ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING PRACTICE LAB

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Study of Electronic Components and Equipments - CRO and Multimeters. 2. Soldering simple electronics circuits and checking continuity. 3. Assembling electronic components on a small PCB and testing. 4. Study of logic gates. 5. Study of Telephone, FM radio and low-voltage power supplies.

EX: NO: DATE: Aim: To study electronic components and equipment such as resistor colour coding, usage of CRO and Multimeter. Components Required: 1. Resistors 2. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 3. Multimeter Theory: Resistor colour coding: Resistor colour coding is used to indicate the values or ratings of resistors. It is also used in capacitors and inductors. The advantage of colour coding is that essential information can be marked on small components of cylindrical shape without the need to read tiny printing. Resistor values are always coded in ohms. Band A is the first significant digit of component value. Band B is the second significant digit. Band C is the decimal multiplier. Band D if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no colour means 20%). For example, a resistor with bands of yellow, violet, red and gold will have first digit 4(yellow), second digit 7(violet), followed by 2(red) zeros: 4,700 ohms. Gold signifies that the tolerance is 5%. Actual resistor value = 4700 5% . STUDY OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENT

Resistor Colour Coding:

Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope: The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that provides accurate time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as a general purpose laboratory instrument. We can measure the following parameters using CRO: AC or DC voltage, Time (t)=1/f, Phase relation, Wave form evaluation, rise and fall time; ON time, OFF time, distortion etc. we can also measure the following parameters non electrical physical quantities like pressure, strain, temperature, acceleration etc.. by converting into electrical quantity using transducer. MAJOR BLOCKS: Cathode Ray Tube(CRT) Vertical amplifier Horizontal amplifier Sweep generator Trigger circle Associated power supply. CATHODE RAY TUBE(CRT): The CRT is the heart of CRO. The CRT is enclosed in an evacuated glass envelop to permit the electron beam to transverse the tube easily. The main functional units of CRT are as follows Electron gun assembly Deflection plate unit. Electron gun assembly Screen

ELECTRON GUN ASSEMBLY The electron gun assembly consists of an indirectly heated cathode and the necessary heater, control grid, focusing anode and acceleration anode. The time purpose of an electron gun assembly is to provide a source of electron coverage and focus into a narrow beam which is acceleration towards the speed. The control grid is at negative potential which controls the flow of electron towards the screen. Due to the focusing and accelerating anode, the electrons are repelled away from the cylinder value and therefore stream through, where they move into the screen electric field of the focusing and accelerating anodes. The acceleration anode excerts on the electron a force that will depend on the magnitude and electric field and the magnitude of the charge of the electron.

After the electron leave the electron gun assembly they enter and pass through the region controlled by the deflection. One pair of plates control the vertical motion of the beam. The electron beam is deflected by a force exerted on each electron by the beam that must be deflected to a considerable distance (eg TV) electrostatic deflection offers the advantages of higher frequency operations and the fact that deflection plates are mounted inside the CRT thus saving the space. The other pair controls the horizontal motion of the beam. When the electron beam strikes the phosphor coated screen of the CRT, a spot of light is produced when the electron strikes the ph coated screen. It absorbs the kinetic energy from the electron and give up the energy in the form of light (fluorescence). The electrons that strike the screen either repelled by collision or cause secondary Emission to provide a written path to ground for these electrons inside surface of CRT except for the further screen coated with a graphite called AQUADAG. The beam is deflected upward and to the right by signal applied to the upper deflection plates that increases linearly with time (RAMP VOLTAGE). This ramp voltage causes the beam to be deflected equal distance horizontally per unit of time. In the normal operation the switch is set to internal sweep. When the instrument is used in X-Y mode( phase measurement). The horizontal amplifier amplifies the signal that is amplified to the horizontal input terminal and this is amplified by the horizontal amplifier. BEAM DEFLECTION The amplitude of the deflection voltages on both the horizontal and vertical deflected plates determines the position of the beam on the screen. VERTICAL AMPLIFIER: The vertical amplifier is the main factor in determining the bandwidth and sensitivity of an oscilloscope. Vertical sensitivity is a measure of how much the electron beam will be deflected for a specified input signal on the front panel or the oscilloscope one can see a knob attached to rotary switch is electrically connected to input attenuation. The setting of rotary switch indicates what amplitude signal required to deflect the beam vertically one division. HORIZONTAL AMPLIFIER On the normal mode of operation the horizontal amplifier will amplify apply the sweep generator input. When the CRO is being used in the X-Y mode. The horizontal amplifier will amplify the signal used to the horizontal input terminal. Although the vertical amplifier must be able to faithfully reproduce low amplitude high frequency signals with fast rise time. The horizontal amplifier is only required to provide a faithful reproducing of the sweep signal which has a relatively high amplitude and low rise time.

