;
. _ -

Q T-ng-

T
f-5

.E :E
==

~
A

==~

_ T ~=-

_
,:

Li,
=_

~=
11

f"H-T
T
2}-51
x

-f_,r

2:
-~ -

..

:is

. -._

_
_

I
_
T.

zz
_

.
_

ir-

~,

..

"-

T _

" _:-

-_

--_

__

__

"

_
_
~..
"

"

~ -

__

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_.T
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T
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lv

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the U.S. mqfzr zrxrrz/snort in the Baltzmore Cart;/on Trough ofthe AAPGj%om coast. Reprinted pervnrlssion

are igneous bodies intruded laterally into rock seidentified, or at least proquences and are more easily duce more pronounced effect in the seismic. Sills can be laterally extensive, covering thousands of square kilometers. commonly, individual sills are less exSills tensive, areas of a few tens of squar ekilometers. seismic expression very similar to that of proouce may, perthick enough, or sill evetpomes. The best uite be by
S;lLs

tion across the Paleocene Erlend Complex, N ot tl\~ _ Yllt* antic. T110 and IS in the profile, with wflevtitnum cano can be seen clearly the lava flows dipping radially outwmlei. nt up I0 ()\lKllly 20 , a central volcanic vent. The vel!! circular in plan, with a diameter gf about km :mtl Il husnlls (0 depth of 300- 400 m. Drilling results show 3500 whit have unusually low intervlll velOCitiS which Gatliff et al. (1984) interpret be prczbnhly due tu the lava pile having been built up by the f2Xll USl0|\ Qftlllll flows, each in tum being weathered befme burml next lava flow. ln the &bSeI1C& Oflli Central

1.5

high-

tvalvelocities.

data, a seismic interpretzttion ofthe vglggmo in tlg\\tc

characteplsncauy

4.40

etn

l tun tierocks
ruse

ic -

sil (ng. 4.43). by definiuon, extrusive and form home dP0S1iS) wld
C

ons

emonstrate the intrusive

low

typical

gliuulurm

t.t

eposits . Lwas Lan be up to ot meters thick and may be ditlicult to difler-

ofthe radially 0ut.Wm. d,di},pi;;g lava progmdmg flows could be mistlken fOr \ sutli1x10lll:\iy _ _ _ Sequence in situations where it was not possible tt: mlm ;
onstreite the overall Shape ~ a widely_ s iced feamw
. Il
111163111

<:e:ltei~

seisinicttlly from intrusive igneous rocks but the eXPuctecl to show some relation tissuie svstezn Fitfure ._ sh ows seismic sec~ _L6

Vokmmc fbrms and intevmxl 5U lICflllt:i in with other sediincntauy rock.~;. thick
ShiH external]

_,

diagnostic; and such deposits could easYe1ide5 may be confused in the seismic section as being C8.\"b0I1ate34-47 shows ~ a
Sea fJaPaf1-

aPPaI&nce to
doleritic
IS the site
GTE D011

M0lpholoca11y, the feature is similar in a reef but consists of basaltic lavas tuifs,

Middle Miocene volcanic

In this case the volcanic mound of an oil accumulation (Suzuki, 1983), so they
intrusions.

always bad news,

__

Apart

REFLECTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH HYDROCARBON AND nmosmsrrc nr-r=ec rs

noise (multiples, difiractions,

etc.), attention

changes. However, an extremely

important group of re-

originates from acoustic-impedance change that directly related to lithological change. These are the reflections associated with hydrocarbons and with diatlectors
IS not

~
~~

genesis.

\ ~""
..

.
..

_
.

"
_ .

_ __ #Mar
...._

The presence of as in a reservoir often roduces a detect.. . . able suite of responses in the seismic record; and rt is obviously very important for the interpreter to be able to recognize these gas effects. Discussed below are the main criteria for recognizing the presence of gas on a seismic section.
_
Acoustic-1mpedanceU ect.|. The

wa in Which a lS6l 1/Oil

xp.. ~
. . . penmsswn

"cum

_
Hadley

"

lug

Pre

and Anstq/, 1984.

responds to the presence of gas depends on the acoustic impedance of the gas-illed portion of the reservoir, the water- filled reservoir, and the cap rock; and the thickness of the gas-filled interval. If the gas column is thick enough and there is an acoustic-im Pedance contrast between the _ _ ortrons ofa reservoir, a as-/o1l- or the as-/water-iilled

igneous /ntrus/on

_...----~~

__

.f

Lil

"
_

.
...,

""

"~
...__

-r""

ofa sill. Nate the drkzgrzostrk: high-amplitude rqfkchbns. Courtesy discordant nature ofthe Merlin Projilers Lili
HGURE 4.45 Serismrt erpressrbn

