1

LESSON
WAVE OPTICS
Introduction
Once the electromagnetic nature of light was established, the next task was to explain the characteristic
phenomena like reflection, refraction, interference etc. The first approach assumed light to be traveling in tiny
corpuscles.
But later it was seen over stages of development that light travels as electromagnetic waves, which could
satisfactorily explain the phenomena of reflection and refraction and many other light phenomenon.
The Dutch physicist Christian Huygens was the first one to put forward the wave theory of light with
satisfactory explanations. It is this wave model of light that we will discuss in this chapter.

A wave-front
The locus of points, which oscillate in phase is called a wavefront; thus a wavefront is
defined as a surface of constant phase. If we have a point source emitting waves
uniformly in all directions, then the locus of points which have the same amplitude and
vibrate in the same phase are spheres and we have what is known as a spherical wave as
shown in Fig. 1(a).

Formation of wavefront
If O is a point source of light placed in space, emitting waves of light in all possible
directions, and if the velocity of light in air is c, then in time t each wave will cover a
distance ct.
At the end of the time interval t, the light waves emitted by the source will reach the
surface of a sphere with the centre O and radius equal to ct. Such a spherical surface is called a spherical wave-
front.
Note: By same phase it is implied that if, at the start, the source has emitted a crest, then at the end of time t,
there will be a crest at every point on the spherical wave-front.

Different kinds of wavefronts
The wave-fronts may be classified as:
(i). Spherical wavefront
(ii). Plane wavefront
(iii). Cylindrical wavefront.
These may be understood as under:
(i). A wavefront originating from a point source of light is a spherical
wavefront.
(ii). At a very large distance from a point source of light, the circumference of a spherical wavefront is so large
that a small part of its surface can be considered as a plane wavefront Fig. 1(b).
(iii). If the source of light is in the form of a slit, the wavefront originating from it has the shape of a cylinder.
Such a wavefront is called a cylindrical wavefront.

Concept of ray of light on the basis of the wave theory
(i). A wavefront always moves parallel to itself in a homogeneous medium. This means that the wavefront
always carries light energy in a direction perpendicular to its surface.
(ii). The direction in which light is propagated is called a ray of light. Therefore a ray of light is always
perpendicular to a wavefront.
Note: The speed with which the wavefront moves outwards from the source is called the speed of the wave.




2
Huygens Principle
Huygens Principle is simply a geometrical construction to find the position of wavefront at a later time. If the
nature of a wavefront at any instant is known, we can determine its nature and position at any later instant by
means of Huygens construction. According to this principle, every point on a wavefront acts as a secondary
source and sends out secondary waves in all directions. The envelope of the secondary wavefronts at any later
instant is the new wavefront that instant.

Determination of wavefront using Huygens Principle
Let us consider a diverging wave and let F
1
F
2
represent a portion of the spherical wavefront at
t = 0 (as shown in the figure 2(a)). Now, according to Huygens principle, each point of the
wavefront is the source of a secondary disturbance and the wavelets emanating from these
points spread out in all directions with the speed of the wave. These wavelets emanating from
the wavefront are usually referred to as secondary wavelets and if we draw a common tangent
to all these spheres, we obtain the new position of the wavefront at a later time.

Thus, if we wish to determine the shape of the wavefront at t = , consider the following
points
- We draw spheres of radius v from each point on the spherical wavefront where v
represents the speed of the waves in the medium.
- If we now draw a common tangent to all these spheres, we obtain the new position of the
wavefront at t = . The new wavefront shown in figure 2(b) as G
1
G
2
, is again spherical
with point O as the centre.

Note: In a similar manner, we can use Huygens principle to determine the shape of the
wavefront for a plane wave propagating through a medium.










Limitation of Huygens Principle
The above model has one shortcoming: we also have a backwave which is shown as D
1
D
2
in the figure shown
above. Huygens argued that the amplitude of the secondary wavelets is maximum in the forward direction and
zero in the backward direction; by making this adhoc assumption, Huygens could explain the absence of the
backwave. However, this adhoc assumption is not satisfactory and the absence of the backwave is really
justified from more rigorous wave theory.

Application of Huygens Principle
Using Huygens Principle here we will discuss the phenomenon of:
(i) Refraction of a plane wave
(ii) Refraction of wave at a rarer medium
(iii) Reflection of a plane wave by a plane surface
(iv) Doppler Effect




3
(i) Refraction of a plane wave
We will now use Huygens principle to derive the laws of refraction. Let PP represent the surface separating
medium 1 and medium 2, as shown in the figure (3). Let v
1
and v
2
represent the speed of light in medium 1 and
medium 2, respectively. We assume a plane wavefront AB propagating in the direction AA incident on the
interface at an angle I as shown in the figure. Let be the time taken by the wavefront to travel the distance BC.
Thus,
BC = v
1



In order to determine the shape of the refracted wavefront, we draw a sphere of radius v
2
from the point A in
the second medium (the speed of the wave in the second medium is v
2
). Let CE represent a tangent plane drawn
from the point C on to the sphere. Then, AE = v
2
and CE would represent the refracted wavefront. If we now
consider the triangles ABC and AEC, we readily obtain
1
v BC
sini
AC AC
t
= =
and
2
v AE
sin r
AC AC
t
= =
where i and r are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectively.
Thus we obtain
1
2
v sini
sin r v
=
From the above equation, we get the important result that if r < i (i.e., if the ray bends toward the normal), the
speed of the light wave in the second medium (v
2
) will be less then the speed of the light wave in the first
medium (v
1
). This prediction is opposite to the prediction from the corpuscular model of light and as later
experiments showed, the prediction of the wave theory is correct. Now, if c represents the speed of light in
vacuum, then,
1
1
c
n
v
=
and
2
2
c
n
v
=
are known as the refractive indices of medium 1 and medium 2, respectively. In terms of the refractive indices,
Eq.
1
2
v sini
sin r v
= can be written as


4
n
1
sin i = n
2
sin r
This is the Snells law of refraction. Further, if
1
and
2
denote the wavelengths of light in medium 1 and
medium 2, respectively and if the distance BC is equal to
1
then the distance AE will be equal to
2
(because if
the crest from B has reached C in time , then the crest from A should have also reached E in time ); thus,

1 1
2 2
v BC
AE v

= =

or

1 2
1 2
v v
=


The above equation implies that when a wave gets refracted into a denser medium (v
1
> v
2
) the wavelength and
the speed of propagation decrease but the frequency (= v/) remains the same.

(ii) Refraction at a rarer medium
We now consider refraction of a plane wave at a rarer medium, i.e., v
2
> v
1
. Proceeding in an exactly similar
manner we can construct a refracted wavefront as shown in the
figure. The angle of refraction will now be greater than angle of
incidence; however, we will still have n
1
sini = n
2
sinr . We define
an angle i
c
by the following equation

2
c
1
n
sini
n
=
Thus, if i = i
c
then sin r = 1 and r = 90. Obviously, for i > i
c
, there
can not be any refracted wave. The angle i
c
is known as the
critical angle and for all angles of incidence greater than the
critical angle, we will not have any refracted wave and the wave
will undergo what is known as total internal reflection.



(iii) Reflection of a plane wave by a plane surface
We next consider a plane wave AB incident at an angle i on a reflecting surface MN. If v represents the speed
of the wave in the medium and if represents the time taken by the wavefront to advance from the point B to C
then the distance
BC = v

In order the construct the reflected wavefront we draw a sphere of radius v from the point A as shown in the
figure. Let CE represent the tangent plane drawn from the point C to this sphere. Obviously
AE = BC = v
If we now consider the triangles EAC and BAC we will find that they are congruent and therefore, the angles i
and r would be equal. This is the law of reflection.
Once we have the laws of reflection and refraction, the behaviour of prisms, lenses, and mirrors can be
understood. These phenomena were discussed in detail in the chapter of Ray optics on the basis of rectilinear


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propagation of light. Here we just describe the behaviour of the wavefronts as they undergo reflection or
refraction. In Fig. 6(a) we consider a plane wave passing through a thin prism. Clearly, since the speed of light
waves is less in glass, the lower portion of the incoming wavefront (which travels through the greatest thickness
of glass) will get delayed resulting in a tilt in the emerging wavefront as shown in the figure 6(a). In Fig. 6(b)
we consider a plane wave incident on a thin convex lens; the central part of the incident plane wave traverses
the thickest portion of the lens and is delayed the most. The emerging wavefront has a depression at the centre
and therefore the wavefront becomes spherical and converges to the point F which is known as the focus. In
Fig. 6(c) a plane wave is incident on a concave mirror and on reflection we have a spherical wave converging to
the focal point F. In a similar manner, we can understand refraction and reflection by concave lenses and
convex mirrors.

From the above discussion it follows that the total time taken from a point on the object to the corresponding
point on the image is the same measured along any ray. For example, when a convex lens focusses light to form
a real image, although the ray going through the centre traverses a shorter path, but because of the slower speed
in glass, the time taken is the same as for rays travelling near the edge of the lens.

(iv) The doppler effect
We should mention here that one should be careful in constructing the wavefronts if the source (or the observer)
is moving. For example, if there is no medium and the source moves away from the observer, then later
wavefronts have to travel a greater distance to reach the observer and hence take a longer time. The time taken
between the arrival of two successive wavefronts is hence longer at the observer than it is at the source. Thus,
when the source moves away from the observer the frequency as measured by the source will be smaller. This is
known as the Doppler effect. Astronomers call the increase in wavelength due to doppler effect as red shift
since a wavelength in the middle of the visible region of the spectrum moves towards the red end of the
spectrum. When waves are received from a source moving towards the observer, there is an apparent decrease
in wavelength, this is referred to as blue shift.
For velocities small compared to the speed of light, we can use the same formulae which we use for sound
waves. The fractional change in the frequency / is given by v
radial
/c, where v
radial
is the component of the
source velocity along the line joining the observer to the source relative to the observer; v
radial
is considered
positive when the source moves away from the observer. Thus, the Doppler shift can be expressed as:

radial
v
v c
u A
=












6
INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION AND POLARIZATION

Coherent and incoherent addition of waves
In this section we will discuss the interference pattern produced by the superposition of two waves. According
to the superposition principle at a particular point in the medium, the resultant displacement produced by a
number of waves is the vector sum of the displacements produced by each of the waves.



Demonstration of the superposition principle
Setup-
Consider two needles S
1
and S
2
moving periodically up and down in an identical fashion in a trough of water
7(a). They produce two water waves, and at a particular point, the phase difference between the displacements
produced by each of the waves does not change with time; when this happens the two sources are said to be
coherent.
Figure 7(b) shows the position of crests (solid circles) and troughs (dashed circles) at a given instant of time.

