Conductivity of Blood

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1950 5: 1017-1035
THE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF BLOOD : I. RELATIONSHIP TO ERYTHROCYTE CONCENTRATION

FREDERIC G. HIRSCH, E. CLINTON TEXTER, JR., LLOYD A. WOOD, WILLIAM C. BALLARD, JR., FRANCIS E. HORAN, IRVING S. WRIGHT, CONSTANCE FREY and DOROTHY STARR
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THE I.
ELECTRICAL
RELATIONSHIP TO
CONDUCTIVITY
ERYTHROCYTE
OF
CONCENTRATION
BLOOD
By
FREDERIC
G.
HIRSCH,
M.D.,
WILLIAM
E. C.
AND
CLINTON BALLARD,
TEXTER, JR.,
JR.
M.D.,
FRANCIS
LLOYD
A.
WooD,
PH.D.,
HORAN,
ME.,
E.
PH.D.,
IRVING
S.
WRIGHT,
M.D.
AND DOROTHY STARR,
llith
the THE of
technical COURSE
assistance of study was undertaken. during and direct to the Stewart of Endres7 Fricke approximately cell of value the effects certain due also will design
Research
CONSTANCE of
FREY,
BA.
B.S. the in resistance blood pathologic almost of property which from made the perfect blood sys-
another essential of clotting others8 current. concentration and the the
study for The and Later of Wilson8 hematocrit
it
became
necessary interfacial
to
measure potentials of in various investigated. is and of cell an this tables volume characterissurface the also it acts AC have workers unable blood as been resistance
blood, A thorough blood and Stewart

of
a value
determining electrical electrical clot showed studies the for by delineated showed to that conduct its of direct with been observed, but conductivity of vary with the of the serum conductance. rise retraction4 that
tems. human conditions3 In was was possible resistance Cole, tics
conductivity characteristics conductivity was the red that formulation the the that resistivity, plasma. current, low frequency and Some others during were cells, clot
37.
normal
also cell the
1897,
nonconductor
showed the and
proportional utilized the by values.

2325
erythrocytes,#{176}7 mean and only It has
determination and
Subsequent
6
investigations further and giving one-half not Curtis8
Moore
Roaf,9 the while
Fricke,202 layer interior shown9 a dielectric bridges, been confirm was have to resistance variaunable attributed at of had the
Achard the red
electrophysical
of
cell. of
erythrocyte a conductivity that In tions to these these observed conductivity stirring.394 effects with
From
is nonconducting, the high in conductivity on a true to to increase was It are almost cell
Vascular
while measurements
red
does blood
sufficiently
frequency. conductivity time of of to found be entirely are shown the designs extrusion to a function essentially
Department
with
have blood
workers
agree
changes
coagulation,3034 of
findings.3536with
retraction.32 Blood 35
38 agitation,3 or
sedimentation,35 measurements reported geometry of
from
herein the
that
these cell, and
conductivity
proper
the York,
Cornell
eliminated.
Medicine, of
University
Laboratory, of Chemistry,
Cornell
and the
University
School of Electrical
Medical
College, EngineerN6 Albert ONRand Mary
New
ing,
N.
was
Y.,
theDepartment
Ithaca,
in supported
Cornell
University,
N.
pant
Y.
This
2.64
work Order
by by
grants grants Hyde

of
from from the
the the authors
Office Samuel and
of H. are
Naval Kness
Research Foundation,
(Contract the
Task The
io)
and
and are
in
part the
Lasken
Foundation
the Lillia
Babbitt personal ones Department
Foundation. notofficial, on to be construed

as pre-
views the
expressed views of the
senting
Navy
as a whole.
1017
1018
ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY
OF
BLOOD
It
is
well
known
that
plasma
conductivity
depends
on
the
electrolyte
content
and concentrations, teins. The presence

conductivity the investigation The factors which in
including of erythrocytes
a complicated of the relation affect blood
TABLE
Decrease
salts,
way,
colloidal electrolytes, in the plasma in whole

and it is the purpose of concentrations are summarized
Blood Conductivity
and particularly blood also affects

this paper to to the conductivity. in table i.
prothe
describe
of erythrocyte conductivity
Which Influence
,.-Factors
ConductivityIncrease
Conductivity
Conductivity
Unchanged
Normal Constituents
Increase Increase
13, 43
in in in
RBC serum total protein base
Decrease Decrease tein

