CHAPTER 1 1.

1: BACKGROUND

INTRODUCTION

Amidst intensifying global recession and critical economic meltdown Southern Africa and Zimbabwe in particular has not been spared from the effects of these worldwide catastrophes with Zimbabwe reeling from the extremes of electrical power shortages both in the rural and commercial communities. Zimbabwe is currently experiencing serious power shortages and having excessive load shedding as the order of the day. A wide range of factors are of course responsible for the power shortages. In as much as the entire nation is blaming the national utility Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority (ZESA) for the power shortages, emphasis needs to be shifted on how we can find ways that more electricity can be produced as well as utilising that which is already being produced. Zimbabwe has an installed capacity to produce about 2100MW of electricity. Electricity is generated locally at Hwange Thermal power station [920MW], Kariba Hydro power station [750MW], and three electric power stations at Harare [135MW], Bulawayo [120MW] and Munyati [120MW].Most of these power stations are now incapacitated to produce electricity to their full capacity. The installed capacity also falls far short of the national demand which is about 2500MW.Rural Zimbabwe as well as the low income urban households are highly dependent on fuel wood. However fuel wood is not legally a commercial fuel as the collection and sale of fuel wood requires a license from the government. Rural areas are facing more acute shortages of wood as well as the associated land degradation. 1.2: PROBLEM STATEMENT The shortage of electricity in Zimbabwe has heightened the need to consider alternative generation modes. This has resulted in some companies resorting to generating their on electricity for example Triangle limited and Hippo Valley Estates which fall under the Tongaat Hullets group of companies. Other companies have also turned to the use of diesel and petrol generators to supplement the national grid. However this has proved to be very costly for some companies leading to discussions in some sectors on less costly and more realistic approaches to electricity generation. Recently three stakeholders have applied for power generation licenses from the government to produce a total of 125MW between them from hydro power. Another alternative is utilising some of the nations idle lying biomass points in the Eastern highlands and South eastern lowveld. For the points to be utilised correspondingly small scale electric power plants need to be designed which leads to the Development of a high speed electric generator as a renewable energy technology (RET) model for rural and commercial community applications which is the focus of this study. The projects goal is to provide sustainable biomass energy management for positive economic development in Zimbabwe in Zimbabwe.

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1.3: JUSTIFICATION Developments and improvements in technology in our generation has made electrical machine design more realisable. The impetus is now on the design engineer to arbitrarily design and perform calculations rather than actually performing them. These latest developments have enabled the solving of many design problems. The engineers job is therefore to apply standard solutions to standard problems. Although renewable energy technologies are already in use in Zimbabwe, their potential remains largely unexploited. Earlier attempts to disseminate RETs have experienced minimal success due to unforeseen barriers. It is therefore very important that barrier removal work like this project that aims at research, design and construction be carried out so that future will avoid pitfalls experienced by earlier initiatives. If successful it promises to be a model for the integration of large scale and community/household scale biomass energy management in a number of developing countries. These projects will kick-start provision of electricity to rural and commercial communities from biomass to supplement the national grid. 1.4: RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The objectives of the project are as listed below. Learn relevant design skills including production of design drawings using relevant computer software. Establish production methods for the RET model with the help of a local company, organisation and/ or institution using locally available resources. To perform calculations, develop detailed drawings and design sheet for the RET model. Construct the RET model and evaluate its performance. 1.5: METHODOLOGY AND TIMELINES The procedures to be followed are Research using the internet Reference to text books Company visits, Zimbabwe Power Company, Relmo, Alstom etc Analysis of captured data: The data accumulated is then interpreted using detailed drawings and concepts to come with a design Construction of a laboratory model Recommendations and conclusions: After analysing the process data and design layout, concepts and evaluation of lab model performance, then relevant recommendations and conclusions shall be made.

Time lines are shown in the table below.

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TASK Introduction Literature review Design process Design sheet Lab model design and construction Testing of lab model Discussions limitations and recommendations

DATES 10/10/2011-17/10/2011 10/10/2011-31/10/2011 17/10/2011-30/11/2011 05/12/2011-12/12/2011 13/12/2011-28/03/2012 29/03/2012-05/04/2012 05/04/2012-12/04/2012