Resultant displacement
Consider a point P Figure 7(a) for which
S
1
P = S
2
P
Since the distances S
1
P and S
2
P are equal, waves from S
1
and S
2
will take the same time to travel to the point P
and waves that emanate from S
1
and S
2
in phase will also arrive, at the point P, in phase.
Thus, if the displacement produced by the source S
1
at the point P is given by
y
1
= acost
then, the displacement produced by the source S
2
(at the point P) will also be given by
y
2
= acost
Thus, the resultant of displacement at P would be given by
y = y
1
+y
2
= 2acost

Resultant Intensity
Since the intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude, the resultant intensity will be given by
I = 4 I
0

where I
0
represents the intensity produced by each one of the individual sources; I
0
is proportional to a
2
. In fact
at any point on the perpendicular bisector of S
1
S
2
, the intensity will be 4I
0
.

Constructive and Destructive interference
We next consider a point Q in the [figure 8(a)] below for which
S
2
Q S
1
Q = 2


7

The waves emanating from S
1
will arrive exactly two cycles earlier than the waves from S
2
and will again be in
phase [figure 8(a)]. Thus, if the displacement produced by S
1
is given by
y
1
= a cos t then the displacement produced by S
2
will be given by
y = a cos (t + 4) = a cos t
where we have used the fact that a path difference of 2 corresponds to a phase difference of 4. The two
displacements are once again in phase and the intensity will again be 4I
0
giving rise to constructive interference.
In the above analysis we have assumed that the distances S
1
Q and S
2
Q are much greater than d (which
represents the distance between S
1
and S
2
) so that although S
1
Q and S
2
Q are not equal, the amplitudes of the
displacement produced by each wave are very nearly the same. We next consider a point R [Fig. 8(b)] for which
S
2
R S
1
R = 2.5
The waves emanating from S
1
will arrive exactly two and a half cycles later than the waves from S
2
[Fig. 8(b)].
Thus if the displacement produced by S
1
is given by
y
1
= a cos t
then the displacement produced by S
2
will be given by
y
2
= a cos (t + 5) = a cos t
where we have used the fact that a path difference of 2.5 corresponds to a phase difference of 5. The two
displacements are now out of phase and the two displacements will cancel out to give zero intensity. This is
referred to as destructive interference.

Summarization- Superposition principle
Constructive interference
If we have two coherent sources S
1
and S
2
vibrating in phase, then for an arbitrary point
P whenever the path difference,
S
1
P - S
2
P = n (n = 0, 1, 2, 3,...)
we will have constructive interference and the resultant intensity will be 4I
0
.

Destructive Interference
On the other hand, if the point P is such that the path difference,
S
1
P - S
2
P =
1
(n )
2
+ (n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...)
we will have destructive interference and the resultant intensity will be zero.
Resultant Displacement in case of phase difference = | ( n (n 0, 1, 2.....) | = t =
Now, for any other arbitrary point G (as shown in the figure) let the phase difference between the two
displacements be |. Thus, if the displacement produced by S
1
is given by:
y
1
= a cos t
then, the displacement produced by S
2
would be
y
2
= a cos (t + |)
and the resultant displacement will be given by
y = y
1
+ y
2



8
= a [cos t + cos (t + |)]
= 2 a cos (|/2) cos (t + |/2)
The amplitude of the resultant displacement is 2acos(|/2) and therefore the intensity at that point will be
I = 4 I
0
cos
2
(|/2)

Note:
- If | = 0, 2 , 4 , which corresponds to the condition given by Equation S
1
P - S
2
P = n (n = 0, 1, 2,
3,...) we will have constructive interference leading to maximum intensity.
- On the other hand, if | = , 3, 5 [which corresponds to the condition given by Eq. S
1
P - S
2
P =
1
(n )
2
+ (n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...) we will have destructive interference leading to zero intensity.
- If the two sources are coherent then the phase difference | at any point will not change with time and we
will have a stable interference pattern; i.e., the positions of maxima and minima will not change with time.
- If the two needles do not maintain a constant phase difference, then the interference pattern will also
change with time and, if the phase difference changes very rapidly with time, the positions of maxima and
minima will also vary rapidly with time and we will see a time-averaged intensity distribution. When this
happens, we will observe an average intensity that will be given by
2
0
I 4I cos ( / 2) < >= < | >
where angular brackets represent time averaging. If | (t ) varies randomly with time, the time-averaged
quantity < cos
2
(|/2)> will be 1/2. This is also intuitively obvious because the function cos
2
(|/2) will
randomly vary between 0 and 1 and the average value will be 1/2. The resultant intensity will be given by
I = 2 I
0

at all points.
- When the phase difference between the two vibrating sources changes rapidly with time, we say that the
two sources are incoherent and when this happens the intensities just add up. This is indeed what happens
when two separate light sources illuminate a wall.

Interference of light waves and Youngs Experiment
We will now discuss interference using light waves. If we use two sodium lamps illuminating two pinholes, we
will not observe any interference fringes. This is because of the fact that the light wave emitted from an
ordinary source (like a sodium lamp) undergoes abrupt phase changes in times of the order of 10
10
seconds.
Thus the light waves coming out from two independent sources of light will not have any fixed phase
relationship and would be incoherent, when this happens, as discussed in the previous section, the intensities on
the screen will add up.

Youngs Experimental Setup
Thomas Young used an ingenious technique to lock the phases of the waves emanating from S
1
and S
2
. He
made two pinholes S
1
and S
2
(very close to each other) on an opaque screen. These were illuminated by another
pinholes that was in turn, lit by a bright source.


9
Generation of coherent source of light
In the Youngs setup the light waves spread out from S and fall on both S
1
and S
2
. S
1
and S
2
then behave like
two coherent sources because light waves coming out from S
1
and S
2
are derived from the same original source
and any abrupt phase change in S will manifest in exactly similar phase changes in the light coming out from S
1

and S
2
. Thus, the two sources S
1
and S
2
will be locked in phase; i.e., they will be coherent like the two vibrating
needle in our water wave example [Figure 7(a)].

Interfernce Pattern
In the Youngs setup the spherical waves emanating from S
1
and S
2
will produce interference fringes on the
screen GG, as shown in [Fig. 11(b)]. The positions of maximum and minimum intensities for an arbitrary point
P on the line GG [Fig. 11(b)] to correspond to a maximum, we must have
S
2
P S
1
P = n; n = 0, 1, 2 ...
Now,

2 2
2 2 2 2
2 1
d d
(S P) (S P) D x D x 2xd
2 2
( (
| | | |
= + + + =
( (
| |
\ . \ .
( (


where S
1
S
2
= d and OP = x . Thus
S
2
P S
1
P =
2 1
2xd
S P S P +

Approximation for value of S
2
P S
1
P
If x, d<<D then negligible error will be introduced if S
2
P + S
1
P (in the denominator) is replaced by 2D.
For example, for d = 0.1 cm, D = 100 cm, OP = 1 cm (which correspond to typical values for an interference
experiment using light waves), we have
S
2
P + S
1
P = [(100)
2
+ (1.05)
2
]

+ [(100)
2
+ (0.95)
2
]

200.01 cm

Thus if we replace S
2
P + S
1
P by 2 D, the error involved is about 0.005%. In this approximation, Eq. becomes
S
2
P S
1
P
xd
D


Dark and Bright Fringes
Based on the above approximation we will have constructive interference resulting in a bright region when
n
n D
x x ; n 0, 1, 2,.....
d

= = =
On the other hand, we will have a dark region near

n
1 D
x x (n ) ; n 0, 1, 2,.....
2 d

= = + =
Thus dark and bright bands appear on the screen, as shown in Fig 12. Such bands are called fringes.


10
Some Noteworthy points regarding the interference pattern obtained are:
- The equations above show that dark and bright fringes are equally spaced and the distance between two
consecutive bright and dark fringes is given by
= x
n+1
x
n
or =
D
d

which is the expression for the fringe width.
- Obviously, the central point O (Fig. 11) will be bright because S
1
O = S
2
O and it will correspond to n = 0.
- If we consider the line perpendicular to the plane of the paper and passing through O [i.e., along the y-axis]
then all points on this line will be equidistant from S
1
and S
2
and we will have a bright central fringe which
is a straight line as shown in Fig. 12 (a).
- In order to determine the shape of the interference pattern on the screen we note that a particular fringe
would correspond to the locus of points with a constant value of S
2
P S
1
P. Whenever this constant is an
integral multiple of , the fringe will be bright and whenever it is an odd integral multiple of /2 it will be a
dark fringe. Now, the locus of the point P lying in the x-y plane such that S
2
P S
1
P (= ) is a constant, is a
hyperbola. Thus the fringe pattern will strictly be a hyperbola; however, if the distance D is very large
compared to the fringe width, the fringes will be very nearly straight lines as shown in Fig. 12 (b).


Source slightly away from the perpendicular bisector of slits
In the double-slit experiment shown in Fig. 11, we have taken the source hole S on the perpendicular bisector of
the two slits, which is shown as the line SO.
Angular displacement of fringes
Consider that the source is moved to some new point S and suppose that Q is the mid-point of S
1
and S
2
. If the
angle SQS is |, then the central bright fringe occurs at an angle |, on the other side. Thus, if the source S is on
the perpendicular bisector, then the central fringe occurs at O, also on the perpendicular bisector. If S is shifted
by an angle | to point S, then the central fringe appears at a point O at an angle |, which means that it is
shifted by the same angle on the other side of the bisector. This also means that the source S, the mid-point Q
and the point O of the central fringe are in a straight line.
Note:
We should mention here that the fringes are straight lines although S
1
and S
2
are point sources. If we had slits
instead of the point sources Fig. 13, each pair of points would have produced straight line fringes resulting in
straight line fringes with increased intensities.


11


Diffraction
Light travels in a straight line. As a result, light casts the shadow of the object coming in its path. When a
narrow slit AB is placed in the path of the light, only the part AB ' ' of the screen should get illuminated and no
light should enter the regions AX and BY of the screen as shown in the fig. ure.
On the other hand, when an obstacle AB is placed, then its distinct geometrical shadow AB ' ' would be obtained
on the screen as in the subsequent figure14.
It happens only when the size of the slit or the obstacle is large. However, if the size of the slit or the obstacle is
made small, then light enters in the geometrically prohibited regions, showing thereby that the light bends round
the corners of the slits or the obstacle.
The phenomenon of seemingly bending of light round the sharp corners and spreading into the regions of the
geometrical shadow is called diffraction.

Note:
- The effects caused by the phenomenon of diffraction, can only be properly understood using wave ideas.
- If we look clearly at the shadow cast by an opaque object, close to the region of geometrical shadow, there
are alternate dark and bright regions just like in interference caused by diffraction.
- Diffraction is a general characteristic exhibited by all types of waves, be it sound waves, light waves, water
waves or matter waves.
- Since the wavelength of light is much smaller than the dimensions of most obstacles; we do not encounter
diffraction effects of light in everyday observations.
- The finite resolution of our eye or of optical instruments such as telescopes or microscopes is limited due to


12
the phenomenon of diffraction.
- The colours that you see when a CD is viewed is due to diffraction effects. We will now discuss the
phenomenon of diffraction.

