E-Book - The Introduction Into New Physics

THE INTRODUCTION INTO NEW PHYSICS
PART ONE
GORAN MITI
Ni, 2008
Goran Miti THE INTRODUCTION INTO NEW PHYSICS
Copyright 2008 Miti Goran All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced in any form without express written permission from the Author/Publisher.
CIP - Cataloging in Publication record The National Library of Serbia, Belgrade 53(02.062) MITI, Goran 1st part / Goran Miti ; [Illustration Saa Dimitrijevi ; pictures Goran Miti ; translation Ivana Joci]. - Ni : G. Miti. 2008. - 201pp. : lilustr. ; 21 cm Translation of the book: Uvod u novu fiziku copies printed 500. - Author of the Book The Introduction Into New Physics: pp. 201. ISBN 978-86-911009-1-9 a) Physics (Popular Science) COBISS.SR-ID 147936012
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CONTENTS WHAT INSPIRED ME TO WRITE THIS WAY? ................... 4 WHAT AM I WRITING ABOUT? .......................................... 5 NATURE IN CONTINUOUS MOVEMENT........................... 8 CAUSES OF NATURAL MOVEMENT............................... 11 TEMPERATURE RELATIVITY .......................................... 14 A REVOLUTIONARY IDEA: ANTI-GRAVITATION............ 21 MASS TEMPERATURE RELATIVITY ............................... 25 OBVIOUS EVIDENCE ....................................................... 31 OUR STAR, THE SUN....................................................... 45 THE STANDARD MODEL OF THE SUN.......................... 50 THERMONUCLEAR FUSION IS IMPOSSIBLE!................ 58 AN ANTI-GRAVITATIONAL MODEL OF THE SUN .......... 62 A NEW VIEW OF THE SUN .............................................. 69 CYCLES OF SUN ACTIVITY ........................................... 117 UR SUN IN OUR GALAXY............................................ 124 THE INFLUENCE OF A STARS MOVEMENT ON ITS LIFE AND DESTINY ................................................................. 135 THE ORIGIN OF STARS ................................................. 144 THE CAUSE OF ROTATION IN CELESTIAL BODIES ... 152 PRESERVING THE ROTATION OF CELESTIAL BODIES ......................................................................................... 160 THE BEGINNING OF THE UNIVERSE ........................... 165 MASS TEMPERATURE RELATIVITY AND NEWTON.... 173 MASS TEMPERATURE RELATIVITY AND EINSTEIN ... 189 DIMENSIONS AND CONSTANTS ................................ 194 THE END OF PART ONE ................................................ 199 AUTHOR OF THE BOOK THE INTRODUCTION INTO NEW PHYSICS ................................................................ 201
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Why I am writing this book? I am writing this book in the hope that as many readers as possible will be able to understand it. That is why I will try to write in simple language. In order not to discourage a single readeryoung or old, college-educated or still in school, I promise not to use even the simplest mathematical formulae and, wherever possible I will provide pictures or drawings.
What inspired me to write this way?
There is a well known anecdote in scientific circles: a young scientist begs his older colleague to help him understand a new theory; the older man tells the young man that he will never understand its essence but he will simply get used to it during the course of time. I would like what I am saying to be understood by almost everybody, not just those interested in science and technology. Therefore, I reject this attitude. In science, to just get used to a theorywhile not understanding itis unacceptable. A principal result of having an intellect is that, as human beings, we understand the world around us. The better we understand the world around us, the more progress we will
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make in fulfilling our human destiny. Merely getting used to changes is a characteristic of lower life forms. I also reject the belief, which unfortunately is quite widespread, that only a few individuals can understand new ideas or theories in science, and that others should blindly accept them on trust. I am convinced that a majority of people can understand new theories and discoveries in science if they are properly explained. Those who say modern science cannot be understood either do not understand it themselves or, for some reason, do not want to share their knowledge with others.
What am I writing about? I am writing about my understanding of the world around us, which we see either with our own eyes or by using technological aids that we have invented. I did not intend to write a theory, much less a book, because at first all I had was one idea. As I was developing and checking my idea, it slowly dawned on me that I could not just merge it with existing theories in physics, supplementing or improving them. I realized that my idea gave birth to a whole new theory. And as I developed and checked my theory in different fields of physics, I came to a conclusion that astonished even me; I would have to start creating a new physics.
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There comes a time with an old car when it is pointless to put any more time or money into repairing it. It simply cannot be fixed. It is time to buy a new one. This was Nicolaus Copernicus dilemma. He could not reconcile his discoveries about the movement of celestial bodies with existing astronomy, so he had to create a new astronomy in which the Earth and the other planets revolve around the Sun. In the Middle Ages the flow of ideas was not only slow, but at times was halted altogether when the Church intervened to suppress it. It took 150 years for his new astronomy to be accepted. It will be very interesting to see how fast this new physics will spread in the age of electronic media and the internet, when people are well informed and closely connected.
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NATURE IN CONTINUOUS MOVEMENT Human beings are different from other beings with whom we share this planet for we have developed intellect, or sense. Thus progress in our evolution has enabled us to understand the world around usthat is, to understand the laws and processes by which nature functions. All living creatures notice with their senses that nature is constantly changing, constantly moving. One does not need intellect to notice the change from day to night; the movement of the sun and moon in the sky; the movement of the stars in the night sky; the movement of clouds and the different kinds of precipitation they bring; the movement of the air, that is, the wind, and its temperature; the flow of water in brooks and rivers; waves in lakes, seas and oceans, and many other changes in nature. All living creatures have the ability to adjust to the laws of nature and thus play the game of life on this planet. It is not necessary for living creatures to understand the laws by which nature functions for them to survive on the planetall of them have a certain form of intelligence which enables them to survive in nature. However, to a human being, survival itself is not enough; we have the inner urge to understand why nature is moving in the way it is. Of course, a complete understanding
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of the laws that move nature is difficult and requires time, a lot of time. That is why people realize they have to transmit knowledge to the next generation, in order not to disrupt the progress of understanding the laws of natureso that new generations can continue where their forebears left off. That process started a long time ago and continues today. It has not always been a peaceful and quiet progress. There are numerous examples of clashes of different knowledge, and a constant emerging of new knowledge, too. The history of science shows old knowledge continuously being replaced with new, better and universal understanding. That is how it is today, that is how it will be in the future. I do not need to write any further about it, because it has been described many times elsewhere.
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10 Goran Miti THE INTRODUCTION INTO NEW PHYSICS
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CAUSES OF NATURAL MOVEMENT Seeing continuous movement throughout nature, man quickly understood that in order to move one needs energy. The source of energy for our movement, and for all other living creatures, is food. True, but what kind of energy sets everything else in nature in motion? Since nature is in continuous movement, the question logically arises: where does all that enormous energy come from? Noticing the clear difference between day and night, man quickly realized it must be the sun. The suns rays, both illumine and, unevenly, heat the surface of our planet and it is precisely those differences in temperature that lead to the movement of the air and water that enable life on earth. The energy of food that is used by almost all living creatures also has its roots in the suns energy. Therefore, the suns energy is the source of movement, that is, life. We already know that energy can be neither created nor destroyed. We have realized that energy is constantly transforming from one form into another, that it can be in a passive or an active state (potential or kinetic). Today we have access to mechanical, electric, magnetic, solar, chemical and nuclear energy, energy from radiation and other forms of energy. Nevertheless, the closest and most evident to us is thermal energy, because we all feel
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the uncomfortable and effects the of very high effect or of very low temperatures, pleasant moderate
temperatures. In order to quantitatively measure the level of warmth, men introduced the notion of temperature as the measurement of warmth of a body. We have created temperature scales and divided them into degrees and gradients and are able to measure temperature wherever we want, using different devices whose common name is thermometer.
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TEMPERATURE RELATIVITY The term relativity is used in physics for all those values and concepts that are for any reason variable, that is, do not maintain the same value. The term relativity has become very popular since the appearance of Einsteins theories of relativity. We shall leave Einsteins theories for later, because, in them, relativity is connected with speed. Here, I would like to talk about the relativity of values and concepts in terms of temperature. Let us look at which things in nature change, and how they change, with a change of temperature. A physical body, one of the basic concepts in physics, can be solid, liquid or gas. These are the three essential states of aggregation we encounter in everyday life. However, when we say a body, we primarily think of something that has a stable shape and firmness. Therefore we will begin from that point, the solid bodya body in the solid state of aggregation. When we observe a solid body and follow what happens with a change in its temperature, first we see that its dimensions change. With an increase in temperature, its dimensions increase, and with a decrease in temperature its dimensions reduce. To state it briefly: all bodies expand in heat and shrink in cold, thus their volume (V) changes. We then notice that the hardness of the body is changing. As the
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temperature of the body rises, its hardness decreases and we can more easily change its external shape. As the temperature decreases, its hardness increases and reshaping is hardly possible, or leads to cracking or breaks. Next, further increases in the temperature of the body leads to its melting, that is, its transition from a solid into a liquid state of aggregation. Now the body no longer has a specific shape, we need a vessel made from a solid material to contain it. The level of hardness is very low. This gives us the possibility of reshaping it, by casting it in different molds, then cooling it back down to the solid state of aggregation. This is the essence of metallurgy. If we continue to increase the temperature of the liquid body, we notice it starts to evaporate more and more until it is boiling. Now the liquid evaporates rapidly and, to contain our body in the gas state of aggregation we need a new, completely sealed, and considerably larger vessel because this state fills a much larger volume than the liquid. The gas state of aggregation completely occupies all of the vessels available volume, plus it exerts a certain amount of gas pressure on the vessels walls. These changes of states of aggregation we can most easily observe in our everyday lives in the form of ice, water and steam. Liquids and gases can flow, thus we use the term fluid and the inner quality of hardness we call viscosity. With an increase in temperature, viscosity is decreased, and with a
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decrease in temperature, viscosity is increasedwarm fluids flow more easily than cold ones. Accordingly, an increase in temperature of a gas increases the pressure of its action upon the walls of the vessel. When we reduce the temperature of a gas, first the pressure on the walls of the vessel reduces, and then condensation forms, (restoring the body to the liquid state of aggregation) and then hardening, or crystallization, occurs as the body is restored to the solid state of aggregation. When the effects of electricity and magnetism were first identified and studied, it was noticed that electrified bodies, exposed to heat, suffer a reduction in their electricity until it is completely lost. When an electrified body is heated, it also reduces its magnetism until it, too, is completely loss. The introduction of electricity brought with it the problem of safely conducting the current through cables and of isolating it. We have established that conductors have their own resistibility, and that energy is lost in transport. It has also been established that electric current flowing through cables causes them to heat, which in turn causes an increase in resistibility, and more energy loss. That is why we have to ensure that cables do not overheat, for it can lead to fire and serious danger. However, cooling the cables down reduces their resistibility. What is especially interesting is that, at very low temperatures, the resistibility of the cables completely disappears and there is no loss in the transmission of the
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electric current. A current circuit that is once established is permanently maintained and that interesting phenomenon is called superconductivity. As for isolators, they protect us very well from electric current when they are cool enough. If they become overheated, their isolation function is nullified, and, above certain temperatures they even become conductors. There is a category of materials we call semiconductors, and the technology of electronics depends on their special characteristic, which is that they are very sensitive to changes in temperature, so we shall have to take special notice of that. Mankind has been using fire for its own purposes for a long time, so we are well acquainted with the processes of lighting a fire and of burning. We can easily observe the flammability of different materials. Upon heating to a certain temperature, some materials burst into flames. We call that temperature the ignition point. In general, gases are the most flammable, then liquids, and finally solid bodies. We also know that among flammable materials there are those that incinerate more quickly than others. Those that incinerate the fastest we call explosives and they are dealt with very carefully. (Naturally, we deal with all flammable materials with care.) In essence, burning is a chemical process of oxidation. That means that the change in temperature changes the
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chemical properties of the material. Since there is a lot of free oxygen in the atmosphere, oxidation is an omnipresent process, but the process differs at different temperatures. In chemistry it is well known that temperature can significantly changes the chemical properties of certain substances, or can lead to their disintegration, or their becoming more compound, which results in a new generation of substances. Changes caused by lowering or raising temperature critically influence the living world, and the possibility of its survival and development. Our own life is dependent on the temperature of our bodies and if it rises or falls beyond a narrow range, we die. Living creatures are not the only ones to lose their existence when we raise the temperature enough. If we continue heating any material, it will, after becoming a gas change into the state we call plasma. When matter is in the state of plasma, atoms disintegrate, that is, they are partially or wholly ionized. In high-temperature plasma all electrons are detached from the nucleus. Thus, chemical elements lose their existence as plasma emerges. Let me also speak here about the emission of a body at different temperatures. It is well known that bodies emit electro-magnetic energy into their surroundings, whatever their temperature. The temperature of the body determines the wavelength of the dominant electromagnetic emanation that it
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emits. The higher the temperature of the body, the more dominant the emission of short wavelengths and the greater the energy. Inversely, the lower the body temperature, the more dominant the emission of long wavelengths, and the lower the energy. People are naturally able to differentiate one part of the spectrum with their eyes, the part called the visible spectrum, or visible light. Through our skin, we can also sense a part of the spectrum, which we call heat or infrared (IR) radiation, and a part of the spectrum called ultraviolet (UV) radiation. By simply touch we can determine if one body is warmer than another. If bodies are too warm to touch, simply by bringing our hands to a safe distance we can determine which body is warmer. When we heat metals to red-hot, we observe something interesting: by further heating the metals, we see them begin to emit red light, called red incandescence, followed by the emission of white light, or white incandescence. If we observe a candle flame, we can see that different areas burn in different colors. Where the temperature is highest, the flame is brightest, and where the temperature is lower, at the periphery, the flame is a little less bright, that is, redder. Burning different substances creates flames of every color of the rainbow.
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A REVOLUTIONARY IDEA: ANTI-GRAVITATION While I lived on the side of Cegar Hill, on the outskirts of the town of Nis, my wife and I regularly hiked to the top where there is a monument to the unique bravery of the Serbian rebels of the First Serbian Uprising against the Turks. Unwilling to surrender to the Turks, the Serb leader, Stevan Sindjelic, shot a barrel of gunpowder thus blowing up both the Serbs and the Turks. The Turks built a tower from the heads of the Serbian rebels on the outskirts of Nis in order to intimidate the Serbian people. But the Serbs, as a nation, do not allow themselves to be intimidated, so after the failure of the Fist Serbian Uprising, they launched the Second Uprising and managed to free themselves from five centuries of slavery that they had endured under the Turks. Close to the monument is the field of the village football club, and the whole hill is covered in vineyards and orchards. We regularly jogged around the football field. One day in August 1997, as we were running there, dusk began to fall. On a field behind the goalposts, closer to the monument, there was a large pile of dried vine stems. The villagers use these stems as a fuel for distilling rakija (Serbian brandy) or for heat, especially kindling, as they burn easily. However, this particular pile had been built for a bonfire. Just then, a villager lit the huge pile, and we watched the whole scene. Then, continuing with our run, we turned our backs on the
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fire. When we reached the opposite goalpost we faced the fire once again and saw a fascinating sight. Flames had already engulfed the whole pile and were reaching their maximum. The flames reached 10 meters high and illumined the whole top of the hill. I had never seen a larger fire in my entire life. Totally fascinated, we stood there admiring the magnificent sight. I was as happy and delighted as a child without a thought in my headjust the image of the huge fire whose flames were rising so forcibly and quickly upward, as they narrowed towards the apex. From the top of the flames, sparks were flying up at a great speed into the darkness. That the heated mass of particles and air was being forced upwards was clearly visible. Suddenly a thought flashed in my head: Thats antigravity! followed by a tingling feeling running up my spine, as I considered the veracity of the thought that had occurred in my head. There were goose bumps all over my skin and my hair stood on end. That feeling was not new to me. I had had it before, when other equally striking ideas had occurred to me, but this was much more intense. I no longer saw the fire with the same eyes. Now I was watching anti-gravitation in action. I did not, for a single moment, doubt the veracity of the thought that had occurred in my head. Previous experiences, similar to this one, had already persuaded me to believe in the veracity of ideas acquired in such a manner. Instantaneously, questions appeared what is happening in the process of combustion? How did it work? From the day that anti-gravitation first entered my head,
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nothing in my life has been the same. That thought completely seized me, and before long my wife asked me what was going on with meI was so changed. It was only then that I told her what had happened that night when we were watching the fire on Cegar. People think that it is enough for an idea to appear in your mind for the problem to be solved; I also used to think like that. However, the opposite is true: when an idea appears in your mind, it is just the beginning of a long and arduous journey to a complete understanding of that idea. Then it has to be verified in every instance, and finally it has to be integrated into existing science. I was not fully aware of all this, but I immediately set about the process of understanding the idea. Previously I had thought that a person owns an idea that he or she works on. But in time, I came to see the opposite; it is as if the ideas choose us, and through us they manifest themselves.
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MASS TEMPERATURE RELATIVITY I started by analyzing the fire. The flames stretch from the bottom of the pile of burning material (because that is how a fire starts) and the higher the pile is, the higher the final height of the fire will be. Above the flames there is a part that is invisible, or transparent. It is much smaller than the fire. Above this transparent area is the zone of visible smoke. At the beginning the smoke is light-colored; as the height increases, the smoke grows darker and darker. As the height increases, the smoke goes up more and more slowly. At a certain point it reaches its maximum height. Since it cannot go beyond its optimal height the smoke spreads outward, having the appearance of a thick pancake. When the process of burning finishes, the smoke cloud hangs in the air on the maximum height, and then slowly loses height and finally falls back to the ground. To recap: the visible effect of burning comprises the ascent of hot gas up to an optimal height and its decline to earth when it cools down. But lets analyze individual gas molecules that result from combustion (CO2 + H2O). Hot gas molecules emit electromagnetic radiation in infrared (IR) and the visible part of the spectrum, so we see those emissions as bright or less bright flames. At that point they are rapidly entering the transparent zone; the molecules have cooled a little, enough that they do not emit visible light, but only IR
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radiation, and they continue going rapidly upwards. The first layer of smoke is comprised of molecules that are already cooled down so that along with emitting IR radiation they start absorbing the suns light and continue moving upward but at a slower speed. Optimal height is reached when the molecules are absorbing and emitting equal amounts of energy, so there is no more vertical movement and thus they hang in the air. As the molecules are in a continual process of cooling down, eventually they are emitting less energy than they are absorbing. Slowly they fall. As the process of cooling down continues, the gas molecules fall faster until their final fall to the ground, when the molecules temperature equates with the outside temperature. The logic of my thinking was this: if the molecules of the hot gas that are characterized by high temperatures fly rapidly upward, and if that is anti-gravitation in action, that means that molecules at high temperatures have negative mass. But, as they cool, while moving away from earth, they go upward more slowly, meaning that the negativity of their mass is being reduced. The change in the molecules distance from the mass center of the earth cannot be the cause of such changes in their mutual interaction, because the whole process involves a relatively small height in comparison to the earths radius. When the molecules of gas reach their final height and start hanging in the air, that means that they lost the
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characteristic of negative character of their mass, and reached a massless state; at that point there is no interaction with the earth, neither anti-gravitational, nor gravitational. But, as cooling happens continuously, they start to have positive mass, re-establishing gravitational interaction with the earth and falling towards the earth. The more they cool down, the faster they fall towards the earth; which tells us that their attractive mass is changing quantitatively (increasing) as the temperature lowers. The molecules have maximum attractive mass when their temperature is equal to the temperature of the surrounding air, just as they had the maximum negative mass when their temperature was equal to the temperature of the fire. The higher the combustion (fire) temperature, the higher the maximum height of the gases will be before returning to earth. Is it important to explore the temperatural relativity of mass? Well... yes! If temperature influences so many features of matter, as we have already shown, it also makes sense to explore what influence it has on feature we call mass. And it also, therefore, it makes sense to talk about the temperatural relativity of mass. The temperatural relativity of mass shows us that warming a body decreases its attractiveness until it is completely lost, let us say, it reaches zero. In this state the feature we call mass is lost and the body is said to be in a massless state. In this state the quality of the mass also
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changes. With further warming the mass of the body becomes qualitatively negative, and, as the body temperature rises, quantitatively, the negativity of the mass rises. That means that the feature we call mass changes not only quantitatively but also qualitatively with a change of temperature. Can we talk about negative mass and anti-gravitation from the aspect of physics and forces in nature? Let us remind ourselves what physics has to say about forces in nature. Until now, physics has defined four types of forces. These are: strong, weak, electromagnetic and gravitational force. Strong, or nuclear, forces are forces that work on the level of the atomic nucleus, between the protons and neutrons, and they account for the stability of matter. Measured by intensity these are the strongest of all forces known to us, and by range, the shortest. Weak forces are those functioning on the atomic level that are responsible for the radioactive breakdown of matter. In intensity they are weaker than the nuclear or strong force (hence the name), but they are still very strong, and their range is wider than strong force. Electromagnetic forces are easier for us to grasp because we encounter electricity and magnetism in our everyday lives. Electromagnetic force is weaker than the weak force, however, its third place should not be underestimated. The range of electromagnetic forces is much larger than both the strong and the weak forces.