Table 1.1 Timelines

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CHAPTER 2 2.1: INTRODUCTION

LITERATURE REVIEW

Renewable energy technologies have over the years become an integral part of the energy supply chain in most developed countries. Recent projections show that 13.5% of the worlds primary energy supply comes from renewable resources and this figure has an aggregated growth rate of 16%.Wind has the highest annual growth rate of 22% while the least annual growth rate is that for hydro power. The main push for renewables like wind in developed countries is environmental concerns and the business aspect in power generation. The situation is however completely different in African countries where the thrust for RETs is developmental based. Although the African continent has abundant renewable energy resources like solar, biomass, wind and hydro potential, they have remained largely unexploited. Several efforts have been made to help African countries like Zimbabwe to exploit such resources. In developing countries small hydro projects producing power outputs in the ranges of 1-10KW are gaining popularity, particularly as isolated power supply schemes for village electrification. These small generating plants supply power to remote locations where utility power supply is well out of reach. Zimbabwe has great potential for renewable energy development particularly in the South Eastern lowveld and in the Eastern highlands. In Zimbabwe studies have been carried out for the design for construction and manufacture of a 1MVA, 3 phases, low speed hydro electric generator. We also have Triangle limited and Hippo Valley Estates having a set of generators capable of producing about 60MW of electricity between them and powered by steam turbines. This study is aimed at developing a high speed steam turbine generator that is biomass powered. 2.2: ADVANTAGES OF BIOMASS POWER PLANTS AND RETs Renewable energy technologies contribute to all important elements of national/regional development i.e. Economic growth through business earnings and employment Import substitution with direct and indirect effects on GDP and trade balance Security of energy supply and diversification Supports traditional industries, rural diversification and economic development of rural societies. Sources of biomass are commonly available and waste products which would otherwise have been disposed are used. Reliable, economical and environmentally stable. Although specialised staff is needed in the construction stages, the running costs are very small as only a few experienced people are needed. Plant is simple in construction and requires low maintenance
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(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

2.3: SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS Synchronous generators are the primary source of all energy. They are commonly used to convert mechanical power output of steam turbines, gas turbines, reciprocating engines and hydro turbines into electrical power. They are known as synchronous machines because they operate at synchronous speed and the rotor speed always matches supply frequency. 2.3.1: PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION 1 From an external source the field winding is supplied with a DC current excitation 2 Rotor (field) winding is mechanically turned (rotated) at synchronous speed 3 The rotating magnetic field produced by the field current induces voltage in the outer stator (armature) winding.

Fig 2.1: Principle of operation

2.3.2: ROTOR This is the rotating member of the generator. It is connected to the turbine by a direct coupling or through a speed increase in cases of low heads. Generally two types of rotors exist which are salient pole and cylindrical type. The salient pole rotor is mostly used in hydro generators although it is also applicable to steam turbine generators. The rotor body provides support for the other parts. The design and type of material used for this part is usually governed by the rotational speed.

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Fig 2.2 Salient pole rotor 2.3.3: STATOR The stator carries the armature windings. It consists of a number of slots which carries the armature windings. The armature windings can be arranged in different ways which include single layer, concentric and double layer winding but double layer is the most suitable for generators. 2.3.4: Field excitation and exciters DC field excitation is an important part of the overall design of a synchronous generator. The field excitation must ensure not only a stable AC terminal voltage, but must also respond to sudden load changes. Rapid field excitation response is important.

METHODS OF EXCITATION (i) (ii) Slip rings link the rotors field winding to an external dc source DC generator exciter-A DC generator exciter is built on the same shaft as the ac generator rotor and a commutator rectifies the current that is sent to the field winding. Brushless exciter-An AC generator with a fixed field winding and a rotor with a three phase circuit. Diode/SCR rectification supplies DC current to the field windings.

(iii)

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Fig 2.3: Typical brushless exciter system 2.4: SELECTION OF SITE Biomass energy is the use of crop residues, agro industrial residues, forest and wood waste, etc to produce energy. Sites for construction of a biomass based power plant should be carefully selected by considering the factors below. The plant should be in the middle of biomass availability area Good all round road connectivity (accessibility) Near to an appropriate KV grid substation Availability of adequate and good quality water. Local supplies of building materials 2.5: ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS The economic considerations when setting up a biomass electric power plant are as follows (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Capital cost of transmission system Capital cost of distribution systems and freight costs to site Managerial costs Running costs
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(v)

Fixed charges

2.6: DESIGN THEORY 2.6.1: BASIC CONSIDERATIONS In design, shape is given to a concept with the application of science, technology and invention to the realisation of a machine so as to satisfy the required performance characteristics i.e. its specifications with optimum economy and efficiency. A design process involves the following considerations Design base

Bringing in the latest material technology, limitations in design, convenience in production line and transportation, working safety and reliability, maintenance and repair, environmental conditions, cost economy, optimisation. Specification

Furnishing data for the manufacturer to suit a given specification, which is meeting with customers needs, guarantees satisfy the national and international standards. Design transfer