Dark and Bright Fringes pattern caused by single slit
When the double slit in Youngs experiment is replaced by a single narrow slit (illuminated by a
monochromatic source), a broad pattern with a central bright region is seen. On both sides, there are alternate
dark and bright regions, the intensity becoming weaker away from the centre.

Understanding the pattern
Look into the following points for understanding the pattern:
Setup
To understand this, refer to Fig. 15, which shows a parallel beam of light falling normally on a single slit LN of
width a. The diffracted light goes on to meet a screen. The midpoint of the slit is M. A straight line through M
perpendicular to the slit plane meets the screen at C. We want the intensity at any point P on the screen. As
before, straight lines joining P to the different points L,M,N, etc., can be treated as parallel, making an angle
with the normal MC.

- The basic idea is to divide the slit into much smaller parts, and add
their contributions at P with the proper phase differences. We are
treating different parts of the wavefront at the slit as secondary
sources. Because the incoming wavefront is parallel to the plane of
the slit, these sources are in phase.
- The path difference NP LP between the two edges of the slit can
be calculated exactly as for Youngs experiment. From Fig. 15,
NP LP = NQ
= a sin a
- Similarly, if two points M
1
and M
2
in the slit plane are separated
by y, the path difference M
2
P M
1
P y. We now have to sum up
equal, coherent contributions from a large number of sources, each with a different phase.
- This calculation was made by Fresnel using integral calculus, so we omit it here. The main features of the
diffraction pattern can be understood by simple arguments.

All path differences are zero and hence all the parts of the slit contribute in phase.
At the central point C on the screen, the angle is zero. This gives maximum intensity at C.
Experimental observation shown in Fig. 15 indicates that the intensity has a central maximum at = 0 and other
secondary maxima at ~ (n+1/2) /a, and has minima (zero intensity) at ~ n/a, n = 1, 2, 3, ....

Observed minima
It is easy to see why it has minima at these values of angle.
- Consider first the angle where the path difference a is . Then, /a
- Now, divide the slit into two equal halves LM and MN each of size a/2.
- For every point M
1
in LM, there is a point M
2
in MN such that M
1
M
2
= a/2.
- The path difference between M
1
and M
2
at P = M
2
P M
1
P = a/2 = /2 for the angle chosen.
- This means that the contributions from M
1
and M
2
are 180 out of phase and cancel in the direction = /a.
Contributions from the two halves of the slit LM and MN, therefore, cancel each other.
- = /a gives the angle at which the intensity falls to zero.
- One can similarly show that the intensity is zero for = n/a, with n being any integer (except zero).
Notice that the angular size of the central maximum increases when the slit width a decreases.



13
Observed maxima
It is also easy to see why there are maxima at (n + 1/2) /a and why they go on becoming weaker and
weaker with increasing n.
- Consider an angle = 3/2a which is midway between two of the dark fringes.
- Divide the slit into three equal parts. If we take the first two thirds of the slit, the path difference between
the two ends would be

2 2a 3
a
3 3 2a

u = =
- The first two-thirds of the slit can therefore be divided into two halves
which have a /2 path difference.
- The contributions of these two halves cancel in the same manner as
described earlier.
- Only the remaining one-third of the slit contributes to the intensity at a
point between the two minima.
- Clearly, this will be much weaker than the central maximum (where the
entire slit contributes in phase).
- One can similarly show that there are maxima at (n + 1/2) /a with n = 2, 3,
etc. These become weaker with increasing n, since only one-fifth, one-
seventh, etc., of the slit contributes in these cases.
- The photograph and intensity pattern corresponding to it is shown in
Fig.16.

Seeing the single slit diffraction pattern
It is surprisingly easy to see the single-slit diffraction pattern for oneself.
Things Required
The equipment needed can be found in most homes two razor blades and one clear glass
electric bulb preferably with a straight filament.
Setup
- One has to hold the two blades so that the edges are parallel and have a narrow slit in
between. This is easily done with the thumb and forefingers (Fig. 17).
- Keep the slit parallel to the filament, right in front of the eye. Use spectacles if you
normally do.
Observations
- With slight adjustment of the width of the slit and the parallelism of the edges, the
pattern should be seen with its bright and dark bands.
- Since the position of all the bands (except the central one) depends on wavelength, they will show some
colours.
- Using a filter for red or blue will make the fringes clearer. With both filters available, the wider fringes for
red compared to blue can be seen.

Explanation for pattern
In this experiment, the filament plays the role of the first slit S in Fig. 16 The lens of the eye focuses the pattern
on the screen (the retina of the eye).
With some effort, one can cut a double slit in an aluminium foil with a blade.

Using aluminium foil for Youngs double slit
One can cut a double slit in an aluminium foil with a blade. The bulb filament can be viewed as before to repeat
Youngs experiment.



14
Note:
- In daytime reflection of the Sun, in any shiny convex surface (e.g., a cycle bell), can also be used as a
suitable bright source.
- One should not try direct sunlight as it can damage the eye and will not give fringes anyway as the Sun
subtends an angle of (1/2).

Looking into interference and Diffraction together
Difference between interference and diffraction
There has been prolonged discussion about difference between intereference and diffraction among scientists
since the discovery of these phenomena. In this context, Richard Feynman has said the following in the famous
Feynman Lectures on Physics:
No one has ever been able to define the difference between interference and diffraction satisfactorily. It is just a
question of usage, and there is no specific, important physical difference between them. The best we can do is,
roughly speaking, is to say that when there are only a few sources, say two interfering sources, then the result is
usually called interference, but if there is a large number of them, it seems that the word diffraction is more
often used.

Diffracion and Youngs Experiment
Diffraction in case of double slit
In the double-slit experiment, we must note that the pattern on the screen is actually a superposition of single-
slit diffraction from each slit or hole, and the double-slit interference pattern. This is shown in Fig. 18. It shows
a broader diffraction peak in which there appear several fringes of smaller width due to double-slit interference.
The number of interference fringes occurring in the broad diffraction peak depends on the ratio d/a, that is the
ratio of the distance between the two slits to the width of a slit. In the limit of a becoming very small, the
diffraction pattern will become very flat and we will observe the two-slit interference pattern [see Fig. 12(b)].


Closing of one slit in the Youngs double slit setup
In the double-slit interference experiment of Fig. 11, what happens if we close one slit? You will see that it now
amounts to a single slit. But you will have to take care of some shift in the pattern. We now have a source at S,
and only one hole (or slit) S
1
or S
2
. This will produce a single-slit diffraction pattern on the screen. The centre
of the central bright fringe will appear at a point which lies on the straight line SS
1
or SS
2
, as the case may be.

Comparison between interference and diffraction setup
We now compare and contrast the interference pattern with that seen for a coherently illuminated single slit
(usually called the single slit diffraction pattern).
(i) The interference pattern has a number of equally spaced bright and dark bands. The diffraction pattern
has a central bright maximum which is twice as wide as the other maxima. The intensity falls as we go
to successive maxima away from the centre, on either side.
(ii) We calculate the interference pattern by superposing two waves originating from the two narrow slits.
The diffraction pattern is a superposition of a continuous family of waves originating from each point on
a single slit.
(iii) For a single slit of width, a, the first null of the interference pattern occurs at an angle of /a. At the
same angle of /a, we get a maximum(not a null) for two narrow slits separated by a distance a.




15
Conditions for obtaining interference and diffraction patterns
- One must understand that both d and a have to be quite small, to be able to observe good interference
and diffraction patterns.
For example, the separationd between the two slits must be of the order of a milimetre or so. The width
a of each slit must be even smaller, of the order of 0.1 or 0.2 mm.
- In our discussion of Youngs experiment and the single-slit diffraction, we have assumed that the screen on
which the fringes are formed is at a large distance.
- The two or more paths from the slits to the screen were treated as parallel. This situation also occurs when
we place a converging lens after the slits and place the screen at the focus. Parallel paths from the slit are
combined at a single point on the screen. Note that the lens does not introduce any extra path differences in
a parallel beam.
- This arrangement is often used since it gives more intensity than placing the screen far away. If f is the
focal length of the lens, then we can easily work out the size of the central bright maximum.
- In terms of angles, the separation of the central maximum from the first null of the diffraction pattern is /a.
Hence, the size on the screen will be f /a.

Note:
- In interference and diffraction, light energy is redistributed. If it reduces in one region, producing a dark
fringe, it increases in another region, producing a bright fringe. There is no gain or loss of energy, which is
consistent with the principle of conservation of energy.

Resolving power of optical instruments
Resolution can be understood as the degree of sharpness and fineness of the image. Thus the resolving power is
the ability to observe two objects distinctly, which are in very nearly the same direction. In this section we
discuss the resolution for some optical instruments.

Resolution of image formed by convex lens (objective) of the telescope
The angular resolution of the telescope is determined by the objective of the telescope. The stars which are not
resolved in the image produced by the objective cannot be resolved by any further magnification produced by
the eyepiece. The primary purpose of the eyepiece is to provide magnification of the image produced by the
objective.


Consider a parallel beam of light falling on a convex lens. If the lens is well corrected for aberrations, then
geometrical optics tells us that the beam will get focused to a point. However, because of diffraction, the beam
instead of getting focused to a point gets focused to a spot of finite area. In this case the effects due to
diffraction can be taken into account by considering a plane wave incident on a circular aperture followed by a
convex lens (Fig. 19).

The analysis of the corresponding diffraction pattern is quite involved; however, in principle, it is similar to the
analysis carried out to obtain the single-slit diffraction pattern. Taking into account the effects due to
diffraction, the pattern on the focal plane would consist of a central bright region surrounded by concentric dark
and bright rings (Fig. 19). A detailed analysis shows that the radius of the central bright region is approximately
given by


16

0
1.22 f 0.61 f
r
2a a

~ =

where f is the focal length of the lens and 2a is the diameter of the circular aperture or the diameter of the lens,
whichever is smaller.
Typically if
0.5 m, f 20 cm and a 5 cm
we have
r
0
1.2 m

Although the size of the spot is very small, it plays an important role in determining the limit of resolution of
optical instruments like a telescope or a microscope. For the two stars to be just resolved

0
0.61 f
f r
a

Au ~ ~
implying

0.61
a

Au ~
Thus will be small if the diameter of the objective is large. This implies that the telescope will have better
resolving power if a is large. It is for this reason that for better resolution, a telescope must have a large
diameter objective.

Resolving power of a microscope
We can apply a similar argument to the objective lens of a microscope. In this case, the object is placed slightly
beyond f, so that a real image is formed at a distance v [Fig. 20]. The magnification ratio of image size to
object size is given by m ~ v/f. It can be seen from Fig. 20 that
D/f ~2 tan
where 2 is the angle subtended by the diameter of the objective lens at the focus of the microscope.


When the separation between two points in a microscopic specimen is comparable to the wavelength of the
light, the diffraction effects become important. The image of a point object will again be a diffraction pattern
whose size in the image plane will be
1.22
v v
D
| |
u =
|
\ .

