Graphing Rational Functions: Introduction (page 1 of 4)

Sections: Introduction, Examples, The special case with the "hole"

To graph a rational function, you find the asymptotes and the intercepts, plot a few points, and then sketch in the graph. Once you get the swing of things, rational functions are actually fairly simple to graph. Let's work through a few examples. Graph the following:

First I'll find the vertical asymptotes, if any, for this rational function. Since I can't graph where the function doesn't exist, and since the function won't exist where there would be a zero in the denominator, I'll set the denominator equal to zero to find any forbidden points:

x1=0 x=1

So I can't have x = 1, and therefore I have a vertical asymptote there. I'll dash this in on my graph:

Next I'll find the horizontal or slant asymptote. Since the numerator and denominator have the same degree (they're both linear), the asymptote will be horizontal, not slant, and the horizontal asymptote will be the result of dividing the leading coefficients:

y = 2 /1 = 2

I'll dash this in, too:

(If you're not sure of how I found these asymptotes, then review the lesson on asymptotes. You will need to be comfortable with this topic before you proceed further with graphing rationals.) Next, I'll find any x- or y-intercepts.

x = 0: y = (0 + 5)/(0 1) = 5/1 = 5 y = 0: 0 = (2x + 5)/(x 1) 0 = 2x + 5 5 = 2x 2.5 = x

Then the intercepts are at (0, 5) and (2.5, 0). I'll sketch these in:

Now I'll pick a few more x-values, compute the corresponding y-values, and plot a few more points.
Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2003-2011 All Rights Reserved

y = (2x + 5)/(x 1)

6 (2(6) + 5)/((6) 1) = (12 + 5)/(7) = (7)/(7) = 1 1 (2(1) + 5)/((1) 1) = (2 + 5)/(2) = (3)/(2) = 1.5 2 3 6 8 (2(2) + 5)/((2) 1) = (4 + 5)/(1) = (9)/(1) = 9 (2(3) + 5)/((3) 1) = (6 + 5)/(2) = (11)/(2) = 5.5 (2(6) + 5)/((6) 1) = (12 + 5)/(5) = (17)/(5) = 3.4 (2(8) + 5)/((8) 1) = (16 + 5)/(7) = (21)/(7) = 3

15 (2(15) + 5)/((15) 1) = (30 + 5)/(14) = (35)/(14) = 2.5

I mostly picked x-values near the middle of the graph: because of the horizontal asymptote, I already have a good idea of what the graph does off to the sides. (It can be a good idea to do a point or two near the ends anyway, as a check on your work.) Also, since I had no intercepts on the right-hand side of the vertical asymptote to give me hints as to what was happening with the graph, I needed more points there to show me what was going on.

Now I'll plot these points:

And now I can connect the dots:

When you draw your graph, make sure you show the graph continuing off to the sides.

DON'T DO THIS!

Don't just stop at a point you've drawn, because this will make it look as though the graph actually stops at that point.

Warning: Your calculator may display a misleading graph for a given rational function. When you graph, you plot some points and then you connect them. Your calculator does the same thing. But you're smart enough to know not to cross a vertical asymptote. Your calculator isn't that intelligent.

If your calculator shades a pixel down at the bottom of the screen, and then the next computed pixel to be shaded is at the top of the screen, then the calculator is likely to merrily draw a nice vertical line connecting the two dots, like this:

For this reason, you may wish to switch your graphing mode from "line" to "dot" (or the equivalent setting for your calculator model; check your owner's manual). In "dot" mode, you'll get a graph that looks like this:

I've highlighted the disconnected dots in red. The whole graph is dots, but most of the dots are right next to each other, so they look like a line. If you keep the graphing mode as "line", you will need to remember that what the screen displays may be somewhat incorrect when graphing rationals. Graph the following:

First I'll find any vertical asymptotes, by setting the denominator equal to zero and solving:

x2 + 1 = 0 x2 = 1
Since this equation has no solutions, then the denominator is never zero, and there are no vertical asymptotes. Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2003-2011 All Rights Reserved To find the horizontal or slant asymptote, I look at the degrees of the numerator and denominator. The numerator is linear (that is, it is of degree one) while the denimonator is quadratic (that is, it is of degree two). Since the degree is greater in the denominator, the asymptote will be a horizontal at y = 0; that is, the horizontal asymptote will be the x-axis.