Increase 49-52
in in
in
RBC serum total probase
Urea
to
o.400%4
50
400%
Glucose
47,
50
to
0.
Decrease
Cholesterol5#{176}
Clotting Sedimentation
Clot
retraction425 in U cell537#{176} or
Clotting432
Sedimentation vertical
Flow
Effects
During
stirring
Following
37,39-42,44,45
stirring
Slow
flowing44
Fast Laking Hemolysis and Hemoglobin Laking Laking
flowing44 with by water#{176}#{176} Laking freezing followed Sapotoxin4 and by and out by thawing addition freezing withof
thawing addition Saponin45
of water#{176}#{176}
water#{176}5
Clinical
conditions
Pneumonia
with
loss
of
Anemia
Uncom plasma volume
plicated
salt0 Polycythemia Leukemia

Hemoconcentration
Increased Hemodilution
diabetes0
Diabetes sugar na
40
with and/on
high
blood ketonu-
Uremia48 Jaundice40
Many of blood
previous conductance, electrolyte
investigators and conductivity did
used not
inadequate observe and blood the
apparatus precautions Even
for
their found workers
measurements necessary have not for
accurate
measurements.536 of Jones co-workers5 conductance great
recent
taken trode
There measure
advantage area and

is general packed
of thestudies surface, and

agreement red cell
of frequency measurements accuracy#{176}68 but
effects, eleccan be used of to
cell
design.
that difference
volume5#{176}#{176}with
HIRSCH,
TEXTER,
WOOD,
BALLARD,
HORAN
AND
WRIGHT
1019
opinion report
exists
regarding a description
its
correlation of
with
to does in normal
the
measure exist
red
cell
blood between
count.
the
The
electrical
present
and obserconductivity
includes to and show
methods
conductivity
vations of blood
that red
a correlation cell count
the
subjects.
MATERIALS
A
1075, 52.00,
variable
ii,ooo,
frequency and
19,000
oscillator.* cycles in figure resistance and

i
This per
2..t
was The The
of
the
RC
type be bridge than i
which varied was

per
operated on spot from suitable This and zero Il for was
frequencies volts. to A dia-
of
second. bridge. to
output resistance
could
gram
2..
of the An
circuit
shown is
alternating between one

io,ooo
ioo
current ohms of the

ioo,ooo
measurements accomplished adjustable
of
re-
sistance by for having woo,
megohm adjustable
a precision from io,ooo i to
of better
ohms
cent. steps,
arm
and
bridge ohms.
in Iohm
a second
1.
F;2
Fio.
i-Apparatus
for
conductivity
and
microphotography
measurements.
3. and
Detector. a 6E5 magic
The eye
null tube.
indicator bath. A
consisted of an amplifier water bath

at
connected
between the
midpoints
to maintain
of the the
bridge,
4. Constant
tivity cells
.
temperature
30
C.
o.z
degree was
a cell
used
conduc-
at a constant
temperature.
Glass
conductivity and a capacity
cells. A Jones of ml. was
type57 conductivity employed were preliminary Engineering, Cornell circuit was by measuring conductance calculated from of o.i University, added the for this M forthe made
cell with preliminary of
constants
of
7.045
reciprocal
centimeter nients
*
1-5 ,S
studies.
wine
The
cell
used
for
platinum
Expeni-
shown
in figure3. The construction

School
electrodes and
coiledlatinum p of this the
coated with
The
actual
student
design,
inthe
testing under
equipment direction of
was Prof.
doie
by
Paul
Weaver, Ballard,
graduate Jr., of the
of Electrical Engineering,
William
School cell chloride. tables
of Electrical
Ithaca. using VRI05 VR,5o and tubes. resistance of the cell when solution
=
t Subsequently,
The tassium in standard reciprocal o.i M KCI
a voltage constant was Using the

K
regulator calculated the specific

was
filled temperature cell
with
o.i as in of
M recorded
po-
at
KR,
the when R
=
proper
C
=
cell
=
constant
specific
the equation, C KCI