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Gravitational force is most familiar to us. We experience it in every aspect of our lives and movements. It has the weakest intensity of all forces, but is the most dominant force in the universe because of its vast range. Apart from being different in quantity, these four forces are qualitatively different as well. How? Strong, weak and electromagnetic forces appear to attract and repel, while gravitational force appears to attract only. Is gravity an exception? Temperatural relativity of mass is just the thing that introduces symmetry among all the forces by introducing a negative aspect to gravitational forces, that is, anti-gravitation. All forces now become attractive/negative, which we have been eagerly expecting and which, in theory, seems so natural and logical to us. So...the answer is yes! It does make sense in physics to talk about negative mass and anti-gravitiation. It is precisely what has been lacking.
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OBVIOUS EVIDENCE When working on a new idea, apart from the tremendous enthusiasm that we feel, occasionally there are periods when doubt overcomes us and we start to ask ourselves if it is all a delusion or a serious mistake. And I, indeed, asked myself those questions: am I not making a mistake, am I not deluding myself? If mass temperature relativity is a reality, then besides fire there should exist some other proof of anti-gravitation in action. And so I began to observe the world around me. I investigated all vertical movements, upward or downward, as well as all processes which involve warming or cooling. We live on the surface of planet Earth, in its air layer, which we call the atmosphere. We breathe the omnipresent air and feel its temperature or movement, although we cannot see it. Let us see what and how it is happening with this air, which is always moving. As kids in primary school, we learned that warm air is lighter and rises, and cool air is heavier and it goes downward. That is just another way of expressing what I am saying about mass temperatural relativity. But, let us take one example at a time. When we observe a closed air system like a room, for example, it is clear that the coolest air is next to the floor and the warmest just below the ceiling. That is why we put heating
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appliances as low as possible, so that they can heat the maximum volume of air. If we open a door or window and raise a lighted candle or lighter from the floor upward, we will see for ourselves that cool air enters the room from below, and warm air exits the room from above. The room gets cooler, first from below, then higher. After all, we feel the cool air on our feet first. The warm air that leaves the room continues moving upward, since there is now no ceiling to impede its movement. If you do not believe me, heat up your oven and then open the door holding your hand above the stove. (Do not put your face above the stove for the hot air might burn you.) To cool ourselves in summer, we should put the cooling system close to the ceiling, because the cool air, as it falls will cool the greatest volume of the air in the room. If we again try the experiment with the lighted candle flame or lighter with the fridge or the freezer door left ajar, we will see that cool air is leaving it in a downward trajectory and that the warm air is entering upwards, into it. Therefore, we have a completely different situation when we compare airing up warmed and cooled closed space. Why is that so? When we heat the air in a closed space, pressure increases in the upper part where the warm air is, and decreases in the lower part where the air is cold. Heated molecules of air, whose mass has become more or less
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negative, exert pressure on the upper surface of the closed space and pile up in the upper part, further increasing the pressure. As the number of molecules exerting pressure on them decrease, the cool molecules slowly move apart, so that below, where the cool air is, pressure decreases. Conversely, when we cool the air in a closed space, the pressure increases in the lower part where the air is cooler, and decreases in the upper part where the air is warmer. Cooled air molecules, whose mass has become even more attractive, exert pressure on the bottom surface of the closed space and pile up in the lower part making increased pressure. Because fewer warm molecules are pressing on each other, they slowly move apart and upward, where the air is warmer, further decreasing the pressure. Let us now observe an open-air system, such as the atmosphere of our planet. Earths gravitation attracts all air molecules and thus keeps them in place around itself. We know that air pressure at sea level is one atmosphere, and that as you move up from sea level the atmospheric pressure decreases because the air is becoming rarefied. But the pressure is not the same everywhere, even at the lower levels of the earths atmosphere; we have areas of increased or decreased air pressure, which brings about horizontal movement of air masses, that is, winds.
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Why causes those differences in air pressure? They arise because of different levels of heat at different parts of the earths surface. The earths surface is about one third land, and two-thirds water. Land and water surfaces warm in different ways. Even on land the surface warms differently depending on the terrain. The air in the atmosphere is not warmed directly from the suns rays, but is heated by the surface above which it is located. Warm surfaces heat the air molecules more, causing them to rise, leaving decreased air pressure near the ground. Cool or cold surfaces cool the air molecules, and they fall down creating increased air pressure near the ground. Yachtsmen are masters in exploiting this difference. They use the warm air currents to raise their sails. The discovery of how air moves, led to the invention of flying objects called hot-air balloons. Ropes were strung from the balloon that a basket to hold passengers or cargo. The balloon was open at the bottom, and below the balloon was placed a burner that heated the air within the balloon. The air in the balloon was heated by turning on the burner. The air then exerts pressure on the upper surface of the balloon, lifting it upward. By turning off the burner to cool the air, or letting the warm air at the top of the balloon escape by opening the top, the pressure of the warm air on the balloons upper surface decreases and the balloon loses height and starts to fall. That
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is how, without knowing the principle of anti-gravitation, it was used for an early flying machine. Observing the movement of steam is even more illumining. We can see steam; therefore we can follow its motion, up and down, here and there. Whether we are cooking in the kitchen or having a hot shower in the bathroom, we can see the hot steam molecules move upward and cool steam molecules move down. The same happens in the atmosphere where steam takes the form of clouds. During the day, in the heat of the sun, clouds move across the sky carried by the wind; when the sun sets, they get cooler and fall toward the ground creating mist and fog. The whole phenomenon of weather and climate is based on the mass temperatural relativity of air and steam molecules. As we have seen with smoke, similarly with steam, there is a certain maximal height, which the steam can reach and which depends on its starting temperature. Planes fly at heights above the maximal height of clouds, providing us with the opportunity to see the wonderful world of clouds from above. Observe it when you have the opportunity to fly. You will see places that look like fountains that rise above the level of the clouds. On any given day, if we turn on the television we can see violence and explosions aplenty. Not all explosions are caused in the same way. Let us analyze them one by one.
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The first category of explosive materials is those whose chemical nature (atomic or molecular) is abruptly turned into heat energy. These are called classic explosives. The list of classic explosives is very long and is constantly being added to. Historically it started out with gunpowder, that is, dynamite, then TNT, etc. The military industry incessantly researches and creates more and more powerful explo-sives that are then very efficiently used in continual wars. The idea that stronger explosives can bring the world closer to peace is dangerous and wrong, and history has proved it a failure. What do we see if we closely observe explosions from classic explosives? At the moment of explosion a big fireball is generated; its dimensions depend on the type and amount of the explosive in use. In the next moment the ball starts rising, enlarging and losing the fiery glow, turning into a light or dark smoke cloud, which loses shape as it moves through the air. If we continue following the process, we see that the speed at which it expands and rises begins to slacken, and that a moment will come when the smoke cloud will achieve its optimal size and, more importantly, its optimal height. After hanging in the air for some time, the cloud starts falling and dissipating because of air currents. The features of an explosion vary depending on the amount of released energy.
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The second category, fission-type nuclear explosions, is caused by an abrupt conversion of nuclear energy into heat energy by the process of fission, tearing apart the atomic nucleus. These materials are called fission-type nuclear explosives. There are only a few, but even one is enough to face us with the possibility of self-extinction. Mankind has come into possession of these explosives in the last century and developed destructive capacities of unthinkable proportions. The nuclear mushroom cloud is poised above mans head like a guillotine. Its very name nuclear mushroom cloud describes the process of a fission nuclear explosion. In quality it is identical to the classic explosive; the difference is in quantity. The explosion ball is of much larger dimension, as is the explosion cloud, and the maximal height of its ascension reaches about ten kilometers. Again, the features depend on the kind, and the amount, of the nuclear explosive, that is, the free energy intensity. The third category of explosives is caused by an abrupt conversion of nuclear energy into heat energy by the process of fusion, or, creating helium atoms by fusing hydrogen ones. This kind of explosives I have singled out, because I will, in the further course of my presentation, demonstrate that it is not actually fusion we is taking place, but a whole new process that we have not yet described, let alone understood. This category of explosives contains the most powerful explosions
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that can be detonated. In quality they are similar to the previous categories of explosives, but in quantity they exceed all previous categories, because the emitted energy is by far the greatest. In all explosions the action of mass temperature relativity is clearly apparent, except that with explosions, unlike with fire, the whole process is finished in a single moment, which creates the fireball. The fireball is generated by the strong anti-gravitational force of the over-heated molecules emerging from the explosion, which are instantaneously, forcefully and briskly escaping from the mass. In the next moment that ball of over-heated molecules with negative mass is repelled by the earth and goes upward, until it cools down and stops moving swiftly away from earth, when it reaches its maximal height. When it cools even more and the mass of its molecules once more attracts, it begins to fall again, until all the products of the explosion fall to the ground, where their motion began. Let us now consider the process of combustion and explosion in the zero gravity state. In the past century man traveled to outer space. Before long the astronauts were celebrating their birthdays in space. And just like on earth, the lit candles on their birthday cakes. Pictures from these birthday parties were broadcast to earth where we could observe the behavior of a candle flame in zero gravity. The flame, in a zero
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gravity state, is shaped like a perfect ball. Why? We all know that the shape of a flame on earth is like a drop with its tip striving upward no matter how we hold the candle. On earth we live under the continuous effects of gravity, and each flame, is by nature an anti-gravitational occurrence, striving away from the center of gravitation. In the zero gravity state, the flame, as an anti-gravitational occurrence without a centre of gravity to repel against, repels only from itself and thus forms the shape of a perfect ball. Explosions taking place in outer space have a perfectly spherical shape just like the candle flame. Explosions of novas and supernovas have the sphere shaped, which we will examine in more detail later. A nice example for that would bear out the previous argument would be an incense stick in zero gravity. On earth the smoke from the incense stick goes up in a straight line, because it is an anti-gravitational occurrence. I have not had the chance to see a lit incense stick in zero gravity, but I predict that its flame would expand like a perfect ball enlarging its diameter. Let us hope that those who have the opportunity will perform this harmless experiment. A telling example both for its relevance and size, as well as its duration and beauty, is found in Aboriginal bonfires. Native Australians, believing that they had, in the past, been visited from outer space, have a custom of making a huge fire at a fixed time every year and keep it burning for a whole
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month, in order to say hello to their visitors and show them that they have not forgotten them. This belief may seem naive and cute to you, as it once did to me. But I am now convinced that what the Aborigines are doing is neither naive nor cute, but completely sensible, and very efficient. Cosmonauts, who were flying in the earths orbit during this Aboriginal ritual, claimed that this fire helped them to orient themselves at night as to their location. By observing Australia from above, they could clearly see the Aboriginal fire from orbit, and they found it was something really fascinating. They reported that they had the clear impression that the blaze was reaching all the way to their orbit. My conclusion is that the Aborigines know exactly how big the fire needs to be, and how long it has to burn in order to be able to leave the earths gravitational field and the heights of the atmosphere, and emit their light steadily in the desired direction. And remember, the Aborigines do this at the same time every year, which means that they always send their message to the same part of the starry sky. Aboriginal fires are proof that only with fire can the Earths gravity be surmounted, because with fire there is no limit to what we call maximal height. Hot molecules of the Aboriginal fire leave the earths gravitational field and are really the first launching of material from the earth into the
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cosmos. All modern-day launches are also made with the help of combustion and fire. On the subject of launching, it is interesting to note that man have used a particular launching device for centuries. It is called a chimney. As a thermal isolator, a chimney enables us to launch products of combustion, such as smoke, ashes and soot to a maximal possible height, so that, carried by the wind, they fall as far as possible from ourselves, (even if it is only in our nearest neighbors yard!) Now, let us see what happens with liquids. To heat a liquid, we apply the heat below it. As it warms, the heated part of the liquid moves upward to the surface where they get cooled down and then sink to the bottom where it gets heated again, which again drives it back to the surface. All liquids and gases behave in this manner when heated, that is, mass temperature relativity functions identically with all fluids. When we heat liquid food up to the boiling point (soups, teas, coffees, etc.), we can easily see the movement in the liquid as well as in the steam. We are observing anti-gravitation in action just as we observe gravitation in action every day. In a zero gravity state liquids form the shape of a ball, larger or smaller, depending on the amount. If we could apply heat from the center of the liquid ball we would create circulation of the hot liquid from the center outward, towards the surface in every direction. And if the liquid were raised to
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the boiling point, it would be visible all over the surface of the ball. Finally, let us see what happens with solid bodies. In order to understand the principle of the heat dispersing through solid bodies more easily, we shall observe what happens when we heat solid bodies that are heat conductors, like, for example, metals. Let us take a metal bar 30cm long and 2 or 3cm in diameter. Holding it at the ends, and we place the center over a small, preheated burner of the kitchen stove. As a good heat conductor, the metal will be heated in all directions from the heat source, but by far the most directly above the source of heat. That can be established by touching it (carefully!), or by bending the bar, which will bend exactly along the vertical above the heat source. Blacksmith technology is based on this fact. So, the principle of heat transmission, vertically upwards, which we observed in liquids and gases, holds true for solids also, there is no internal movement of the matter as there was with fluids--the liquids and gases. Nature around us does not hide anything. It functions by its own laws and we, by developing our awareness, eventually discover or identify these laws. The turn has come for us to discover the law of anti-gravity in full. It certainly opens up a long series of questions with it, and many problems. But, I have started walking that road, step by step
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and I have come to a new physics. Now I am inviting you to see what it looks like. Although, to be honest, the process of discovery is never-ending, and will continue long after this book is complete, when this major new understanding of the world around us begins, it will lead us to a new understanding of ourselves, also.
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OUR STAR, THE SUN There are really innumerable examples of red-hot bodies in zero gravity state; if you do not believe me, look at the sky when the sun sets. Every star we see or cannot see in the sky is a red-hot body. We can look at all those stars with our naked eye, because they are very far away, and the intensity of their radiation reaching us is very weak. But during the day we have a star whose radiation intensity is so strong we cannot look at it with our naked eye or we would become blind. We can only watch its rising and setting. That star is very close to us, and it provides us with pleasant heat and light; however, it is far enough in order not to turn us into ashes and dust. We consider that star our own, and we call it the sun. From primitive times to the present, the sun has fascinated man. He followed its movement across the sky and oriented himself in space and time by it. He noticed the annual cycle of the suns movement and started counting yearsthe origin of the calendar. He has understood the coming of spring and when to plant seeds; how to save food and fuel for the onset of winter. Before that, he moved south in the autumn, as the birds do, and returned north in the spring. He understood that the temperature on earth is directly dependent of the suns position and movement across the sky. During the day, when
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exposing our bodies to the suns rays, we sense its warmth on our skin. The question arises: what is the source of this vast energy that the sun is radiating? When the telescope was invented several centuries ago, it allowed a systematic observation of the celestial bodies. The stars and planets were observed at night and the sun during the day. The development of astronomy has changed our concept of the cosmos. We have realized that the earth revolves around its axis, and the moon revolves around the earth, and that the earth and moon together revolve around the sun, which, in turn, also revolves around its axis and around the centre of our galaxy. The discovery that the suns light consists of a number of different colors (the rainbow) led to the development of spectral analysis, and the invention of various devices for that purpose. By using spectral analysis, we have learned how to determine, not only the temperature of a light-emitting body, but it chemical structure, both qualitative and quantitative. Spectral analysis of the suns light led to the conclusion that 71% of the suns mass is hydrogen (H2), and 27% helium (He). Other chemical elements: O, C, Fe, N, Ne, constitute a little more that 1% of the suns mass. When the total number of atoms that constitute the sun is calculated, 91.2% are
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hydrogen atoms, and 8.7% helium atoms. The temperature of the suns surface is about 5800K (degrees Kelvin). The history of scientific analysis and calculations to discover the source of the suns energy, at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, took the following course: The theory that the suns energy originates from exothermic chemical reactions, when calculated with the suns present luminosity lead to the conclusion that the sun has been shining for only about 30,000 years. That is, of course, an utterly absurd conclusion, and therefore that possibility was rejected. A theory that the suns energy stems from gravitational compression led to the sun being 16.5 million years old. That was not a satisfactory result, either, and was rejected. Today it is believed that the energy emission by gravitational compression is dominant only at the early and late stages of the evolution of stars, including the sun. The theory that the suns energy source is radioactive decomposition was also rejected as it failed to adequately explain all the known facts. Sir Arthur Stanley Edington presented the idea of hydrogen fusion in 1920. Calculating theoretically, he established that upon the 4 H nuclei cohesion, energy of 7MeV per nucleons is extracted to the nucleus of He. In 1938 Weizscker identified the possibility of fusion reactions of H2 into He through a protonthe proton and carbon-azoth cycle.
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In 1939 Bete and Kritchfield established, by detailed calculations, that hydrogen fusion burning provides enough energy for the suns luminosity for a period of 10 billion years. That was the result that finally satisfied scientists. The idea of fusion of H into He become generally accepted as the source of the suns energy, which led to the conclusion that the sun is a gas sphere in mechanical balance, that is, its own force of gravity tending to compress the star, is balanced by the force of gas pressure, which tends to disperse it away. Of course, in order for fusion to occur in the suns center, a very high temperature is required. The electromagnetic radiation that we see from the sun stems from a relatively thin surface layer. The enormous density of the suns matter, and its state, lead to its being almost opaque, even for the strongest gamma and X-ray radiation coming from the inside of the sun. For this reason, the inside of the sun is not accessible to the observer, and it is described on the basis of theoretical models.