Two objects whose images are closer than this distance will not be resolved, they will be seen as one. The
corresponding minimum separation, d
min
, in the object plane is given by

min
1.22
d v / m
D
( | |
=
| (
\ .


1.22 v
.
D m

=


17

1.22f
D

=
Now, combining Eqs.we get

min
1.22
d
2tan

=
|


1.22
2sin

=
|

If the medium between the object and the objective lens is not air but a medium of refractive index n, then the
Equation gets modified to

min
1.22
d
2nsin

=
|

The product nsin is called the numerical aperture and is sometimes marked on the objective.
The resolving power of the microscope is given by the reciprocal of the minimum separation of two points seen
as distinct. It can be seen from the Equation that the resolving power can be increased by choosing a medium of
higher refractive index. Usually an oil having a refractive index close to that of the objective glass is used. Such
an arrangement is called an oil immersion objective. Notice that it is not possible to make sin larger than
unity. Thus, we see that the resolving power of a microscope is basically determined by the wavelength of the
light used.

Resolution and magnification
There is a likelihood of confusion between resolution and magnification, and similarly between the role of a
telescope and a microscope to deal with these parameters. A telescope produces images of far objects nearer to
our eye. Therefore objects which are not resolved at far distance, can be resolved by looking at them through a
telescope. A microscope, on the other hand, magnifies objects which are near to us and produces their larger
image. We may be looking at two stars or two satellites of a far-away planet, or we may be looking at different
regions of a living cell. In this context, it is good to remember that a telescope resolves whereas a microscope
magnifies.

The validity of ray optics
An aperture (i.e., slit or hole) of size a illuminated by a parallel beam sends diffracted light into an angle of
approximately /a. This is the angular size of the bright central maximum. In travelling a distance z, the
diffracted beam therefore acquires a width z/a due to diffraction.

Fresnel distance
Here we will find the value z at which the spreading due to diffraction becomes comparable to the size a of the
aperture. We thus approximately equate z/a with a. This gives the distance beyond which divergence of the
beam of width a becomes significant. Therefore,

2
a
z

We define a quantity z
F
called the Fresnel distance by the following equation
2
F
a
z

Note:
- The equation
2
F
a
z

suggests that for distances much smaller than z

F
, the spreading due to diffraction is
smaller compared to the size of the beam.


18
- It becomes comparable when the distance is approximately z
F
.
- For distances much greater than z
F
, the spreading due to diffraction dominates over that due to ray optics
(i.e., the size a of the aperture).
- Thus we can say ray optics is valid in the limit of wavelength tending to zero.

Polarisation
For understanding polarization let us revise the following:
Tranverse Waves- Since the displacement (which is along the y direction) is at right angles to the direction of
propagation of the wave, we have what is known as a transverse wave.
The wave Equation y(x, t) asin(kx wt) = - Consider holding a long string that is held horizontally, the other
end of which is assumed to be fixed. If we move the end of the string up and down in a periodic manner, we
will generate a wave propagating in the +x direction (Fig. 21). Such a wave could be described by the following
equation

y (x, t) = a sin (kx t)
where a and (= 2 ) represent the amplitude and the angular frequency of the wave, respectively; further,

2
k
t
=
represents the wavelength associated with the wave.

Polarized wave
The wave above mentioned wave
y (x, t) = a sin (kx t)
is often referred to as a y-polarised wave since the displacement is in the y direction.
- Since each point on the string moves on a straight line, the wave is also referred to as a linearly polarized
wave.
- Further, the string always remains confined to the x-y plane and therefore it is also referred to as a plane
polarised wave.
Note: The linearly polarised waves [such as described by Eqs. y (x, t) = a sin (kx t)] are all transverse waves;
i.e., the displacement of each point of the string is always at right angles to the direction of propagation of the
wave.

Unpolarized wave
If the plane of vibration of the string is changed randomly in very short intervals of time, then we have what is
known as an unpolarised wave.
- For an unpolarised wave the displacement will be randomly changing with time though it will always be


19
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

Polaroid
Light waves are transverse in nature; i.e., the electric field associated with a propagating light wave is always at
right angles to the direction of propagation of the wave. A simple object called the Polaroid (looks like thin
plastic like sheets) can be used for polarization of light.

Cause of polarization by the polaroid
A polaroid consists of long chain molecules aligned in a particular direction. The electric vectors (associated
with the propagating light wave) along the direction of the aligned molecules get absorbed. Thus, if an
unpolarised light wave is incident on such a polaroid then the light wave will get linearly polarised with the
electric vector oscillating along a direction perpendicular to the aligned molecules; this direction is known as
the pass-axis of the Polaroid.

Intensity of light passing through one Polaroid
If the light from an ordinary source (like a sodium lamp) passes through a polaroid sheet P
1
, it is observed that
its intensity is reduced by half. Rotating P
1
has no effect on the transmitted beam and transmitted intensity
remains constant.

Intensity of light passing through two polaroids
Now, let an identical piece of polaroid P
2
be placed before
P
1
. As expected, the light from the lamp is reduced in
intensity on passing through P
2
alone. But now rotating P
1

has a dramatic effect on the light coming from P
2
. In one
position, the intensity transmitted by P
2
followed by P
1
is
nearly zero. When turned by 90 from this position, P
1

transmits nearly the full intensity emerging from P
2
(Fig.
22).

Explanation: Consider the following points for
understanding the experiment:
- The above experiment can be easily understood by
assuming that light passing through the polaroid P
2

gets polarised along the pass-axis of P
2
.
- If the pass-axis of P
2
makes an angle with the pass-
axis of P
1
, then when the polarised beam passes
through the polaroid P
2
, the component E cos
(along the pass-axis of P
2
) will pass through P
2
. Thus,
as we rotate the polaroid P
1
(or P
2
), the intensity will
vary as:
I = I
0
cos
2

where I
0
is the intensity of the polarized light after passing through P
1
. This is known as Malus law.
- The above discussion shows that the intensity coming out of a single polaroid is half of the incident
intensity. By putting a second polaroid, the intensity can be further controlled from 50% to zero of the
incident intensity by adjusting the angle between the pass-axes of two polaroids.

Uses of polaroids
Polaroids can be used to control the intensity in sunglasses, windowpanes, etc. Polaroids are also used in
photographic cameras and 3D movie cameras.



20
Polarisation by scattering
The sunlight changes its direction (having been scattered) on encountering the molecules of the earths
atmosphere. The light from a clear blue portion of the sky shows a rise and fall of intensity when viewed
through a polaroid which is rotated.

Polarisation of scattered light from the sky
Let us understand the phenomenon of the scattering of the
light with the aid of the following figure:
- As Fig. 23 shows, the incident sunlight is unpolarised.
The dots stand for polarization perpendicular to the plane
of the figure.
- The double arrows show polarisation in the plane of the
figure. (There is no phase relation between these two in
unpolarised light).
- Under the influence of the electric field of the incident
wave the electrons in the molecules acquire components
of motion in both these directions. We have drawn an
observer looking at 90 to the direction of the sun.
- The charges accelerating parallel to the double arrows do
not radiate energy towards this observer since their acceleration has no transverse component.
- The radiation scattered by the molecule is therefore represented by dots. It is polarized perpendicular to the
plane of the figure. This explains the polarisation of scattered light from the sky.

Note: The scattering of light by molecules was intensively investigated by C.V. Raman and his collaborators in
Kolkata in the 1920s. Raman was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1930 for this work.

Polarisation by reflection
Polarisation by reflection can be understood with the aid of the following figure:
- The Figure.24 shows light reflected from a transparent medium, say, water.
- As before, the dots and arrows indicate that both
polarizations are present in the incident and refracted waves.
- We have drawn a situation in which the reflected wave
travels at right angles to the refracted wave.
- The oscillating electrons in the water produce the reflected
wave. These move in the two directions transverse to the
radiation from wave in the medium, i.e., the refracted wave.
- The arrows are parallel to the direction of the reflected wave.
Motion in this direction does not contribute to the reflected
wave.
- As the figure shows, the reflected light is therefore linearly
polarised perpendicular to the plane of the figure (represented
by dots). This can be checked by looking at the reflected light
through an analyser. The transmitted intensity will be zero when the axis of the analyser is in the plane of
the figure, i.e., the plane of incidence.
Brewster Angle
When unpolarised light is incident on the boundary between two transparent media, the reflected light is
polarised with its electric vector perpendicular to the plane of incidence when the refracted and reflected rays
make a right angle with each other. Thus we have seen that when reflected wave is perpendicular to the
refracted wave, the reflected wave is a totally polarised wave. The angle of incidence in this case is called


21
Brewsters angle and is denoted by i
B
.
We can see that i
B
is related to the refractive index of the denser medium. Since we have i
B
+ r = /2, we get
from Snells law
B B
B
sini sini
sin r sin( / 2 i )
= =
t


B
B
B
sini
tani
cosi
= =
This is known as Brewsters law.

Partially poralized light
For simplicity, we have discussed scattering of light by 90, and reflection at the Brewster angle. In this special
situation, one of the two perpendicular components of the electric field is zero. At other angles, both
components are present but one is stronger than the other. There is no stable phase relationship between the two
perpendicular components since these are derived from two perpendicular components of an unpolarised beam.
When such light is viewed through a rotating analyser, one sees a maximum and a minimum of intensity but not
complete darkness. This kind of light is called partially polarised.
Note:
- When an unpolarised beam of light is incident at the Brewsters angle on an interface of two media, only
part of light with electric field vector perpendicular to the plane of incidence will be reflected.
- By using a good polariser, if we completely remove all the light with its electric vector perpendicular to the
plane of incidence and let this light be incident on the surface of the prism at Brewsters angle, you will
then observe no reflection and there will be total transmission of light.





























22
SOLVED EXAMPLES

NCERT Solved Examples
NCERT 1: What speed should a galaxy move with respect to us so that the sodium line at 589.0 nm is observed
at 589.6 nm?
Solution: Since = c,
v
v
A A
=

(for small changes in v and ). for

= 589.6 589.0 = + 0.6 nm
we get
radial
v
v c
u A A
= =

or,
5 1
radial
0.6
v c 3.06 10 ms
589.0

| |
~ + = +
|
\ .

= 306 km/s
Therefore, the galaxy is moving away from us.

NCERT 2: (a) When monochromatic light is incident on a surface separating two media, the reflected and
refracted light both have the same frequency as the incident frequency. Explain why?
(b) When light travels from a rarer to a denser medium, the speed decreases. Does the reduction in speed imply
a reduction in the energy carried by the light wave?
(c) In the wave picture of light, intensity of light is determined by the square of the amplitude of the wave. What
determines the intensity of light in the photon picture of light.
Solution: (a) Reflection and refraction arise through interaction of incident light with the atomic
constituents of matter. Atoms may be viewed as oscillators, which take up the frequency of the
external agency (light) causing forced oscillations. The frequency of light emitted by a charged
oscillator equals its frequency of oscillation. Thus, the frequency of scattered light equals the
frequency of incident light.
(b) No. Energy carried by a wave depends on the amplitude of the wave, not on the speed of wave propagation.
(c) For a given frequency, intensity of light in the photon picture is determined by the number of photons
crossing an unit area per unit time.