2.9 at
constant resistance
centimeters, in ohms.
conductance
C.,
and
measured
102.0
ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY
OF
BLOOD
OSCILLATOR PREQ.
Cpu
C XX
600
/075 5200
1/000
250 150
/9000
(0)
R2QOOO
CIRCUIT A-C
FIG.
DIAGRAM BRIDGE
of AC. resistance bridge. diagram
RESISTANCE
i-Circuit
,1
I
FIG.
;.-Conductivity
cell
as designed
by
W.
C.
Ballard,
Jr.
HIRSCH,
TEXTER,
WOOD,
BALLARD,
HORAN
AND
WRIGHT
102.1
black. mately
The
i
distance of blood
between was
the required
electrodes to fill
was the
about horizontal
cm.,
the
cell
constant cell.
being Cm,_l.* 96.3 Approxi-
ml.
section
of the
METHOD
In
measuring portion to the be cell, observed this the cell most rate
the of the attained,
blood sample. of the the
conductivity, A portion cell whole Even without blood though greater so the It end rise that
the of the extending resistance all the than i the
hepaninized blood into was erythnocytes

per cent was
blood placed filling then were

ever
sample in the tubes, observed

found
was cell After several to

when
thoroughly proper allowing times sediment

using this
mixed amount to be into type just Certain the of cell. in to temperature
to to
insure fill equihibthat the half the
homogeneity horizontal nium value of was that tween the of the A The ments The urements i. The solution. in the
i.
was the
in
measured
remained
()
constant. change was as the
lower
in resistance introduced erythrocytes increased The at been same was within of the the red difficulty above. each gave possible sedimentation blood then
If enough
blood consequently electrodes. design with other In fact,
vertical into by that in effects, suitably then The
filling the
tubes
were portion
full, of
then the the in than cell the in
an cell, path
increase owing of the of the the cells
resistance the led to herein with those defact beto current
sedimented number introduced was to found such resulted
horizontal of geometry
of nonconducting sedimentation any which to correlate designed. to and determined centrifuged precision was cell sedimentation were
erychnocytes the blood other Using
conductivity that designs with similar in resistance free from resistance ways, chamber The in and
cells
described electrodes workers313

it
horizontal
cylinder scribed.
effects. entirely accurately obtain
absent
has the
in this sample measured.

i
laboratory was
change
of erythnocytic of always resistance
in cells
ponticn plasma was
the
plasma of following
erythrocytes. measuresome meas-
reproducibility in the
the
desired cells
per in the
cent. plasma methods being used: Levy-Hausser counting one, attaching were an used determining of red per cent. in a graduated was calculated, counted. Erb for the cells and the
concentration
only c)ne method being used red cells were counted visually Five squares, was of the using ioo. visual count was consisting
and in others all four by using a calibrated corner made and the center by
Hayems used to was packed 6o, for
of each
magnification Visicam field of the
counting A check
photographically film. The
Gray whole
the the red sible 4. uring
microscope,
35 mm.
Panaomic-X cent Then, was by
magnification by first volumes blood cent
individual square, 164. 3. An accurate relative cells and also of the to prepare Another the volume of this
volume per plasma.
calculated mixing known relative the whole volume
density and
weights
of it plasma, poswas tube to the and well measknown
suspensions of accurately known method consisted of centrifuging of red meLhod. cells, from which the
centrifuge subject
per
imitations
RESULTS
In cytes
m 0.85
order
to
obtain
saline,
information
regarding
the with the
effect
of
the were red
presence made cell
of with count.
erythroerythrocytes Human centrivarying

results
in
per
an
electrolyte
cent
solution,
for comparison
initial
experiments standard
erythrocytes fuged until

amounts of
were washed several highly concentrated. the concentrated cells

cell and red cell
times with o.8 per cent saline and then Serial dilutions were made containing in 0.85 per cent saline. Resistance measurements
by the usual method were made. The
with of such observed
the
Jones
counts
a series are shown in table and a marked 2., variation as a function of red cell count. Similar experiments were carried out and essentially identical results were obtained. that the apparatus and the magnitude of the effect appeared
*
in
conductance was using human plasma It was concluded to be satisfactory for

were made by PaloMyers,
The York.
original The
cell cell
was constants
designed were
by 48.9
Prof.
Ballard. cm.i.
Two
subsequent
cells
New
cm.#{176} 50.7 and
102.2.
ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY
OF
BLOOD
investigation
of
the
quantitative clear that the
relationship plasma conductance of the significant that