SWEEP GENERATOR If the wave form is to be accurately reproduced the beam must have constant horizontal velocity since the beam velocity is a function of the deflecting voltage, deflecting voltage must increase linearly with time. A voltage with this characteristic is called ramp voltage. During rise time of the sweep voltage, the beam moves from left to right across the CRT screen. The beam is deflected to the right by increasing the amplitude to the ramp voltage and the fact that the positive voltage attracts the negative electron. During the return or fall time the beam return to the left side of the screen to prevent undesirable retrace pattern. From appearing on the screen during retrace the control grid is generally GATED OFF which blanks out the beam during replace. Figure 2. gives the sweep generator waveform. SIGNAL SYNCHRONIZATION Signals are synchronized. If the vertical input frequency is not exactly equal to or an exact multiple of the saw tooth. The wave form will not be synchronized and the display runs across the screen. If the pattern moves towards the right the frequency of the saw tooth curve is too low when both the signal are at the same frequency and internal synchronize pulse will lock the sweep generator into the vertical input (frequency and amplitude). These limitations are overcome by the incorporation of a trigger circuit onto the oscilloscope. The trigger circuit may receive input from one of the three sources depending on the switch setting. The input signal may come from an external source when the trigger select a switch is set to EXT or from low amplitude AC voltage at line frequency when the switch is said to be line or from the vertical amplifier. When the switch is set from internal triggering the trigger circuit receives its input from the vertical amplifier. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE: DUAL TRACE OSCILLOSCOPE: It has vertical input channel and the electronic switch that alternatively connects the two input channels to the vertical amplifier they are generally minimum for four modes of operations. They are A,B alternate and chopped. When set A or B only input at that channels A or B is displayed on the alternate mode. The inputs displayed in alternate is generally preferred when displayed relatively high frequency signal. The switching rate is synchronized with the sweep generator. In the chopped mode electronic switch occurs at a rate completely independent of the sweep rate and therefore each display has portions missing during each time the other signal is being displayed. The chopped mode is normally used at low sweep rate when the alternate mode would provide display with appreciate fixer. Block diagram of a typical oscilloscope given in Figure 3.

Setting the controls of Oscilloscope:

After plugging in the oscilloscope, take a look at the front panel. It is divided into three main sections labeled Vertical, Horizontal, and Trigger. Your oscilloscope may have other sections, depending on the model and type (analog or digital). Notice the input connectors on your oscilloscope. This is where you attach probes. Most oscilloscopes have at least two input channels and each channel can display a waveform on the screen. Multiple channels are handy for comparing waveforms. Ground the Oscilloscope: Proper grounding is an important step when setting up to take measurements or work on a circuit. Properly grounding the oscilloscope protects you from a hazardous shock and grounding yourself protects your circuits from damage. Grounding the oscilloscope is necessary for safety. If a high voltage contacts the case of an ungrounded oscilloscope, any part of the case, including knobs that appear insulated, it can give you a shock. However, with a properly grounded oscilloscope, the current travels through the grounding path to earth ground rather than through you to earth ground. To ground the oscilloscope means to connect it to an electrically neutral reference point (such as earth ground). Ground your oscilloscope by plugging its three-pronged power cord into an outlet grounded to earth ground. Grounding is also necessary for taking accurate measurements with your oscilloscope. The oscilloscope needs to share the same ground as any circuits you are testing.