NCERT 3: Two slits are made one millimetre apart and the screen is placed one metre away. What is the fringe
separation when blue green light of wavelength 500 nm is used?
Solution: Fringe spacing =
7
3
D 1 5 10
m
d 1 10

= 5 10
4
m = 0.5 mm

NCERT 4: What is the effect on the interference fringes in a Youngs double-slit experiment due to each of the
following operations:
(a) the screen is moved away from the plane of the slits;
(b) the (monochromatic) source is replaced by another (monochromatic) source of shorter
wavelength;
(c) the separation between the two slits is increased;
(d) the source slit is moved closer to the double-slit plane;
(e) the width of the source slit is increased;
(f ) the monochromatic source is replaced by a source of white light?
(In each operation, take all parameters, other than the one specified, to remain unchanged.)
Solution: (a) Angular separation of the fringes remains constant (= /d). The actual separation of the
fringes increases in proportion to the distance of the screen from the plane of the two slits.


23
(b) The separation of the fringes (and also angular separation) decreases. See, however, the condition mentioned
in (d) below.
(c) The separation of the fringes (and also angular separation) decreases. See, however, the condition mentioned
in (d) below.
(d) Let s be the size of the source and S its distance from the plane of the two slits. For interference fringes to be
seen, the condition s/S < /d should be satisfied; otherwise, interference patterns produced by different parts of
the source overlap and no fringes are seen. Thus, as S decreases (i.e., the source slit is brought closer), the
interference pattern gets less and less sharp, and when the source is brought too close for this condition to be
valid, the fringes disappear. Till this happens, the fringe separation remains fixed.
(e) Same as in (d). As the source slit width increases, fringe pattern gets less and less sharp. When the source
slit is so wide that the condition s/S /d is not satisfied, the interference pattern disappears.
(f) The interference patterns due to different component colours of white light overlap (incoherently). The
central bright fringes for different colours are at the same position. Therefore, the central fringe is white. For a
point P for which S
2
P S
1
P =
b
/2, where
b
( 4000 ) represents the wavelength for the blue colour, the blue
component will be absent and the fringe will appear red in colour. Slightly farther away where S
2
Q S
1
Q =
b
=

r
/2 where
r
( 8000 ) is the wavelength for the red colour, the fringe will be predominantly blue.
Thus, the fringe closest on either side of the central white fringe is red and the farthest will appear blue. After a
few fringes, no clear fringe pattern is seen.

NCERT 5: In Problems 3, what should the width of each slit be to obtain 10 maxima of the double slit pattern
within the central maximum of the single slit pattern?
Solution: We want a ,
a

u = u =
d
10 2 a 0.2 mm
d a 5

= = =
Notice that the wavelength of light and distance of the screen do not enter in the calculation of a.

NCERT 6: Assume that light of wavelength 6000 is coming from a star. What is the limit of resolution of a
telescope whose objective has a diameter of 100 inch?
Solution: A 100 inch telescope implies that 2a = 100 inch = 254 cm. Thus if,
6000 = 6 10
5
cm
then
5
7
0.61 6 10
2.9 10 radians
127

Au ~ ~

NCERT 7: For what distance is ray optics a good approximation when the aperture is 3 mm wide and the
wavelength is 500 nm?
Solution:
2 3 2
F 7
a (3 10 )
z 18m
5 10

= = =


This example shows that even with a small aperture, diffraction spreading can be neglected for rays many
metres in length. Thus, ray optics is valid in many common situations.

NCERT 8: Discuss the intensity of transmitted light when a polaroid sheet is rotated between two crossed
polaroids?
Solution: Let I
0
be the intensity of polarised light after passing through the first polariser P
1
. Then
the intensity of light after passing through second polariser P
2
will be
I = I
0
cos
2

u,
where is the angle between pass axes of P
1
and P
2
. Since P
1
and P
3
are crossed the angle between the pass axes
of P
2
and P
3
will be (/2 ). Hence the intensity of light emerging from P
3
will be


24
2 2
0
I I cos cos
2
t | |
= u u
|
\ .

= I
0
cos
2
u sin
2
u = (I
0
/4) sin
2
2u
Therefore, the transmitted intensity will be maximum when = /4.

NCERT 9: Unpolarised light is incident on a plane glass surface. What should be the angle of incidence so that
the reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other?
Solution: For i + r to be equal to /2, we should have tan i
B
= = 1.5. This gives i
B
= 57. This is
the Brewsters angle for air to glass interface.

Additional Solved Examples
Example 1: The wavelength of light coming from a sodium source is 589 nm. What will be its wavelength in
water? Refractive index of water = 1.33.
Solution: The wavelength in water is
0
/ = , where
0
is the wavelength in vacuum and is the refractive
index of water. Thus,
589
443nm
1.33
= =

Example 2: White light is a mixture of light of wavelengths between 400 nm and 700 nm. If this light goes
through water ( ) 1.33 = , what are the limits of the wavelength there?
Solution: When a light having wavelength
0
in vacuum goes through a medium of refractive index , the
wavelength in the medium becomes
0
/ = .
For
0
400 nm
400 nm, 300 nm
1.33
= = =
and for
0
700 nm
700 nm, 525 nm
1.33
= = = .
Thus, the limits are 300 nm and 525 nm.

Example 3: The optical path of a monochromatic light is the same if it goes through 2.00 cm of glass or 2.25
cm of water. If the refractive index of water is 1.33, what is the refractive index of glass?
Solution: When light travels through a distance x in a medium of refractive index , its optical path is x.
Thus, if is the refractive index of glass,
(2.00 cm) = 1.33 (2.25 cm)
or,
2.25
1.33 1.50.
2.00
= =

Example 4: Combine two vibrations of equal amplitude and 90 phase difference.
Solution: If we take the first vibration to be cos t, e the second vibration is cos( t / 2) sin t. e t = e The
superposition is
sin t cos t sin t sin t
2
t | |
e + e = e + e
|
\ .

1 1
2sin t t cos t t
2 2 2 2
t ( t ( | | | |
= e + e e + e
| | ( (
\ . \ .

2sin cos t 2 cos t
4 4 4
t t t | | | |
= e = e
| |
\ . \ .



25
The intensity is proportional to
( )
2
2 2, = and the phase lags the first vibration by 45.

Example 5: The wavelength of light used in interference produced by two waves is 600 nm. On placing a plate
of refractive index 1.5 and thickness d in the passage of one of the rays, fifth bright fringe D produced at the
place of central bright fringe, find the thickness of the fringe.
Solution:







Initially the path difference between the rays being zero, central bright fringes are obtained.
After introducing the plate, path difference must be 5. Light travels the distance equal to the thickness of the
plate (t) in air before the plate is placed in its passage. But, after the plate is introduced it travels through
distance d in the medium of the plate. To find the path difference we should find the optical distance travelled
by the ray in the plate.
Refractive index,
c
n
v
=
nv c =
nvt ct nd ct = =
where, vt = the distance travelled in the medium with velocity v and ct = the distance covered by the ray in
same time if it would have been traveling in air. The distance nd is called the optical distance corresponding to
distance d in air.
optical distance in plate = nd
The change in the path length of the ray = nd d = d(n 1)
It should be 5 in the present case.
d(n 1) 5 =
10
5 5 6000 10
d
n 1 1.5 1

= =



6
6 10 mor 6 m

=

Example 6: In a Young's double slit experiment, the separation between the slits is 0.10 mm, the wavelength
of light used is 600 nm and the interference pattern is observed on a screen 1.0 m away. Find the separation
between the successive bright fringes.
Solution: The separation between the successive bright fringes is
9
3
D 1.0m 600 10 m
w
d 0.10 10 m

= =

3
6.0 10 m 6.0mm.

= =

Example 7: White light is passed through a double slit and interference pattern is observed on a screen 2.5 m
away. The separation between the slits is 0.5 mm. The first violet and red fringes are formed 2.0 mm and 3.5
mm away from the central white fringe. Calculate the wavelengths of the violet and the red light.
Solution: For the first bright fringe, the distance from the centre is
D
y
d

= .


26
For violet light, y = 2.0 mm. Thus,
2.0 mm =
( ) 2.5m
0.5 mm

or,
( )( ) 0.5mm 2.0mm
400 nm
2.5m
= = .
Similarly, for red light, y = 3.5 mm. Thus,
3.5 mm =
( ) 2.5m
0.5 mm

or = 700 nm.

Example 8: A double slit experiment is performed with sodium (yellow) light of wavelength 589.3 nm and the
interference pattern is observed on a screen 100 cm away. The tenth bright fringe has its centre at a distance of
12 mm from the central maximum. Find the separation between the slits.
Solution: For the nth maximum fringe, the distance above the central line is
n D
x .
d

=
According to the data given,
x = 12 mm, n = 10, = 589.3 nm, D = 100 cm.
Thus, the separation between the slits is
d =
9 2
3
n D 10 589.3 10 m 100 10 m
x 12 10 m

4
4.9 10 m

= = 0.49 mm.

Example 9: Two sources S
1
and S
2
emitting light of wavelength 600 nm are placed
a distance 1.0 10
2
cm apart. A detector can be moved on the line S
1
P which is
perpendicular to S
1
S
2
. (a) What would be the minimum and maximum path difference
at the detector as it is moved along the line S
1
P? (b) Locate the position of the farthest minimum detected.
Solution:
(a) The situation is shown in figure. The path difference is maximum when the detector is just at the position of
S
1
and its value is equal to d = 1.0 10
2
cm. The path difference is minimum when the detector is at a
large distance from S
1
. The path difference is then close to zero.

(b) The farthest minimum occurs at a point P where the path difference is /2. If S
1
P = D,
S
2
P S
1
P =
2

or,
2 2
D d D
2

+ =
or,
2
2 2
D d D
2
| |
+ = +
|
\ .

or,
2
2
d D
4

= +
or,
2
d
D
4

( )
2
4
9
9
1.0 10 m
150 10 m
600 10 m

= 1.7 cm.


27
Example 10: Monochromatic light of wavelength 600 nm is used in a Young's double slit experiment. One of
the slits is covered by a transparent sheet of thickness 1.8 10
5
m made of a material of refractive index 1.6.
How many fringes will shift due to the introduction of the sheet?
Solution: When the light travels through a sheet of thickness t, the optical path traveled is t where is the
refractive index. When one of the slits is covered by the sheet, air is replaced by the sheet and hence, the optical
path changes by ( ) 1 t. One fringe shifts when the optical path changes by one wavelength. Thus, the number
of fringes shifted due to the introduction of the sheet is
( ) ( )
5
9
1 t 1.6 1 1.8 10 m
600 10 m

=

= 18.