Drawings, processes, instructions, job flow, meeting deadlines. Talking about optimisation in design several aspects are to be considered. It is not just minimizing the cost; a designer has to identify a criterion that gives best design to meet a given specification or a given duty. It is therefore the purpose of the design to achieve four basic requirements namely: Lower costs, smaller size, wider temperature operatibility and lower weight. 2.6.2: STANDARDISATION AND STANDARDS The world is full of standards; Standards regulate, simplify and make possible an extensive division of labour which should be recognized as a necessary basis for far reaching modernisation process. The aim of design is to achieve design parameters which permit use of standard materials and equipment. This presents the advantage of using infrastructure and materials that is already in existence which will result in cost reduction; this however results in interchange ability for the user and rigidity for the designer. 2.6.3: SPECIFICATIONS Initiation of design of the high speed electric generator requires specification of performance. Specifications for the should provide the following basic information Type of machine KVA rating Number of phases
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Rated output voltage Type of cooling

2.6.4: Generated terminal voltage The economical terminal voltages for generators of different KVA ranges are predetermined as tabulated below. The choices of these are limited because of the need to use existing infrastructure (only voltages listed can be successfully fed into the national grid)

Up to 750KVA 400V

751KVA-2500KVA 3.3KV

2501KVA-5000KVA Above 5000KVA 6.6KV 11KV

Table 2.1: Terminal voltages 2.6.5: CHOICE OF BASIC MATERIALS The first step in the design procedure is the choice of basic materials to use. This choice follows from a study of available materials to use, cost and material characteristics. The materials used in design of electrical machines are divided into three categories namely conducting, magnetic and insulating material. Magnetic material Magnetic materials can be classified into three broad categories that is diamagnetic materials, paramagnetic materials and ferromagnetic materials. From the electrical engineering point of view both diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials could be considered as non magnetic. Ferromagnetic materials (such as nickel, cobalt, iron, steel, and silicon steel, perm alloy) are further divided into two broad groups from hysteresis point of view i.e. hard magnetic and soft magnetic materials. The electric sheet steel is most commonly used for electrical machines. It has a steeply rising magnetisation curve, relative small and narrow hysteresis loop and consequently small energy loss per cycle of magnetisation. The electric sheet steel is widely is widely used for the construction of cores of electrical rotating machines, transformers and for making electromagnets, reactors, relays etc. Addition of silicon 1.8 to 3 percent to the iron has the following advantages Increase the resistivity in steel almost in direct proportion to the silicon content. Reduces hysteresis and eddy current losses. Increase magnetic permeability of steel in weaker magnetic fields, but reduces it in stronger fields. Abates aging of steel.

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Addition of steel has the drawback that it impairs certain properties of steel especially its machinability. For synchronous machines the desirable characteristics of the magnetic circuit are shown below. PART Stator core Stator tooth Gap Pole Rotor core MATERIAL NORMALLY USED Silicon steel Silicon steel Air (in air cooled machines) Silicon steel (for salient pole machines) Silicon steel NORMAL MAX FLUX DENSITY 0.8-1.2 1.8-2.2 0.5-0.65 0.8-1.2 0.8-1.2

Table 2.2: Magnetic circuit characteristics Conducting material Silver, copper, aluminium are some of the important conducting materials. Silver has conductivity of about 10% but it is never used in making electrical machines due to its excellent electrical and mechanical properties. The next important conductivity material is aluminium which is being increasingly used in place of copper because copper deposits are fast exhausting and copper prices fluctuate consistently. The table below compares the properties of copper and aluminium and explains why both can be used interchangeably.

SI NO// 1 2 3 4 5 6

ITEM

COPPER

ALUMINIUM (times copper) 1.64 0.33 0.57 2.3 1.35 0.6

Resistivity Specific weight Thermal conductivity Specific heat capacity Coefficient of linear expansion Melting point

0.0214 8.89 350 400 1.7 X 106 1083

Table 2.3: Properties of copper and aluminium Insulating material

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The life of a generator is determined by the type of insulation and temperature of operation. Knowledge of the operating temperatures together with the temperature rises involved is thus required in order to determine the most suitable insulation for the generator. There are quite a large variety of insulating materials available having vastly different properties. The fundamental needs of a good insulating are: High dielectric strength High insulating resistance Low dielectric loss Good mechanical strength Good thermal conductivity High degree of thermal stability Good machinability to mass production. It must also be easily and economically available. Insulating materials normally used in electrical machinery and apparatus according to their Class Limiting working temperature 90 105 120 Typical material

Y A E

Organic fibre materials on cellulose base Class Y fibre material impregnated with lacquers Enamelled wire on base of polyvinyformal, poly urethane and epoxy resins moulding, powder plastics and phenolic formaldehyde Inorganic material (mica, glass, asbestos) Inorganic material impregnated or glued with epoxy or other vanish Mica, glass, asbestos, with silicon binder and silicon resin Inorganic material

B F

130 155

H C

180 above

thermal stability in service are grouped into seven classes as summarised. Table 2.4: Classes of insulating materials After choices of design materials have been made, the next step in the design is the commencement of the real design. 2.6.6: Design process

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Knowing the specifications that a machine has to satisfy, the designer can develop the design based on knowledge of certain basic data of primary importance. Choice of materials for generator is restricted to conducting, magnetic and insulating materials as mentioned before. The choice of these is dependent on; Material characteristics Material availability And the cost of the material