I'll sketch this in:

Next I'll find any intercepts, by plugging zero in for each variable, in turn:

x = 0: y = (0 + 2)/(0 + 1) = 2 y = 0: 0 = (x + 2)/(x2 + 1) 0=x+2 2 = x

Then the intercepts are at (0, 2) and (2, 0). I'll sketch these in too:

I'm not sure, just from the one asymptote and the two points I have so far, quite what is going on with this graph, so I'll plot a few more points.

x y

3 0.1

2 0

1 0.5

0 2

0.1 2.079

0.2 2.115

0.3 2.110

0.4 2.069

0.5 2

1 1.5

2 0.8

3 0.5

I found some of these points just in order to let me know what was happening up near the "top" of the curve, where the graph may get a little messy.

The points near "the top" are a bit too close together for me to draw on the graph, so I'll just keep them in mind while I plot the other points:

With these points (and the others from the T-chart in between x what is going on.

= 0 and x = 0.5), I can better see

Connecting the dots, I get my graph:

I plotted a lot of points so I could see what was going on with this rational, especially near the top of the curve, where the extra points told me that the curve was rounded. Most rationals do not need this many points, but don't be surprised if you do encounter one like this. Just keep plotting points until you're comfortable with your understanding of what the graph should look like. If you have a calculator with a "TABLE" utility, use that (as I did) to help you find all the points you need. Graph the following:

First I'll find any vertical asymptotes, by setting the denominator equal to zero and solving:

x2 + 5x + 6 = 0 (x + 3)(x + 2) = 0 x = 3, x = 2

So I've got two vertical asymptotes:

Now I'll look for the horizontal or slant asymptote. The numerator is a cubic (that is, it has degree three) and the denominator is a quadratic (that is, it has degree two). Since the numerator is of greater degree, then this graph has a slant asymptote. I'll use long division to find the equation of the slant asymptote: Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2003-2011 All Rights Reserved

Then the slant asymptote is the line y = x 5. I'll dash this in:

Now I'll find any intercepts, by plugging zero in for each variable, in turn:

x = 0: y = (0 8)/(0 + 0 + 6) = 4/3 y = 0: 0 = (x3 8) / (x2 + 5x + 6) 0 = x3 8 = (x 2)(x2 + 2x + 4) 0=x2 2=x

I noted that the x from it.
2

+ 2x + 4 factor has no solutions, so I couldn't have gotten any x-intercepts

My intercepts are at (0, 4/3) and (2, 0).

This still leaves a lot of the graph unaccounted for. In order to be sure of what is going on here, I'll plot quite a few more points.

x 8 5

y 17.333 22.167

x 2.1 1.9

y 191.789 135.082

4 3.5 2.9 2.5 2.4

36 67.833 359.878 94.5 90.933

1.5 1 4 7 10

15.167 4.5 1.333 3.722 6.359

Hmm... Some of those y-values are pretty darned huge....

I think I'll need to redraw my axes just a smidge, to account for those very large yvalues; then I'll plot my points.

Now that I have a good feel for what the graph is doing, I'll draw it in:

It used to be highly unusual for a graph to have such large y-values, but now that many students are trying to get by with just copying the pretty pictures from their graphing calculators, exercises are being written with graphing calculators in mind. Much of the above graph (especially the middle part) would not show up on the graphing calculator, so a lazy student would be "caught" when he didn't include that middle part in his graph. For this reason, you shouldn't be surprised occasionally to encounter graphs with very large y-values. When this happens, just adjust your axis scales. I left the x-axis scale fairly small (counting by 2's), but changed the y-axis scale to something large (counting by 50's). Don't think that the axis scales always have to be the same, or that you always have to count by 1's. Be prepared to be flexible.

Graph the following:

First I'll find any vertical asymptotes, by setting the denominator equal to zero and solving:

x2=0 x=2

So I have a vertical asymptote at x = 2. I'll dash this in:

Looking at the degrees of the numerator and denominator, I see that the numerator is a quadratic while the denominator is linear. Since the degree is one greater in the numerator, I know that I will have a slant asymptote. But I need to do the long division to find out what the equation of the slant asymptote is going to be.