Vertical Controls: Use the vertical controls to position and scale the waveform vertically. Following Figure shows a typical front panel and on-screen menus for the vertical controls.

Horizontal Controls: Use the horizontal controls to position and scale the waveform horizontally. Following Figure shows a typical front panel and on-screen menus for the horizontal controls.

Trigger Position: The trigger position control may be located in the horizontal control section of your oscilloscope. It actually represents "the horizontal position of the trigger in the waveform record. Standard positions include the following:

Set the oscilloscope to display channel 1 Set the volts/division scale to a mid-range position

Turn off the variable volts/division Turn off all magnification settings Set the channel 1 input coupling to DC Set the trigger mode to auto Set the trigger source to channel 1 Turn trigger hold off to minimum or off Set the intensity control to a nominal viewing level Adjust the focus control for a sharp display

Procedure to take measurements using the Oscilloscope: The oscilloscope can take automatic measurements of most displayed signal. To measure signal frequency, period, and peak-to-peak amplitude, do the following steps:

Connect the output of the function generator to CH1 of the oscilloscope. Turn on the power switch of the function generator. Select the Sine wave button of the function generator and set the input to 1000 Hz, 200 mV P-P Turn on the power switch of the oscilloscope.

Waveform Measurements in Oscilloscope: 1. Frequency and Period If a signal repeats, it has a frequency. The frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz) and equals the number of times the signal repeats itself in one second (the cycles per second). A repeating signal also has a period - this is the amount of time it takes the signal to complete one cycle. Period and frequency are reciprocals of each other, so that 1/period equals the frequency and 1/frequency equals the period. So, for example, the sine wave in following figure has a frequency of 3 Hz and a period of 1/3 second.

Frequency and Period 2. Voltage Voltage is the amount of electric potential (a kind of signal strength) between two points in a circuit. Usually one of these points is ground (zero volts) but not always - you may want to measure the voltage from the maximum peak to the minimum peak of a waveform,

referred to at the peak-to-peak voltage. The word amplitude commonly refers to the maximum voltage of a signal measured from ground or zero volts. 3. Phase Phase is best explained by looking at a sine wave. Sine waves are based on circular motion and a circle has 360 degrees. One cycle of a sine wave has 360 degrees, as shown in following figure.

Multimeter: A multimeter is a device used to measure voltage, resistance and current in electronics & electrical equipment. It is also used to test continuity between to 2 points to verify if there are any breaks in a circuit or line. The most basic instruments include ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter. Analog multimeters are sometimes referred to as volt-ohmmeters, abbreviated as VOM. A multimeter is a handheld device and used to find basic fault and for field service work. It can measure to seven or eight and a half digit of accuracy. Current, voltage and resistance measurements are considered standard features for multimeter. A multimeter may be implemented with an analog meter deflected by an electromagnet, as a classic galvanometer; or with a digital display such as an LCD or vacuum fluorescent display. Modern multimeters are, exclusively digital and identified by the term DMM or digital multimeter. In such an instrument, the signal under test is converted to a digital voltage and an amplifier with an electronically controlled gain preconditions the signal. Since the digital display directly indicates a quantity as a number, there is no risk of error when viewing a reading. Similarly, better circuitry and electronics have improved the meter accuracy. Older analog meters might have basic accuracies of 5%. Modern potable DMMs have accuracies as good as 0.025%.

Common DMM Symbols:

Multimeter Leads: Red Meter Lead is connected to voltage/Resistance or Amperage port and are considered the positive connection. The Probes are the handles used to hold tip on the connection being tested. The Tips are at the end of the probe and provides a connection point. Black Meter Lead is connected to the common/ground port and is considered the negative connection.

Digital Display shows measured value. Meter Dial used to change the functions Panel Indicator shows each function and setting range

Probe Connections

Fig. Multimeter and Probes Diagram

Measuring Voltage:

Voltage (V) is the unit of electrical pressure; one volt is the potential difference needed to cause one amp of current to pass through one ohm of resistance Voltage is broke up into 2 sections AC & DC Alternating Current (AC) is house voltage (110vac) Direct Current (DC) is battery voltage (12vdc) On switched meters use one value higher than your expected value Be very careful to not touch any other electronic components within the equipment and do not touch the tips to each other while connected to anything else. To measure voltage connect the leads in parallel between the two points where the measurement is to be made. The multimeter provides a parallel pathway so it needs to be of a high resistance to allow as little current flow through it as possible.