The main areas of design are; The magnetic circuit The electric circuit (the windings) The heating and cooling circuit (thermal design) Insulation and mechanical construction

The design process starts with assumption of certain basic quantities such as Flux density Magnetic loading Electrical loading

From the designed data the parameters of the apparatus are determined so that its performance characteristics are calculated and compared with given specifications. If no satisfactory result is obtained, the basic assumed quantities are suitably modified until the result is up to satisfaction. The components that result as a result of breaking down the design are shown below. Fig 2.3: Diagrammatic representation of design components

Electric circuit

Magnetic circuit

Design problem Thermal design

Performance calculation

Design sheet

Mechanical design

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During the design process, the following flow chart was used

Design flow chart Air Gap diameter Main dimensions

Gross stator core length

Stator design

Rotor design

Exciter design

Electric loading Magnetic loading Flux per pole Size of conductor Slot dimensions Tooth dimensions Tooth flux Stator core external diameter Stator core losses Copper loss

No load useful flux No load leakage coefficient Total no load flux Resistance voltage drop/phase on full load Synchronous reactance per phase EMF required on full load Air gap length and tooth flux

1. Voltage per pole winding 2. Resistance of mean turn 3. Estimated length 4. Winding specs 5. Turns per layer 6. Number of layers 7. Turns per coil 8. Length of coil 9. Resistance of coil 10. Current Iac 11. Watts per coil 12. Total watts lost in excitation

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CHAPTER 3

DESIGN PROCESS

3.1: MAIN DIMENSIONS The number of poles on the electric generator is given by the formula Where Np is the number of poles f is the frequency N is the rpm rating of machine The output equation of a synchronous machine is given as

Where CO is the output coefficient defined as

Where KW is the winding factor initially assumed, Bav is the average magnetic loading of machine and ac is the average electrical loading of the machine. 3.1.1: Electrical loading The number of armature or stator ampere conductors per metre of armature periphery at the air gap is known as specific electric loading, ac and is given by , conductors. The factors governing the choice of electrical loading are Heating or temperature rise-Use of higher ac creates a problem of heat dissipation. Speed of the machine-For higher speed machines the ventilation is obviously better and so permits use of higher ac Voltage-In high voltage machines, space for copper is reduced due to requirement of large space for insulation and so does not permit the use of higher ac Size of machine-In large size machine, more space available for accommodating copper permits use of higher ac Armature reaction-Restrict the value of ac used Current density 3.1.2: Magnetic loading The average flux density over the air gap of a machine is known as specific magnetic loading and is given as Bav = Total flux around the air gap/Area of flux path at the air gap The factors governing the choice of average gap flux density are
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IZ is current, Dg is gap diameter and Z is total number of stator

 The maximum flux density in iron parts of machine Iron losses and Magnetising current The value of air gap flux density should be so chosen that the flux density at the root of the teeth (where the tooth section is minimum) does not exceed 2.2T.The maximum gap flux density Bg varies from 0.64 to 1.1T and the corresponding values of Bav are 0.45 to 0.75. The design of electric generators with higher magnetic loadings has the advantages of Reduced size of the machine Higher stability limit Satisfactory parallel operation Reduced cost of machine It however also have the following disadvantages: Higher iron losses Increased transient short circuit current Decreased efficiency Higher temperature rise As mentioned previously, the output coefficient is related to output KVA and hence the main dimensions of the electric machine in the following formula

Where Q is the output KVA, Dg is the air gap diameter, LC is the gross stator core length and ns is the speed of generator in revs/sec. The factors affecting the size of the electrical machine are Specific electric loading Magnetic loading Speed The product Dg2LC thus obtained, a means of separating the product is provided by considering the peripheral velocities, costs, efficiency and resultant reactance. A good compromise is achieved when the ratio of LC to is in the given range Where is the pole pitch The relation between the stator internal diameter and axial length can be found by assuming a suitable value of aspect ratio.

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There are some guidelines for choosing a particular value of aspect ratio. It cannot be chosen arbitrarily due to its importance for cooling of the machine. In summary the guidelines for choosing the right aspect ratio are: For minimum overall cost-1.5 to 2.0 For good efficiency -1.4 to 1.6 For good overall design-1.0 to 1.1 For good power factor-1.0 to 1.3 By properly choosing the value of the ratio, the values of the gross stator core length LC and gap diameter Dg can be successfully settled. These are the basis for the main dimensions of the stator frame. 3.2: VENTILATION DUCTS The number of ventilation ducts nd for generators are obtained from the formula below ( )

Radial ventilation ducts are provided if core length exceeds about 0.12 to 0.14. A duct is provided for approximately every 70 to 80 mm of core length. The ventilation duct width usually varies from about 8mm to 10 mm. The number of ducts is also a function of the required cooling. The effective stator core length is also determined after settling the number of ducts and their width. In order to settle the effective stator core length, Le the number of ventilation ducts and thickness of laminations together with inter lamina insulation required. The space taken by the inter lamina insulation for lamination thickness of 0.33mm and 0.35mm is about 3% of the core length resulting in a space factor of 97% such that effective core length becomes ( ) Where Wr is the width of duct, Knd is the space or staking factor.