Example 11: A beam of parallel rays of light is incident perpendicular to the slit of width 3 mm, wavelength of
light is 500 nm. Find the distance from the slit till it is not considered getting broader.
Solution: The distance upto which beam of rays travels almost on a linear path is called Fresnel distance Z
f
.
Now,
2 3 2 6
f
9 7
d (3 10 ) 9 10
Z
500 10 5 10



= = =


1
f
Z 1.8 10 18m = =

Example 12: A light of
o
6000A is incident normally on a slit of width 0.01 cm. Obtain width of central
maximum in the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern. Screen is placed at a distance of 100 cm.
Solution: Width of central maximum means the distance between two
first order minimum.
For the first order minimum,
sin
d

u = (1)
From the figure,
x
tan
D
u = (2)
where, x = distance of first order minimum from the central maximum and
D = distance between slit and screen.
As angle of diffraction u is small sin tan u = u
from equation (1) and (2)
x
D d

=
D
x
d

=
Width of central maximum =
5
2
2 D 2 5 10 100
2x
d 1 10

= =

= 1 cm

Example 13: In the following two cases upto what minimum distance two point like objects can be seen
distinctly by a human eye? (i) Distance between eye and object is 25 cm (ii) Distance between eye and object is
5 cm. Diameter of pupil of eye is 2.5 mm. Consider wavelength of light 550 nm.
Solution: Considering an eye as a simple microscope
min
1.22 f
d
D

=


28
Here, f is the focal length of human eye. Note that ciliary muscle of eye lens sets the focal length of the lens
according to the object distance.
(i)
9 2
5
min
3
1.22 550 10 25 10
d 6.71 10 m
2.5 10

= =

This distance is approximately equal to the diameter of human hair.
(2)
9 2
3
min 3
1.22 550 10 5 10
d 1.34 10 m
2.5 10

= =

Example 14: Angular width of a central maximum in diffraction obtained by a single slit using light of
wavelength
o
6000A is measured. If light of another wavelength is used, the angular width of the central
maximum is found to be decreasing by 30%. Find (i) the other wavelength. (ii) If the experiment is repeated
keeping the apparatus in a liquid, the angular width of central maximum decreases by the same amount (30 %),
find its refractive index.
Solution:
(i) Angular width of central maximum,
2
2
d

u =
For first light,
1
1
d

u = and for second light,

2
2
d

u =
2 2
1 1
u
=
u

but
2 1
0.7 u = u
2
1
0.7

=

o
2 1
0.7 0.7 6000A = =
o
2
4200A =
(ii) For light of wavelength
o
6000A, width of central maximum decreases 30% in liquid and the wavelength
in liquid will be
o
4200A.
Refractive index of liquid =
air
liquid
6000
1.43
4200

= =

Example 15: What is the angular resolution of a 10 cm diameter telescope at a wavelength of 0.5 m?
Solution:
6
1.22 0.6 10
D 0.1

Au = =
=
6
6 10 rad 1.2".

=

Example 16: For what distance is ray optics a good approximation when the aperture is 3 mm wide and the
wavelength 500 nm?
Solution:
( )
2
3
2
F
7
3 10
a
z 18m
5 10

= = =



Example 17: A parallel beam of green light of wavelength 546 nm passes through a slit of width 0.40 mm.
The transmitted light is collected on a screen 40 cm away. Find the distance between the two first order minima.


29
Solution: The minima occur at an angular deviation u given by b sinu = n , where n is an integer. For the
first order minima, n = 1 so that sin
y
a
u = . As the fringes are observed at a distance much larger than the
width of the slit, the linear distances from the central maximum are given by
x = Dtanu
= Dtanu
D
a

= .
Thus, the minima are formed at a distance
D
a

from the central maximum on its two sides. The separation

between the minima is
9 2
3
2 D 2 546 10 m 40 10 m
b 0.40 10 m

= 1.1 mm.

Example 18: Hubble space telescope is at a distance of 600 km from earths surface. Diameter of its primary
lens is 2.4 m. When a light of 550 nm is used by this telescope, at what minimum angular distance two objects
can be seen separately? Also obtain linear minimum distance between these objects. Consider these objects on
the surface of earth and neglect effects of atmosphere.
Solution:
min
1.22
D

o =

9
1.22 550 10
2.4

=

7
2.8 10 rad

=
min
0.058" o =
linear distance between objects =
min
L o
where L = distance between telescope and objects.
linear distance between objects =
7 3
2.8 10 600 10

0.17m =

Example 19: If a light beam shows no intensity variation when transmitted through a Polaroid which is rotated,
does it mean that the light is unpolarised?
Solution: No. Consider light which is made up of E
x
, E
y
with a 90 phase difference but equal amplitudes. The
tip of the electric vector executes uniform circular motion at the frequency of the light itself. This kind of light
is called circularly polarized. Because the angle with a fixed Polaroid varies rapidly over 0 to 2t radian, the
transmitted average intensity is constant and does not change as the Polaroid is turned.
















30
PROBLEMS

Exercise I
Q 1. Monochromatic light of wavelength 589 nm is incident from air on a water surface. What are the
wavelength, frequency and speed of (a) reflected and (b)refracted light? Refractive index of water is
1.33.

Q 2. What is the shape of the wavefront in each of the following cases:
(a) Light diverging from a point source.
(b) Light emerging out of a convex lens when a point source is placed at its focus.
(c) The portion of the wavefront of light from a distant star intercepted by the Earth.

Q 3. (a) The refractive index of glass is 1.5. What is the speed of light in glass? (Speed of light in
vacuum is 3.0 10
8
m s
1
)
(b) Is the speed of light in glass independent of the colour of light? If not, which of the two
colours, red and violet travels slower in a glass prism?

Q 4. In a Youngs double-slit experiment, the slits are separated by 0.28 mm and the screen is placed 1.4 m
away. The distance between the central bright fringe and the fourth bright fringe is measured to be 1.2
cm. Determine the wavelength of light used in the experiment.

Q 5. In Youngs double-slit experiment using monochromatic light of wavelength , the intensity of light at a
point on the screen where path difference is , is K units. What is the intensity of light at a point where
path difference is /3?

Q 6. A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths, 650 nm and 520 nm, is used to obtain interference
fringes in a Youngs double-slit experiment.
(a) Find the distance of the third bright fringe on the screen from the central maximum for
wavelength 650 nm.
(b) What is the least distance from the central maximum where the bright fringes due to both
the wavelengths coincide?

Q 7. In a double-slit experiment the angular width of a fringe is found to be 0.2 on a screen placed 1 m
away. The wavelength of light used is 600 nm. What will be the angular width of the fringe if the entire
experimental apparatus is immersed in water? Take refractive index of water to be 4/3.

Q 8. What is the Brewster angle for air to glass transition? (Refractive index of glass = 1.5.)

Q 9. Light of wavelength 5000 falls on a plane reflecting surface. What are the wavelength and frequency
of the reflected light? For what angle of incidence is the reflected ray normal to the incident ray?

Q 10. Estimate the distance for which ray optics is good approximation for an aperture of 4 mm and
wavelength 400 nm.


Q 11. The 6563 H line emitted by hydrogen in a star is found to be redshifted by 15 . Estimate the speed
with which the star is receding from the Earth.



31
Q 12. Explain how Corpuscular theory predicts the speed of light in a medium, say, water, to be greater than
the speed of light in vacuum. Is the prediction confirmed by experimental determination of the speed of
light in water? If not, which alternative picture of light is consistent with experiment?

Q 13. Huygens principle leads to the laws of reflection and refraction. Use the same principle to deduce
directly that a point object placed in front of a plane mirror produces a virtual image whose distance
from the mirror is equal to the object distance from the mirror.

Q 14. Let us list some of the factors, which could possibly influence the speed of wave propagation:
(i) nature of the source.
(ii) direction of propagation.
(iii) motion of the source and/or observer.
(iv) wavelength.
(v) intensity of the wave.
On which of these factors, if any, does
(a) the speed of light in vacuum,
(b) the speed of light in a medium (say, glass or water) depend?

Q 15. For sound waves, the Doppler formula for frequency shift differs slightly between the two situations:
(i) source at rest; observer moving and (ii) source moving; observer at rest. The exact Doppler formulas
for the case of light waves in vacuum are, however, strictly identical for these situations. Explain why
this should be so. Would you expect the formulas to be strictly identical for the two situations in case of
light travelling in a medium?

Q 16. In double-slit experiment using light of wavelength 600 nm, the angular width of a fringe formed on a
distant screen is 0.1. What is the spacing between the two slits?

Q 17. Answer the following questions:
(a) In a single slit diffraction experiment, the width of the slit is made double the original
width. How does this affect the size and intensity of the central diffraction band?
(b) In what way is diffraction from each slit related to the interference pattern in a double-slit
experiment?
(c) When a tiny circular obstacle is placed in the path of light from a distant source, a bright
spot is seen at the centre of the shadow of the obstacle. Explain why?
(d) Two students are separated by a 7 m partition wall in a room 10 m high. If both light and
sound waves can bend around obstacles, how is it that the students are unable to see each
other even though they can converse easily.
(e) Ray optics is based on the assumption that light travels in a straight line. Diffraction
effects (observed when light propagates through small apertures/slits or around small
obstacles) disprove this assumption. Yet the ray optics assumption is so commonly used
in understanding location and several other properties of images in optical instruments.
What is the justification?

Q 18. Two towers on top of two hills are 40 km apart. The line joining them passes 50 m above a hill halfway
between the towers. What is the longest wavelength of radio waves, which can be sent between the
towers without appreciable diffraction effects?

Q 19. A parallel beam of light of wavelength 500 nm falls on a narrow slit and the resulting diffraction pattern
is observed on a screen 1 m away. It is observed that the first minimum is at a distance of 2.5 mm from
the centre of the screen. Find the width of the slit.



32
Q 20. Answer the following questions:
(a) When a low flying aircraft passes overhead, we sometimes notice a slight shaking of the
picture on our TV screen. Suggest a possible explanation.
(b) As you have learnt in the text, the principle of linear superposition of wave displacement
is basic to understanding intensity distributions in diffraction and interference patterns.
What is the justification of this principle?

Q 21. In deriving the single slit diffraction pattern, it was stated that the intensity is zero at angles of n/a.
Justify this by suitably dividing the slit to bring out the cancellation.

Exercise II
Q 1. What is a wave front?

Q 2. What is a ray of light?

Q 3. State Huygens Principle.

Q 4. What is the phase difference between any two points on a wave front?

Q 5. What are the two assumptions on which Huygens Principle is based? Explain Huygens geometrical
construction for wave fronts.

Q 6. Describe the phenomenon of refraction from Huygens wave theory.

Q 7. Deduce the laws of reflection on the basis of Huygens Principle.

Q 8. Using Huygens wave theory, derive Snells law.

Q 9. What is interference of light?

Q 10. State the essential condition for two light waves to be coherent.

Q 11. State the most essential condition for observing interference of light.

Q 12. State the condition for constructive interference.