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THE STANDARD MODEL OF THE SUN Richard Sears posited this standard model, which is, with certain modifications and corrections, scientifically accepted today. He created it for stars with mass, radius, glow and constitution similar to our sun. According to this model, the inside of the sun has three zones: a core (a zone of fusion reactions), a radiation and a convective zone. In the radiative zone, energy, made in the core, is transferred towards the outer layers by radiation. In the convective zone the principle mechanism of energy transmission is convection, that is, a flow of matter. The standard model (SM) supposes that in the center of the sun the temperature is 15 million degrees, and the density 150000 kg/m3. Though we speak about huge density and pressure, it is nonetheless believed that, because of the high temperature, the substance is in a state of completely ionized gas plasma, which can be considered a perfect gas. SM is in concurs with theories about energy production in the sun, and in that sense it corresponds very well with direct observations. In order to explain the results of precise measurements in all parts of the electro-magnetic (EM) spectrum, and corpuscle radiation, the standard model has been modified several times, but its basic tenets are still considered valid in scientific circles. Today, for example, it is
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believed that the core temperature is about 14 million degrees K, a little lower than the one predicted by the model. The suns core according to the Standard Model: in the center of the sun there is a compact core, which comprises about 60% of suns mass. Its dimensions are r=0.25 R (radius of the sun), which means that is takes only about 1.6% of the suns volume. In order to get fusion reactions it is necessary for the atomic nuclei to get within a distance of less than 10-15m. Then a strong attractive nuclear force starts acting between them. However, for the particles to become close enough for fusion, they must conquer the huge Culon force, which repels them because they have the same electrical force. One theory is that the particles are moving at great thermal speeds of more that 100 kilometers per second. Such thermal speeds can be realized in temperatures of 107K. If the thermal speeds are low, the particles will diffuse themselves before they get to the distance where the attractive nuclear force becomes stronger than the bouncing Culons force. The high internal energy of the sun is provided, initially, by the powerful gravitational force that is a consequence of the suns great mass. It compresses gas and that is why it gets heated. The Standard Model has determined what temperature the suns core must be to enable fusion reactions to occur. A temperature of 15 million degrees, which, according to the SM,
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is the temperature of the suns core, is insufficient for all the existing particles to interact in fusion. Normally, in clashes, particles are usually diffused, and only a few of them enter fusion reactions. The plasma in the core is treated as an almost ideal gas, so that in the end of the Maxwells classification of particles according to speed there are very few protons that can realize fusion reactions. However, thanks to the quantum effect of tunneling, a sufficient number of particles overcome the electro-reflecting barrier, entering a nuclear reaction, even at lower temperatures. Basic fusion reactions in the suns core are conducted in two cycles: the protone-protone (P-P) cycle, which is dominant, and carbon-nitrogen (C-N) cycle. Both cycles release approximately the same energy, about 26.72 Mev per He formed nucleus. Neutrinos occur in fusion reactions. They isolate about 2% of the freed energy in P-P cycle and about 7% of energy in the C-N cycle. Today there exists a number of very important, and expensive, experimental systems for detecting solar neutrinos. The results of these measurements have been very unexpected for astrophysicists: the number of neutrions detected is considerably less than what was anticipated based on the SM. According to these calculations, when a sun is more than 9 billion years old, all the supplies of hydrogen will have been consumed and transformed into helium, and the zone of
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the hydrogen fusion will have started transferring towards the outer areas, to the layer encircling the nucleus. This area will expand until it reaches the area in which the temperatures are lower than 10 million degrees, and hydrogen fusion will no longer occur. At the same time, the suns nucleus, rich in helium, will become compressed by the action of its own gravity. That, in turn, will lead to an increase of pressure and temperature, and the creation of new conditions for starting fusion reactions of the helium nuclei. Carbon and oxygen nuclei will be formed in these reactions, followed by the release of energy. Because of the fusion reactions of helium in the nucleus, and the hydrogen in the thin layer far from the nucleus, the solar mantle will inflate leading to the gradual enlargement of the solar radius. During this process, which will last approximately 500 million years, the sun will turn into a red giant. It will then swallow its system of planets, and the effective temperature of its surface will become lower. Next, a short phase, of about 50 million years, of fast fusion combustion of the remaining helium and the heavier elements will ensue. During this phase of the suns evolution, only carbon and oxygen will be found in its core. The inside of the sun will continue to further collapse, which was only temporarily halted by the helium fusion. The core temperature will rise again, but
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not enough to enable further fusion reactions. The atmosphere of the sun will expand a little more. Sun will start pulsating lightly, expanding and compressing over periods of several thousands of years. Finally, this phase of evolution will end by casting off the suns atmosphere in the shape of one or two expanding membranes. At their center a core, intensely emitting ultraviolet radiation, will remain. In that way the sun will turn into a planetary haze in whose center a white slowly cooling dwarf will be located. After cooling down for several billions of years, the sun will turn into a dark, brown dwarfthe final stage of its evolution. The suns radiative zone occupies the area of 0.25 0.85 Ro from the center of the sun. In the radiation zone, as well as in the core, energy is transferred towards the outer layers by radiation. Since in the radiation zone there are no fusion reactions, there is no accumulation of helium, so the mass percentage of H2 is double that of the core. At the beginning of the radiation zone the temperature is about 7x106K, and at the outer edge, about 2x106K. The suns convection zone spreads from the area at the upper boundary of the radiation zone to the photosphere, that is, the surface of the sun, which means its thickness is
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between 150,000 and 200,000 km. In this zone the dominant transfer of energy is performed by convection, that is, substance flow. This zone is of great significance, because, primarily, the processes taking place here determine the characteristics and the behavior in the external parts of the star: the origination and the variations of the local magnetic fields, activity, heating of the upper layers of the atmosphere, and so on. In the convective layers there is movement of large mass of the suns substance; the warmer mass going up towards the surface, as the cooler mass descends towards the inner layers. Gas that has erupted to the suns surface loses its energy through radiation, cools down, and then sinks again deeper and deeper into the warmer layers of the convective zone. In the depths, the gas is heated once more and the process of circulation repeats itself. The speed of the convective movement at the surface layer of the sun reaches 2-3 km/s. At the inner edge of the convective layer the temperature is 2x106K, and at the surface, the photosphere, it is about 5800K. Seen in horizontal section, convective cells are almost hexagonal. In their center the substance goes up, and at the periphery it lowers towards the deeper layers. Substance movement in the highest layers of the convective zone leads to the occurrence of granulation in the pho-
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tosphere, acoustic perturbations and gas oscillation in the suns atmosphere, and through them, probably to the heating of its higher layers. This is, in essence, the Standard Model of the sun. As we can see, it is already troubled by problems and unanswered questions. Lets see what happens when we include the concepts of mass temperature relativity and antigravitation into this analysis.
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THERMONUCLEAR FUSION IS IMPOSSIBLE! In all theories of physics to date, including
astrophysics, mass interactions are governed by gravity alone. When we add the concept of anti-gravity to mass interactions, everything significantly changes. How? The first and basic conclusion we arrive at is that thermonuclear, or hot, fusion is absolutely impossible! It is impossible for the hydrogen nuclei to fuse into helium, because, besides Coulons bouncing, they are also repelled by anti-gravity. At the supposed temperature of 15x106K, the negative mass of the H nuclei is so large that there is no possibility of their fusion. With the rise in temperature, that is, thermal speeds, fusion becomes even less possible. Fusion is possible at very low temperatures, when the attraction of the atomic mass is so high that it overcomes the force of their Coulon repulsion. Nature, therefore, allows only cold fusion. But there is no energy benefit from it. I realize this claim is extremely radical and it requires at least some experimental proof. Is there any such evidence? Of course there is. There have been multi-decade attempts to achieve controlled thermonuclear fusion under earthly conditions.
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What a great idea! Achieve thermonuclear fusion under earthly conditions and solve the energy problem of the planet forever. A goal whose aim justifies all material means and intellectual effort invested in it. A stockpile of unlimited, pure energy is not only worthy of glory, but is also financially enticing. America and Russia embarked on this quest, each in their own way, a few decades ago. Americans named their project Shiva, for the god Shiva of the Hindu holy trinity. Their concept was to hit a small ball filled with hydrogen from different angles using very powerful lasers. Despite all their efforts, the enhancement of laser power and the huge expense, in the end, there was no positive result. The Russians project was called Tokamak for short. Their concept was to use powerful magnetic fields to maintain high temperature plasma in the shape of a ring, long enough for conditions for fusion to emerge. But, as the temperature increased the plasma ring always fell apart before there was any hoped-for result. Their devoted efforts, the enhancement of the power of magnetic fields, and their enormous financial investment, did not produce the expected results. There were no results, nor will there be any, because both parties were blinded to the deficiencies of the theory of natural forces, and were trying to accomplish something that is not possible to accomplish.
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All future attempts to achieve thermonuclear or hot fusion are doomed to fail, and, in the process, waste huge amounts of money as well as scientific resources. But, you say, what about the hydrogen bomb? Have we not accomplished uncontrolled thermonuclear fusion under earthly conditions by detonating the H-bomb? The answer is: no, we have not! Uncontrolled thermonuclear fusion has not been accomplished in the so-called H-bomb. What is actually happening in an H-bomb explosion, we shall presently discover.
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AN ANTI-GRAVITATIONAL MODEL OF THE SUN If thermonuclear fusion is impossible, then we have to reopen the question of the source of the suns energy; the fundamental question in astrophysicsthe origin of all the stars. As for the Standard Model of the sun, it completely failed to explain all the existing facts, and so, it is necessary to create a new model of the sun. Because we are introducing anti-gravity, we will name the anti-gravitational model of the sun. Using the anti-gravitational model of the sun (AMS), I will begin by analyzing what we see on the suns surface. The surface of the sun is quite visible. Its temperature has been estimated to be about 5800K. That is not a very high temperature. But is the estimate correct?
Picture 1.
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What I notice is that the disc of the sun appears darker at the edges than in the middle. The light coming from the edge is of less intensity than the light coming from the center. We can clearly see that the edge is just as much darker at the equator as it is at the poles, that is, it does not depend on the latitude of the border. Therefore, I conclude that the actual temperature of the photosphere is this temperature we see at the disc border, and it is lower than previously estimated. If we could calculate what that temperature is, it would give us a very useful start. When we take into account the enormous gravitational force of the sun, which creates great weight in the photospheric substance, that is, the photospheric substance is under a great amount of pressure, then it is obvious that the photosphere is actually red-hot magma. On earth we have direct experience of magma, which is located beneath the cool crust of the earth, and occasionally erupts to the surface through volcanos. (Magma which has erupted to the earths surface is called lava.) The suns magma is much hotter than the earths, that is, has a higher temperature, but it is under more pressure, so, what we are describing here is a substance in the liquid state of aggregation. The sun, therefore, is a ball of a red-hot substance, which is very thick, but definitely in the liquid state of aggregation.
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Let us once again look at the picture of the suns surface, without any preconceived ideas, and we will see that it is really made out of red-hot, thick, but liquid, boilng, magma. It is magma that is in continuous movement, warmer spurts break out at the surface, and after cooling they sink into the depths. This is logically correct, because the hot magma is lighter than the cold magma. As we move inward from the surface of the sun, the temperature, logically, rises. But the pressure rises too. The pressure is a consequence of the huge gravitational force of the sun, and it causes the rise in temperature. What will happen to the rising temperature and increasing pressure as we approach the suns center? As the temperature rises the attraction of the mass of the suns substance decreases, thereby decreasing the gravitational force of those layers. After passing through the massless state, the suns substance becomes mass negative and it begins defying gravity. With a further rise of temperature anti-gravity continues increasing, until at a certain point it reaches equilibrium with gravity. What does the inside of the sun look like at this point? From the suns surface down to a certain depth it is liquid magma of different temperatures and pressures. Then comes the gas area in which the substance is in gas state because of the high temperature and the strong anti-gravity. It
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is a layer, which, with its anti-gravitational bouncing finely balances the Suns gravity. There, of course, there is no fusion, because the anti-gravity is extremely strong. In the very center of the sun there is no substance it is a hollow void. There, anti-gravity does not allow the existence of even the gas state of aggregation. In diagrammatic form it would look like this:
Picture 2. The huge suns gravity, therefore, is balanced by antigravity, which is manifested in the very center (heart). With this theory we satisfactorily explain the stability of the sun. But what is the origin of the energy the sun is emitting? If the source of the suns energy is not thermonuclear fusion, what is it? The source of the energy is sun is emitting to the surrounding space is its gravity!
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How is that possible, when we had previously dismissed that assumption as unsatisfactory? Here is how it is possible. Spurts of hot magma erupting to the surface are cooled by intense radiation and vaporization. Gas molecules, caused by magma vaporization, having a very high temperature and thus negative mass, are also found in the enormously strong gravitational field of the sun. What is happening there? The sun is bouncing them away from itself into surrounding space by an enormous force anti-gravitation in action. The repellent force causes them to speed up, and the speed increase causes a rise in their temperature, which enhances even more the negativity of their mass, which, again leads to a return of the anti-gravitational force, and so on. Due to such an abrupt rise in temperature, molecules of gas disintegrate into atoms, and then the solitary atoms disintegrate to particles and protons. That process of the anti-gravitational speeding of the gas molecules away from the suns surface explains the temperature rise, up to one million degrees, in the corona. So, we have a situation where the sun is simmering at only several thousands of degrees. Nonetheless, it emits enormous energy into space by anti-gravitationally repelling the gas substance at its surface. The sun, therefore, is a much more efficient producer of energy than we thought. And also,
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the sun is assured of a much longer lifespan than we had previously imagined. Part of the electromagnetic energy that occurs in the aforementioned process, of molecule and atom disintegration in the suns atmosphere, is oriented towards the sun itself, heating the sun, that is, its magma substance. When, in the early stages, gravitational compression heated the sun from within, now the sun adds to its own temperature with the energy it creates in its atmosphere through anti-gravity. The dance of gravity and anti-gravity in and around the sun, finally, looks like this: The heart of the sun is dominated by anti-gravity, which is balanced by the gravity in the outer magma layer. The suns atmosphere is dominated by anti-gravitational repulsion, which is the source of the energy the sun is emitting. As we move further away from the sun, gravity dominates again, keeping the planets rotating around it, and gravity keeps the sun itself in rotation around the galaxy.
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A NEW VIEW OF THE SUN If, from this perspective, we take another look on the suns surface and its atmosphere, we will see a completely different picture from the one we were seeing before. The sun is a thick, liquid, red-hot sphere whose radius is R0(696000100) km, (which is approximately 109 times larger than the earths radius). The volume of the sun is 1.3 million times greater than the earth. There is a problem in determining the suns exact radius because of its periodical and non-periodical changes at different time intervals. The most important short-periodical variations (R) are due to the existence of a number of oscillating patterns, present in the interior and the photosphere of the sun. Oscillations in the sun are not only local and sporadic, but they spread through its interior, similar to seismic waves on the earth. Because of these waves, the sun vibrates like a gong, which was experimentally proven in 1975. Because of this, its surface periodically, in different times, rises and falls up to even 10 kilometers (picture 3). Generally, the amplitudes of the global oscillations are considerably lower around 25 meters.
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Picture 3. Today, solar seismology (helioseismology) is developing as a separate discipline in astrophysics. It studies the structure, constitution and dynamics of the suns interior by analyzing oscillations detected on its surface. The research methodology in helioseismography is based on comparing it with the study of seismic waves on earth. In the mid-1980s it was established seismic waves exist on other stars as well. Many surface characteristics of the sun (glow, movement of the spectral line, and so on) are a condition of the wave processes in its interior. By detailed study and precise measurement of the wave manifestations in the surface layers, we can get information about the suns interior. However, we should bear in mind that the changes in the glow and radius, provoked by waves in the sun, are small. They do not exceed 0.001% of the average value. Information about the speed of the acoustic waves gives qualitative data about the structure of the surroundings they go through. Studies show that these waves do not go through the
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center of the sun, which seems to confirm my opinion that the suns center is hollow. The size of the sun has been practically constant over the past 250 years, since it has been systematically studied. Based on observations made during an eclipse, some authors claim that the suns angular diameter reduces annually by about 0.0015 angular seconds. I believe this is a consequence of the earths continual moving away from the sun, which I will return to, later. In 1610, by following the movement, from east to west, of spots on the suns disc Galileus concluded that the sun revolves around its axis. Based on the movement of the visible surface details (spots, fibres, etc.) on the suns disc, even in the 19th century, it was established that the Sun spins around its axis, which makes an angle of 7.2o with the normal on the ecliptic. The rotation is on a direct course (clockwise), which is characteristic for almost all planets in our system. On average, each rotation lasts about 27 days. The sun belongs to the group of stars which rotate slowly. In the 19th century a very important characteristic of the suns rotation was establishedit is differential (zonebased). Different zones of the suns surface rotate at different speeds (picture 4). This is irrefutable proof that the sun is not a solid body.
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Picture 4. The rotation period for the points near the equator is about 25 days (peripheral speed of 2 km/s); at about 60o of heliographic latitude the rotation period is around 30 days. The speed decreases from the equator to the poles. Oscillatory changes in speed over time have also been no-ticed; they can be from 10 to 20% compared to average values. When the suns activity is reduced, the differential speed of rotation has a tendency to slightly increase. Jupiter and Saturn have differential rotation, in which the angular speed decreases from the equator towards the poles. On earth analogous occurrences have been recorded in the atmosphere and the ocean. As soon as the scientists determined the earths distance from the sun, a=149,6 109m and the speed by which
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the earth rotates around the sun, by V=29.8 km/s (V velocity of the earth), they could calculate the Mo. From the equality of the gravitational force of attraction, between the earth and the sun, and the centrifugal force that acts on the earth, or by the third Keplers law, it was calculated that the M03011099.1= kg (M is the mass of the sun). From the perspective of the temperatural relativity of mass, this result can only be interpreted as the suns total substance according to its heat, that is, temperature and geometric allocation, is equivalent to the calculated value. I have already said that the suns substance is mainly in the state of red-hot, thick, but liquid magma. At that, of course, the density of the sun is much greater than the density of the earth because the gravitational force of the sun is much larger that that of the earth. By its chemical composition, the sun is comprised of heavier elements, which make magma. In addition, I should mention that, up to the present, there have been 72 elements detected using the absorption lines of the solar spectrum. That does not mean that the remaining 20 elements that appear in nature are not present in the sunthey have simply not yet been detected. The sun is a ball of red-hot magma whose temperature is several thousand K, which, thanks to the anti-gravitational repulsion of evaporated gas matter, produces enormous
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energy that it emits to surrounding space. The value of the suns energy, that falls in one second on the unit area, set normally on the course of the expansion of the solar radiation, is called the solar constant. Its value decreases inversely proportionally to the square of the distance from the sun, at the level just out of the earths atmosphere; the solar constant is about S )27631(=W/m2. The stated value refers to a height of 65 Km above the earths surface. That is a value measured by instruments, and more recently, by artificial satellites. More precise measurements of this value pointed to short-term variations with the amplitude 0.1 0.2% from the mentioned value. The rhythm of those variations is in accordance with solar activity, that is, the 11-year cycle of the suns activity. According to some research, in the past 200 years the mid-value of the solar constant has risen between 0.25 to 0.6%. Here, I would like to say that both the earth and the sun, and, indeed, the whole universe, are in the process of heating up, and therefore expanding. Apart from electromagnetic radiation from the sun, there are also electric particles (mainly protons) called the solar wind, which are constantly escaping into interplanetary space. Solar wind is the final stage of decomposition of the gas molecules and atoms that the sun is throwing out by anti-gravitational repulsion, and heats to a temperature of 1-2 million K in the suns corona.