Fig. Measuring Voltage

Measuring Resistance and Continuity:

Resistance () is the opposition to current Resistance is measured in Ohm's Disconnect power source before testing Remove component or part from system before testing Measure using lowest value, if OL move to next level Testing for continuity is used to test to verify if a circuit, wire or fuse is complete with no open Audible continuity allows an alarm if circuit is complete If there is no audible alarm, a resistance reading of .1 ohm to 1 ohm should be present

Fig. Measuring Resistance

Fig. Measuring or Testing Continuity

Measuring Current: Current (amps) is the flow of electrical charge though a component or conductor Current is measured in amps or amperes Disconnect power source before testing Disconnect completed circuit at end of circuit Place multimeter in series with circuit Reconnect power source and turn ON Select highest current setting and work your way down.

Fig. Measuring Current

Oscilloscope: Input to the CRO:

Output in CRO:

Model Graph:

Multimeter:

Result: Thus the resistor colour coding, usage of CRO and multimeter are studied.

STUDY AND VERIFICATION OF LOGIC GATES The Breadboard: The breadboard consists of two terminal strips and two bus strips (often broken in the centre). Each bus strip has two rows of contacts. Each of the two rows of contacts are a node. That is, each contact along a row on a bus strip is connected together (inside the breadboard). Bus strips are used primarily for power supply connections, but are also used for any node requiring a large number of connections. Each terminal strip has 60 rows and 5 columns of contacts on each side of the centre gap. Each row of 5 contacts is a node. You will build your circuits on the terminal strips by inserting the leads of circuit components into the contact receptacles and making connections with 22-26 gauge wire. There are wire cutter/strippers and a spool of wire in the lab. It is a good practice to wire +5V and 0V power supply connections to separate bus strips.

Fig 1. The breadboard. The lines indicate connected holes.

OR Gate: (IC 7432) Pin Configurations

Logic Symbol

Truth table

Circuit

AND Gate: (IC 7408) Pin Configurations:

Logic Symbol

Truth Table

Circuit

NOT Gate: (IC 7404) Pin Configurations

Logic Symbol

Truth table

Circuit

NOR Gate: (IC 7402) Pin Configurations

Logic symbol

Truth table

Circuit

NAND Gate: (IC 7400) Pin Configurations:

Logic Symbol

Truth table

Circuit

Ex-OR Gate: (IC 7486) Pin Configurations

Logic Symbol

Truth table

Circuit

EX: NO: DATE: Aim:

STUDY AND VERIFICATION OF LOGIC GATES

To verify the truth table of the logic gates AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR & Ex- OR using 74XX ICs. Components Required: S.NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Theory: Logic gates are digital circuits with one or more input signals and only one output signal. Gates are digital circuits because the input and output signals are either low or high voltages. Gates are often called logic circuits because they can be analysed using Boolean algebra. AND Gate: (IC 7408) An AND gate can have two or more inputs but only one output. Its output can go to logic 1 if all its inputs are at the high state. The Boolean expression for a two input AND gate is: F=x.y OR Gate: (IC 7432) An OR gate can have two or more inputs but only one output. Its output will be at logic 1 if any or both of its inputs are at the high state. The Boolean expression for a two input OR gate is: F = x+y COMPONENTS AND GATE OR GATE NOT GATE NOR GATE NAND GATE Ex-OR GATE RESISTOR LED Bread board Power Supply TYPE/RANGE IC7408 IC7432 IC7404 IC7402 IC7400 IC 7486 330 OHMS QUANTITY 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

5V

NOT Gate: (IC 7404) A NOT gate has a single input and a single output. It is also called as an inverter. The output will be at logic 1 if its input is at low state, otherwise its output will be at logic 0. Thus its output is the complement of its input. The Boolean expression for a NOT Gate is F= x.