Hmm... The slant asymptote is clearly y = x + 1, but there is no remainder; the division came out evenly. That's because the numerator happens to factor as (x 2)(x + 1), so the x 2factor divides out evenly and there is no remainder.

In any case, the slant (not horizontal) asymptote is at y = x + 1:

Now I'll find the intercepts:

Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2003-2011 All Rights Reserved

x = 0: y = (0 0 2)/(0 2) = 1 y = 0: 0 = (x2 x 2) / (x 2) 0 = x2 x 2 0 = (x 2)(x + 1) x = 2, x = 1

I know that I can't have x = 2, as an x-intercept, because this is actually the vertical asymptote. So I'll ignore that "solution" of the above equation. The intercepts then are (0, 1) and (1, 0):

Now I'll plot a few more points. However, since this example is actually a special case of slantasymptote problem (and something of a trick question), I'll also show you the points for the slant asymptote only.

x 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4

y = (x2 x 2)/(x 2) y = (36 + 6 2)/(6 2) = 5 y = (25 + 5 2)/(5 2) = 4 y = (16 + 4 2)/(4 2) = 3 y = (9 + 3 2)/(3 2) = 2 y = (4 + 2 2)/(2 2) = 1 y = (1 + 1 2)/(1 2) = 0 y = (0 0 2)/(0 2) = 1 y = (1 1 2)/(1 2) = 2 y is not defined y = (9 3 2)/(3 2) = 4 y = (16 4 2)/(4 2) = 5

y=x+1 y = 5 y = 4 y = 3 y = 2 y = 1 y=0 y=1 y=2 y=3 y=4 y=5

Do you see how that, except for the one point where the rational function isn't defined (at x = 2), the two lines are the same? In general, this is not true for rationals. But in this special case where the long division works out with no remainder you don't actually even need the asyptote lines dashed in. Instead, you find the slant asymptote equation (in this case, y = x + 1), and you draw that in for therational graph.

The only difference between the slant asymptote of the rational function and the rational function itself is that the rational function isn't defined at x = 2. To account for this, I leave a nice big open circle at the point where x = 2, showing that I know that this point is not actually included on the graph, because of the zero in the denominator of the rational.

Warning: This graph is not the norm for rationals. But you should expect to encounter one like this, perhaps on the test. I've only ever seen this done with slant asymptotes, but it could be done with horizontal asymptotes, too. Keep in mind that you can't just "cancel off" duplicate factors when graphing rationals; you still need to account for all the zeroes of the denominator. Note that your calculator will probably not show this hole in the graph, and "TRACE" will probably miss it too, since it is unlikely that x = 2 will be exactly on the pixel that the calculator is processing. But even if the graph does not show the gap in the line, the calculator will show no value for y when x is two.

When I asked my calculator to evaluate y for x got this:

= 2, I

If it just so happens that the vertical asymptote falls on a pixel (rather than between two pixels), then the gap in the graph will display on the calculator's pretty picture.

For instance, when I changed the window settings on my graphing calculator so the x-values ran from 7 to7 (rather than the default 10 to 10), the gap was (just barely) visible:

When you do these graphs, get in the habit of working methodically through all the steps (vertical asymptote(s), horizontal or slant asymptote, intercept(s), plotted points, and graph), so you can do the graphing easily when you get to the test. And, as you can see above, you will need to know this material well enough that your calculator doesn't mess you up.

Graphing Absolute-Value Functions (page 1 of 2)

Taking the absolute value of a negative number makes it positive. For this reason, graphs of absolute value functions tend not to look quite like the graphs of linear functions that you've already studied. Because of how absolute values behave, it is important to include negative inputs in your T-chart when graphing absolute-value functions. If you do not pick x-values that will put negatives inside the absolute value, you will usually mislead yourself as to what the graph looks like. For instance, suppose your class is taking the following quiz: Graph y =

|x+2|

One of the other students does what is commonly done: he picks only positive x-values for his Tchart:

Then he plots his points:

These points are fine, as far as they go, but they aren't enough; they don't give an accurate idea of what the graph should look like. So the student then draws an erroneous graph: WRONG ANSWER!