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The Sun is losing its substance, however, very slowly, and it will have a much longer life then 10 billion years which conventional wisdom has predicted up to now. Since this casts a brand new light on the birth, life and death of a star, I will pay more attention to it later when we study the evolution of stars. At the end of 16th, and the beginning of the 17th century, thanks to the work of Clavius and Kepler it was concluded that the sun has an atmosphere. In contemporary times, thanks to analysis of the suns electromagnetic radiation, we know that its atmosphere is built in layers. As with the majority of stars, three major layers can be identified in the suns atmosphere: the photosphere, the chromosphere and the corona. A surface layer, called the photosphere, surrounds the suns interior. Above it is the chromosphere, whose height reaches up to 10,000 km above the photosphere, and to which the corona is the next layer. The average value of the layers basic parameters in the suns atmosphere are stated in the table below: LAYER Photosphere Chromosphere Transitional layer Corona Solar wind Internal radius (km) 696,000 696,500 698,000 706,000 10,000,000 Temperature (K) 5,800 4,500 8,000 1,000,000 2,000,000 Density (kg/m3) 210-4 510-6 210-10 10-13 10-23
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The chromosphere and the corona glow more than the photosphere. They can be directly observed in certain situations (a solar eclipse) or by special devices. During an eclipse, for just a few seconds before the appearance of the suns barrier (photosphere) behind the disc of the moon, the chromosphere can be seen as a bright dark-red mantle with prongs protruding above (spicules). They can be seen not only at the suns border but also along the whole disc, but only in the light of a particular wavelength, using special devices. The upper parts of the corona are best studied at the time of a complete solar eclipse. Otherwise, the corona gradually dissolves into the interplanetary space of the solar system via solar wind. Starting at the inner edge of the photosphere, the temperature slightly falls, in order to start rising above the lower chromosphere in the so-called turning layer in the chromosphere. In the transition layer between the chromosphere and the corona, the temperature abruptly rises and in certain points in the corona it reaches a value of several million degrees. That is one reason why some authors differentiate between the cold atmosphere, comprising the photosphere and the chromosphere, and the hot atmosphere, which consists of the corona and its extension, the solar wind. The photosphere: From the earth it is seen shaped as a bright disc. It represents the first transparent layer of the sun. Its
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thickness is 350-400km. At the bottom of the photosphere the temperature is 9000K, and at the upper border its value is about 4500K. Through the photosphere, the energy is transmitted by radiation, which does not mean that there is no convection involved. The convective movement of the matter in the photosphere gives it an appearance like boiling porridge. Light grain (granules) represents spurts of magma that are erupting at the surface of the photospheric layers. Their temperature is about 100130K higher than the photospheric, so that their glow is 1030% brighter than the middle fons (brightness scale). The granules are separated by dark areas that are similar to them, but usually smaller. Granules are 35 40% brighter and 350400K warmer than these dark areas. Granule dimensions are between 200 and 1500 km, 1000 km on average. The darker areas between them are up to 1000 km wide. Inside the darker areas, very fine, slightly brighter details called filigrains are seen. They are believed to be granules of smaller dimensions and irregular shape. On the suns disc, at every moment, about two million granules can be observed. Granules are visible convection elements that stem from the layers beneath the photosphere. In the middle of the convection cell, magma is moving upward, then, so the magma is moving and spreading towards the cells edge (picture 5).
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Picture 5. After the eruption of the cells to the surface, the magma cools down by radiating energy and evaporating into the atmosphere. The remaining magma thus becomes thicker and then it sinks to the deeper layers, and new one comes to replace it. Each grain of this granular material remains distinct from the other granules. The approximate lifespan of a granule is 5-15 minutes. It has been determined that the granules go up and down in the photosphere. By precise measurements based on the Doppler effect, it has been calculated that granules move with the speed from 0.3 to 1 km/s. There is also convection in the photosphere, manifested in the so-called supergranule (picture 6), which are much larger in dimension.
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Picture 6. Supergranules are shaped like polygonal cells with an average diameter of about 30,000 km. They last several hours, cover the whole of the suns surface and they number, at any given moment, about 2000. Apart from being much larger than granules, they are characterized by larger convection per the depth of the suns surface layer. In each supergranule, there is noted an almost uniform, horizontal radial leaking of magma from the central parts of the cells towards the periphery. The maximum speed of this horizontal movement are about 0.4 km/s. In the central part of the cells, magma from the deeper layers rises up vertically towards the surface, and returns to the depth along the edge. The speed of this vertical movement is about 0.1 km/s. In the photosphere even larger forms of convective movement are seen. These are gigantic convective cells. Differential rotation affects their shape.
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So, the sun, as a ball of magma, is boiling in continuous turbulence. As we have seen, there are very big geysers as well as small ones. Large granules form the base and smaller and very small granules appear on them. Therefore, the suns surface looks like it has bumps with smaller bumps on them.
Picture 7. Granules, supergranules and gigantic granules Sunspots: Spots are one of the most important forms of photospheric activity on the sun. They are represented by darker areas against the brightness of the solar disc. For hundreds of years sunspots have been systematically monitored, because their number, area, and time and location of appearance, provide valuable information about the activities and processes of the sun. Because of the enormous brightness of the photosphere and its small dimension relative to the suns disc, the spots on the sun can rarely be seen with the naked eye except in cases when they are extremely large, with the diameter over 40,000 km.
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A sunspot appears in the shape of a dark pore, which continues to develop. They appear at the so-called royal heliographic latitudes (5o52o), most often at latitudes 8o 30o. The diameter of the smallest sunspots is similar to the dimensions of granules (about 1000 km), and the largest, the so-called spot groups, can be even up to 100,000 km. Smaller sunspots often last less then two days, and the majority of them disappears the same day they appear. More developed spots last from ten to 20 days, and the largest of them, up to 100 days. At developed sunspots, a dark shadow and a lighter semi-shadow can be observed. The shadow and semi-shadow are clearly differentiated, visually (picture 8). On average, the diameter of a shadow is about 17,500 km, and have a semishadow about 37,000 km. The surface of a typical sunspot is about one ten-thousandth part of the visible surface of the sun.
Picture 8.
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The brightness of the shadow is only 2030% fons, and of the semi-shadow, 7580% fons, of the undisturbed photosphere. A spot, actually, looks dark (and cold) compared to the high glow of the photosphere. Nevertheless, the brightness of an average-sized spot is about 5000 times larger that the glow of the moon. The lowered brightness in the spot area is compensated by the increased brightness around it, up to a distance of 50,000 km from its center. This glow is about 3% higher than the average photosphere glow. The temperature in the spots is 2530% lower than the photospheric. The temperature of a shadow decreases with the area of its surface. Granulation is present in sunspots, too, but in a different form to that of the photosphere, because it has a different kind of convection. Granules in the semi-shadow are shaped like light fibers, about 300 km wide. These fibers last from about 30 minutes up to several hours, much longer than the lifespan of granules in the undisturbed atmosphere. Granules in the form of bright spots can also be seen in the shadow. Their duration is from 15 to 30 minutes and their dimension is about 350 km. It has been noted, that as spots near the western border of the suns disc, the east most half of the semi-shadow gradually begins narrowing and disappearing. As spots appear on the eastern border of the disc, the semi-shadow is not visible at first, and then it appears and becomes wider, first in
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the west most half. This phenomenon tells us that a spot is, actually, a shallow funnel-like cavity in the photosphere. It has sometimes been noticed that spots can rotate around a central axis of their own. It is not such an intensive rotational movement, with speeds at the end of the semishadow reaching 14km/s. With the solitary sunspots, this rotation can lead to the creation of a vortical structure of the elongated arms of the spot. It is important to point out the existence of warmer areas around the sunspots called photospheric faculas (torches). They are long living bright areas, that, in principle, are not necessarily connected to the spots (picture 9).
Picture 9. There are also independent faculas that are of a lesser brightness than those surrounding the sunspots. I must stress,
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however, that there are no spots without faculas. Faculas have a granulated structure, which is 10% brighter than their surroundings. Inside them, granules last longer (about an hour) than granules in the rest of the photosphere. The dimensions of the faculas granules are about 1000 km, but they can form groups four to six thousand km long. They connect in chains five to ten thousand km wide and up to 50 thousand km long. Large faculas appear several hours or days before the sunspot does, and they are visible long after the spot disappears. They often last as long as a year. On average they live twice as long as the spot they form around, and occupy about four times more area than the spot. Sunspots, therefore, always appear in faculas, singly, or, more often, in groups (picture 10).
Picture 10. Solitary spots are often the beginning or the ending of a larger group. The number of spots in a group can be up to several hundred. Large groups of spots reach their maximum devel-
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opment in two or three weeks, and then they slowly fall apart and vanish over 1.5 to two months. When a group reaches its maximum (number of spots, area, etc.) it starts receding: spots fall apart and the number in the group diminishes. As the spots fall apart, brighter spots usually appear over them. On average, groups of spots last 10 days (30% of them last more than 10 days; 0.4% more than 50 days; 0.3% more than 100 days, and only 0.01% last more than 150 days). The larger the surface a group of spots occupies, the longer its duration. For example, if a group of spots occupies a ten-thousandth part of the visible hemisphere of the sun, then on average it lasts ten days, and if it occupies four times more area, it lasts 40 days. Spots, and their groups, can have different shapes; sometimes their shape is regular and oval, but very often it is irregular (picture 11).
Picture 11. With a pair, or a group, of spots, the west most spot is the leader, and the other spots follow. The leader spot is the one that appears first in the pair or group. The leader is closer to the
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equator, and, on average it is larger than its followers, and lasts longer. In the beginning, the leader moves faster than the followers, dragging them. When the leader is no longer gravelling faster than the rest of the group, the process of destruction and disappearance of the group begins. Spots can be without semi-shadows, and they can have smaller spots in their semi-shadows. Small and the middle-sized spot groups form as the large spots fall apart. Having described spots in such detail, it is time for a revelation, perfect in its simplicity. We have seen that the surface of the sun consists of granules, supergranules and gigantic granules. Granules are geysers of magma. Therefore, the suns surface is covered in geysers of magma. There are gigantic geysers of magma, and on them super-geysers of magma exist, and on all of them, small geysers of magma are present. What is common to all these geysers is that they eject magma to the surface from a relatively thin and homogenous layer, which is the outer layer of the sun. This outer layer is boiling, and that is the normal state of the suns surface. Less usual is the appearance of chormospheric faculas or torches. Faculas are actually the suns volcanoes. Faculas are ejecting magma from the suns deeper layers to the surface. That is why they are brighter and warmer than the rest of the photosphere. We have seen that these volcanic eruptions can eject magma of different temperatures, which means, from
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different depths. With this explanation solar volcanic eruptions can be understood from start to finish. But when it is a matter of large solar eruptions, it not only ejects magma from the deepest surface layers of the sun, but it ejects magma of a different quality, that is located below that surface layer. That magma has a different chemical composition from the surface magma; it consists of heavier chemical elements. When this magma is ejected to the surface it cools down more quickly, thickens and starts floating on the surface of the sun, which, remember is composed of geysers. This heavy magma, from the great depth of the sun, is seen as a dark spot. Since it is heavier than the surface magma, it makes a cavity in the photosphere; and since its rim is thinner than its center, the edges collapse, and they slope down to the level of the photosphere. That is how the funnel appearance of the spot comes about. The size of the spot, as well as its appearance, is defined by the quantity of heavy magma ejected in the eruption of the suns volcano (facula). The number of spots is the result of the intermittent ejection of the heavy magma to the surface. The first spurt of heavy magma is actually the leader spot, and the subsequent spurts form the follower spots. The first amount is largest because it is the greatest release of pressure that led to the eruption, and that is why the leader spot lasts longest. If the ejection of the heavy magma is constant, then we see the spot widening, until there is a break in the eruption of the magma. The rotation of the sun carries the spot towards the west, as the
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eruption continues new spots are created eastward of it until the eruption stops. That is how spots appear. Cooler, heavy magma floats on the geysers of the warmer surface magma, which will slowly but certainly melt it. Surface magma geyser pressure to the sunspot, that is, heavy magma, leads to the perforation or break up of the spot into parts, which accelerates its disintegration. The spots reduce, fall apart and disappear. The suns volcano (facula) will continue ejecting warmer lava, until it, too, will stop. The facula disappears from the photosphere, meaning, the suns volcano is extinct. Now that we have realized what happens on the suns surface, let us go higher in the suns atmosphere. First, let us see what contemporary astrophysics has to say about what has been discovered and observed so far. Above the photosphere there is the chromosphere (picture 12).
Picture 12.
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The radiation in this layer is most intense in the red part of the spectrum, thus it got its name from its intense color. The chromosphere is not homogenous; it is quite roughly divided into the lower (1500 km above the photosphere), middle (between 1500 and 4000 km) and upper levels (from 4000 to 10,000 km). The lower choromosphere is relatively homogenous, and, starting from the photosphere the temperature continues falling to the lowest values of the sun, about 4,200 K in certain places. Below the lower photosphere, in the rotating layer, temperatures can rise as high as 10,000 K. As we go higher, the level of ionization increases. The upper cromosphere is very ionized, which is understandable when we consider that the temperature reaches values of 25,000 K there (in some places up to 300,000 K). Intense turbulent movement also characterizes the chromosphere. At a height of 500 km, the speed of the turbulent movement is about 5km/s, at 5000 km is about 20km/s. Based on monochromatic images of the chromosphere, it can be seen that, just like the photosphere, the chromosphere, has a grain-like structure. The grains, called floculae, are fiber-shaped. They are larger than photospheric granules, and their length can be up to several thousand of kilometers. Floculae can be better spotted on large bright surfaces, chromospheric torches (chromospheric facula) (picture 13).
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Picture 13. When the photosphere is observed in white light, we see that photospheric faculas are in the same position as chromospheric torches. They are believed to be the same objects, observed from different heights. Chromospheric faculas last longer200 to 300 daysand they are much brighter than the fon (in X-ray area, even up to 70 times brighter). One of the most important shapes that appear in the chromosphere is the chromospheric network (picture 14).
Picture 14.
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It is the action of supergranules, formed in the photosphere, but their influence is also visible in the chromosphere. The chromospheric network spreads vertically along the whole chromosphere height. The dimensions of the network structures correspond to the supergranules dimensions. Along the brim of the supergranules from the lower layers of the chromosphere, spiculae go up like fire tongues. Spiculae are small eruptions of hot gas, whose temperature is about 15,000 K. Particle concentration in them is 1018 m-3, they appear at heights of 3000 to 4000 km, and their height is from 7,000 to 12,000 km. Their diameter is the same as the granules, about 1,000 km, and they appear above the boundaries of supergranules. It is these spiculae that represent the thin structure of the chromospheric network, which is seen in the center of the suns disc. It is estimated that at any moment there are about a million spiculae in the chromosphere. They are not equally distributed; there are about 30% more in the polar areas than in the equatorial area. They take up only 1% of the total surface of the sun. Gas in the spiculae rises from the lower layers of the chromosphere at a speed of 20km/s. One of the more important manifestations of the suns activity is eruptions (explosions) in the chromosphere. They are sudden, short processes, from which comes a large increase in the radiation intensity of radiation in limited areas of the chromosphere.
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Explosions appear in the same areas as faculas, above groups of spots. They are characterized by the rapid rise in brightness, very short duration of their maximum brightness and a relatively short extinction, lasting about twice as long as the period of increasing brightness. In cases when the explosions are noted at the rim of the suns disc, we can see a cone of light, whose height is several thousands of kilometers. Smaller explosions, which are encountered more frequently, have a circular form, while the larger ones are extended in shape and of firer structure. Such explosions occur rarely and only at the time of suns maximum activity. At the time of suns maximum activity, energy freed by explosions in the higher layers of the suns atmosphere is comparable with the energy it radiates in one second. Many particles move at speeds of 1500 km/s (with very strong explosions, up to 2400km/s) through the corona and into interplanetary space (picture 15).
Picture 15. Some of the particles travel at speeds close to relativistic speed (the speed of light), so they get to earth
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almost at the same time as the electromagnetic radiation emitted in the explosion. Groups of such particles are known as the suns cosmic rays. Smaller explosions last from 5 to 40 minutes. On average, in the life of a group of spots there is one chromospheric explosion (every seven hours, or every two hours at the time of maximum solar activity). During the transit of a sunspot group across the suns disc, 30 to 50 chromospheric explosions appear above it, and at the time of the suns most intensive activities up to 300. Across the sun about 100 explosions occur daily, but those considered strong are very rare, occurring only a few times a year. During these explosions local heating of the substance, up to temperatures from 10 to 100 million K, occurs. Explosions in the chromosphere are closely related to the processes in the corona, and its characteristics. This is confirmed by the facts that the so-called condensation of the corona appears at heights of 1040 thousand km above the chromospheric explosions. Radio-flashes from the corona tell us that, and the radio-flashes are, from a different point of view, caused by the level of activity in the photoshere below them. Now, an explanation of what is really happening in the chromosphere. The red-hot magma erupts on the suns surface in geysers and is cooled down by intensive radiation and vaporization. At first, the fall in temperature occurs in the lower
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chromosphere rather than the photosphere. But this process of the gases cooling down is dominant only to up to 1500 km, while the speed of the rising gases is low, about 5 km/s. In fact, this is the beginning of the anti-gravitational ejection of molecules of vaporized gas from the red-hot magma. As soon as the gas molecules speed accelerates to 20 km/s, at a height of about 5000 km, a rise in the temperature occurs again. The rise in the gas molecules temperature leads to a rise in their negative mass, that is, leads to a rise in the anti-gravitation force by which the sun hurls them away from itself. Normally it leads to even greater speed of the molecules, even greater heating and thermic ionization, which, as we have seen, increases with the height. Since granules, or grains, represent geysers of magma, where evaporation is most dominant, that structure is transferred upward, and that is why the chromosphere looks as it looks, having fibers or floculas. Chromospheric torches occur above photospheric faculas, that is, volcanoes. Logically, the higher temperature of the photospheric magma geysers results in enhanced vaporization, with the gas molecules higher starting temperature. Thus, the anti-gravitational bounce is much stronger, leading to much greater speeds and much higher temperatures than the surrounding chromosphere.
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The net-like appearance of the chromosphere and spiculae is a logical consequence of the appearance and activity on the suns surface. Eruptions or explosions in the chromosphere occur above groups of sunspots. Logically, groups of spots are created by the strongest of the suns volcanoes, and, apart from ejecting flares of chemically heavy magma; they eject flares of hot gases, too. These flares of hot gases from the suns interior have a much higher temperature than the vaporized gases of the surface magma, which is cooling down. That is why they are much more affected by the antigravitational force of the sun. They are also affected by the mutual bouncing of the gas molecules, so that their speed becomes so accelerated that it appears as an explosion. Here, as we have seen, the particles move at speeds of 1,500km/s up to 2,400km/s. Some of the particles in this process reach speeds close to the speeds of light, the so-called, relativistic speed. And that is logical when we see that local temperatures go up to 10 or 100 millionoK. Explosions in the chromospheres are further reflected on the appearance of the suns corona. So, these processes begin with activity on the Suns surface and it spreads from there to the higher layers of the Sun. Corona: above the chromospheres, and the thin transitional layer, there is corona (picture 16).
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Picture 16. This is the hottest and scantiest layer of the suns atmosphere. It is seen as a pearly-silver light that encircles the darkened disc of the sun at the time of the suns eclipse. It is much paler that the chromosphere but more visible, since it is the most spacious layer of the suns atmosphere. The dimensions and the shape of the corona, as well as the processes taking place in it, largely depend on the activity of the sun. At a time of low activity, it is compressed above the poles with characteristic fan-like shapes, while along the equator it is elongated. In a period of maximum activity, the corona takes on an untidy shape, and almost symmetrically encircles the whole sun (picture 17). The corona extends upward for several times the radius of the sun, although the upper border cannot be exactly determined since, by way of the suns wind, it gradually
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disperses into interplanetary space. Many authors treat the solar wind as the part of the suns corona.
Picture 17. The corona is separated from the chromosphere by the already mentioned transitory layer in which the temperature sharply rises from the chomospheric (104K) to the coronal (106K) values. The coronas temperature reaches a maximum of about 2 million K at the height of about 1/10 of the suns radius of the photosphere. After that it gradually falls. If the suns wind is treated like an extended part of the corona, rather than
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in the vicinity of the earths orbit, its temperature is of the order of 105 K. Surprisingly high temperatures and very low density define the physical state of the gas in the corona. In the inner corona, r = (1,03 1,2) R .Moving towards the periphery, gas density decreases, but the temperature rises, and at a height of 50,000 km it is (11.5) million K. One characteristic is that the inner corona emission spectrum appears with highly ionized metal atoms. These atoms are especially bright (Fe). In the middle corona (r ~ 2R )T ~ 106 K gas density decreases even more, and its radiation has a high level of polarization, which up to r ~ 1,5 R amounts to 50%. This value also decreases gradually on at greater heights. In the outer corona, r ~ 3R ,temperature and gas concentration values continue falling and the corona gradually starts dispersing into interplanetary space. The brightness of the outer corona is about a billion times lower than the brightness of the suns disc. The continual spectrum of the outer corona is practically identical to the spectrum of the photosphere, but of a drastically lesser intensity. In it we can see the same standard Fraunhofers absorption lines, which are characteristic for the photosphere. This shows that, in the outer corona, the dispersal of the radiation of the photosphere, acts on the dust particles which are present.