3.3: POLE PITCH The ratio pole arc to pole pitch should be as large as possible to obtain as large a flux as possible. It is however limited by the space required by the interpoles and leakage. For good designs, this ratio should be as follows

From the above ratio the pole arc can thus be evaluated.
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3.4: ARMATURE WINDING Armature winding should ensure the following (i) Temperature rise should not exceed the specified limit. (ii) Load loss should be within specified limits (iii) Percent impedance should be within specified limits (iv) Minimum costs Armature windings in rotating machines consist of coils uniformly distributed in slots along the armature periphery. The best winding for electrical generators is the double layer winding which has the following advantages. (a) The possibility of shortening the winding pitch thus obtaining a better emf waveform (b) Short end connections due to shortening of the pitch thereby saving copper. (c) The possibility of forming a large number of absolutely equivalent parallel paths (d) Simplicity of manufacturing the windings since all the coils are of the same shape and therefore can be form wound. However the double layer winding comes with its own disadvantages as listed below (a) Difficult in laying the last coils of the winding along a coil pitch due to necessity of lifting and suspending the upper sides of the coils first land in along the same path. (b) The necessity of lifting the coils of a whole pitch to get to a damaged lower coil side. (c) The impossibility of making a split stator without having to lift the coils out of the slots. However the disadvantages are outweighed by the advantages such that a good design of the system steam turbine generator will only need to be double layer. The next step is to determine the number of turns per phase which is given by the basic emf equation.

Where is given by Number of slots is given by the formula below and will depend on the assumed winding type.

Where NP is the number of parallel paths in winding, TC is the number of turns per coil; Tph is turns in series per phase. Stator slot pitch s is given by
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3.5: ARMATURE 3.5.1: Specific electrical loading The formula below is used to calculate the specific electrical loading

Where Iz is current, Z is the total number of stator conductors, Dg is gap diameter 3.5.2: Specific magnetic loading

The size of the conductor to use in the stator will depend on the desired current density which is estimated based on temperature rise, resistivity and cooling methods. For copper the current density ranges from 2.0 to 7Amm-2.The higher the current density the smaller the conductor and the higher the resistance. The phase full load current is given by

Where VL is the output line voltage, Area of conductor is then calculated using the formula

A is assumed current density, having determined the area of the conductor required to carry the full load current, it is now possible to calculate the slot dimensions. 3.6: SLOT AND TOOTH DIMENSIONS In deciding the number of slots the guidelines to be kept in view are The number of armature slots should be such that a balanced winding is obtained. The slot pitch usually lies between 25 to 35mm for all except very small machines where it can be less than 20mm. (iii) The slot loading, i.e. the number of ampere conductors per slot should not exceed about 1500. The design of a slot is an important aspect in the design overall design of a generator. The slot should be designed to carry a double layer winding with 6 turns per coil. An assumption is made such that the stator slots and stator teeth are equal in size such that (i) (ii)

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Where Ws is the stator slot width, the width of tooth is given by ( ), where ta is the radial thickness of slot clearance. The tooth depth is equal to the slot depth. 3.7: MEAN LENGTH OF TURN (MLT) Mean length of turn is determined is determined as follows: ( )

AC+Bd are estimates depending on rated voltage and usually range from 10 to 120cm for voltage ranges of 0.4 to 18KV. Y is given by Where ,
( (
)

, Xc is coil pitch at end winding = (width of

insulated coil + clearance).After calculating the mean length of coil, the resistive losses in the coil can then be evaluated. 3.8: CORE LOSSES The loss in the laminated stator core is usually the largest single loss in a generator and the design of the core particularly the choice of, type and grade of steel is thus important. The core losses are mainly the Eddy current and Hysteresis losses. Hysteresis losses Magnetising and demagnetising involves storage and release of energy. The amount of energy stored is not equal to amount of energy released on the B-H curve. Specific hysteresis loss is calculated from Where Bm is the peak value of the sinusoidal flux, Kh = 0.63 for rotating machines, and quite often n=2 is usually used for estimating losses in electrical machines. The use of high quality steel reduces these losses. Eddy current losses These are a result of circulating stray current found to exist in closed paths within the body of the ferromagnetic material and cause undesirable heat loss. Specific eddy current loss is given by t = thickness of lamination in metres Ked = 0.005 for core and 0.008 for teeth. This equation will lead to the equation where the eddy current losses in the core are given by
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),