NAND Gate: (IC 7400) It is the combination of AND gate and NOT gate. It is also called as an universal gate. The output of this gate will go to logic 0 iff all its inputs are at the high state. The Boolean expression for a two input NAND gate is F = (x.y)

NOR Gate: (IC 7402) It is the combination of an OR gate and a NOT gate. It is also called as an universal gate. The output of this gate will go to logic 1 iff all its inputs are at the low state. The Boolean expression for a two input NOR gate is: F = (x + y)

Ex-OR Gate: (IC 7486) The Ex-OR (exclusive-OR) gate acts in the same way as the logical either/or. The output is true if either , but not both, of the inputs are true. The output is false if both inputs are false or if the both the inputs are true. The Boolean function is F=x y.

Procedure:

1. Connections are given as per the logic diagrams and the pin-out diagrams of the individual ICs. 2. Supply and ground connections are given to the ICs. 3. Inputs are applied by using the switches that provide the logic High and Low levels. 4. The outputs are observed by using the LEDs.

Result: Thus the logic gates AND, OR, NOT, NAND and NOR are studied and their truth tables verified.

EX: NO: DATE: Aim:

SOLDERING AND CHECKING CONTINUITY

To practice soldering of plates and wires and checking the continuity. Tools Required: 1. 2. 3. 4. Soldering iron Solder Flux PCB

Theory: Soldering: Soldering is the process of joining thin metal plates or wires made of steel, copper or brass. It is very commonly used to join wires in electrical work and mount electronic components on a circuit board. The joining material used in soldering is called as solder or filler rod. An alloy of tin and lead is commonly used as the solder. The flux is used to clean the surface of the plates/wires to be soldered. Aluminium chloride or zinc chloride is commonly used as flux. A good soldering iron is a variable temperature setting type with interchangeable irons and tips. The tip should be removed regularly to prevent oxidation scale from accumulating between the heating element and the tip. Procedure: 1. The surface to be soldered is cleaned and flux applied. 2. The soldering iron is heated to the required temperature. 3. The soldering iron melts the solder rod and a thin film of solder spreads over the surface to join the plates/wires. Soldering Simple Electronic Components: A printed circuit board (PCB) consists of copper strips and pads bonded to a plastic board. The copper strip is the network of interconnecting conductive path. Leads of components mounted on the board are inserted through holes on the board and the conductive copper. These leads are soldered to the copper at the end of the hole. If excessive heat is applied to copper, it may get lifted from the board or the components on the board get damaged. Soldering pencil gun of about 30 Watts is used to heat the junction. The surface of copper bonded to the board should be properly prepared and cleaned before soldering. Flux is applied on circuits and component leads.

Check the conductive strips and pads on the board before soldering. Avoid excess solder to prevent two copper paths from bridging. When solder globules form on the junction area, remove them by cleaning the soldering tip using a cloth. Checking Continuity: The continuity of a wire conductor without a break has practically zero ohms of resistance. Therefore, an ohmmeter may be used to test continuity. To test continuity, select the lowest ohm range. A wire may have an internal break, which is not visible due to insulation, or the wire may have a bad connection at the terminals. Checking for zero ohms between any two points tests the continuity. A break in the conducting path is evident from the reading of infinite resistance. In a cable of wires, individual wires are identified with colours. Consider the figure, where the individual wires are not seen, but you wish to find the wire that connects to terminal A. This is done by, checking continuity of each wire to terminal A. The wire that has zero ohms is the one connected to this terminal. Continuity of a long cable may be tested by temporarily short-circuiting the other ends of the wires. The continuity of both wires may be checked for zero ohms. In a digital multimeter, a beep mode is available to check continuity. The connectivity between the terminals is identified by the beep sound.

Result: The electronic components are soldered and continuity of a circuit or wire is checked.