NE

--~

7__

_ _ ._ .

irff_

rs

zu

:sum 0.0

..
-~ / _

,_.,

D|l||0Il 3.0

Setsmrh section across the Ereland Paleocene

Island the Nwfh 710 C011 8588716 ; UI)/GSCIIVI /tjlcclinns _/rom radialhl outward dipping lava flows. Re-

porous sands. In a typical sand- claystone sequence,

claystone-to-sand reflection is ordinarily
?m porosity. The
~ med

strength re or

Ira ted sands

weak or

positive and
nonexistent

ecomes

gmlyycf

1984,

C_

with higher porosity.

tains gas, the reflection

If the sand is very porous and gm.

will have

strong negativerefiw.

reflection commonly called a _flat spot will result. As a mlc ot thumb, (lat spots are likely to be found in porous mrndstones or carbonates down to about 2.5 km. Below this dcpth the effect of gas on velocity is less marked and thc chance of getting good reflection from a gas contrast reduced. Flat spots will always have positive reflection vocllirtit- rits, :appearing as a trough on seismic sections flisrpluyud with SEG normal polarity or a peak on reverse polnrity sections (fig. 4.48). Although gas contacts are m;u:rlly horizontal in depth, they do not always appear liorizorrlzrl in time due to the push- down effect of the lower velocity in the gas interval (fig. 2.8). Hut spots are perhaps the best indication of gas, altlrnngh other diagnostic acoustic- impedance changes between the cup rock and gas~bearing reservoir affect the amplitude and polarity of the top- reservoir reflection. Arrrplitutlc zurorrrulics fall into two groups: l. /lrrurrtsrlim; ol very high amplitude, commonly termed In iight, spots, and ll. /\rurnnli<~:r ot very low amplitude, commonly termed rlim f. ]ml.~;.
Hn. . should be interested rn any local change

tion coefficient- a bright spot (fig. 4.49). While bright spots due to gas are usually associated with poroussandg dim spots due to a reduced reflection coemcient ofthe top-reservoir reflectorare more common with lessporous or well- compacted sands and carbonate reservoirs. ln
these cases the claystone/compacted-sand or claystour/

carbonate would usually have a strong positive reflection c0eHi;ienf_ G35 in the reservoir rgduggg the reflection
coefficient, causing the top-reservoir reflector to lol!

amplitude and dim (fig. 4.50). Amplitude anomalld are Sometimes aCC0IIlP6I!id by corresponding polarity changes. These polarity effects are summarized
11.51. A

the gas-oil

polarity reversal of the top-reservoir retlefrtvfii or gas~water Contact is a common ieaturf

bright spots.

If the gas column is sufiltiellfly may be observed on underlying reflectvfi push-down 2.8). The differential velocity required to producea down can provide a check on the possible gas c0l\1m1\the interval velocity is unreasonable, for examplfa ow m/s (3300 tt/s), then something is wrong and th cannot be caused by gas alone.
Velocity Ejfecrs. Other Ljffecrs. A frequency loss is sometimes 0 neath bright spots. This has been atirlbl-Red

ul rrrtlfwlimr strrrrgtlr tlrul does not appear to owe its origin

In tht ggmlorgy.

liriglit

spots :irc usually associated

with

absorption ofthe seismic wave within gas-bearmgt

rf; . _ _

tf)

~ ._ =; _ _

. ~f
-

=
- _ _ _ rs..

;
~. ~

fi .

si "
tg __

= _
.
~
~

. _

._
"

f" i

. _
ls? .O
~o 5:2 O

57,1

"
.

nf;

.1

._

is,

iifiiadisrt

SUNQQHS Nl EWFL

..

r Qgiq iity

cveaa

SES

it only saturation: to produce eration about ~ . anomaly ln a porous sand (Domenico imum velocity decrease occurs at gas 20%. Sands with such low gas saturations, while ing the amplitude effects, would tlow only water Wen.
1, Gas

2. Amplitude anomalies: Not all bright spots

rtotuui 4.-til The qgbct

seisntir r~spor1scji>rnorm1tl~

on acoustic impedance and

and reverse-polarity wavelets.

by gas. Carbonates, igneous intrusions, thinning bed; tuning thickness, can all produce anomalously high the c of carbonuteg, tlection coefiicients ase intrusions and other rocks with high igneous
impedance, the reflection coefficient would be h uld roduce a stronff nevative reflecti
positive

with bright

mtexvals. This absorption selecposed to tively depletcs the signal of higher frequencies. Both amplitude decrease and increase are sometimes associated

.
_

_ thickness amplitude

associated

iots. Actuall

losses through S713-S1l\1l 3,\lZ;l be scarcely measurable. Amplitude

antici ated transmission are so low as to

unit

porous Sand Could -

both

and below ai bright etlects-n processing step to balance amplitude across a

decrease both above spot may be due to automatic gain

Obviously care should anomalies

seismic section-and merely a response to the extra high amplitude of the bright spot. An amplitude increase bencath n bright spot is most likely due to increased signal levels associated with multiples of the bright spot. Howobvious only below Shmlow osses spot Could cm lscd
._ . .