that not appear
between was
blood
cell
count variable
and
conamong been the
ductivity. blood shown ratio
It was
sufficiently
samples to require by others as cited of whole blood

experiments
measurement above. The to

demonstrated
plasma conductivity, measured quantity the

the to
as has also is therefore

blood conductance with
conductance
of
plasma.
ratio have an of whole exact relationship
Numerous
to plasma conductance (K/K0) did the red cell count. This is evident measured accepted
in result stated cubic this of
from
the
scattered
points
in
the
plot
of
the
K/K0 vs. the visual opinion regarding

laboratory, errors in made the it
red cell count, as may be seen in figure 6. Commonly the precision of the visual counts, as well as experiences
seem reasonable to suppose that this of within scattering eighty cells about squares per 8oo,ooo was the
visual counting
method.
erythrocytes,
Magath if a single estimate

be determined
and
field
co-workers#{176}
405,000 equal
have
that
for the
a count standard
hence
of ,ooo,ooo deviation
the count
is examined,
millimeter;
of
would
the
would counted
deviation
cells.
times
Even
using ten
when
specially trained pipets and chambers, the

TABLE
technicians
standard
2.
in Ohms
a
was
single
386,000
specimen
cells per
ten
RBC
10
Resistance
Specific
Conductance
Mho,
cm
1000
390
18.07
.89
1.94
1.73
446 549
651
35.79
11.83
3.59
4.31
572.
955
9.2.3
7.38
cubic millimeter. They found that errors of calibration relatively small, and that the main sources of error pipets and variation due to the field. In addition,
cians will fail to enumerate about whose io average per cent of the
were they
cells
of chambers associated state that

in
and pipets were with filling the routine techni-
theThey field. conclude is the determinazero,
that even with tion is reliable To

tion
technicians
enumeration
cent.
error
only the
to relative
within
i6er p accuracy
determine
experiments
of the
plasma
electrical
mixtures
and
of
visual counts,
precisely
serial known
dilurelative
yielding erythrocyte volumes per cent and red cell content Venous blood from 4 normal subjects the
nated measured, were volume in terms mixed per of
were was by
from The free
carried out. combined and centrifugation.

plasma, density and of this
thoroughly
were arbitrarily of
mixed
and
desig-
red The
cells packed
as ioo
and
red volumes
plasma cells were
were
nearly percent
separated
red cells.
volume
red
cells
was
and
in
the
cent red of per cent
plasma blood
suspensions
density
proportions,
was
also
measured.
Then
red
cells
and
plasma the This known
varying
cells on
yielded a series
the which of
and from the density of these mixtures, above arbitrary basis was determined. the volume per cent was precisely cells above.
of the original
packed
H1RSCH,
TEXTER,
WOOD,
BALLARD,
HORAN
AND
WRIGHT
102.3
The ferent nine
red
cell
counts for 4. The

as shown
on each
each and
of blood
these three sample.
blood different The
samples calibrated
were
made pipets, of
by the
using giving whole
three a total blood
difof
calibrated determinations
chambers
conductances
and
in was washed
volume
of the
tables
per
plasma
3 and
cent,
for each
ratio
dilution
of these in figure
were
determined
i.
and
were
the
data
obtained
with
are
the
given
known
conductances
compared
4, Experiment
A second the exception

and the
series that
cell
of experiments the
counts
also
carried
free of 100
out
plasma
in a similar
with
manner,
physiologic
with
saline,
red
were
cells
were
made in
\
90 80\
70 60
0
O-EXPNO.I #{149}-EXPNO.2
x40
42
30 20
I0
102030405060708090100
VOLUME
Fio.
4._,\Taniation
PER
ratio (K/K0) as
CENT
a function
RED
ofvolume
CELLS
pen cent red cells.
of conductance
the only tion In volume should
usual once.
routine The data
hospital are the that given
procedure, in tables
i.e.,
both andand 6, the
sides
of
one
chamber
were
counted
of
relative
per be cent noted
volume
and
,
per
volume
cent
is shown
per cent
in
by may
figure
tables
as calculated
variation of K/K0 as a func4, Experiment 2.. from the density and