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The suns corona is visible in the wide range of the spectrum of the electromagnetic radiation. The light emitting from the corona consists of about 100 bright lines, which it has been determined, originate from the highly ionized atoms of iron, calcium, nickel, etc. The coronas radiation arises in conditions that not thermodynamically balanced. Owing to the high temperature, the corona is a strong source of radio- and far UV radiation. New research suggests that in the corona there are occasional flares with intense emissions of X-ray radiation, which precedes ultraviolet emissions. Radiation originates from the area in the corona where temperatures reach up to several million degrees. In the corona we note different forms: flares, rays, arches, plumes, that in the shape of brushstrokes appear above the poles, condensations and hollows, eruptions, etc. Some of them are visible in the integral light of the white corona, while others are more visible in other areas of electromagnetic radiation (radio or X-ray). Well-defined shapes are most often encountered above the area of enhanced suns activity, the so-called, active areas. A flare is the abrupt enhancement in brightness of localized areas above a group of spots and torches. This occurrence happens in the areas of the chromosphere and the corona. In about ten minutes, the brightness of the areas
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overtaken by the flare increases, and then, over the next hour it decreases back to former level. The coronas rays have similar characteristics to the larger forms in the suns corona. During a solar eclipse, or with the help of a chronograph, they can be seen as elongated condensations with different radial forms (picture 18).
Picture 18. They extend from 0.5 R to 10 R ,and in some cases even more. On average, the duration of the ray shapes last about ten days. The main part of the ray, above the centre of the activity, emits a green line Fe13+, meaning, in that area; the temperature is over 2 million degrees.
Picture 19.
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Goran Miti THE INTRODUCTION INTO NEW PHYSICS 101
The coronas arches (picture 19) occur above a field in the active areas. They are composed of a number of thin threads.
Picture 20. Plumes or polar brushes (picture 20) most often occur above the suns poles. They greatly depend on the level of activity of the sun. They connected to faculas in that area, and they are best observed during a time of decreased activity, when the corona is compressed. Analysis of the radio waves from the sun has shown that above the center of the active areas there are condensations in the corona. The temperature here reaches values higher than three million degrees. They are several times thicker than the coronas surroundings. At the time of the most intensive creation of the spots, sporadic condensation occurs. In the suns corona, areas with lower temperature were spotted (from 0.8 million K) and an anomalously low mass density. These are called corona hollows (picture 21).
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Picture 21. There are believed to be stable, spacious formations that can take up to 20% of the corona. They last through several of the suns rotations. They are characterized by reduced brightness in the X-ray and the UV areas of radiation, and a noticeable decrease in the glow in the radio and the visible part of the spectrum. Normally, they are found in the polar areas of the sun, but they sometimes expand to the lower heliographic latitudes. There, isolated hollows can be formed. Hollows like these are often long lasting, especially at a time of reduced Sun activity. From the coronas hollows, solar wind is continuously emitted, with particles leaving the corona at speeds from 600 to 800 km/s. From X-ray readings of the corona, bright spots, unevenly distributed over the whole of the suns disc, have been noted. Their dimensions are smaller than those of sunspots, and on average they last for about 8 hours. During a 24-hour cycle, about 1,500 bright spots of the corona appear on the sun. The dynamics of their appearance and their total number are in
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antiphase with sunspots, that is, they occur more often and in larger numbers when there are lesser spots in the photosphere.
Picture 22. Protuberances are the most spectacular form of the suns activity and the most dramatic occurrence in the suns atmosphere. During a solar eclipse they can be seen as red flames (picture 22). Protuberances represent strap condensations in the corona. It is tells us about cooler (T 104K), thicker formations inside the diluted warmer corona (T 106 K). Above the suns disc, protuberances can be seen in the shape of gigantic fire tongues, arches, fountains, knots, etc. (picture 23).
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Picture 23. We can see moving threads and condensations in protuberances. Seen straight on, and not silhouetted outside the disc, they are dark, bent strips of complex structure, called filaments. Their length can be up to 200,000 km. Both quiet and active protuberances are commonly found. The majority of protuberances belong in the quiet category. They are long livingthey last more from one day (which is rare) to several months (which is more common). There have been cases where they lasted for several years. They hover for a long time at all heliographic latitudes. The temperature of quiet protuberances can be up to 15,000K, but most usually between 6,000 and 8,000K, and are therefore described as cold. A typical quiet protuberance is about 200,000 km long, even though, in rare cases, their length can reach a total of
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1,900,000km. The average height is 50,000 km, while their width is not more than 6,000 km. They consist of threads whose diameters are about 1,000 km. The lower ends of protuberances are in the areas between the supergranules, near of active areas. Protuberances primarily occur in the latitude zones 10 40 , in which sunspots are concentrated, but they spread to further zones, too. Quiet protuberances are divided into those below heliographic latitude 40o45o, and those above, the polar latitudes. The latter often make the so-called wreaths of polar protuberances (picture 24).
o o
Picture 24. At the beginning of its life, quiet protuberances usually spread in the direction of the meridian and in such a manner that one foot of a protuberance has 80% of its fibers directed
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towards the leader spot. In time, they slowly move towards the poles. Their length is growing and they are more and more oriented in an east-west direction. After ten or so rotations of the sun their threads reach the polar areas where they can survive approximately five more months. Apart from quiet protuberances, there are active protuberances, distinguished by very rapid development (from 10 minutes to several hours). They appear in the shape of clouds, system of knots, cyclones, sprays, etc. They are usually of smaller dimension than quiet protuberances. Some of them appear above spots and slowly move towards the edges of the spot area. They are very often absorbed by the spots and disappear. The They average can transform into in quiet active protuberances. hot. temperature
protuberances is about 25,000K, which is why they are called
Picture 25.
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In sunspot areas eruptive or explosive protuberances appear. They reach great heightsin some cases over a million kilometers. There is a recorded case of a protuberance that rose to over 1,700,000 km (picture 25). In the case of quiet protuberances, the linear spectrum shows hydrogen, calcium, etc., but lines of metal, also appear. For a while, at the beginning of a formation, eruptive protuberances can resemble quiet ones that contain elements of irregular movement. Then, parts of the protuberance begin to rise, at first slowly, then faster and faster. The increase in speed can be abrupt, reaching speeds of up to several hundred km/s. The common feature of all eruptive protuberances is that they form an arch, which breaks in the middle. With eruptive protuberances, the arch greatly enlarges in size (picture 26). After it breaks, the matter falls back to the chromosphere along the path of the arch.
Picture 26.
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There are the so-called sunspot protuberances (picture 27) that appear centered above spot group activity, in the shape of knots, arches or funnels.
Picture 27. Theres also corona raina type of protuberance that occurs as falling matter from the corona to the chromosphere. Because of the greater mass density, substances in protuberances should sink to the thinnest environment. However, some force is enabling it to survive for a relatively long time as a shaped configuration. The suns wind occurs with the expansion of the corona into interplanetary space. It is a permanent circulation of the suns substance, moving approximately radially from the
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sun (picture 28), and pervades the suns system up to the reach of 100 AJs (AJ is the distance from the sun to the earth).
Picture 28. Particles of the solar wind gradually speed up, for example, at the distance of several sun radii, the average radial speed of protons in the solar wind is (100150) km/s, and at the distance of 1 AJ its value is (300-750) km/s (picture 29).
Picture 29.
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With regard to the speed of movement, the flow of the solar wind can be either slow (with speeds up to 300km/s) or fast (with speeds of 600-700 km/s). In the vicinity of the earths orbit, depending on the level of activity in the sun, through the square meter of the transversal surface every second between 51011 and 5 1012 protons flow with an average speed of 400 km/s, and an average temperature of 50,000K (in active periods is can be up to 400,000K). Each second, a mass of 108_109 kg flows out into interplanetary space, via the suns wind. If there were not for spiculas, which are filling in the mass of the corona, this layer of the suns atmosphere would be scattered in three or four days by the flow of solar wind. The sun loses 1015_1014 M annually due to solar wind. Since, after all, the suns life span is about 10 billion years, it is clear that such a loss does not significantly influence its evolution. Table 2. Relative content of atoms in the solar winds chemical structure Element H 3 He 4 He O Relative content 0.96 1.7 10-5 0.04 5 10-4 Element Ne Si Ar Fe Rel. content 7.5 10-5 7.5 10-5 3.0 10-6 4.7 10-5
Table 2 presents the solar winds chemical structure with the relative content of certain atoms compared to the total.
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The ratio of helium and hydrogen atoms in the suns wind is not the same as in the suns atmosphere (to the detriment of helium). In the quiet solar wind, however, the ratio of 3He : 4He coincides with the ratio in the rest of the solar atmosphere. In the sun-related coordinates system, the solar wind particle trajectories (paths) are in the shape of Archimedes spirals, originating in the areas of the suns corona from which the particles originate (picture 30). The solar wind blows particles in spiral lines, determined by the radial speed of the particle flowing out from the corona.
Picture 30. The combined area of the solar wind and the interplanetary magnet field (that comes from the sun) is the aforementioned heliosphere. The balance between the solar winds dynamic pressure, interstellar gas pressure, galactic magnetic field and galactic cosmic rays determines its border.
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It is estimated that the heliosphere boundary is at (50100) AJ from the sun, which is far beyond Plutos orbit. It is estimated that its form is elongated. And now a new physics explanation of the corona and what happens in it. We can see that the anti-gravitational speed of the suns evaporated substance culminates between the heights of 10,000 km and 70,000 km. In that period the temperature rises from 104K to almost 2 million K. Only then does it slowly begin to decrease. The fact that the light emitting from the corona consists of bright lines of highly ionized atoms of iron, calcium, nickel and other heavy elements, confirms that this is magma vapor, both light, from the surface, and heavy, sub-surface. In the process of anti-gravitational acceleration, and thus heating, the molecules break down into atoms. But not all of the heavy elements break down to the level of alpha particles and protons. The existence of areas in the corona, which burst into flames with intense X and UV radiation emissions, and where the temperature rises up to several tens of millions K, tells us that the process of heavy elements atom disintegration to the level of particles and protons is going on. Fission reactions are present. Active areas on the photosphere affect the chromosphere further, which, in turn, affects the corona. That
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is how flashes, rays, arches, plumes, condensations and bright spots occur. Hollows occur in the corona above areas of photosphere that are not active, most often around the polar sun. We have already learned how and why these things happen. However, protuberances deserve special attention and a more detailed explanation. Protuberances are gigantic eruptions of photospheric volcanoes, when spurts of magma are ejected high into the suns atmosphere. The recorded temperature of protuberances confirms that they are comprised of hot magma ejected from deeper layers of the sun. The long life of protuberances, that is their lengthy hovering, is a simple consequence of the buoyancy of the suns substance accelerated by anti-gravitation. The solar wind, at its origin, not only compensates for the weight of magma that constitutes the protuberance, but also heats it up, that is, it prevents it from quickly cooling and becoming heavy, and thus falling quickly back. Magma is gravitationally attractive. It keeps its protuberance state and it is also attracted by the sun, which prevents the solar wind from blowing it into interplanetary space. With arch-like, eruptive protuberances, there is an abrupt rise in the arch size precisely because of the substance
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pressure (gas) that is anti-gravitationally accelerated upward to the point when the arch breaks at its highest point. As magma has to return to the suns surface, it slides along the sides of the broken arch. Anti-gravitational emission of the suns vapor and gases that begins right at their origin, at the appropriate time and height, becomes solar wind. We have already seen what speeds and which temperatures they reach. It is very important to note that the sun loses its substance through the solar wind. The loss of substance means lowering of the gravitational force, which means reduction of the speed and the temperature of the particles in the suns atmosphere, and that means extinction of the suns glow, and that means doom for us, here on earth. Nevertheless, theres no need to worry, because the loss of the suns substance is so scant that the sun will continue serving us for much longer than the fusionally anticipated tens of billions of years. Let us now pay attention to Table 2, which shows us the chemical structure of the solar wind and the relative content of atoms in it. Suns winds: the key components of the solar wind are H whose relative content is 0.96 and 4He whose relative content is 0.04. This is the data that led scientists to conclude that the sun is a gas ball composed of hydrogen that becomes
4
He by fusion. From the correct data, but an
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imperfect theory, and ignorance of the true nature of mass interactions (gravity and anti-gravity), the wrong conclusions were arrived at. Gases, consisting of molecules and atoms of heavier elements, are formed by the cooling of magma, or ejected in interruptions, during the process of anti-gravity emissions and accelerations, followed by an enormous rise in temperature. The disintegration of these gases accounts for the chemical structure of the solar wind.
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CYCLES OF SUN ACTIVITY Observations of occurrences on the sun have led to the discovery that they move in cycles. Sunspot activity occurs in an approximately 11.2 year cycle. Since monitoring of the suns activity began, in the second half of the 18th century, until today, 23 cycles have been observed. Picture 31 represents results of the monitoring of the suns activities since 1749 until today.
Picture 31. The minimum and maximum activity of spots are clearly noted. The time interval between two minimum spot occurrences defines the duration of the solar activitys cycle. Picture 32 represents the change in the number of spots during the 22nd and the 23rd cycles of the suns activity.
Picture 32.
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It is important to mention that not all cycles last an equal amount of time. For the period from 1755 until 1945, periods between two neighboring minimums have varied from 9 to 13.6 years, and between maximums from 7.3 to 17.1 years. These irregularities occur from cycle to cycle without any notable pattern. It is impossible to predict a future cycle based on the activity in previous cycles. In contemporary times, based on Doppler progressions, it has been noted that in times of quiet sun activity, the rotation of the equatorial areas accelerates. It is obvious that in times of maximum solar activity, rotation breaks because of the volcano and magma eruption formation from the deeper layers of the sun to its surface. This, again, is an indicator that the suns rotation differs not only on the surface by the heliographic latitudes, but that the suns rotation differs according to altitude. It is obvious that the chemically heavier magma rotates more slowly than the surface layer, which is comprised of chemically lighter magma (picture 33).
Picture 33.
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Apart from the number of sunspots, and their surface area, their distribution along the heliographic latitudes changes during the cycles. The first spots in the cycle are formed around 30oN and 30oS, and then they occur closer and closer to the equator. At a time of maximum activity, spots occur around 15oN and 15oS and the last spots in a cycle are at about 8oN and 8oS. Rarely can the spots be found at latitudes greater than 45o and less than 5 o. On the butterfly diagram (picture 34) it can be noted that the first spots belonging to this cycle appear at 30o before last spots from the previous cycle disappear at 8o. Such overlapping of the cycles lasts about three years on average.
Picture 34.
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This pattern of spot appearances points to the difficulties encountered by the first eruptions of the hotter and chemically heavier magma in the new cycle, to break through the fastest-moving layer of equatorial magma. As the eruptions become stronger during the cycle, the spurts of magma from the depths manage to burst through the zones of surface magma closer to the equator, and by breaking through, they slow them down, because they act as pistons that stick through several layers at a time. As these pistons mostly occur at a time of maximum activity, it logically follows that the deceleration of the equatorial magma is most pronounced at that time. Oscillation of the suns activity is manifested not only through the appearance of spots, but also through other forms in the suns atmosphere. An increase in activity is coupled with an increase of intensity and frequency of chromospheric explosions, with which flashes, and the UV and radio areas of electro-magnetic radiation are connected. Intensifying activity also implies corpuscular emission in the form of solar wind and the suns cosmic rays. During the cycle a change in the numbers and the locations of protuberances occurs: the main area of protuberances occurrences move to the equator (which is logical, since they follow the spots, that is, they occur in the same areas as spots), while protuberances at higher
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heliographic latitudes migrate towards the poles and arrive at the time of maximum activity of the cycle.
Picture 35. Picture 35 depicts the development of the 23rd cycle of solar activity. H pictures show the suns quiet surface at a time of the minimal activity. At the point of maximum activity (the second half of years 1999 and 2000) manifestations of violent activities are clearly visible: we can see multiple explosions, protuberances and mass ejections.
Picture 36.
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Picture 36 shows the Suns appearance between the maximums of the 21st and the 22nd cycles. It is obvious that the temperature is changing during the cycle. It is lowest during the minimum sun activity, and highest during the maximum activity of the sun. What kind of process could cause such a cyclical temperature changes in the whole sun? In order to understand that we have to observe the suns movement in our galaxy.
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UR SUN IN OUR GALAXY (THE SUN AND THE MILKY WAY)
The sun is characteristic of an average dwarf yellow star. It is thought that 2% of all stars belong in this type, which means there are several billion of them. Galaxies are gravitationally limited star systems. They consist of a large number of stars and interstar substance in the form of gas and dust. Depending on the type and size of a galaxy, stars in them can number from several million up to several billion. To date, several thousand of the brightest stars have been studied. Galaxies represent the basic structural element for even larger associations in the cosmos, clusters and superclusters of galaxies. Our galaxy (the Milky Way) belongs to the class of spiral galaxies. These are distinguished by their characteristic spiral arms (branches) of which there are usually two, although others may develop at the ends of the spiral. Part of our galaxy is visible in the night sky as a pale, bright swath of unequal width that divides the celestial sphere into two parts (picture 37). ___________________________________________________
Picture 37. All the stars that we see in the night sky belong to our galaxy. A schematic appearance of our galaxy is shown in picture 38. Observed from the side, it has the shape of two collapsed plates whose diameter is about 30 KPC (thousand parsek or 100,000 light years).
Picture 38. The thickness of the middle bulge (nucleus) is about 4 KPC (13.000 LY). The central line of symmetry (the galactic level), which lies in the Milky Way and divides the galaxy symmetrically, is easily observable.
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Parsek (PC) is an astronomical unit for length. It represents the distance from which the large half-axis of the earths path, that is one astronomical unit, can be seen under the angle of 1" (one angular second). An astronomical unit (AU) is a unit for measuring length in astronomy, equal to the large half-axis of the elliptical path of the earth around the sun, i.e., in accordance with the characteristics of the ellipse, the average distance of the earth from the sun. According to contemporary measurements, 1AU = 149,597,870.5 km, approximately 149,600,000 km. The calculations show that it is valid: 1PC = 3.262 LY = 206.265 AU = 30,86x1012 km Where LY (light year) is the distance light travels in a vacuum in one year (1LY = 9,46x1012 km).
Picture 39. The sun sits almost in the galactic level on the inside of the so-called Orions leg. The dark space of the night sky is what we see when we observe the galactic level vertically.
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Based on different measuring methods and the division of the galactic objects, it was established that the Sun is 8 to 10 KPC from the center of the galaxy. Based on the galactic objects movements and analysis of the radio-radiation coming from various directions, it is thought that the most probable distance of the sun from the galaxys center is about 8.5 KPC (28,000 LY) (picture 40).
Picture 40. These measurements finally put to rest the belief that the sun has a privileged position in the galaxy, and in the cosmos. The distance from the sun to the galaxys nucleus has had a favorable affect on the development of life on earth, because the concentration of stars in the galactic nucleus is so great, that the lethal part of their electromagnetic radiation (UV, gamma and X-ray) is many times more intense than the
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radiation of the sun itself, or the radiation of the place in the galaxy where it is located. It is estimated that there are between 100 and 300 billion stars present in the galaxy. Almost 90% of the visible mass is located in the suns orbit sphere of the radius, around the center of the galaxy. Objects of the galactic discus rotate in almost circular paths around the galactic center. The largest concentration of stars in the galactic discus is at around 10 KPC from the center of the galaxy. With alienation from the center, a decrease is seen in this concentration. We should bear in mind that stars usually appear in doubles, multiples or in clusters. The disc is encircled by a spherical halo in which stars with mostly mass of 0,85 M are located. Chaotically positioned, they rotate in very elongated elliptic paths, mainly around the centre of the galaxy, at speeds (50150 km/s). At the outer edge of the galaxy is the corona that spreads up to 100 KPC from the galactic center. Our galaxy spins around the axis of symmetry, clockwise, observed from the north galactic pole, which is the norm in the galactic level. Analysis of Doppler movements of the galaxys spectral lines show that the objects of the spiral structure (stars, clouds of the interstellar gas) move around the center along an almost circular path, but at various angular speeds (picture 41).