He just flunked the quiz. But you're more careful; you pick x-values that put a negative inside the absolute value, and you choose quite a few more points:

Then you plot your points:

Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2000-2011 All Rights Reserved

...and finally you connect your dots:

You have the correct graph: Right answer!

...and you just passed the quiz! While absolute-value graphs tend to look like the one above, with an "elbow" in the middle, this is not always the case. However, if you see a graph with an elbow like this, you should expect that the equation is probably an absolute value. In all cases, you should take care that you pick a good range of x-values; three x-values right next to each other will almost certainly not give you anywhere near enough information to draw a valid picture.

Graphing Absolute-Value Functions (page 2 of 2)

Here are some more examples, with just the T-charts and graphs: Graph y =

|x|+2

I'll fill in my T-chart, making sure to pick some negative x-values as I go:

Then I'll draw my dots and fill in the graph:

Graph y =

| x + 2 |

My T-chart:

...and my graph:

Graph y =

| x | + 2

Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2000-2011 All Rights Reserved

My T-chart:

...and my graph:

Graph y =

| x2 3x 4 |

Without the absolute-value bars, the graph of the quadratic looks like this:

The absolute-value bars will flip that negative part of the graph (the part in the middle, below the x-axis) up into the positive values (above the x-axis).

Here's my T-chart:

...and here's my graph:

Greatest Integer Function Definition of Greatest Integer Function

Greatest Integer Function is a step function written as f(x) = [x], where f(x) is the greatest integer less than or equal to x. In other words, a greatest integer function rounds any number down to the nearest integer.

Examples of Greatest Integer Function

The greatest integer less than or equal to the number [5.3] is [5]. The greatest integer less than or equal to the number [- 5.3] is [- 5].

Solved Example on Greatest Integer Function

If [x] represents the greatest integer function, then evaluate .

Choices:
A. 35 B. 17 C. 18 D. 15

Correct Answer: D Solution:

Step 1: Let x = 2 - h, then as and as , 2 - h = 1.

Step 2:

Greatest Integer Function

Definition of Greatest Integer Function

The greatest integer function of a real number x is represented by [x] or |_x_|.

For all real numbers x, the greatest integer function returns the largest integer less than or equal to x. In other words, the greatest integer function rounds down a real number to the nearest integer.

More about Greatest Integer Function

Greatest integer functions are piece-wise defined. The domain of the greatest integer function is the set of real numbers which is divided into a number of intervals like [-4, 3), [-3, 2), [-2, 1), [-1, 0), [0, 1), [1, 2),[2, 3), [3, 4) and so on. Hint: [a, b) is just an interval notation which means a x < b, where x is a real number in the interval [a, b). When the interval is of the form [n, n + 1), where n is an integer, the value of the greatest integer function is n. For example, the value of the greatest integer function is 4 in the interval [4, 3).

The graph of a greatest integer function is not continuous. For example, the following is the graph of the greatest integer function f (x) = |_x_|.

The graph above looks like a stair case (a series of steps). So, the greatest integer function is sometimes called a step function. One endpoint in each step is closed (black dot) to indicate that the point is a part of the graph and the other endpoint is open (open circle) to indicate that the points is Not a part of the graph. Observe in the graph above that in each interval, the function f(x) is constant. Within an interval, the value of the function remains constant. For example, in the interval [5, 4) the value of the function f(x) remains 5.

In different intervals, however, the function f(x) can take different constant values. Greatest integer function is also called floor function. Solved Example on Greatest Integer Function Find: (a) |_-256_| (b) |_3.506_| (c) |_-0.7_| Solution: By the definition of greatest integer function, (a) |_-256_| = -256 (b) |_3.506_| = 3 (c) |_-0.7_| = -1 Related Terms for Greatest Integer Function Step Function Interval Integer

Piece-wise defined function Domain Floor function

efinition of Piecewise Functions

A piecewise function is usually defined by more than one formula: a fomula for each interval. Example 1: f( x ) = - x =x if x <= 2 if x > 2