3. Flat spots caused by diagenetic effects: These are dis. cussed in the following.

of oil should have no measurable etihct in record; it should, at best, produce slight reduction in acoustic impedance. Substitutingoil
The presence
the seismic

_ at the edges of bright spots. They will not be expectedm

,_ . -

. Fl t
_

rte

att e oi ~\vater
(1977) Show

co it

seismic section across the North Sea Brent Field with

_ structures-are quite common

tlat

zones above gas-beau

_ _ mg

Zones

mug

cause

by escaped gas penetrating the cap rock above a gas reservoir. Gas leakage into the cap rock can occur through a variety ot mechanisms (e. g., leakage along fault planes;_ _ -. Ovcrpwssum
~--

spot developed at the oil/water contact. Flat spots associalways direcd effect of oil on the seismic system, btit with the inhibiting effect of hydrocarbons on the diagenetic reservoir growtll
Ofcememing minerals resewoir 1978) number _ . . . _ ance show this the tervals the sands are relativel uncemented but benczltll _ the oil/water contact the sands are well cemented

strength ot" the seal rocks. Although gas chimneys provide _ . . an

. _ they also have a negative side.

must prepare reservoir maps from the seismic record. US\\i1lly data quality beneath gas chimneys is quite de-

of locating possible gas-bearmg structures, . If a gas field is found . . _ eneath a gas chmmey, pity the poor interpreter who
easy way

__ and/or ilhte (De Ath and Schuyleman, Moll_ _ . _. effects of cementahon on the acoustic impedance
ol1n1te

__

expecung gas, and find oil instead.

,.

o b

uce l

smpme

/ff
"fUa1ls. Care should be taken in using any one
above effects as the sole criterion
SHS-

of
Under appropriate

The more effects that can be observed together, the likell that l05P"Sil91@~ 1fC1UC11lly~
effects developed and there aff? number

to infer the presence Of

ral

Conditions Wafer sam;-grail with gas can freeze. Instead of crystallizine; in the

hexagonal crystal lattice, the ice cxystallizcs into form, which t:raps gas molecules in voids within . n tal lattice. Gas hydrates are stable only

l3Qt \f _
_._._ ___ __

~ \~\
_-"
-~

-
_

___ _

_.

.__ ~ __
_

_
" _._
___

_
_

._

_
_
__ ~

_._
_ _ __
_ _ ~ _

"" ~

~~

-_ _

_ -

_ -

.__

:-

:>~-

__
_

riff
_

_ ~..

tff:
T*

_
" _

. _"
ixgh-

_ _

--" _
_

_ - _
_

" ._--

_-

"*--

rl

HGYRE 4.48

sum? ufrote spot ir: sixttllntwgizs Mfsim {ngftters Loi. Coatrfrst

_ / .

ffm
em

tltzlfllt

HI

tttgttittttttttt1; tit; "

tlttlill

lllllll

i" .ll

ln.halilltl

stasis
its

Geological

Model

Seismic Expression
Normal Polarity) Briqhi gpg!

~ ~ . ._ -

No polarity reversal

_ VCU Porous sandstone

sssssss;sf"s

Polarity reversal

_ _ Water
(19)

._
Hughes! omphtude

Moderately

porous

sandstone

or very porous limestone

No reflection

sSssssssssssssss;ss;.;.;;5S
(C) _ or hgh!

Porous hmestone

sandstone

/Dim
+ fc

spot

$555

wm
(ci) Less porous limestone

irc

raflocnon cocfhcucnt sagn (moqnnude mdmovcd by symbol suzc)

_
101\~ :mz1:;Iir-

impf_dr1rzfz

-; pmpvrt iu.

gas, In ilu! on the scismiL resporzsc to the prusrnu? sum! mth loxsw znoz::;I:r shale. (al) R(SUVV(JiI
_q7erztc1~

I/rr
Irma
:fav

sum! with

.slqJ1t{x

r1mu_~xtiL

izrzpcnimzczf

llmu

(c)

ilmu flu shulr. (cl)

Ivss purcmn;

mth umm

HUM
_

- _

.1

-\ . -

,.
~
. _ .

