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solutions of simple equations. For example, the equation x2 + 1 = 0 has no real number solutions, for if x is any real number, then x2 0 and so x2 + 1 1. We extend the real number system to the system of complex numbers in such a way that the arithmetic of the real numbers is preserved. A complex number is an ordered pair of real numbers (a, b). The set of complex numbers is denoted by C. Just as the real numbers can be viewed as the points on the number line (real line), the complex numbers can be viewed as the points of the coordinate plane. Arithmetic of the Complex Numbers Equality: If z1 = (a1, b1) and z2 = (a2, b2) are complex numbers, then z1 = z2 if and only if a1 = a2 and b1 = b2. Addition: If z1 = (a1, b1) and z2 = (a2, b2) are complex numbers, then z1 + z2 = (a1, b1) + (a2, b2) = (a1 + a2 , b1 + b2) Properties of Addition: 1. z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 Let z = (a, b). 3. z + (0, 0) = (0, 0) + z = z (0, 0) is the Additive Identity. (Note: It is conventional to use 0 to represent the additive identity. The context will make it clear whether we mean the real number 0 or the complex number (0, 0).) 4. z + (a, b) = (a, b) + z = 0 (a, b) = z is the Additive Inverse (Commutative) (Associative)
2. (z1 + z2 ) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3 )
Subtraction: To subtract z2 from z1 , we add the additive inverse of z2 to z1. That is, z1 z2 = z1 + (z2 ) = (a1 , b1) + (a2, b2) = (a1 a2 , b1 b2). Multiplication: If z1 = (a1 , b1) and z2 = (a2 , b2) are complex numbers, then z1 z2 = (a1, b1) (a2 , b2) = (a1 a2 b1b2 , a1b2 + a2 b1) Properties of Multiplication: 283
a b , a2 + b 2 a2 + b 2 =
a b , a2 + b 2 a2 + b 2
z = (1, 0);
a b , a2 + b 2 a2 + b 2
Division: To divide z1 by z2 = 0, we multiply z1 by the multiplicative inverse of z2. That is, z1 1 = z1 = (a1, b1) z2 z2 Note that (a, 0) + (b, 0) = (a + b, 0) and (a, 0) (b, 0) = (ab, 0). Therefore the set of complex numbers of the form (x, 0) behaves, with respect to addition and multiplication, in exactly the same way as the set of real numbers. Clearly, there is a one-to-one correspondence between the set of real numbers and the set of complex numbers of the form (x, 0). In this sense, then, the complex numbers contain the set of real numbers. For convenience we denote (x, 0) as simply x. With this convention and the fact that (a, b) = (a, 0) + (0, 1) (b, 0), we can express the complex number (a, b) as a + (0, 1) b. If we denote the complex number (0, 1) by the symbol i, then each complex number (a, b) can be expressed as a + bi. The complex number i = (0, 1) has the property that i2 = (0, 1) (0, 1) = (1, 0) which, by our convention, is 1, that is i2 = 1. Thus, i is a solution of the quadratic equation x2 + 1 = 0, the simple equation which we used to motivate the need for the complex number system. The complex number i is also a solution of this equation. We now have two ways of representing a complex number z: as an ordered pair z = (a, b), which is useful in viewing the complex numbers geometrically as points in 284 a2 2 a2 b2 2 , a2 + b 2 + b2 2 2 = a 1 a2 + b 1 b2 b 1 a2 a 1 b2 , a2 + b 2 a2 + b 2 2 2 2 2 .
Addition: (a1 + b1i) + (a2 + b2i) = (a1 + a2 ) + (b1 + b2 )i and Multiplication: (a1 + b1 i) (a2 + b2i) = (a1 a2 + b1 i b2i) + (a1 b2i + a2 b1i) = (a1a2 + b1b2i2) + (a1b2 + a2 b1)i = (a1a2 b1b2) + (a1 b2 + a2b1)i The a+bi representation of a complex number provides a clear explanation of the denitions of addition and multiplication of ordered pairs given above. Let z = a + bi be a complex number. The real number a is called the real part of z and the real number b is called the imaginary part of z. The complex conjugate of z = a + bi, denoted z, is the complex number z = a bi. Some of the properties of the complex conjugate are: (i) z + z = 2a. (ii) z = z. iii) z z = a2 + b2. (iv) z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 . (v) z1 z2 = z1 z2 . The modulus or norm of z = a + bi, denoted by |z|, is the nonnegative real number |z| = (z z)1/2 = a2 + b 2 .
Note that if z = a is a real number, then |z| = a2 = |a|, the absolute value of a, which is the distance from the point a to the origin on the number line. In general, the modulus of the complex number z is the distance from the point (a, b) to the origin (0, 0) in the coordinate plane. Also, if |z| = 1, then a2 + b2 = 1 and so it is possible to choose a real number such that a = cos , b = sin , and z = cos + i sin . If z = a + bi = 0, then z = |z| a b + i . |z| |z| 285
Since a/|z| + b/|z| i is a complex number of modulus 1, we can represent z as z = |z|(cos + i sin ) by our remarks above. This representation is known as the polar form of z. A justication for deriving the polar form of a complex number is the simplication of the operation of multiplication of complex numbers. In particular, if z = |z|(cos + i sin ) and w = |w| cos + i sin )
are complex numbers in polar form, then by the addition formulas for sine and cosine, we have z w = |z||w| [cos ( + ) + i sin( + )] . The study of linear dierential equations with constant coecients requires an extension of the exponential function exp(x) = ex to a complex-valued function of a complex variable. A complete treatment of the mathematical details of this extension is beyond the scope of this discussion. However, if x and y are real numbers and z = x + yi, and if we dene exp(z) = ex+yi = ex eyi = ex (cos y + i sin y), then this new function agrees with the real exponential function when y = 0. This denition implies that ei = cos + i sin (E) for all real numbers . This result is known as Eulers Formula. With this result, the polar form of a complex number can be written as z = |z|ei . The plausibility of (E) can be demonstrated as follows. Recall from Calculus II that ex = 1 + x + If we replace x by i, we get ei = 1 + (i) + By using the facts that (i)2 = i2 2 = 2 , and so on, it follows that ei = 1 + (i) + (i)2 (i)3 (i)4 + + + 2! 3! 4! 2 3 4 5 = 1 + i i + + i + 2! 3! 4! 5! 2 4 3 5 = 1 + + +i + + 2! 4! 3! 5! 286 (i)3 = i33 = i3 , (i)4 = i44 = 4 , (i)5 = i5 5 = i5 (i)2 (i)3 (i)4 (i)5 + + + + . 2! 3! 4! 5! x 2 x3 xn + ++ + = 2! 3! n!
k=0
xk . k!
Again from Calculus II, the series in the parentheses are the Taylor series expansions of cos and sin , respectively. Thus, ei = cos + i sin .
287