Electronic Components

Resistor

Capacitor

PN Diode Transistor

Integrated Circuit (IC)

EX: NO: DATE:

Aim:

ASSEMBLING ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS ON A PCB AND TESTING

To assemble electronic components on a PCB and test it Tools Required: 1. Soldering iron 2. Solder and 3. Flux Components Required: 1. PCB and 2. Electronic Components Procedure: The electronic components are carefully assembled as per the circuit design. The assembling of electronic components on a PCB involves the following steps. Component Lead Preparation: Components such as capacitors have leads and are bent carefully to mount on PCB. The lead bending radius should be approximately two times the diameter of the lead. The bent leads should fit into the holes perpendicular to the board, so that the stress on the component lead junction is minimized. Suitable bending tools may be used for perfect bending. Leads are bent and assembled on board in such a way that the polarity symbols are seen after mounting the component. Component Mounting: Components are mounted on one side of the board and leads are soldered on the other side of the board. The components are oriented both horizontally and vertically but uniformity in reading directions must be maintained. The uniformity in orientation of diodes, capacitors, transistors, ICs etc. is determined at the time of PCB design. Components dissipating more heat should be separated from the board surface.

Manual Assembly of Components: The components to be assembled on a PCB are arranged conveniently. The board to be assembled is held in a suitable frame and the components are kept in trays or bins.

The insertion tools, if required, must be kept in the easy reach of the worker. The work is divided depending on number of parts to be assembled and the size of each part. The number of different components to be assembled for one worker should not be more than 20. Inspection and Testing: The components assembled on the PCB are tested before they are soldered to the board. It is a common practice to have the assembled boards checked prior to soldering. An assembly inspector is located at the end of the assembly line for inspection. The inspection includes verifying component polarity, orientation, value and physical mounting. Soldering and Lead Cutting: The components are soldered on the PCB. The excess lead is cut after soldering. The performance and reliability of the solder joints are best if lead cutting is carried before soldering so that the lead end gets protected. However, this is not practiced in hand soldering. PCB Cleaning: The soldered PCB may have contaminants that could cause trouble during the functioning of the circuit. The contaminants include flux and chips of plastics, metals, and other materials. Hence, the PCB must be cleaned before use. A wide range of cleaning media is available; usually chemicals such as acetone and alcohols are used.

Result: The electronic components are assembled on PCB and are tested.

Half Adder:

Truth Table for Half Adder:

Addend (A) 0 0 1 1

Augend (B) 0 1 0 1

Sum (S) 0 1 1 0

Carry (C) 0 0 0 1

ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENT EX: NO: DATE:

Aim: To design and construct a half adder and a full adder using suitable logic gates and to verify their truth table

HALF ADDER & FULL ADDER

Components Required: IC 7432(OR Gate) IC 7408(AND Gate) IC 7486(EX-OR Gate) Digital IC trainer kit

Theory: Half Adder A Combinational circuit that performs the addition of two binary digits is called a half adder. When two single bit data are added, the result can have a maximum of two bits i.e. the sum bit and a carry bit. Thus this circuit needs two binary inputs and two outputs. The inputs are designated as addend and augend. The Boolean expression for sum and carry are: Sum, S = AB + AB S=AB Carry, C = A.B where A & B are the input variables and S & C are the output variables. Thus to get the output sum an XOR gate is used. To get the output carry an AND gate is used.

Full Adder
A B Cin 1 3 4 5 1 3 1 3 Cout = AB+ACin+BCin IC 7486 6 S=AB Cin

2 IC 7486

2 IC 7408 4 6

2 IC 7432

5 IC 7408

Truth Table for Full Adder

Addend (A) 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

Augend (B) 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

Carry-in (Cin) 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

Sum (S) 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1

Carry- out (Cout) 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1

Full Adder A Combinational circuit that performs the addition of three bits is called as a full adder. The circuit consists of three inputs and two outputs. The input variables denote the augend, addend and carry from the previous stage. Sum and carry are the outputs.

The Boolean expressions for the outputs are: SUM, S = A B Cin CARRY, Cout=(A B).Cin + A.B Where x and y are the addend & augend and z is the carry from the previous stage i.e. the third input.

Procedure:

1. Connections are given as per the logic diagram. 2. Supply and ground connections are given to all the ICs according to their pin diagrams. 3. Inputs are applied by using switches and the outputs are observed by using LEDs. 4. The truth table for the given function is verified for all the input combinations.

Result: Thus the half adder and full adder circuits are designed with their truth tables verified.