_
_

--.,.,

_ ,
-~~

. _,

1- 0

~~

h~

-~

~,

-.~

*~

,
-...,.
__. . .

_
O

rar
. .
.

_
id
~

_
|
.

,. _

~-

<~~

""
_

3_ 0

~~,

_ "

"

~
,. _

rv- ~q
4~0

.~
~-

.,

"
,

_. .nm I 0 1 2 3KM ZMILES

FIGURE 4.52 Gas- chimney qjct above Mmni alpha structure, ojhore Norway. Courteqv

1|.i11r;v

ANI) SIZISMIV ._ qpp- no

_
_.

ueprn and til: 5cotlnmi.il iieterztiuzed the gas hydrate-bearing sediment (tig. gradient within a general rule the greater the water depth the 454), As thicker the potential gas hydrate-bearing interval. MacLeod (1982) discusses the factors controlling the occurrenee of gas hydrates. Because the reflections from the base gas hydrate tend to follow the sea-tloor topography . _ they are sometimes called bottom-simulating reflections

ot pressure and tenipcrn ture :mil their

1500.

"
.

on

2500-

vlw

2C

10

or

BSRS. Gas

because the contrast

gas hydrate

hydrates are important for the interpreter in acoustic impedance between the
anon _

20:

and underlying sediments can produce :1 4-55). Gas hydrates increase both velocity ri1CIi0H lfigand density of the host sediments, and the associated re fl ection at the base of the hydrate layer has a strong _ _ negative reflection coeficient. Interbedded multiples, sideswipe reflections, reflections from slump surfaces, . _ _ and unconformities can mimic gas-hydrate reflections. Additionally, it is possible to confuse anomalous reflee

,ot
.

nmdlenu 27.3 C/1000Il\

-~

_
hy.

ti ons tr 0m th di aseneuc bunda-XY tions

hydmte

nec _

_ potential region qfgas hydrate formation where

temperature condittbns are correct for hydrate stability, suming an adequate methane supply. The following (1) geothermal gradient qfZZ3 C/km; (2) lith0_ and hydmstatw pressure tm/mi and (3) ing on water

below

Gas hydrates have yet to be exploited commercially. In fact, their main interest may not be as a source of hydrocarbons but as the seal to gas accumulations trapped

hydrate layer

from

Kvenvolden

pt . Reprints

1.5 to 18 C

and Barnard, 1982.

permisstbn ofthe AAPG

Sw

__

NE
._ . _

--- SEC

Ass
_
.-

o=
,.
,Z

..

GAS HYDRATE

,,
... .

1,-vi?

--

~..

, ~ ~~ _

"
-

_
_. -

~ -

- .

._

.ar

"

."

FIGURE follows tlu,

Seismic bath;/met

result

the easterrzjla ofthe Blake Outer Rrklga. The rq/lecttbn nk , . and ipplrig reflections. /ze lower amplitude

_ Qfvsscuts

corztmgts in

p,.gSc,,w

at the base 0 the gas hydrat! of reflcctlbns above the gil-9 hydm of th h},dmfL_ Reprinted by
permisslkm

SONG

Q
__

ffl* gy

.=_

.lwf

~ . =

~2

* 1

fgfiif ~

f
._

_ __

_
ff

kt_

1 _

it

f
.r.

 The potential ot diagenesis eriects to produce reflections has already been described in connection with oil/water contacts. The diagenesis of fine- grained silica- rich sediments, also, may cause an acoustic- impedance boundary. Hein et al. (1978) showed that the dissolution and precipitation of diatom frustules (the silicous cell walls of

omeexrzruz

tznrcis

microscopic single-celled plants) involved a change from opal-A to opal- CT. The change causes a marked porosity reduction, which results in increases in both density and velocity. These increases can produce a detectable
acoustic-impedance contrast. Since the change from opalA to opal- CT is dependent on burial depth, the resulting

reflection tends to parallel the sea floor and is another type of BSR. Opal-CT eventually changes to quautz, and the associated diagenesis front may also form a reflection. The opal-A to opal- CT diagenesis changes are depth dependent, they should, therefore, migrate gradually upward through the sequence with time and burial. Below the migrating front, diagenesis could account for the cornmonly observed reduced reflection amplitude and coherency often seen below BSRS. Hammond and Gaither (1983) show examples of BSRs from the Bering Sea Shelf Potential interpretation pitfalls are possible where a BSR intersects other reflectors at an angle, opening the way for its incorrect interpretation as a sequence boundary or even a flat spot (fig. 4.56). In this case it may be extremely difficult to determine that the reflection comes from a BSR. The configuration could show the features associated with a gas accumulation, for example, a flat spot, polarity reversal and edge diffractiotis, etc.