are given, accurate and it While correspondingvalues. absolutely
the
experimentally there are
redetermined discrepancies (Density)
centrifugation between be
the of the
that metric method
column the arbitrary
headed
the Vol.
Vol. assumption
figures
%
in
not relatively
because
that
each
the
series
initial
are
sample gravimetric
in the the inaccuracies
of red
accurate
cells
to ratio of the
was
o.oi
ioo
per the
per
cent
cent,
since
nevertheless
respective
the of Vol.
solutions
were
values this
prepared
do quantity. not reflects
by
stand
serial
same
dilutions.
as
The
gravi-
fact
% %
(Sedimentation)
(Density)
sedimentation
determining
102.4
ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY
OF
BLOOD
While
ment
2.
it
was
not
to
be
expected concordant
present to be It
that
in the
the because
series of the was
of
Experiment possibility
and
of
Experi-
would
have
plasma
been
being
of different
the cells, since the the
amounts
the initial
of residual
interstices accord therefore

an extremely
between
ioo
the
volumes
two series
per of
two cent
cent
were
red cells
found
preparation
in may
in
arbitrary
within the
in each
limits
manner with
series,
of that
nevertheless
experimental conduct-
measurements
ance volume in these per
10
the
of red
conductance.
samples varies
be concluded
regular
the
relative
blood
cells
in these
two
samples.
C,) -J -J Li C)
c
EXP.
NO.1 NO.2
#{149} -EXP
8
7
Li
a:
Iz
Li 0
a:
50
Li
a-
Li
-J
0
>
I RED
Fio. .-Vaniation
2 CELL
of volume
3 COUNT
per
4
cent red
5 (MILLIONS
cells
6
as a function
7 PER
of red
8 CU.
cell count,
9 MM.)
10
It meter because is cent
is unnecessary is exactly of the the method visual
to
point
out
that
to in from the cell the
the
the
number
relative serial count density
of red
volume dilution as in a function
blood
per their of
cells
cent the
per
in
cubic
these
millitwo In volume series, figure per 5
proportional used red blood
preparation. relative attention is directed
plotted
as precisely
computed
measurements, and
to
the
scattering
must The careful fact that technic. is more
of
fall
the
on that the It
points.
a there major may the straight is
If the
much
red
line, more
cell
count
scattering
necessarily method. demonstrates most 6 below, conductance
because lie be in the
were accurate, of theof the use serial

in visual that in the the figure red cell scattering, visual
then the dilution

than count count in despite as than in
points
figure the figure in the 4
inaccuracies therefore result of
presumed
probably
inaccuracies
measurement.
TABLE
Approx. ; Red Vol. Cells
3.-Experiment
No.
Wt.
Cells
of
Red
(Gm.)
Vol.
Cells
of
Red (ml.)
\Vt.
of Plasma (Gm,)
Vol. of
Plasmat (ml.)
Vol. (Density)
Vol. % (Sedimentation)
2.0 30 40 50
1.131
2.053
8.2.37
7.2.32.
8.02.3
7.045
2.0.
37
2.1.4 2.9.4
3.2.61
4.137
3 . 001 3 .807 4.578 6.644 cells

at
2.9.87
6.
195
6.034
38.69
47.80
38.6 48.5 63.8 73.6

=
6o
70
4.975 6.ii
7.110
5.133
4.105 3.071
.000
3.999
1.991
58.6o 68.95
of
2.4.87
2.4.88
cc.
of
red
plasma
at 30.0
C. weighed
2.7.02.6
Gm.; Gm.;
density density
No.
red plasma
cells
=
3.087
Gm/mI.
cc. of
30.0C. weighed
2.5.542.
4.Experiment Resistance
of
i.oi6
Gm/mi.
TABLE (Mss/rmn.)
(Ohms)
(Mhs/cm.)
KX100
0 19.72. 1.05
72.30
cm.)
10 300
100 300 100
13.3*
100.0 70.2.
constant
0.33 0.04
10300
9.33 7.84 6.46