PC = Specific resistance of insulation Eddy current in the stator teeth is given by ( ) (

Wt3 is the width of the tooth at 1/3 depth 0f its depth from the gap. The factor 4 in the equation of the core caters for the fact that laminations are short circuited at the back of the core. 3.9: STATOR CORE OUTSIDE DIAMETER The outside diameter of the core is chosen to give a flux density at the back of the slots BC not more than 1.15Wb/m2, a guarantee to ensure reasonable core losses. Half the flux that crosses the air gap goes to the left of the core whilst the other half goes to the right such that the equation that gives the stator core outside diameter, DO is ( 3.10: THE MAGNETIC CIRCUIT Armature reaction magnetising force Where Ka = amplitude factor generally assumed 1.05 Ma is related to air gap ampere turns using the formula Where , x1 = leakage reactance per unit assumed 0.15,xd= direct axis synchronous reactance pu assumed 1.2. The effective radial air gap over pole arc is given by Evaluation of air gap area The value of the pole shoe depth is usually estimated and lies between 4 and 10cm, the height of the pole hp is a function of pole pitch such that Kh is related to other parameters as ( ) ( ) )

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Mr= rotor winding magnetising force,

Width of the pole Wp, Then Outside diameter of rotor rim, Air gap Length of air gap has a profound effect on the electric generator performance. The air gap is chosen so that the machine runs satisfactorily under normal operation and faulty conditions. Formulae used for calculation of air gap dimensions is given below ( ( ) ) , Width of copper strip ( ( )

), gmin = minimum gap diameter

Where Ke and Kd are estimated quantities depending on geometry of gap and pole and Kd varies as shown on graph. Nd is number of ducts, wr is width of duct, wane is assumed 1.8cm

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Reduction in effective gap area is given by Carters coefficient such that air gap area is given by the equation above. Then gap flux density is given by ( ) ( ) giving

A compromise is made in choosing the right length of the air gap. The compromise is made choosing between advantages and disadvantages of a large air gap compared to a small air gap. A small air gap causes the following 1. Small value of intrinsic regulation 2. Higher value of stability limit 3. Higher synchronising power which makes the generator less sensitive to load variations A large air gap results in 1. Low noise 2. Better cooling 3. Lower unbalanced magnetic pulling, Tooth flux density Where ( ) ( )

Now that the values of the flux densities for core have been found for the no load condition, the corresponding values for the gap flux mmf Mg, tooth mmf, and core mmf are determined from respective B-H curves. The average length of core path that caters for the curvature at back of tooth is given by The length of the tooth flux path is the tooth depth. Having settled these, the total ampere turns are calculated. Interpolar leakage flux Diagram [Key to symbols] Interpolar leakage flux is given by so that flux from rotor is given by . For steady state conditions total permeance is given by

Where ( ) , ( )

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( ), ,

Cross section of pole body The length of laminated rotor body needs to be multiplied by a space factor approximately o.97 to cater for inter lamina insulation. Solid steel end plates cross sectional area is given by . The factor 1.05 on the flux path along pole caters for the pole shoe. The next step after calculating rotor flux density and pole path length the rotor mmf Mr is determined. Total no load ampere turns 3.11: EXCITATION SYSTEM 3.11.1: Excitation voltage Excitation voltage is taken to be 75% of terminal voltage. It is calculated as

3.11.2: Resistance of mean turn This is the resistance when the machine is running and is calculated as follows

3.11.3: Estimated mean length of turn To calculate the mean length of turn estimation, relationships are used as shown below

3.11.4: Turns per layer

3.11.5: Number of layers

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3.11.6: Length of coil Length of coil is given by Where l = length of mean turn, T = number of turns per pole pair. 3.11.7: Excitation current

3.12: CALCULATION OF LOSSES Rotor winding Resistance of field winding, Full load field loss Stator DC resistance Total stator loss Efficiency, , AP = total cross sectional area of copper.

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CHAPTER 4

DESIGN CALCULATIONS

4.1: GENERATOR SPECIFICATIONS Type of machine Output KVA Output power (watts) Generator speed Connection Number of poles Power factor Line current Line current Frequency Table 4.1: Generator specifications (i) Synchronous generator 250KVA 200KW 1500rpm star 4 0.8 360A 400V 50Hz

(ii)

(iii) Terminal voltage Line to line voltage = chosen terminal voltage , Voltage per phase,

Say (iv) Line current Line current =

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Say line current = 360A (v) Generator speed =