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Picture 41. The angular speed in the central part of the galaxy is constant, that is, the galaxy rotates as a solid body there. With the alienation from the center, the angular speed of the spiral structural rotation decreases. The speed at which the Sun is moving around the galactic center was determined by comparison with the movement of extra-galactic mist that does not participate in the movement around the galaxy. The sun rotates around the galactic centre with a speed of about 230 km/s (828,000 km/h). Even though, from an earthbound point of view, this is a very high speed, it takes the sun 230 million years to make a full circle around the center of the galaxy. This time interval is known as the galactic year (picture 42).
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Picture 42. The sun is not exactly positioned in the sole galactic level. Today, with reference to the galactic level, it has moved northward by about 8PC (approximately 26 LY). It is clear that this difference in the scale of galactic distances is negligible. However, it is because of this position, during its circular movement around the galactic center, that the sun appears to swing up and down (picture 43).
Picture 43.
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Research shows that the sun periodically passes through the galactic level. Similar movements are typical in other stars that are in the vicinity of the galactic level. The cycle for this swing on the orbit around the galactic center is around 33 million years. To me, it seems logical that this kind of movement is a consequence of the suns rotation around the lengthwise axis of the Orion leg in which the sun is located (picture 44).
Picture 44. That would mean that the sun moves around the center of the galaxy along a spiral, or a helicoide, that is closed within a circle. From the available data it follows that during a full turn around the galactic center, the sun rotates around the lengthwise axis of the Orion leg 3.5 times, which would mean
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that it passes through the galactic level seven times. While turning around the lengthwise axis of the Orion leg, the sun approaches to its closest point to the galactic nucleus, and in then moves to its farthest position away from the galactic nucleus. Since this movement of the sun is happening along with the unavoidable galactic wind and radiation at the same time, it means that the suns temperature would vary depending on its position and movement. When it is closest to the galactic nucleus, and when it is passing through the galactic level, its temperature will be much higher then when it is on the opposite side, farthest from the galactic nucleus. When it is between these two positions, its temperature will vary also; when it is moving away from the galactic nucleus and when it is running away from the galactic wind its temperature will fall, and when, on the opposite side, it starts approaching the galactic nucleus and running into the galactic wind, its temperature will rise. That automatically means that the suns activity will change. But these are very slow changes as we have seen one cycle lasts about 66 million years. What could account for the 11.2-year cycle of sun activity? The first reason could be that the intensity of galactic radiation and galactic wind is also in an 11-year cycle.
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The second reason could be that the Sagittarius arm baffles or masks the sun in such a cycle (see picture 44). This could cause a partial eclipse of the galactic nucleus. If our arm, Orion, rotates around its lengthwise axis, then all the other arms do, too, including the Sagittarius arm, which is closer to the galactic nucleus. It can mask the galactic nucleus in different patterns. The third reason could be the suns movement along a spiral that goes around the larger spiral. That would be caused by e the existence of another star making a binary system along with our sun. Further close observation will surely lead us, one day, to the discovery of what exactly is the cause of the recorded cycles in the suns activity. However, I would like to emphasize here that the movement of the stars significantly influences a stars life, and as we are about to see, its destiny.
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THE INFLUENCE OF A STARS MOVEMENT ON ITS LIFE AND DESTINY In order to correctly understand the influence of the movement of a star on its life, let us look again at the phenomenon of stellar wind. Stellar wind, as we have already seen, is a consequence of the stars anti-gravitational repulsion of evaporated photospheric substance. The temperature of those molecules rises as it acceleratesthis we already know from molecular-kinetic gas theory: higher speed implies higher temperature. But, molecular-kinetic gas theory does not explain the true reason for this. How can temperature cause speed? How can speed cause temperature? The existence of the gravitational field is a basic necessity. Everything that the molecular-kinetic theory describes happens within the gravitational field of the earth. Stellar wind is born and exists in the gravitational field of a star. The temperature off a body, as we have already seen, is the factor that changes the quantity and quality of the bodys mass. Change in the speed of a body implies the existence of acceleration. Acceleration implies the action of a force.
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In the gravitational field of a body, gravitational force attracts all bodies with attractive mass, and anti-gravitational force repels all bodies with negative mass. Therefore, the temperature of a body, which is in the gravitational field of another body, decides whether that body will be gravitationally attracted or anti-gravitationally repelled. Since the molecules of evaporated photospheric substance have negative mass, they are repelled from the star by anti-gravitational force and thus, their speed rises. With the rise in speed, the temperature rises, and thus, their mass negativity quantitatively rises, and an even greater anti-gravitational repellent force affects them. That is why we observe greater and greater speeds and higher and higher temperatures of stellar wind with its alienation from the stars surface. The reversed dependence of the anti-gravitational force, of the square distance leads, of course, at some point, to the achievement of maximum speed and temperature, after which a gradual fall of both temperature and speed follows. Hence, temperature, through anti-gravitational power, enhances the speed at which molecules of photospheric vapor alienate themselves from the star. This is how temperature enhances speed. Now we have to dismantle the theory that speed enhances temperature.
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In fact, speed is not the factor that enhances temperature. It is change in speed, or acceleration, that is the result of the action of anti-gravitational power. What is really happening during the action of a power on a body? This is a fundamental question in physics, and the answer must be completely understandable and logical. When a power affects a body, it exerts activity upon it. Activity that a force exerts upon a body is divided into three parts. The second part is the change (enhancement) of the kinetic energy of the body, because its speed has changed (enhanced). The third part is the change of the potential energy, because its position in the power field has changed. But, for us, the first and most interesting part, is overpowering the bodys inertia. What is inertia? Physics tells us that it is a feature of a body to resist change in the state of its movement. It is logical this feature of a body lies in a particular physical reason. If a force affects a body, and a body resists the effect of that force, it follows that there is a force of inverse action. Since I will come back to this in detail later on, for now, I will just say that inertia is a consequence of the interaction of the physical body with physical space. To state it more clearly: I believe that there is friction between a physical body and physical space.
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Where there is friction, there is heating, that is, a change in temperature. Therefore, the first part of the action that a power is exerting on a body is spent on overpowering inertia, i.e., the friction between the body and space. This causes a change of the inner energy of both the body and space. Here we are interested in the change of the inner energy of the body, which means, in the end, that the temperature of a body rises on account of that part of the action of the power on the body that overpowers inertia. The law of the conservation of energy is now completely satisfied. So, anti-gravitational force that exerts action over molecules of evaporated photospheric substance uses a part of that action on raising the temperature of those molecules due to the friction between the molecules and space. And that, in essence, is how a change in speed causes a change in temperature. Let us remind ourselves of something else. When the speed of a body is unchangeable, both in direction and intensity, we call that inertial movement. For inertial movement there is a rule that the speed is constant, which means that the temperature is constant, too. But nowhere in space we dont have inertial movement. Everything is spinning around both itself and something else.
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Non-inertial movement implies rotation because the direction of speed is being changed, although the intensity remains the same. Rotation is a consequence of the existence of centripetal forcethe role of gravity in the universe. Therefore, all bodies that spin around themselves or around another body are in permanent friction with physical space, and in a permanent process of heating. All that we have just said applies to stars, as they are (celestial) bodies, too. The spinning of a star around its axis, as well as the spinning of a star around the mass center of a double or a multiple system, and then the spinning around the center of a galaxy, causes the star to heat. Conventional astrophysics does not know this! The new astrophysics has to take into account this mechanism, which raises the temperature of stars. Let us list the factors that determine the temperature of a star: 1. Gravitational shrinkage of a star is determined by the amount of the substance and its temperature. Gravity shrinks the overall mass of the star until a balance is struck with the force of anti-gravitational repelling, which results in a hollow center of the star. The larger the attractive mass of a star, the larger the shrinkage is, plus, the larger the pressure, the density and the temperature of the star also are. That means
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that the vaporization of a star through stellar wind is more pronounced, i.e., the star loses its substance quicker. When a considerable loss of substance leads to a weakening of gravitational shrinkage, the stars wind dies away, and generally, the star will lose its glow (luminosity). Hence, it is clear that a star of higher temperature means stronger luminosity, but a shorter life span. Naturally, the larger the starting amount of the stars substance, the longer will be its life and its brightness. 2. A stars radius, and the angular speed of its spinning around its own axis. The larger the substance a star, the greater is its radius. Therefore, a larger radius causes greater gravitational shrinkage, higher temperature, and so on. For two stars with the same angular rotation speed around its own axis but of different radii, the star with the longer radius will, heat more. But for two stars of the same size and substance, but of different rotation speeds, the one with greater rotational speed will shine more brightly. The stars life spans will be different, also. Differential rotation of the same stars is also a consequence of friction between the stars and space. 3. Distance from the mass centre system and the speed of spinning around it. Stars usually appear in binary or multiple systems. That means that a star that spins faster around the mass center of its system will have a higher temperature than the same star that spins more slowly around the
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mass center of a similar system. The closer in distance from the mass center means quicker rotation of the whole system, and more heating of the star under the influence of the stellar wind of the other members of the system. 4. Distance from the galaxy center. We have seen that the galactic nucleus rotates as a solid body, and at greater speed than its arms, which leads to the spiral formation of galaxies. The farther the star is from the center of the galaxy, the lower its rotation speed around it is, and its heating is therefore lower. The concentration of stars increases nearer to the galactic center, which means that the galactic wind is stronger, and that it heats the stars that are closer, more that those that are farther away. Hence, a star closer to the galactic center will have a higher temperature and higher luminosity than a similar star that is located farther from the galactic center. Intensive galactic wind at the nucleus that originates from the winds of the individual stars at the galactic nucleus is a factor that, with its antigravitational nature, expands the galaxy, and separates the stars from each other. 5. Galaxy movement in a cluster and supercluster of galaxies. A galaxy spins around the galactic axis, but it also moves at great speed around the center of a cluster of galaxies, and this cluster of galaxies rotates around the center of a supercluster of galaxies. Superimposition of those movements on top of the aforementioned star movement (around its axis,
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around the system center and the galaxy center) heats the star further because of the great speeds the individual galaxies travel at. 6. Stars chemical structure. Since not all the stars have the same chemical structure, that means that some of them are made of heavier, and some of lighter, substances. Heavier substances cause greater gravitational shrinkage, and during movement, accomplish greater friction with space, which, logically, implies that heavier stars have higher temperature, higher luminosity and more intensive wind than lighter stars of the same size, and same conditions of movement. Also, the substance of heavier stars disintegrates in the stellar wind in a different manner from the substance of lighter stars. Therefore, according to the chemical structure of a stars wind, we can make deductions about the weight of the star, i.e., about it chemical structure. 7. Intensity of the stars wind. When all these factors fulfill their roles, and raise a star to a certain temperature, then the rising wind additionally heats the star, because a part of the heat of the stars atmosphere falls to its photosphere and heats it up even more. So, we see that numerous factors play a part in maintaining a stars temperature, thus affecting the length of its life. Such mechanisms provide stars with a much, much longer life than predicted by existing astrophysics.
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THE ORIGIN OF STARS The question of the origin of stars is a fundamental question in astrophysics. In order to find the answer, I will begin this investigation by repeating a paragraph I have written previously. It is a paragraph on galaxies, and it goes like this: Galaxies represent gravitationally limited star systems. They are comprised of a large number of stars and interstar substance in the form of gas and dust. Depending on the type and the size of a galaxy, the number of stars in them can go from several million to several thousand billion. Until today several thousands of the brightest galaxies have been studied. They represent the basic structural element for even larger associations in space clusters and superclusters of galaxies. Hence, the place of the origin of stars is a galaxy. But a galaxy is a pretty big place. Where exactly do the stars arise? Obviously, it is where the concentration of stars is greatest, the galactic nucleus. We have already seen that the galactic nucleus rotates faster than the outer part of a galaxy and that it acts compactly, as a solid body. Gravity and anti-gravity are the forces that make it so compact. Gravity prevents the dissipation of stars, and anti-gravity prevents the collapse of the nucleus. We can see that anti-gravity is even more dominant because all stars move away from each other despite gravitational at-
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traction. Anti-gravitation, which is the source of the stellar winds, therefore the galactic winds, extends not only the galaxy, but the whole universe, as well. That means that both in a galaxy and in a galactic nucleus, anti-gravity dominates. But at the heart of this antigravity, in the galactic core, we have gravity again. Hence, in the heart of the galactic nucleus there is a huge star. That star can be named the galactic mother. The galactic mother gives birth to the whole galaxyit is the mother of all the stars in that galaxy. Of course, if a galactic mother creates stars that are too big, then those big stars create smaller stars. This is origin of binary and multiple star systems, as well as star clusters. So, stars originate from larger stars, that is, larger stars create smaller stars. That is the way! A question ariseshow far can it go in either direction? In the direction of stars shrinking it continues until the stars are no longer able to create new stars. When that time comes, then the star creates planets, comets, asteroids and all other objects that make a system around a star. I will come back to this later. In the direction of a star growing there also must be a limit. If the galaxy stars were born by the galactic mother, then logic says that the numerous galactic mothers were created by the mother of the galaxy cluster. The numerous mothers of the
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galaxy clusters were created by the mother of the galaxy supercluster. The numerous mothers of the galaxy supercluster were created by the Cosmic Mother. The Cosmic Mother is the first-formed star that consolidated the entire matter of the cosmos. That huge ball (of the whole) matter was heated to incandescence by gravitation shrinkage, and, at some point it started the creation of the cosmos, through the process of creating smaller stars. A different scenario is possible. Not one, but a number of gigantic stars (MSSG) might have originated from the unified cosmic matter, which after reaching incandescence started creating the cosmos as we know it today. A great example of the origin of stars is in star clusters. They comprise a large number of stars that varies from several thousand, in the case of open, and several million in cases of globular clusters. All those stars were born at approximately the same time; they are of the same age, the same chemical structure, that is to say metallicity. A big star, i.e. the mother of a star cluster, was heated to the point of boiling. When it boiledand boiling is vaporizing of the volumedue to anti-gravity, an explosion occurred. From the scattered magma, gravity formed new, smaller stars that went on living in the gravitationally limited system that we call a star cluster. Of course the stellar winds
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of those stars cause expansion of the star cluster, in accordance with the general expansion of the cosmos. The dating of globular clusters is very important in astronomy because they are the oldest objects in the universe. Their age is today estimated to be 13 to 16 billion years, which confuses contemporary cosmology: that number is larger than the generally accepted estimates of the universes age. The solution to this problem is not in sight today, but it could seriously shatter the theory of star evolution and cosmological models. a quotation from Birth, Life and Death of Stars a book by Nicolas Prancos and Tierry Montmerle. It confirms what I am sayingthat the universe is much older than we think, because stars live longer than we think. The mistaken idea of fusion as the source of stars energy, led us to wrongly determine the duration of the stars, and therefore to a wrong estimate of the whole universes age. And now I would like to work in more detail on the question of the chemical structure of stars, i.e. their metallicity. We can see that there are stars of different chemical structure, i.e. they are comprised of magma of different weight. Why, and what is happening there? In order to understand it, we are going to analyze a large star that gives birth to a generation of smaller stars. Whatever its chemical structure is, there is universal validity. Since the star is incandescent, but liquid, magma, layering of
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magma by chemical weight occurs within it. On the surface layer is the lightest magma and, as we go toward the center, layers are made of heavier and heavier magma. The last layer, the layer around the central hollow of the star is made of the chemically heaviest magma. All layers are under pressurethe inner ones are under pressure from the layers above them, and the surface layer is under pressure from the inner layers. The chemical weight of each layers magma, combined with the pressure it is under, determines the boiling point of that layers magma. Naturally, the surface magma layer, which is lightest and under the least pressure, has the lowest boiling point. When the surface magma layer boils, it is ejected in an anti-gravitational explosion. Stars that are born from that layers scattered magma will be in the lightest class of offspring. The explosion of the surface layer causes the star to tighten, i.e. a rise in pressure, and therefore, also in the temperature of the layers beneath the surface one. Since now, around the original star there is a whole class of the lightest stars, there is a clash of the star winds of the mother star with the daughter stars. That is what causes farther alienation of the daughters, but also, the pressure on the mother star, too. As the daughters move away from the mother, the pressure on the mother stars new surface layer
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will weaken. At some point the new conditions of the surface layer of magma will reach the boiling point and that will cause its ejection in an anti-gravitational explosion. Stars that are created from the scattered magma of this layer will be in a slightly heavier class of star offspring. The process that happened after the explosion of the first layer is repeated again, and when conditions for a new boiling point of the newest surface layer of magma are reached, it will explode, and then a new class of even heavier star offspring will be created. In such a manner, over time, layer after layer will explode, creating heavier and heavier classes of offspring stars, until what is left of the mother star is too small for the boiling point of the surface magma layer to be reached. That is how, after a series of substance ejections, the mother star will reach stability and enter a relatively quiet period of its life. If such a mechanism for the origin of star offspring classes, different in weight, in approximately concentric spheres were so, it should be detectable by observing star clusters. Of course, in all these explosions of the layers of star magma we should not expect mathematical precision and symmetry. Physics is a science that describes the reality around us, and there are always discrepancies with ideal expectations and predictions.
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A realistically possible scenario is the following: because of the differential rotation of the surface magma layer of the star, boiling of magma occurs first in the equatorial zone, which would lead to explosions only in that zone and the spread of star offspring at the equatorial level of the mother star. Only after that would the boiling and exploding of the complete surface layer occur, and that would eject the star offspring with spherical symmetrically. Such a form of spreading the offspring stars is just what we have with galaxies that are flat and expand in the galactic level, which is the equatorial level of the galactic mother. This logic leads us to the conclusion that the stars from the outer region of the galaxy should be made of the lightest substance and that, as we approach to galactic center the weight of the substance should be heavier. The same should apply in case of star clusters, except that, with clusters, we have symmetrical and not level expansion.
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THE CAUSE OF ROTATION IN CELESTIAL BODIES
For early man, it seemed obvious that the sun and the moon rotate around the earth. The same claim was made about the stars. Copernicus and his book New Astronomy in which he explained that the earth spins both around its own axis and the sun spoiled this rosy picture. Only the moon rotates around the earth. All astronomical observations show that all celestial bodies spin around their axis, and from a certain centre of rotation. Simply put, rotation is a universal law in the universe. And that law has to have a cause. If I wanted to make a joke, I could say, Rotation of the celestial bodies is a consequence of quenchless curiosity: everyone wonders what is going around them. So they are constantly wandering round and round to see what is going on around them. Its a good joke, isnt it? We have already seen that stars come from larger stars. The rotation of the offspring stars is much easier to explain if the ancestor star is already rotating itself. But, how did the first star come to rotate? Did the Cosmic Mother spin around its axis? Did the supercluster mothers spin around their own axes?