5.15
i8.i8 39,33 47.87 65.57

*
3.37 4.57 5,44 6.53

7.2.7
11900 14900 18700 2.4900

33800
58.9 48.6 38.7

19.1
11.4
0.15 o.o6 0.14

0.19
100
300
3.86 1.84
This
is
K,,.
(Cell
was
96.3
TABLE
Approx. 7,, Red Vol. Cells
5.-Experiment
Wt. Plasma
No.
Wt.
Cells
of
Red (Gm.)
Vol. Cells
of
Red (ml.)
of
(Gm.)
Vol. of Plasmat
Vol. (Density)
Vol. % (Sedimentation)
1.184
1.946
2.72.1
8.i8i
7.360
7.92.4 6.934 5.894

4.907 3.914
19.72.
2.0.5
30 40 50
3.054 4.2.88 5.057 6.116

-
i8.i8 39.33 47.87 58.2.o 67.57 of of red plasma cells=

=
-
2.5.0
3.82.0
6.o8
5.067 4.041 3.055 2.7.943
46.4 i.8 72.8 8o.5
4.505
6o
70
*
5.449 6.164 cells at at C. weighed 30 o C.
6.919
1.959
2.4.87
2.4.88
cc. cc.
of of
red plasma
Gm.; Gm.;
density density
No.
2
1.12.3 1.033
Gm/mI.
Gm/mI.
weighed 2.5.69!
TABLE
6.-Experiment
Vol.
Red
Cells
(Density)
Visual
(Millions/cu.mm.)
Count
Resistance
(Ohms)
K X 1000 (Mhos/cm.)
K X 100
0
2.0.37
0
1.2.4
72.60
10000 11800
13.3
300.0 72.3
9.63 7.73 6.59 4.96 3.66 i.8i
2.9.87
3.38
4.09
8.i 49.5 37.3

2.7.5
38.69
47.80
14600
5.19
6.03
19400
8.6o 68.95
*
i6;oo
342.00
7.65 K). (Cell constant was 96.3
11.4
This
is
cm.i)
102.5
102.6
ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY
OF
BLOOD
It
was
thought
that the major error
in
the
visual counting
method
may
have
been due to the error in enumeration under the microscope, and that an count of improved precision could be obtained by photographing the counting chambers. Therefore venous blood fromfour normal subjects was combined, the red cells and plasma were separated by centrifuging. Dilutions were
lOC
absolute and made
to
9(
\
\
O-EXPNO1 #{149}-EXPNO2 * -EXP N03 J-EXPN04
80
70
260
x
42
50
40
3(
5
00
20
0
IC
I RED CELL
3 COUNT
4 (MILLIONS
ratio (K/K0)
5 PER
6 CU. MM)
FiG. 6.-Variation
of conductance
as a function
of red
cell
count.
give several solutions
ofdifferent
volumes
per
cent.
The and
red three
cell
counts
were pipets
made and
visually by using three differentcounting counting each chamber three times, Each whole field was photographed the five squares counted was likewise were visual used to give enlarged count. A typical prints example
chambers
different
giving a total of nine counts blood per at the time counting. of In addition, photographed. The photographic to compare an individual with
sample. each of negatives the square original is illus-
which were counted of a photograph of
HIRSCH,
ET
AL.
102.7
0
-sue
-w
..
4-.... 0
.,
o..
C)
,, .:. . 0
o
I
,
t
o#{149} o
0
Cl,
g0#{149}0
C
1
-:
.,4.,
.-. .-
0 5g 0
r-0
0
S
C:
-1
00.
___
FIG.
___
of ned cells
TABLE
__Jo
in counting chamber.
No.
__
(Square 3* within double lines is o.15 mm.)
7.-Photograph
7.-Experiment
Appnox.
Vol.
Visual
Count
Range
of Counts
Visual
Photo Whole
Count Field
Range Whole
of
Photo Field
0 10 2.0 1.09
0.02.
1.01
1.10 2.03
1.30
1.79
0.02.
3.08
1.71
4
1.89 3.35
3.96
3.05
o.o6
0.01 0.04 0.11 0.02.
i.86
3.00
o.o6 o.i8
0.2.5 0.19
30
40
50
3.11
3.91 5.51
3.05 4.03
3.84
5.30 6.13
3.76
5.15
3.78
4.60
4.94
4.33 5 .2.4 5 .96
6o
6.oo
6.ii
o.i8
5.44
Photo
Count
Individual
Range of individual
Photo
Resistance
(Ohms)
K X 1000 (Mhos/cm.)
ox
100
7400
13.7f
100.0
i.o8 i.8i
3.09
counts is
0.0k 0.05
0.15
,.o8 3.74 2.85
1.10
8730
10430 12.300 14800 19500 2.5700
ii.6
9.70
84.6
70.8 6o.o
1.89 3.34
4.30
8.2.3
4.03
0.2.4 0.2.7
3.76 4.59 5.44 expressed constant
6.84 4.94 3.75
49.9
36.1
5.09
5.71
5.45 5.95 as millions/cu.mm.