(vi) A fixed frequency of 50 Hz will be used (vii) A power factor of 0.8 will also be used (viii) A star connection will also be used 4.2: CHOICE OF BASIC MATERIALS 4.2.1: Magnetic material Stator core Stator tooth Gap Pole Rotor core Table 4.2: Magnetic material 4.2.2: Conducting material Copper 4.2.3: Insulating material Class E insulation, Enamelled wire on base of polyvinyformal, poly urethane and epoxy resins, moulding powder plastics and phenolic formaldehyde. 4.3: MAIN DIMENSIONS (i) 4 pole generator (ii) Output coefficient = Taking CO = (iii) , Silicon steel 0.3mm thickness Silicon steel 0.3mm thickness Air Silicon steel 0.3mm thickness Silicon steel

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Since

choosing

Take Dg =330mm

Take LC = 410mm (iv) Ventilation ducts Number of ventilation ducts, ( )

Say nd = 5, each 10mm width, Effective core length,

Say Le =350mm (v) Pole pitch =

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(vi) Pole arc

Choosing pole arc =0.8 , Pole arc = 20.73cm (vii) Flux per pole,

(viii) Turns per phase,

Take Tph =24, that is 48 conductors per phase, Corrected flux per pole =

(ix) Number of slots,

NP = 4 parallel paths, TC =6 = number of turns per coil, Tph = 24

NS = 48 slots (x)

(xi) By choosing double layer winding, in that case, the number of conductors per slot should be even and a multiple of 3X2, that is 6, using 6 turn coils, i.e. 12 conductors per slot. therefore 48 conductors per phase or 3 effective conductors per slot.
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Modified electrical loading,

AC = 25kAt/m Modified magnetic loading,

Bav = 0.6Wb /m2 (xii) After choosing 12 conductors per slot, to reduce the size of conductors use 4 parallel paths or circuits to reduce the size of sub conductors so that they can get into the slot opening. Thus winding chosen is: Total number of coils on the armature =48 Coil pitch = 1-6 Number of turns per coil = 6 4 parallel star Class E insulation Double layer winding (xiii) Size of conductor For class E insulation, the current density ranges between 5-7Amm-2. Choosing a current density of 6A mm-2, total current =360A and therefore current in each parallel circuit,

Therefore area of each conductor A =15mm2, Area required by conductors per slot =15x12 =180mm2 Choose a 10mm x 1.5mm conductor with 1mm thick insulation = 15mm2 conductor.
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(xiv) Slot dimensions Slot width, Ws Conductors 12 x1.5mm =18mm =1mm =0.5mm =19.5mm

Slot insulation Slack insulation Total Say Ws =1.2cm Slot depth, ds Conductors Slot insulation Insulation between Insulation between layers Insulation at bottom of slot Slack Wedge Total Say slot depth, ds=3,8cm (xv) Stator core outside diameter Assume BC = 0.8Wb/m2,
( )

12 x 2.5

= 30mm =3mm =1mm =1mm =0.5mm =0.5mm =1.5mm =37mm

( Stator core external diameter, DO=0.52m 4.4.1: Mean length of turn of stator winding

With a percentage coil pitch of 90%, Assume coil clearance, w =0.50cm, (

( ( )) )

, Pd =28.70cm
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KUTADZA ALIMON R082717H

( ( ) ( ) (

) )

Total length of wire = 2.47 x 24 x 3 = 177.84m

4.4.2: WINDING FACTOR Having 48 slots

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Number of slots per phase = Number of slots per pole =

Number of slots per pole per phase =

Angle between adjacent slots Distribution factor ( ) ( ),

Pole pitch = 12 slots, take coil span = 9 slots so that coil throw is from 1-10, that is 9 slots Pitch or chording factor, ( ) where =3 x 15 = 45 electrical degrees. ( Winding factor )

4.5: MAGNETIC CIRCUIT (i) Armature reaction magnetising force Ka = amplitude factor generally assumed 1.05 ,

(ii)

(iii) Gap density

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(iv) Gap diameter

Say ge = 0.70cm (v) Height of pole

Say hp=10cm (vi) Width of pole

Say wp = 8cm Depth of pole shoe taken as dp = 2cm (vii) Outside diameter of rotor rim ( ( ) )

(viii) Stator tooth width at 1/3 depth ( ) ( )

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(ix) Ideal pole arc that caters for flux fringing Ideal pole arc = ( )

Percentage effective pole arc

(x) Tooth flux density

(xi) Length of gap ( Air gap area ( ) )

nd =5, newa = 1.8cm, ge =0.70cm, C =1.1, Kd =0.56, wr =0.4, Ke =2.85, wr = 0.4 Ag = Ag = 0.1149m2 (xii) Air gap flux density, ( ) (( ) ( ))

Bg = 0.55T (xii) Average length of core path at back of teeth

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(xiv) Air gap ampere turns

( (

) )

(xv) Armature core ampere turns

as obtained from B-H curve

Stator tooth ampere turns = 4 x ds

Total ampere turns = Mg + Atc + Att = 3063 + 81.6 +15.2 = 3159.8At (xvi) Rotor ampere turns calculation Interpolar leakage flux, so that flux from rotor body is given by