Q 13. State the condition for destructive interference.

Q 14. If the two slits in Youngs double-slit experiment have width ratio 4: 1, deduce the ratio of intensity at
maxima and minima in the interference pattern.

Q 15. What is the effect of slit width and wavelength of light source on fringe width of the fringes formed by
Youngs double slit experiment?

Q 16. Define the term coherence for light waves.

Q 17. Two sources of intensity I
1
and I
2
undergo interference in Youngs double slit experiment. Show that
2
max 1 2
min 1 2
I a a
I a a
| | +
=
|

\ .

Where a
1
and a
2
are the amplitudes of disturbance for two sources S
1
and S
2
.


33
Q 18. State the necessary conditions for sustained interference pattern. Derive an expression for fringe width
using Youngs double slit method for interference of light.

Q 19. What is diffraction of light?

Q 20. What is the basic difference between interference and diffraction of light?

Q 21. Define resolving power of a telescope.

Q 22. Define resolving power of a compound microscope. On what factors does it depend?

Q 23. Two coherent beams intersect at a small angle . What is the spacing of the interference fringes on a
screen whose normal bisects the directions of two beams? Instead of a screen, a photographic film is
used. When it is developed, the fringes appear as opaque and transparent regions. The film is then used
as a grating (a device which consists of a large number of equally spaced single slits). What happens
when one of the two beams which produced the interference is allowed to fall on this grating?

Q 24. What is plane polarized light?

Q 25. Define the polarization angle for polarization by reflection.

Q 26. What is a Polaroid?

Q 27. Explain polarization by reflection.

Q 28. State and prove Brewsters law of polarization.

Q 29. How is plane polarized light obtained with the help of polaroid? How will you use it to distinguish
between unpolarizsed light and plane polarized light?

Q 30. What is the geometrical shape of the wave front in each of the following cases:
(a) Light diverging from a point source.
(b) Light emerging out of a convex lens when a point source is placed at its focus.
(c) The portion of the wave front of light from a distant star intercepted by the Earth.

Q 31. What is the effect on the interference fringes in a Youngs double-slit experiment due to each of the
following operations:
(a) the screen is moved away from the plane of the slits
(b) the (monochromatic) source is replaced by another (monochromatic) of shorter wavelength
(c) the separation between the two slits is increased
(d) the source slit is moved closer to the double-slit plane
(e) the width of the source slit is increased
(f) the widths of two slits are increased
(g) the monochromatic source is replaced by source of white light
(In each operation, take all parameters, other than the one specified, to remain unchanged.)

Q 32. Consider interference between waves from two sources of intensities I and 4 I. Find intensities at points,
where phase difference is (i) (ii) .
2
t
t



34
Q 33. Calculate the resolving power of a telescope, whose objective lens has an aperture of 1
.
0 m for the wave
length of light 500 nm?

Q 34. Monochromatic light of wavelength 600 nm is incident from air on a glass surface. What are the
wavelength, frequency and speed of the refracted light? Refractive index of glass is 1.5.

Q 35. Let us list some of the factors, which could possibly influence the speed of wave propagation:
(i) nature of the source.
(ii) direction of propagation.
(iii) motion of the source and/or observer.
(iv) wavelength.
(v) Intensity of the wave.
On which of these factors, if any, does
(a) the speed of light in vacuum.
(b) the speed of light in a medium (say, glass or water), depend?

Q 36. (a) Red light of wavelength 6500

A from a distant source falls on a slit 0.50 mm wide. What

is the distance between the two dark bands on each side of the central bright
band of the diffraction pattern observed on a screen placed 1.8 m from the slit?
(b) What is the answer to (a) if the slit is replaced by a small circular hole of diameter 0.50 mm?

Q 37. At a given point in space, circularly polarised light produces equal amplitude vibrations along x and y
with a 90 phase difference.
x 0 y 0
E = E cos t and E = E sin t. Let x and y be a new set of axes
rotated by in the x y plane. If the same vibrations
0
E cos t and
0
E sin t are present along x and
y, show that the result is still circularly polarised light with a different phase. Show that if
y
E is
changed in phase by t radian, the circle is traversed in the opposite sense.

Q 38. Show that the two oppositely circularly polarised beams of the same frequency and equal amplitude
combine to give linear polarisation. What should one do to the relative phase of the two beams to rotate
the direction of linear polarisation? Can you use this to understand what happens to the two opposite
circular polarisation in sugar solution?

Q 39. A half wave plate is a device which introduces a phase difference of between
x y
E and E . What
is its effect on
(a) linearly polarised light making angle to the x-axis?
(b) circularly polarised light?

Q 40. Sodium light has two wavelengths
1
589 nm = and
2
589.6 nm. = As the path difference increases,
when is the visibility of the fringes minimum?

Q 41. In a pinhole camera, a box of length L has a hole of a radius a in one wall. When the hole is
illuminated by a parallel beam, the size of spot of light is large. Show that it is also very large when a
is small due to diffraction. Assume that the spread due to diffraction just adds to the geometrical spread
and find the minimum size of the spot.

Flashback
CBSE 2001
Q 1. State the essential condition for diffraction of light to occur.


35
The light of wavelength 600 nm is incident normally on a slit of width 3 mm. Calculate the linear width
of central maximum on a screen kept 3 m away from the slit.
(3 out of 70)
Q 2. (a) State the postulates of Huygens wave theory. (b) Draw the type of wave front that corresponds to a
beam of light (i) coming from a very far-off source and (ii) diverging from a point source.
(3 out of 70)
CBSE 2002
Q 1. In a single slit diffraction pattern, how does the angular width of central maximum change,
when (i) slit width is decreased (ii) distance between the slit and screen is increased and (iii) light of
smaller visible wavelength is used? Justify your answer in each case.
(3 out of 70)
Q 2. Deduce Snell's law of refraction using Huygenss wave theory.
(3 out of 70)
Q 3. Explain with reason, how the resolving power of a compound microscope will change when
(i) frequency of the incident light on the objective lens is increased, (ii) focal length of the
objective lens is increased, and (iii) aperture of the objective lens is increased.
(3 out of 70)
CBSE 2003
Q 1. What is a wave front? What is the geometrical shape of a wave front of light emerging out of
a convex lens, when point source is placed at its focus? Using Huygens' principle show that, for a
parallel beam incident on a reflecting surface, the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.

(3 out of 70)
Q 2. Two slits in Young's double slit experiment are illuminated by two different lamps emitting light of the
same wavelength. Will you observe the interference pattern? Justify your answer.
Find the ratio of intensities at two points on a screen in Young's double slit experiment, when waves
from the two slits have path difference of (i) 0 (ii) / 4.
(3 out of 70)
CBSE 2004
Q 1. Two narrow slits are illuminated by a single monochromatic source. Name the pattern
obtained on the screen. One of the slits is now completely covered. What is the name of the pattern now
obtained on the screen? Draw intensity pattern obtained in the two cases. Also write two differences
between the patterns obtained in the above two cases.
(3 out of 70)
CBSE 2005
Q 1. Using Huygens Principle, draw a diagram to show propagation of a wave-front originating from a
monochromatic point source.
Describe diffraction of light due to a single slit. Explain formation of a pattern of fringes obtained on the
screen and plot showing variation of intensity with angle u in single slit diffraction.
OR
What is meant by a linearly polarised light? Which type of waves can be polarised? Briefly explain a
method for producing polarised light.
Two polaroids are placed at 90 to each other and the intensity of transmitted light is zero. What will be
the intensity of transmitted light when one more polaroid is placed between these two bisecting the angle
between them? Take intensity of unpolarised light as I
0
.
(5 out of 70)
CBSE 2006
Q 1. What are coherent sources of light? State two conditions for two light sources to be coherent. Derive a
mathematical expression for the width of interference fringes obtained in Young's double slit experiment
with the help of a suitable diagram.


36
OR
State Huygens' principle. Using the geometrical construction of secondary wavelets, explain the refraction
of a plane wavefront incident at a plane surface. Hence verify Snell's law of refraction.
Illustrate with the help of diagrams the action of (i) convex lens and (ii) concave mirror on a plane
wavefront incident on it.
(5 out of 70)
CBSE 2007
Q 1. Define resolving power of a compound microscope. How does the resolving power of a compound
microscope change when
(i) refractive index of the medium between the object and objective lens increases?
(ii) wavelength of the radiation used is increased?
(2 out of 70)
Q 2. State the essential condition for diffraction of light to take place.
Use Huyges principle to explain diffraction of light due to a narrow single slit and the formation of a
pattern of fringes obtained on the screen. Sketch the pattern of fringes formed due to diffraction at a
single slit showing variation of intensity with angle u.
(5 out of 70)
Or
What are coherent sources of light? Why are coherent sources required to obtain sustained interference
pattern?
State three characteristic features which distinguish the interference pattern due to two coherently
illuminated sources as compared to that observed in a diffraction pattern due to a single slit.

CBSE 2008
Q.1 State one feature by which the phenomenon of interference can be distinguished from that of diffraction.
A parallel beam of light of wavelength 600 nm is incident normally on a slit of width a. If the distance
between the slits and the screen is 0.8 m and the distance of 2
nd
order minimum from the centre of the
screen is 9.5 mm. calculate the width of the slit.
(2 out of 70)
Q.2 Distinguish between unpolarised and plane polarised light. An unpolarised light is incident on the
boundary between two transparent media. State the condition when the reflected wave is totally plane
polarised. Find out the epression for the angle of incidence in this case.
(3 out of 70)
Q. 3 (a) What are coherent sources of light? Two slits in Youngs double slit experiment are
illuminated by two different sodium lamps emitting light of the same wavelength.
(b) Obtain the condition for getting dark and bright fringes in youngs Experiment. Hence
write the expression for the fringe width.
(c) If s is the size of the source and d its distance from the plane of the two slits, what should
be the criterion for the interference fringes to be seen?
(3 out of 70)
CBSE 2009
Q.1 How would the angular separation of interference fringes in Youngs double slit experiment change
when the distance between the slits and screen is doubled? (1 out of 70)

Q.2 Define the term linearly polarized light.
When does the intensity of transmitted light become maximum, when a polaroid sheet is rotated between
two crossed polaroids? (2 out of 70)

Q.3 In Youngs double slit experiment, monochromatic light of wave length 630 nm illuminates the pair of
slits and produces an interference pattern in which two consecutive bright fringes are separated by 8.1


37
mm. Another source of monochromatic light produces the interference pattern in which the two
consecutive bright fringes are separated by 7.2 mm. Find the wavelength of light from the second
source.
What is the effect on the interference fringes if the monochromatic source is replaced by a source of
white light? (3 out of 70)

Q.4 (a) In a single slit diffraction experiment, a slit of width d is illuminated by red light of wavelength 650
nm. For what value of d will
(i) the first minimum fall at an angle of diffraction of 30
o
, and
(ii) the first maximum fall at an angle of diffraction of 30
o
?
(b) Why does the intensity of the secondary maximum become less as compared to the central
maximum? (3 out of 70)