ioz
o.i8
2.7.4
All
are K,. (Cell
t This trated sponding
was
Cm.)
in
figure specific
7.
summary
of data
the
visual in
and
.
photographic counts
and
corre-
conductance
is given
table
102.8
ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY
OF
BLOOD
It
curate
was
found
that
the
visual
count
in
the
microscope
was
apparently
more
ac-
than
of
the
photographic
resolution.
count,
Therefore
due was it
to
the
ability that
of the the
counter photographic out. this
to refocus proIn case, to make enlargement
for
cells
difficult
concluded
cedure did Another however,

counts.
not improve serial dilution chamber, were
the
precision similar to
of the visual Experiment
red cell count. 3 was carried times, field
only one Photographs
which was counted taken only of the

TABLE
three whole
4*
was used and each
the
8.-Experiment
Range of
No.
Visual
Appnox.
Vol.
Visual
Count
Count
Photo Whole
Count Field
Range
of Count
Photo
0
10 2.0
0.87 3.67
0.01 0.04 0.03 0.01 0.02. 0.05

0.02. 0.07 0.10
o.86
1.61
1.77
o.88
1.72.
0.82.
3.70
0.01
0.0!
o.8i
0.83 1.71
x.68 3.32.
3.90
30
40
i.8i
3.70
2.85
3.71
3.69
4.40
3.38 3.92.
6.40
0.04 0.02.
3.41
50
4.43 6.44
7.12.
4.46 6.52.
7.15
3.94 6.o 6.6o 8.35

8.40
6o
70
6.39
7.10
0.07 0.07 0.04 0.02.
6.30
8o
90 100
7.85
9.30
7.75
9.00 9.00
7.95
9.2.0
6.o 8.32. 8.37
6.40
8.2.5 8.35
9.03
o.o6
9.10
Resistance (Ohms)
K X
1000
(Mhos/cm.)
100
7,830
11.
9t
100.0
11.8 10,100 11,500

15,2.00 19,100
91.4
9.90
76.7 61.7
51.5
40.9
8. o8 6. 6
5.2.8
800
44,450
3 .76
1.17
19.1
17.6
11.9
6o,
2.50
3.67
All
counts is K0.
are (Cell
expressed constant
as was 101
million/cu.mm.
cm.)
t This
counted
three times. The
data are given
in table 8 and lead the to described

of red
same above
cell
conclusion are
count
as in Experiment 3. The results of the four in figure 6, wherein It

result
serial dilutionexperiments
of K/K0 as a function
shown
is plotted.
the
variation
is apparent about
of
that equally,
the
in were
smoothed and the
curve
shown of points method, in
fits
the
data
of
the
various
.
experithe
ments Red 8 with
inaccuracies counts
the scattering visual counting

blood
is believed to as demonstrated
were measured
be principally in figure
on thirty-three
cell
done and
conductances
specimens
of normal
blood. The
data
as given figure
table
have
been dilutions
plotted were
in figure carried
a reproduction
of the curve from
6. Arbitrary
HIRSCH,
TExTER,
WOOD,
BALLARD,
HORAN
AND
WRIGHT
102.9
out and
to give three
points pipets
at either were used,
end each
of the chamber
curve.
In making being counted
the
counts, times.
three
chambers
three
NORMAL
BLOODS
#{149}0
0
0
3 RED
FIG.
CELL
COUNT
(MILLIONS PER
as a function
CU
MM)
8.-Variation blood.
of conductance
ratio (K/K,,)
of red cell count 33 for specimens
of
normal
DISCUSSION
To of tivity
determine
the experiments
effect
of was
red done
cell
concentration using
on
blood
conductivity whole blood.
a series
dilution
heparinized
The
temperature by tween zation the
variations
of use the and each bath of electrodes thereby
in
blood
plasma
sample
conductivity
to the cell, the in Five the temperature. which
were
conductivity all of
eliminated
its the own suspended was Sedimentation errors current orientation
by
plasma.
relating
A erythrocytes used to red were
the
constant
conduc-
controlled at all
eliminated were polariPhysical cells. bedecrease
a horizontal minimize
times.
kilocycle
streaming
of
the
movement of the The relationship