For steady state conditions

Assuming K1 = 3.5, K2 = 6.2, f1 = 0.85 ( ( ) )( )

(
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) ( )

Total permeance,

, which gives a leakage flux,

Therefore flux in rotor,

With pole end plate 2.0 thick, area of rotor pole body ( )

Area

Length of pole body

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Rotor body flux density, =1.40T Giving mmf of 1131.9At Hence total ampere turns required = 1131.9 + 3159.8 = 4291.7At Leakage reactance estimated as

Therefore ampere turns to produce rated current on short circuit =1.17 x 3063 = 3583.71At

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Assuming a rotor winding thickness = 3mm, width = 15mm. Insulation flanges on top and bottom side of coil =0.5cm. Each inter turn insulation =0.01mm.

Maximum current through coil

Minimum current through coil

With rotor geometry designed, MLT of field winding: [ ( ( ) ) ( ) ( ( )] )

4.6: EXCITATION CIRCUIT 4.6.1: Excitation voltage Assume 75% of terminal voltage

Area of conductor ( )

4.6.2: Estimated length of mean turn Obtained from winding specifications ( 4.6.3: Winding specifications Winding depth (bare) = 30mm
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Insulation = 1.5mm Inside diameter of coil = 30.15cm Total depth = 31.5mm 4.6.4: Turns per layer

4.6.5: Turns per pole Current density , therefore

Therefore turns per pole

4.6.6: Number of layers Number of layers

Say number of layers = 10 4.6.7: Length of coil

4.6.8: Resistance of mean coil

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4.6.9: Excitation current

4.6.10: Watts per coil

4.7: EFFICIENCY AND LOSSES 4.7.1: Resistance of field winding

Full load field loss ( )

4.7.2: Stator Stator winding length for the three phases = 177.84m DC resistance

Total stator

4.7.4: Efficiency
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Efficiency Total watts generated = 200KW Watts available in load circuit Efficiency

Loss Core teeth Stator winding Field winding Total watts generated Watts available in load circuit Efficiency Table 4.3: Efficiency and losses

Quantity/KW 3.273 1.195 1.2069 3.473 200 191 96%

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CHAPTER 5: LAB MODEL DESIGN 5.1: GENERATOR SPECIFICATIONS

Type of machine Output KVA Output power (watts) Generator speed Connection Number of phases Power factor Line current Line voltage Frequency Table 5.1: Generator specifications 5.2: Basic materials

Synchronous generator 2.0KVA 1.7KW 1500rpm star 3 0.8 60A 28V 50Hz

The model would be constructed using available materials and design is made to demonstrate the basic principles of the generator. The mega-steam turbine generator design used a brushless excitation arrangement. However the excitation circuit of the model is made to comprise of slip rings. Rotor Rotor core silicon steel sheets Shaft mild steel Class E insulation Field winding -Copper winding wire of gauges 24 AWG (42m) / gauge 23 SWG Brass/carbon brushes Stator Armature/ stator winding 24 AWG (52m) / gauge 23 SWG Stator core and Stator tooth silicon steel Class E insulation Slot wedge Insulation cloth Vanish Bearings [Single row 02 series deep groove bearing: Bore 30mm] Frame 5.3: Main dimensions
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Assumptions chosen noting the previous considerations in Design theory

This gives

Since

Choosing

(it should be low as possible) gives

Pole pitch

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( )

Therefore number of slots

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Calculation of rotor winding wire Length of wire Height of winding surface Diameter of wire Number of turns per layer For 0.5 packing factor Number of layers needed Table 5.2: calculation of rotor winding wire 5.3: Model Design Sheet Stator outside diameter = 92.1mm Rotor inside diameter = 35mm Rotor inside diameter = 91.6mm Type of winding group basket Grouping- 3-3 Number of slots 36 Number of coils 12(single layer winding) Number of turns per coil- 40 Coil pitch - 1-10 Conductor gauge 24 diameter 0.0008 Conductors in parallel -1 Leads out -3 Connected 2 direction series 42m 0.02m 0.00051 0.02/0.00051 = 39 39X0.5 = 19 300 turn/19 = 16

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CHAPTER 6: RESULTS ANALYSIS 6.1: RESULTS

4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 Line voltage 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 10 20 30 40 DC Voltage 50 60 70 80

Graph of line voltage against DC excitation voltage

2.5

1.5 Phase Voltage 1

0.5

0 0 10 20 30 40 DC Voltage 50 60 70 80

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Graph of Phase Voltage against DC voltage

Open circuit characteristics

2.5

2 Open circuit voltage

1.5

Field current

0.5

0 0 1 2 3 4 Field current 5 6 7

6.2: DISCUSSION 6.3: CONCLUSION

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APPENDIX A

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APPENDIX B : PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION (STATOR,ROTOR,EXCITER)

CONSTRUCTION OF ROTOR AND STATOR

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