What the above says is that if x is smaller than or equal to 2, the formula for the function is f( x ) = -x and if x is greater than 2, the formula is f( x ) = x. It is also important to note that the domain of function f defined above is the set of all the real numbers since f is defined everywhere for all real numbers. Example 2: f( x ) = 2 = -5 if x > -3 if x < -3

The above function is constant and equal to 2 if x is greater than -3. function f is also constant and equal to -5 if x is less than -3. It can be said that function f is piecewise constant. The domain of f given above is the set of all real numbers except -3: if x = -3 function f is undefined. Example 3: Functions involving absolute value are also a good example of piecewise functions. f( x ) = | x | Using the definition of the absolute value, function f given above can be written f( x ) = x = -x if x >= 0 if x < 0

The domain of the above function is the set of all real numbers.

Example 4: Another example involving absolute vaule. f( x ) = | x + 6 | The above function may be written as f( x ) = x + 6 = - (x + 6) if x >= -6 if x < -6

The above function is defined for all real numbers.

Example 5: Another example involving more than two intervals. f( x ) = x 2 - 3 = - 2x + 1 = - x3 = ln x if x <= -10 if -10 < x <= -2 if 2 < x < 4 if x > 4

The above function is defined for all real numbers except for values of x in the interval (-2 , 2] and x = 4. Example 6: f is a function defined by f( x ) = -1 =2 if x <= -2 if x > -2

Find the domain and range of function f and graph it. Solution to Example 6: Function f is defined for all real values of x. The domain of f is the set of all real numbers. We will graph it by considering the value of the function in each interval.

In the interval (- inf , -2] the graph of f is a horizontal line y = f(x) = -1 (see formula for this interval above). Also this interval is closed at x = -2 and therefore the graph must show this : see the "closed point" on the graph at x = -2. In the interval (-2 , + inf) the graph is a horizontal line y = f(x) = 2 (see formula for this interval above). The interval (-2 , + inf) is open at x = -2 and the graph shows this with an "open point". Function f can take only two values: -1 and 2. The range is given by {-1, 2}

Example 7: f is a function defined by f( x ) = x 2 + 1 =-x+3 if x < 2 if x >= 2

Find the domain and range of function f and graph it. Solution to Example 7: The domain of f is the set of all real numbers since function f is defined for all real values of x. In the interval (- inf , 2) the graph of f is a parabola shifted up 1 unit. Also this interval is open at x = 2 and therefore the graph shows an "open point" on the graph at x = 2. In the interval [2 , + inf) the graph is a line with an x intercept at (3 , 0) and

passes through the point (2 , 1). The interval [2 , + inf) is closed at x = 2 and the graph shows a "closed point". From the graph, we can observe that function f can take all real values. The range is given by (- inf, + inf).

Example 8: f is a function defined by f( x ) = 1 / x = e -x if x < 0 if x >= 0

Find the domain and range of function f and graph it. Solution to Example 8: The domain of f is the set of all real numbers since function f is defined for all real values of x. In the interval (- inf , 0) the graph of f is a hyperbola with vertical asymptote at x = 0. In the interval [0 , + inf) the graph is a decreasing exponential and passes through the point (0 , 1). The interval [0 , + inf) is closed at x = 0 and the graph shows a "closed point". As x becomes very small, 1 / x approaches zero. As x becomes very large, e x also approaches zero. Hence the line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote to the graph of f.

From the graph of f shown below, we can observe that function f can take all real values on (- inf , 0) U (0 , 1] which is the range of function f.

Example 9: f is a function defined by f( x ) = -1 =1 =x if x <= -1 if -1 < x <= 1 if x > 1

Find the domain and range of function f and graph it. Solution to Example 9: The domain of f is the set of all real numbers. In the interval (- inf , -1], the graph of f is a horizontal line y = f(x) = -1. Closed point at x = -1 since interval closed at x = -1. In the interval (-1 , 1] the graph is a horizontal line. There should a closed point at x = 1 but read below. In the interval (1 , + inf) the graph is the line y = x. There should an open point at x = 1 since the interval is open at x = 1. But a closed point (see above) and an open point at the same location becomes a "normal" point. From the graph of f shown below, we can observe that function f can take all

real values on {-1} U [1 , + inf) which is the range of function f.

More references and links on graphing.