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One theory states the following: the non-homogeneous distribution of matter in space around stars during their formation, that they attracted with gravitation, caused that matter to fall in such a way that it initiated a spinning movement. And we must suppose that the falling matter favored the spinning to move in one direction. In my opinion such explanations are not acceptable. I will begin with the assumption that the formation of the Cosmic Mother, or the supercluster mother, was not what lead to them spinning around their axis. I believe this is what happened: a large amount of piled accumulated matter is heated due to gravitational shrinkage, which leads to the formation of layers of incandescent and liquid magma, whose weight increases moving from the surface toward the centre. A star beginning in this way has no movement, neither around its axis nor anywhere else. When the gravitational shrinkage causes the surface magma layer to boil, the first anti-gravitational explosion will occur, with the ejection of the magma of the first layer into surrounding space. This magma will be ejected in radially in all directions, spherically symmetrical. This ejected magma has linear acceleration (linear speed) from the explosion. It is logical to assume that at first the shape of this matter was irregular, before gravitational action smoothed it into a spherical shape. This period, during which a piece of
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ejected magma spends as the irregular shape, is of crucial importance for our analyses. We have, therefore, an irregular formed mass of magma that is speeding away from the ancestor star in a straight line. What happens to it now? Multiple actions are taking place. Firstly, the ancestor stars wind exerts different pressure on different parts of the irregular magma. That causes the creation of a pair of force, which coupled together, starts the spinning around the mass center. Secondly, the stellar wind and the ancestor star radiation heat parts of the irregular magma unevenly: the sunny parts more than those in the shade, the thicker parts more than the thin ones, because of the difference in the size of the receiving area. Thirdly, the thicker and the thinner parts of the magma cool down differentlythe thicker more slowly than the thinner. The fall in temperature causes an increase in mass. A rise in mass means greater inertia, and increased inertia implies more friction between the mass and space. This varied friction, which different parts of the irregularly shaped magma have with space, forms a coupling of forces that start spinning around the axis through the mass center. Because of the different mass of different irregular magma parts, acceleration from the explosion provides different speeds to different parts (greater speeds to the smaller parts than to the larger ones).
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This adds to the coupling of forces for spinning around the mass center. All other actions on the magma are superimposed on these, and the irregular shaped magma starts spinning around its axis that goes through its mass center. Of course, this situation lasts for only a certain period of time, because gravitation is also acting, and the irregular magma shape is smoothing into a sphere. Now we have an effect that is known to us from ice-skating. A skater starts spinning with his or her arms and one leg outspread (the other leg is the axis of spinning). At this point, the angular speed is not great. But when the skater pulls his arms close to his body, the angular speed increases. This follows the law of the maintenance of impulse movement. The same thing is happening when magma is changing from an irregular into a spherical shape. The transformation is causing an increase in the angular speed. That is how, from an ancestor star that was without either linear movement or spinning around its own axis, we have offspring stars with linear movement plus spinning around their axes. The situation now looks like this: the ancestor star, that was not moving or rotating around its axis, is now encircled, with spherical symmetry, with its offspring stars which move in a radial line away from the it, and at the same time rotate
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around their axes. The smaller offspring stars will have greater linear and angular speed of rotation than the larger offspring stars. Note that the offspring stars are not rotating around their ancestor star. When will that occur and how? The rotation of the offspring stars around their ancestor star will occur when the stars with rotation around their axes start creating offspring of their own. How so? Lets observe one of these stars that move linearly and spin around its axis. Its linear movement was, at first, accelerated, and then settled into movement at a constant speed. That means that linear movement was only a factor of its additional heating at the beginning. After the start of rotational movement around its axis, it becomes a constant factor of additional heating of the star because it is a noninertial movement (the line and the direction of the speed continually change). During rotation around its axis a star has the highest peripheral speed at the equator, and the lowest at the poles. This means that the surface layer will be hottest at the equatorial zone, and that magma will boil easier and quicker there. An explosion at the equatorial zone leads to the ejection of magma at the stars equatorial zone. Therefore, a star that spins around its axis will create offspring mainly in its equatorial zone. Expansion of offspring
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stars will occur in that zone. But if, during the ejection of the equatorial zone magma, each mass of magma has an already existing peripheral speed, normally in the direction of alienation, superimposition of the two speeds leads to the stars movement along a spiral path in the equatorial zone around the ancestor star. The distance between the arms of the spiral shrinks in time and turns into an ellipse along which an offspring rotates around an offspring. Of course, this offspring will spin around its axis, too. And so, from an ancestor star that had motion in a straight line and rotation around its axis, we come to offspring stars that spin around the ancestor star along elliptic paths in its equatorial zone and also spin around their own axes. The elliptical paths of the offspring stars, while rotating around the ancestor star, are a consequence of the ancestor stars movement, either linear or elliptic (around its ancestor). An ideal circle, as a curve along which an offspring rotates around its ancestor, would be possible only in the case where the ancestor does not have any other movement except the spinning around its axis. Of course, the higher the ancestors speed, the flatter the ellipse along which the offspring rotates will be, i.e., the difference between the ellipses half-axes will be longer. Let me stress once more that a star that does not rotate around its axis does not create offspring with spherical
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symmetrically around it, and a star that spins around its axis creates offspring mainly symmetrical in its equatorial level, and they rotate around it. If we apply this logic to what we see in the universe, we can conclude that galactic mothers are stars that rotate around their own axes. We can also, perhaps, conclude that globular clusters, the oldest and farthest known objects in the cosmos, came into being from stars that did not rotate around their own axes. And those stars that did not rotate around their own axes are the first-formed stars that started forming the cosmos as we can see it today.
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PRESERVING THE ROTATION OF CELESTIAL BODIES We have seen how the rotation of celestial bodies came about, both around their axes and around their ancestors. The next question that logically arises is how those rotations are preserved. Rotation is, by its nature as movement, non-inertial. It is a source of additional heating because it is in friction with space. This continual friction should, in time, lead to the rotation coming to a stop, but we can see that that has not happened. Despite the great age of all celestial bodies, they still spin, both around their axes and around their ancestors. What is the mechanism that preserves rotation once it has started, and how does it work? At the basis of everything in the universe lies the process of heating. When the first star ignited, the process of heating began. As the stars multiplied, the heating process has intensified, and with that the process of the expansion of the universe was put in motion. All bodies expand with heat, and so does the universe as a whole. Heating, through anti-gravitational action, alienates the first generation of offspring from the ancestor, but it also alienates them from each other. Then, new generations of offspring are created and the pattern repeats itselfwith alienation from both the ancestor and from their peers. With the first
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generation of offspring, rotation around their axes occurred, and with the second offspring generation, spinning around the ancestor began. The ancestor that is moving linearly along a curve, drags its offspring (which rotate around it) with it, accelerates them and turns their paths into ellipses. That is how the ancestor movement preserves or even accelerates the rotation of its offspring around it. When we observe the offspring that spins around the ancestor, to whose radiation and wind it is exposed, we can logically conclude that its radiated side is a little warmer than the one that was in the shade. A difference in temperature means a difference in mass. The cooler side is heavier, i.e., more inert, and it has greater friction with space than the warmer side. That inequality of friction of the cool and the warm sides of the offspring creates an additional spinning momentum that preserves the rotation of the offspring around their axes. Continual additional spinning momentum creates an additional gravitational attraction to the side of the offspring that is moving from shade to light rather than from the lit side moving into shade. The cause is the difference in the sides temperature, and therefore its mass difference (see picture 45).
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Picture 45. In the diagram we see that the ancestors windblowing effect contributes to the preservation of the offsprings rotation around the ancestor and the preservation of the offsprings rotation around its axis. The logic of events tells us that the most probable direction of the offsprings rotation around the ancestor will be identical to the direction of the ancestors rotation around its
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axis. The most probable direction of the offsprings rotation around its axis will be opposite to the ancestors rotation around its axis. Whichever the case, from our knowledge about the rotational direction of the ancestor around its axis, and the offspring around its ancestor, and around their respective axes, we can draw conclusions about the ancestors movement through space. The very process of the universes heating, leads to the heating of all celestial bodies, and from that to the fall of their attractive mass. The law of impulse and impulse momentum preservation provides that the mass reduction is compensated with an adequate rise in speed, both linear and angular. These are the mechanisms that have preserved the rotation of celestial bodies from their birth until today, and that will continue to preserve it in the future.
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THE BEGINNING OF THE UNIVERSE We have seen how the cosmic mothers began creating the first generation of stars. We have seen how and why the rotation of the whole celestial bodies came about. We have also seen how all this rotation is being preserved. Let us now try to realize how the formation of the cosmic mothers came about. How, and from where, did they come into existence? First, the necessary prerequisite for the origin of the whole material universe is the existence of physical space. Second, the necessary prerequisite for the origin of the material universe is the presence of energy with which space is charged. Energy-charged physical space, at some point starts generating elemental matter particles. When their density becomes significant, they start interacting with each other, creating hydrogen atoms, the simplest atom in the universe. At that time the universe was extremely cold and dark; much colder than the present-day temperature of 3K and therefore the hydrogen atoms attractive mass was much larger than its attractive mass today. At that time an extremely strong gravitation was reigning. The universe was dark because, at such low temperatures, hydrogen atoms do not produce any electromagnetic radiation.
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Logic tells us the following facts. The incessant creation of hydrogen atoms requires the incessant creation of elemental particles. The incessant creation of elemental particles by physical space requires the incessant recharging of physical space with energy. The question of energys origin, which constantly fills up physical space, is out of the scope of physics and belongs in the field of metaphysics. Lets return to physicsto the extremely cold and dark universe in which hydrogen atoms were created. The huge attractive mass of the cold hydrogen atoms generates very strong gravitational force between them, and they begin merging. This merging into molecules releases energy. In such conditions of temperature, the merging of hydrogen atoms occurs by creating crystal structures, i.e., hydrogen in the solid state of aggregation. This is the period of the universes crystallization. Small crystals forcefully attract nearby hydrogen atoms and grow very quickly. Crystals are mutually gravitationally attracted and, by merging they build larger crystals. That is now the period of the beginning of slow heating, because the crystals kinetic energy, after merging by impact, turns into inner energy in the newly formed crystal. This process of crystals merging, leads toward the creation of larger and larger crystals, while their numbers reduce.
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In the core of these huge hydrogen crystalscreated in such a manner, with a continual increase of their size and mass, and on which a rain of smaller crystals incessantly fallsthe process of cold fusion begins. That means that at low temperature and under extremely strong gravitational force, in their core the hydrogen crystal is transformed into the helium crystal. As, on the outside, the hydrogen crystal grows, in its heart, the helium crystal is growing. Further growth of the whole crystals mass will lead to new cold fusion, when, in the heart of the helium crystal, the lithium (Li) crystal is created. Through this process heavier and heavier elements will be created in the heart of the growing crystal. The crystal will look like an onion with layers of different elements, whose weight increases from the surface towards the centre. Gravitational shrinkage is heating the whole crystal all the time, mostly in its core. Logically, this heating of the crystals core, will, at some point, lead to an end of the cold fusion process. The formation of even heavier elements will be disrupted, but up till then, elements even heavier than those we know of, will have already been created. The heat made by gravitational shrinkage is transferred to higher layers and the whole crystal begins heating. It is also being heated by the incessant rain of smaller crystals that falls on it. The crystal begins heating space around it, and the universe begins heating, but it is still less than 0K.
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Incessant heating will, at some point, lead the temperature of the surface layer (of hydrogen crystals) to the temperature of melting, and soon after that, it will begin to melt. The occurrence of hydrogen in a liquid state means that convection, i.e. inner movement, occurs, tooa far more efficient transfer of heat towards the surface. The solid hydrogen crystal outer layer will become thinner and thinner and at some point will completely melt. There will come a period when the warm inside of the crystal is encircled by a gigantic ocean of liquid hydrogen. Gravitational shrinkage continues; the ocean of liquid hydrogen heats and evaporates more and more. The formation occurs of a gas hydrogen atmosphere, whose height is growing. The heat that it radiates into surrounding space, and friction through the atmosphere, start melting the crystals that keep falling into this ocean, until the hail turns to snow, and then sleet, and in the end into rain. The depth of the hydrogen ocean will continue growing due to the rain of liquid hydrogen, and therefore the whole mass of the future Cosmic Mother continues to grow. The depth of the atmosphere constantly increases with the increase of the hydrogen gas temperature. Convection in the hydrogen atmosphere is getting stronger and stronger, and the higher reaches of the atmosphere are farther and farther from the liquid surface. The powerful gravitation of the Cosmic
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Mother still manages to hold the liquid hydrogen layers. The temperature of the atmosphere, and the friction through it, manage to turn the rain into vapor and thus stop the growth of the surface hydrogen ocean. From now on, the only thing that will grow is the thickness of the atmosphere. The depth of the ocean will begin to reduce due to more and more vaporization. The convection of the gas hydrogen in the atmosphere is the result of the anti-gravitation action between the Cosmic Mother and the hydrogen molecules with negative mass. The temperature of those gas molecules is not high enough, and the negative mass, quite quickly, turns attractive by cooling down, so that escaping the atmosphere cannot yet happen. But, at some point all the prerequisites for that will be met. The growing vaporization of the liquid hydrogen ocean, and the increasing strength of convection in the hydrogen atmosphere, will heat and disperse it so much, that some gas hydrogen molecules will manage to leave the atmosphere. They will be hot enough, and fast enough, and at the very top of the atmosphereand anti-gravity will blow them off into space. That is a very important moment, because it came to the appearance of the Cosmic Mothers wind, however cold it is. Now, this wind starts prevents the hydrogen flow into the atmosphere. There will come a moment when the hydrogen inflow will be equal to its out-flow, which is caused through the
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wind, and then the wind will dominate, and Cosmic Mother will begin losing substance for the first time. In time the wind becomes warmer and quicker. That means that now the cosmic matter heats the universe more intensely, changing the hydrogen in its surroundings into a liquid, and then a gas, state. The hot wind heats all the cosmic matter. The production of anti-gravitational energy is growing because gravitational shrinkage and outer heating, due to the winds existence, lead to more and more heating of the whole cosmic matter, at all layers. When the ocean of liquid hydrogen boils, the first explosion of cosmic matter will occur, and it will eject a layer of the liquid hydrogen as well as the hydrogen atmosphere. Now it is the turn of the helium layer. Arriving at the surface of the cosmic matter, where the pressure is lower, the helium layer begins melting and evaporating, creating a helium atmosphere. Now, the Cosmic Mother starts dispersing a wind of helium atoms. Further heating melts the Cosmic Mother completely, i.e., turns it into a liquid state. This state will enable all the layers and chemical elements to mix, which will lead to chemical reactions among the elements, and the creation of various compounds. Elemental chemical reactions will heat the Cosmic Mother even more.
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The Cosmic Mother will, through a series of explosions, eject the lighter layers that constituted its surface, and this will lead to the formation of a surface made of liquid magma. Such a surface of the Cosmic Mother, and its temperature, will create conditions of the cosmic wind, and radiation, that will light the universe of that era, as the stars light it today. When the layers of the liquid, red-hot magma begin exploding, the creation of the first stars will begin. I have explained all that in order to show that the universe did not arise in a Big Bang. There were many explosions, big ones of course, but I wish to say that the idea of one Big bang from which the universe originates, is wrong. The idea of the Big Bang is the result of a physics theory that did not account for anti-gravity. Therefore the physicists imagined the whole universe packed into a single point. That is simply not possible. The Big Bang theory was an attempt to explain the expansion of the universe. Today, we know that the universe is expanding at a faster and faster rate, which we simply cannot explain by a Big Bang. The expansion of the universe is the result of the incessant strengthening of anti-gravitation, and not a Big Bang. The incessant strengthening of antigravitation is the result of the incessant heating of the universe.
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MASS TEMPERATURE RELATIVITY AND NEWTON It is said that Newton, comparing the falling of an apple from a tree, and the movement of the moon around the earth concluded that the centripetal acceleration of the moon and the acceleration of the free fall to the earths surface, was the same type of force, the gravitational pull of two masses. Free fall is caused by the gravitational attraction of a bodys mass and the earths mass, and centripetal force, accounting for the movement of the moon around the earth, caused by the gravitational force between the moon and the earth. In 1686, Newton, based on his own and Keplers laws of mechanics, produced a mathematical expression for the force that causes the planets movement around the sun. Then he generalized this law to cover interactions of all bodies in the universe, and named it the law of universal gravitation: two bodies are mutually attracted by a force that is proportional to the product of their masses, and inversely proportional to the square of their mutual distance. According to Newtons law of gravitation, the force of mutual attraction of bodies does not depend on their relative speeds, but only on their mutual positions. I believe gravitational force between two bodies depends neither on the nature or the space between them.
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The force of gravity occurs between all bodies, independently of their mass or dimension, and there are no obstacles that can prevent or stop its action. It was established that gravitational forces are of very weak intensity when it comes to everyday bodies. We can see their full power only with cosmic bodies, or if at least one of them is cosmic. For Newton the gravitational constant remained unknown, because Caven-dish experimentally determined it in 1798, after Newtons death. The gravitational constant has a very low value, which shows that gravitational forces are very weak. However, the knowledge of its numeral value was used to determine the earths, the suns and the planets mass, so it is often said that Cavendish weighed the earth by using the torsion scales. For the development of science then, and the level of knowledge in the 17th century, the law of universal gravity was a very big, and very important, discovery. However, it was just one part of the truth about mass interactions between bodies. By comparing the burning of a fire, the glowing of the sun and the expansion of the universe, I have concluded that we are talking about one and the same forceanti-gravity. Anti-gravity drives the fire flames upward, anti-gravity is the source of the suns glow, and anti-gravity is the cause of cosmic expansion.
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A universal law of interactions that includes the factor of time would say: all bodies are at a certain point mutually attracted only if they are both cold enough and if they have enough attractive mass; between them there is no mass interaction if at least one of them, or both of them, reach a massless state at a certain temperature; they mutually repel each other if either or both of them are hot enough, i.e., at a temperature where their mass is negative. It is easy to conclude that Newtons law of universal gravity refers to a situation when both bodies are cold enough and have attractive mass, therefore he presents a special case of his universal law of mass interactions. Newton himself explored cooling of bodies and gave a law on that, known as Newtons law of cooling. Each body is at one of the following possible states, concerning heating and cooling: 1) A body is in the process of constant cooling. 2) A body is in a periodical process of occasional cooling and occasional heating. 3) A body is in the process of constant heating. 4) A body maintains its constant temperature. When we observe mass interactions of two bodies over a longer period of time, it becomes clear that a mutual interaction will surely change quantitatively, and in certain situations qualitatively, in accordance with the mass changes of both
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bodies (quantitatively and qualitatively) from the beginning state onward. The option where bodies maintain a constant temperature is only possible in artificially created thermo-isolated systems. In nature all bodies that change their temperatures over time. The whole universe is in the process of heating accelerated heatingand in accordance with that, the attractiveness of such masses is reduced and the negativity of such masses rises, which in the final result, leads to the faster and faster expansion of the universe. Alas, Newton introduced the notion of mass into physics. He considered it a measure for the amount of a substance and, most certainly, a constant size. Physicists further defined mass as a measure for the bodys inertia, but it was still considered a constant size. At the end of 19th century, experiments with particle acceleration pointed out that mass does change, that is, that it is not a constant size. In 1905, Einstein, in his special theory of relativity, describes how a bodys mass quantitatively changes with a change of its speed. Now, in 2007, I am saying quantitative and qualitative body mass change with a change in its temperature. This new step in the evolution of our knowledge of mass is, most certainly, not the last.
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I would also like to say that the following statements were propounded too soon, and not measured: 1) Force of mutual action does not depend on the relative speed of those bodies; 2) Force between two bodies does not depend on the natural space between the two bodies; 3) There is no obstacle that can prevent, that is, stop interaction between bodies. So often before now we have seen that something that used to be considered impossible in previous times proves to be possible later. Let us learn to be wise and moderate in our statements and speak, for example, like this: All our efforts and wisdom of the present have not been able to prove or accomplish such and such, but maybe the accomplishments and the wisdom of the future will be able to discover and correct the shortcomings and the mistakes of which we have not been aware. Surely, there is no end to our progress, and because of that we should give up the attitude that pronounces, when we discover something big and important, that it is an eternal, final and immutable truth. Sooner or later, there always comes a time for reexamination of our acquired knowledge and that is when new revelations (of the world around us and the world within us) are discovered.