CBSE 2010
Q.1 When light travels from a rarer to a denser medium, the speed decreases. Does this decrease in speed
imply a decrease in the energy carried by the light wave? Justify your answer.
(1 out of 70)
Q.2 In Youngs double slit experiment, the two slits 0.12 mm apart are illuminated by monochromatic light
of wavelength 420 nm. The screen is 1.0 m away from the slits.
(a) Find the distance of the second (i) bright fringe, (ii) dark fringe from the central maximum.
(b) How will the fringe pattern change if the screen is moved away from the slits?
(3 out of 70)
Q.3 How does an unpolarised light get polarized when passed through a polaroid ?
Two polaroids are set in crossed positions. A third Polaroid is placed between the two making an angle
u with the pass axis of the first Polaroid. Write the expression for the intensity of light transmitted from
the second Polaroid. In what orientations will the transmitted intensity be (i) minimum and (ii)
maximum ? (3 out of 70)

























38
ANSWERS

Exercise I
Q 1. (a) Reflected light: (wavelength, frequency, speed same as incident light)
= 589 nm, = 5.09 10
14
Hz, c = 3.00 10
8
m s
1

(b) Refracted light: (frequency same as the incident frequency)
= 5.09 10
14
Hz
u = (c/n) = 2.26 10
8
m s
1
, = ( u/ ) = 444 nm
Q 2. (a) Spherical; (b) Plane; (c) Plane (a small area on the surface of a large sphere is nearly
planar).
Q 3. (a) 2.0 10
8
m s
1
; (b) No. The refractive index, and hence the speed of light in a medium, depends on
wavelength. [When no particular wavelength or colour of light is specified, we may take the given
refractive index to refer to yellow colour.] Now we know violet colour deviates more than red in a glass
prism, i.e.
r
n n
u
> . Therefore, the violet component of white light travels slower than the red
component.
Q 4.
2 3
1.2 10 0.28 10
m 600nm
4 1.4


= =

Q 5. K/4
Q 6. (a) 1.17 mm; (b) 1.56 mm Q 7. 0.15
Q 8. tan
1
(1.5) 56.3 Q 9. 5000 , 6 10
14
Hz; 45
Q 10. 40 m

Q 11. Use the formula
v
c
' =
i.e.,
8
5 1
c 3 10 15
( ' ) 6.86 10 ms
6563

u = = =

Q 12. In corpuscular (particle) picture of refraction, particles of light incident from a rarer to a denser medium
experience a force of attraction normal to the surface. This results in an increase in the normal
component of the velocity but the component along the surface is unchanged. This means
csini sinr = u or
sin i
c sin r
u
= = n. Since n > 1, c u> ,
The prediction is opposite to the experimental results ( c u< ). The wave picture of light is consistent
with the experiment.
Q 13. With the point object at the centre, draw a circle touching the mirror. This is a plane section of the
spherical wavefront from the object that has just reached the mirror. Next draw the locations of this
same wavefront after a time t in the presence of the mirror, and in the absence of the mirror. You will
get two arcs symmetrically located on either side of the mirror. Using simple geometry, the centre of the
reflected wavefront (the image of the object) is seen to be at the same distance from the mirror as the
object.
Q 14. (a) The speed of light in vacuum is a universal constant independent of all the factors listed and anything
else. In particular, note the surprising fact that it is independent of the relative motion between the
source and the observer. This fact is a basic axiom of Einsteins special theory of relativity.
(b) Dependence of the speed of light in a medium:
(i) does not depend on the nature of the source (wave speed is determined by the properties of the
medium of propagation. This is also true for other waves, e.g., sound waves, water waves, etc.).
(ii) independent of the direction of propagation for isotropic media.
(iii) independent of the motion of the source relative to the medium but depends on the motion of the
observer relative to the medium.
(iv) depends on wavelength.


39
(v) independent of intensity. [For high intensity beams, however, the situation is more complicated and
need not concern us here]
Q 15. Sound waves require a medium for propagation. Thus even though the situations (i) and (ii)
may correspond to the same relative motion (between the source and the observer), they are not identical
physically since the motion of the observer relative to the medium is different in the two situations.
Therefore, we cannot expect Doppler formulas for sound to be identical for (i) and (ii). For light waves
in vacuum, there is clearly nothing to distinguish between (i) and (ii). Here only the relative motion
between the source and the observer counts and the relativistic Doppler formula is the same for (i) and
(ii). For light propagation in a medium, once again like for sound waves, the two situations are not
identical and we should expect the Doppler formulas for this case to be different for the two situations
(i) and (ii).
Q 16. 3.4 10
4
m
Q 17. (a) The size reduces by half according to the relation: size ~ /d. Intensity increases four fold.
(b) The intensity of interference fringes in a double-slit arrangement is modulated by the diffraction
pattern of each slit. (c) Waves diffracted from the edge of the circular obstacle interfere constructively at
the centre of the shadow producing a bright spot.
(d) For diffraction or bending of waves by obstacles/apertures by a large angle, the size of the latter
should be comparable to wavelength. If the size of the obstacle/aperture is much too large compared to
wavelength, diffraction is by a small angle. Here the size is of the order of a few metres. The wavelength
of light is about 5 10
7
m, while sound waves of, say, 1 kHz frequency have wavelength of about 0.3
m. Thus, sound waves can bend around the partition while light waves cannot.
(e) Justification based on what is explained in (d). Typical sizes of apertures involved in ordinary optical
instruments are much larger than the wavelength of light.
Q 18. 12.5 cm
Q 19. 0.2 nm
Q 20. (a) Interference of the direct signal received by the antenna with the (weak) signal reflected by the
passing aircraft. (b) Superposition principle follows from the linear character of the (differential)
equation governing wave motion. If y
1
and y
2
are solutions of the wave equation, so is any linear
combination of y
1
and y
2
. When the amplitudes are large (e.g., high intensity laser beams) and non-linear
effects are important, the situation is far more complicated and need not concern us here.
Q 21. Divide the single slit into n smaller slits of width a = a/n. The angle = n/a = /a. Each of the smaller
slits sends zero intensity in the direction . The combination gives zero intensity as well.

Exercise II
Q 30. (a) Spherical (b) Plane (c) Plane (a small area on the surface of a large sphere is nearly planar).

Q 31. (a) Angular separation of the fringes remains constant ( / d). = The actual separation of the fringes is
proportional to the distance of the screen from the plane of the two slits.
(b) The separation of the fringes (and also angular separation) decreases.
(c) The separation of the fringes (and also angular separation) decreases.
(d) Let s be the size of the source and S its distance from the plane of the two slits. For interference
fringes to be seen, the condition s/S < /d should be satisfied; otherwise, interference patterns
produced by different parts of the source overlap and no fringes are seen. Thus, as S decreases (i.e.,
the source slit is brought closer), the interference pattern gets less and less sharp and when the source
is brought too close for this condition to be valid, the fringes disappear. Till this happens, the fringe
separation remains fixed.
(e) Same as in (d). As the source slit width increases, fringe pattern gets less and less sharp. When the
source slit is so wide that the condition s/S / d s is not satisfied, the interference pattern
disappears.


40
(f) The angular size of the central diffraction band due to each slit is about / S' where S is the width of
each of the two slits. S should be sufficiently small so that these bands are wide enough to overlap
and thus produce interference. This means / S' / d >> i.e. the width of each slit should be
considerably smaller than the separation between the slits. When the slits are so wide that this
condition is not satisfied, fringes are not seen. However, increase in the width of the slits does
improve the brightness of the fringes. Thus, in practice, the two slits should be wide enough to allow
sufficient light to pass through but narrow enough to cause enough diffraction from each slit to
enable wave front from the two slits to overlap and interfere.
(g) The interference patterns due to different component colours of white light overlap (incoherently).
The central bright fringes for different colours are at the same position. Therefore, the central fringe
is white. Since blue colour has the lower , the fringe closest on either side of the central white
fringe is blue; the farthest is red. After a few fringes, no clear fringe pattern is seen.
Q 32. (i) 5I (ii) I Q 33. 1.64 x 10
6

Q 34.
14 8 1
400 nm, 5 10 Hz, 2 10 ms

Q 35. (a) The speed of light in vacuum is a universal constant independent of all the factors listed and
anything else. (b) Depends on (iv) only.
Q 36. (a)4.68 mm. (b) 5.71mm
Q 37. The electric field components in the two sets of axes are related by
x x y
E E' cos E' sin = u u
y x y
E E' sin E' cos = u u Substituting for
x y
E' and E' cos t and t,
x 0 y 0
E E cos( t ), E E sin( t ) = e + u = e + u These describe circularly polarized light with a phase change
of u . Changing the sign of
y
E is equivalent to reflecting the electric vector in the x-axis. This changes
the sense of circular polarization.
Q 38. Since the
y
E components have opposite signs for opposite circular polarizations, they cancel, leaving
linear polarization along x. If we want linear polarization along x, we should use
x y
E' cos t, E' sin t to build the two circular waves. Coming back to x and y components, one
circularly polarized wave is shifted in phase by +u . The rotation of linearly polarized waves by sugar
solution can be thought of as a difference in refractive index between the two opposite circular waves,
producing a phase difference between them.
Q 39. (a) Changing the sign of
y
E relative to
x
E reflects the polarization in the x-axis, we get linear
polarization along - u .
(b) The sense of circular polarization is reversed.

Q 40. The visibility of the fringes is poorest when the path difference p is an integral multiple of
1
and a half
integral multiple of
2
. As p is increased, this happens first when
1 2
p p 1
2
=


1 2
2 1
1
p = = 0.29 mm.
2 -
| |
|
\ .

Q 41. The minimum is when a = (L / a) , i.e. the geometric and diffraction broadening are equal. The
minimum value is 2 L .

Flashback
CBSE 2001
Q1.
3
1.2 10

41
CBSE 2002
Q1. (i) angular width increases (ii) no change (iii) angular width increases
Q3. (i) resolving power increases (ii) remains unchanged (iii) resolving power increases

CBSE 2003
Q2. No, Ratio = 2:1

CBSE 2005
Q1. Intensity becomes
0
I
4

CBSE 2008
Q.1 6.4 10
4
mm
Q.3 (b)
D
d

| = , (c)
s
d D

<

CBSE 2009
Q.1 Fringe width becomes twice
Q.3 560 nm, when the monochromatic source is replaced by a source of white light ; the fringe width would
change.
Q.4 (a) (i) 1300 nm
(ii) 1950 nm
(b) Intensity of secondary maximum is lesser as compared to central maxima.
in central max. light reaches from all parts of slit but for secondary maximas it reaches from one
third, one fifth. Part of slit.

CBSE 2010
Q.1 No, Energy carried by a wave depends on the amplitude of the wave, not on the speed of wave
propagation.
Q.2 (a) (i) 0.007 m, (ii) 0.00525m
(b) If screen is moved away from the slits fringe pattern will shrink.