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When we mention Newton, we cannot forget his laws of mechanics. Newton set three basic laws of dynamics and thus set the basis of classic mechanics, that is, classic physics. These laws introduce force and mass into physics and enable their quantitative measuring. Newtons laws define force, i.e. each of the laws provides one of the following data about it: first, the existence of the force, second, the size of the force (intensity, direction and path), and third, the source of the force. Now I will analyze one by one Newtons law from the point of view of mass temperature relativity (MTR). First I will quote and then I will analyze. Newtons first law of mechanics defines the source of change of a bodys movement state (i.e., inaction) and it states: each body remains in a state of inaction, or uniformed linear movement, until it is forced to change its state by the action of outer forces. This means that a body on its own does not change its speed neither by its size, nor its direction, nor its path, that is, the gained speed is maintained as a vector size. That is why we say that a body moves by inertia. That is why this law was named the LAW OF INERTIA and it should be interpreted in the following way: a) Inertia is a feature of every body, which means that it tends to maintain the state of relative inaction or uniformed linear movement;
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b) That force is not a necessary cause of a bodys movement, because even without force, bodies can move and; c) The change in a bodys movement is caused by force, i.e., if even one force affects a body, it cannot be found in a state of inactivity. Analysis: It is clear right away that this law can be applied only in a thermo-isolated system, where temperature is constant and only in a system that is dimensionally limited. It was created as a consequence of experiment analysis that was performed in just such conditions. In realistic conditions we actually do not have linear movement and we do not have a constant temperature. But if we approximate a curve, along which a body is moving, with a straight line we cannot avoid the fact that, in time, the bodys temperature will change. As soon as its temperature changes, its mass will change. The change in its mass causes a change in inertia, i.e., the change in intensity in the friction force between the body and space. If mass quantitatively increases, then the bodys speed will reduce, without the action of an outer force. If mass quantitatively falls, then the bodys speed will again increase without the action of an outer force. This is also in accordance with the law of impulse maintenance, and the law of energy maintenance. Here
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we have inner force in action between the body and space, because its change causes change in the bodys speed. Force is the necessary cause of body movement, because, although we see a body move without a forces presence, we have to be aware that that movement had to be initiated by a force that affected the body in its near or distant past. Also, the state of inaction we are talking about actually does not exist; it is just that the body we are observing has the same intensity, line and direction of speed as the whole system in which we are observing it. The truth is that everything in universe is moving, as we have seen in the previous chapters. If we think wisely, and in detail, how to conduct experiments, then we will manage to move a body from the so-called state of inaction without the action of an outer force. Of course, the temperature change and the bodys mass change will cause a change in the action of the inner force of a body with space, and that will move it from so-called inaction. So much for Newtons first law. Newtons second law of mechanics determines the characteristics of body movement under the action of a force. As the main feature of mechanical movement, Newton introduced the physical notion of impulse, or the amount of movement that is defined by the product of the mass and the body speed.
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Newtons second law defines how a force influences the impulse change. It says: a bodys impulse change in time is proportional to the force that affects it, and it is exerted in the direction of the force. Mathematical interpretation of this law, along with the fact that, in Newtonian physics, mass is considered a constant size that does not depend on the speed in which the body is moving, leads to this formulation: force is equal to the bodys mass times the acceleration that the force is causing. Acceleration is in the same direction and path as the force causing it. Furthermore, constant force causes uniform accelerated movement. Based on experimental studies of a body being affected by a number of forces, under the effect of each force, and their overall action, comes the law of the independence of forces action: the action of each force on a given body does not depend on whether it is inactive or moving (except for Lawrences force), nor on the number of forces affecting the body. In other words, a body under the action of several forces acts as if it is only affected by the sum total of those forces. The principle of independent action of forces allows us to analyze the separate components of the force and the acceleration. The particular components of these forces are observed independently from each others, which makes solving certain problems a little easier (e.g., we can analyze movement
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in the direction of an axis of the coordinate system independently from the movement under the influence of the other components of the same force). Analysis: Newton insight was brilliant when he introduced the notion of the amount of movement, or impulse, expressed as bodys mass multiplied by its speed, as the basic characteristic of mechanical movement. Newtons definition of the second law that: the change of bodys impulse in time is proportional to the force that affects it and acts in the direction of the forces action, is basically good but is not precise enough; it is generalized. The wrong mathematical interpretation of this law, as well as the wrong understanding that mass was a constant, led to the wrong form of this law: force is equal to bodys mass multiplied by acceleration that the force is causing. Why do I say a wrong mathematical interpretation? Because it lacks the word proportional. That word requires a coefficient or a factor of proportionality in the mathematical interpretation of his words, and it is not there. We cannot assume that proportionally means equally, to put it simply, it does not. When the bodys speed changes in intensity, either in its direction or path, the conditions of friction of the body with
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space change, therefore the bodys temperature changes, and accordingly, its mass. So, force does not equal bodys mass times the acceleration it causes. We can say that the force is proportional to the acceleration it causes, times mass that the body had before the action of the force. But, again, this is too general, and is not precise enough. Also, constant force does not cause uniform movement. If a bodys mass changes with accelerated movement, then it means that a constant force, over time, will cause different acceleration. Experiments with particle acceleration led to the understanding that something is happening with massthat mass changes. I do not agree with the law of the independence of forces action, either. The discrepancy of that law with Lawrences force is not an exception, but a rule. So, it is wrong to analyze movement in the direction of one axis of the coordinate system independently of movement in the direction of the other axis of the coordinate system. Galileo Galilei introduced this error into physics. His understanding that a cannonball fired a cannon completely horizontal direction, and just dropped from the mouth of the cannon, also in a perfectly horizontal direction, will fall at the
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exact same moment, is wrong. By that reasoning, the principle of relativity is wrong. Proof? Heres a simple proof. If a perfectly horizontal cannon fires a cannonball in first cosmic speed it will not fall to the ground at the same time as the cannonball that fell from the mouth of the same cannon; it will not fall to the ground at all. The cannonball will become a satellite of the earth. To put it simply, the greater the speed of the horizontally fired cannonball, the later it will fall to the ground compared to the cannonball that was not fired. If the cannonball was a flying object in which passengers were seated, then they could determine the speed at which they were fired from the cannon, without looking out of the win-dow; by comparing the time it took a body to fall from a certain height to the floor, before being fired, and being fired. Of course, the difference in the times of the bodies falls, would clearly show that they are not inactive, but that they are moving. I will come back to this later, and for now, we will move on from Newtons second law. Third Newtons law of mechanics: In his first and second laws, Newton spoke about the one-sided interaction of the body, that is, about the action of a force only to one body
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by another. However, in interaction of two bodies there is always simultaneous reaction on the first body by the second. The Newtons third law of mechanics characterizes the mutual action of two bodies and it states: mutual actions of two bodies are always equal and diametrically opposite. In general, there are no criteria by which one force would be considered an action and another one a reaction, because they are both of the same nature. There is no difference between these forces in the means of the cause and the consequence, so each of them is both action and reaction. Under the action and reaction force, bodies can change their state of movement (pool), or get a deformity of their shape (two cars crash). Accordingly, Newtons third law contributes to the definition of force in that it determines the source of the force (for example, the earth is the source of the force that affects the moon, and makes it revolve around it). Analysis: I agree that action always creates an opposite reaction, but I cannot agree with Newtons premise that action and reaction are always equal. I agree that they are sometimes equal. When a tennis beginner practices, against a wall, then the action of the ball on the wall is equal to the reaction of the wall on the ball. But, in the same example, when the tennis player hits the ball with a racquet, the force of the racquet is
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much larger than the reaction force of the ball; that is why the ball goes where the racquet sends it. If we exchanged the tennis ball with a basketball, which is bigger and more massive, we would have the following situation: the force of the basketball on the wall would be the same as the walls reaction force on the basketball, and the force of the racquet action on the basketball would be a little greater than the basketballs reaction to the racquet. The basketball would still go to the wall and back. When we exchange the basketball with a medicine ball, which is of similar size but much more massive, the action force of the racquet on it would be the same as the reaction force of the ball to the racquet, but the ball would not move at all. So, the action force is the same as the reaction force only when the acting body hits the reacting body with a smaller amount of movement, i.e. inertia, or if the amount of movement, i.e. inertia, of both the acting and reacting bodies are the same. This means that I do distinguish between action and reaction. When we observe deformities of bodies at crashes, it is clear that bodies with larger inertia suffer less deformity, and bodies with less inertia suffer greater deformity. Let us not forget that the inertia of a body is proportional to the amount of its movement. And, for the end of this story, a treat.
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The American army performed experiments on how a certain speeds of a bullet cause deformities on a metal panel of a certain thickness. As the bullets speed increased, the size of the deformity of the metal plate changed. When they performed the experiment at a great speed (unfortunately not known to me), they found a surprising result. The bullet went through the panel, but there was no deformity on the panel. The increase of quantity led to a new quality. What had actually happened there? Why was there neither action nor reaction? Why had the Newtons third law stopped working? What is certain is that the metal panel had made a passage through itself for the bullet; it opened itself in front of the bullet and closed after it. We could say that it was not behaving like a solid body, but a liquid one. It is not perfectly clear what was happening with and around the bullet when it caused such a behavior change in a solid body. One possibility is that the surface layer of the bullet gained anti-gravitational action and thus caused a separation of the panels atoms. Another possibility is that the bullet created a space wedge in front of itself separating the space within the metal panel, thus separating the panels atoms. Of course, something else is also possible. Something we are not aware of. Nature is really inexhaustible with the surprises she shows us; let us always be prepared for the new ones.
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MASS TEMPERATURE RELATIVITY AND EINSTEIN While speaking of Newtons second law, I showed Galileos principle of relativity is wrong. I will speak later about constants, for now I would like to say only this: 1) the speed of light is not constant and; 2) the speed of light is not the greatest possible speed in nature. I would say that Einstein was, in the first place, a victim of a wrong theory that had been developing several centuries before him, and that he described his good ideas about space relativity, unfortunately, in a wrong mathematical way. Space and time are relative, that is Einsteins inerasable contribution to physics, but the mathematics of his theories are wrong. Not only Einstein, but absolutely no one understood what was happening there. His whole concern was about the relativity of speed, but no one, not even Einstein, understand that the key to the problem lies in temperature, which is directly connected to speed. A whole sequence of misinterpreted experiments resulted, before Einstein, was led to the, mathematically incorrect, Einsteins theories of relativity. Now, using mass temperature relativity, mass temperature relativity (MTR), we should look back to all those experiments and try to understand them. There is plenty of work for the physicists, there.
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A wrong mathematical formulation of Einsteins special theory of relativity (STR) gave wrong conclusions about reality at great speeds. I do not wish to comment on each of them individually. In his general theory of relativity (GTR), that includes gravity, Einstein says, Mass tells space how to bend, and space tells mass how to move. I do not agree with this claim of Einsteins because it reduces the gravitational field to geometry, which is simply not right. That way has led us to the many delusions that are present in todays physics. Instead of physics, which is the natural cause of things, leading mathematics, now mathematics leads physics, and that has resulted in a loss of connection with reality and logic. I would modify Einsteins assertion that mass tells space how to bend, and space tells mass how to move. I think this is closer to what happens: The allocation, and the state, of matter and energy determine the quality of the space around it, and the quality of space then determines the movement of matter and energy spreading through it. As for the best-known formula of Einsteins: that energy is equal to mass times the speed of light squared, I do not agree with that. I agree that the whole body energy defines its mass, both in quality and quantity; I also agree that body mass, its
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quantity and quality, defines the whole body energy. But Einsteins formula is not good. Why? Here is a simple reason why. Let us observe closed space; lets say a room, and the air in it. According to Einsteins formula, air molecules with the greatest energy, i.e. the warmest molecules, have the greatest mass. Since they have the largest mass, they are most attracted by the earths gravity, and should be closest to the earth, i.e., they should be low to the floor. Furthermore, air molecules with the lowest energy, i.e., the coldest molecules, have the lightest mass. Since they have the lightest mass, they are the least attracted by the earths force of gravity and they should be farthest from the Earth, that is, they should be towards the ceiling. The real situation with regard to the molecules allocation in a room is exactly opposite. The warmest air is always just below the ceiling and the coolest just above the floor. The nature herself does not agree with this formula of Einsteins, and neither do I. I am always, faithfully, on natures side, regardless of with whom I am about to disagree. MTR is in accordance with natural processes and that is why it is a sounder path. I have already spoken about the acceleration effect on a body in the anti-gravitational model of the sun. As for action and reaction, I have shown the example of a bullet, which at
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great speed, passes through a metal panel without deforming it. We will have to think of more experiments on this subject and do a complete revision of the ones we have done already. Only then will we begin to understand what is happening with a body that is moving through space at great speed.
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DIMENSIONS AND CONSTANTS Present-day physics has greatly complicated our lives by introducing new dimensions. Three dimensions were not enough, nor four. New dimensions were added whenever a certain theory needed them. Mathematics is now dealing with n-dimensional spaces. That is how mathematics works. In mathematics we can create whatever virtual world we like. Physics aspires to explain the world around us, the real world. At least, that is how it was at the beginning, and I certainly hope that is how it will continue. On the topic of space dimensions, I would like to say that for a quantitative space description we need three dimensions. Only three. Not more. For a qualitative description of the space, we can introduce as many dimensions as we need, or as many as we can differentiate. Time is a qualitative dimension; it shows us a quality of the space around us, or of the space we want to explore. The introduction of time as the fourth quantitative dimension was mistaken, based on a misunderstanding of what quantity and qualities of space are. All constants we have defined in physics are actually qualitative dimensions of space. They tell us about the quality of the space we occupy.
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The most important fact I would like to state about constants is that they are not constant. What we have been considering as constants is changeable, although, certainly, their changes are very slow and very small. The second important thing I would like to say about constants is that they are not universal. Values that we get by measurements are the indicator of a part of space we are in where the measuring took place. In other parts of space, their values would be different. Let me just explain that with specific examples. Let us observe the gravitational constant and the speed of light c. At this stage of the universes development, when it is heating and expanding faster and faster, is decreasing, which means that, in general, the intensity of the gravitational interaction is weakening. At the same time, because of the increase in heating, the value of the dielectric and magnetic vacuum permeability is decreasing, which means that the speed of light is increasing. If you think that our lives will become more complicated because of these statements, I wish to say that our life in physics is so complicated that it can only get simpler. I do admit these ideas revolutionize physics and astrophysics, and cosmology, too. So far, we have been determining and checking constants in order to come to the most accurate value possible. This is where we first encoun-
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tered the fact that recent values are very slightly different from those previously determined. That contributed to an increase in measuring precision, that is, a reduction of mistakes in measurement. The truth is that measuring precision is becoming more perfect, but the constants are changing, slowly and minutely. Let us go back to Einsteins STR. His premise that the speed of light is a constant, and that is the greatest possible speed in nature, was wrong for several reasons: 1) We have seen why and how c is not a constant; 2) We have seen that there is an increase in the speed of light; therefore its numeric value exceeds itself in the course of time; 3) Our knowledge of nature is very limited now, let alone a century ago. So, stating that the speed of light was the greatest speed in nature was not a reflection of human wisdom, but a temporary scientific necessity. Einstein needed it in order not to get a negative algebraic sign in the value under the square root. In that case, the mathematical apparatus of the STR would become absurd, and, as such, completely unacceptable to physicists. Let me remind you that Einsteins theories of relativity had a number of opponents from the beginning, and there are many today, also. That is why, in 1921, Einstein won the Nobel Prize, not for his theories
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of relativity (for which he became, and remains famous), but for his explanation of the photo-effect. I believe that the whole process of introducing constants into physics came about and was developed because of a temporary scientific necessity needs. Here is a clarification of this statement. When the physicists were, in the past, performing experiments to determine the dependence of a value on other values, they expressed that dependence mathematically, mainly by dividing some values products by a product of some other values. In order to use those formulae in reality, they become constants. They were determining the constants from measurements, and that was it. The introduction of the constants satisfied the temporary scientific necessity of obtaining formulae. Logic tells us that the number of introduced constants is always in accordance with the level of our not understanding the phenomena and the values we have been examining. I understand that it may have been a necessary step in the development of physics: Lets use something, even though we do not understand the real nature of it, was an expression of pragmatism. However, technological advancement, without understanding the essence, has led us to applicable formulae, without a complete understanding of what was examined and calculated by those
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a situation where we have jeopardized our own existence, because we have jeopardized planet earths functioning. It is high time we began to realizing the truth, and, by exerting great effort, try to fix the damage we have caused so far. And now more about the non-universality of constants. When I say that constants are not universal, I would like to say that the values that we have measured here on earth will not be identical with the values we would measure at another spot in the cosmos. The quality of space changes from one place to another. Generally speaking, space is not homogenous. And when it is not homogenous, it is not isotropic. Isotropic means that it is all the same for us in whichever direction we are moving or observing. Proof? Look at the sky. Is the allocation of celestial bodies homogenous? No. Is it all the same in whichever direction we are looking? No. I agree that we can say, for practical purposes, that a certain part of space, during a short time interval, is homogenous and isotropic. We have to be practical, when it is demanded.
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THE END OF PART ONE When I realized how enormous was the job I have started, and how much time it would consume, I decided break it in parts. So, this, what we have said so far, will be the first part. I do not know how many parts there will be. Time will tell. I sincerely hope others will help in my work since it is so enormous and time-consuming. I am but a pioneer, a starter, and an initiator. I also believe that in the era of information technology and the Internet, my ideas will spread quickly. I expect a reaction soon, either positive or negative. New ideas always have a hard time being accepted. I know that very well. But, I do hope that the 21st century will prove that it is quick and uncompromising, in my case, too. I do not expect mercy, or any kind of protection. I expect a lively clash of opinions. I expect objectivity. I expect a true thirst for new knowledge and real truth. In knowledge, there is no democracy. The truth does not depend on the numbers who will support it. There is only one voice needed. But it is certain that the timeframe for the acceptance depends on the number of voters, and of their quality, because not all votes count equally. If the time is ready for change, and I personally think it is, then, everything will be easier.
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I am sure that the 21st century will be marked by the development of new physics, and when physics develops with enthusiasm, it affects all other natural sciences. New technologies that might come out of general science development can and will change our future. I hope we are conscious of the necessity of complete change.
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AUTHOR OF THE BOOK THE INTRODUCTION INTO NEW PHYSICS My name is Goran Mitic. I was born in Nis, Serbia in 1963. I went to school in Nis, where I live and work. After specialized training I gained the title of laboratory technician for physics, and I enrolled to study of physics at the Department for Physics, the Faculty of Sciences in Nis, the University of Nis where, after graduating, I gained the title physicist. Even as a graduate I started discovering mistakes and drawbacks in contemporary physics. My first autonomous scientific work named Classical interpretation of the Michelson-Morley experiment (70 A4 pages with a number of very detailed drawings and accompanying mathematics) was not understood, not with by student colleagues, nor with by professors. Not in my country, nor abroad (I sent the English version to a number of addresses all around the world) nobody wanted to read it! My second autonomous work Mass temperature relativitythe secret of anti-gravity, written in 1999 on 7 pages, and was published in 2000 by the electronics magazine Journal of Theoretics. The same year I presented it at a congress in Saint Petersburg. I entered the world of inventions in 2003, and in 2004 I won the bronze prize at the international fair "Palekspo" in Geneva for a "HSP motor". Since then I have been working on researching and developing of new technologies for gaining pure energy out of renewable sources.
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THE FIRST PART The title of the original: UVOD U NOVU FIZIKU
PRVI DEO
Editor Mr Milo Milovanevi Prepress Mr Milo Milovanevi Translation Ivana Joci Cover Design Saa Dimitrijevi Pictures Goran Miti Photos from NASA and SOHO web sites Copies printed 500
ISBN 978-86-911009-1-9
ISBN 978-86-911009-1-9
Publisher Goran Miti, Ni Phone +381 64 162 3663 www.thenewphysics.com e-mail:goranmitic@thenewphysics.com Ni, 2008

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