cells is presented
sample was also kept to a minimum. between the conductivity of blood and in figure 4. is It evident that the reproducibility
the
volume of results
per cent red from the
1030
ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY
OF
BLOOD
TABLE !Iotation
9.-Data
Visual
on
That
Count
v-three
Specimens K,, x 1000
of Normal
Blood
ubiect Ad Ad Ad Ad Bu Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Co Fa Le
In
Fig.
{?Ullions/cu.nnn.)
I+73*
.(ish.os/ciiv.) 13.1 11.1 13.1 11.1 13.1+ 13.1+ 13.7 13.7 13.7 13.7 11.9 13.1 13.0 13.1 13.1 12.6
K x 1000 knth.os/cin.)
_L
.Jt,,
100
5.23 9.53
6.1+6
39.9 72.8
l+9#{149}3
2.10 +.i5 7.62

-.
3.03 5.68 5.1+6 14.91 11.50 3.23 1.79 14.93 5.37 5.73 6.29 2.16 l+.88 5.89
5.02
23.2 +l8 1+0.7
14.70* 14.81* 5.36* 1.21 7.314 8.70

._.
35.8
83.6
23.6 13.1 1+1.6 1+1.0
1+.l+6* 1+67*
t:t
3.97* 14.03* 8.15
16.5 18.7 1+3.8 37.8 314.5
14,58*
Ro
13.1+ 13.3 13.1+
5.29*
Ro
(3
Not
ltlnn
5.114*
+.63
Visual k),i11tonsJcu..,) 6.21+ 7.11+ 5.31* 14.82*
Count
K,,
1000
1000
Lx in 25.1
100
-
Subject Ro
fib
So
to
1e.
jhos/cm.) 13. 13.1+ 13.1+ 13.3 13.1+ 11.1+ 13.1+ 13.14 13.1+ 11.1+
13.5
f..rnhos/cm.) 3.76 2.86

5.07
()
()
21.1+ 37.8 1+1.0 1+3.8 1+14.3 714.0 58.8 50.6 29.6

14O.O
St To To To To To To To To To
5.1+6 5.87 5.93 9.92 7.90 6.78 3.96

5.141
0
Q
0 0
14.11* 14.81* 2.17 3.50 14.20

6.1+1+
14,91*
Q
Q
3.22 6.59 14.88*
13.5 13.5 13.3

the blood before any dilutions
7,95 3,60 5.67

were de.
58.9 26.7 1+2.6
This
was
the
original is very
count of good,
two
experiments
and and the
that volume
there per
is
a cent
definite of red
relationship cells.
between
the
conductivity
of
blood
HIRSCH,
TEXTER,
WOOD,
BALLARD,
HORAN
AND
WRIGHT
1031
To visual per ity slight the slight the cells. the which identical cent ratio
determine red of and scattering method conductivity However, visual is count, undoubtedly values and of as is seen cell red
whether count cells, the actual is plotted the
or data
not against obtained cell
this
same the from
type conductivity
of
relationship ratio in plotted place were
holds of in the figure
when volume
the
Experiments
1-4
6 which
illustrates that
that all
there
red be
is a quantitative
count.
relationship 6 do
in errors exact per counting used the count the in (tables enumeration points to of done, were fact since of the
of
between lie
electrical the no electrical scattering volume red of method. cells points One the 8), 6 was cell is data to of the to count investigate given arbitrary points from in most
the
conductivcurve.
in is when of against expect were the red points cent
It is apparent
of the
due The is the plotted same
,
points
to error importance
in figure
either of there against an volume more in fields from in the conductivity validity was The the the
not
in
on
a smooth
measurements or of per is plotted
The
could counting. in figure ratio when as of the thus curve relating 8. of 8. either the red the
an
the
measurement
4 in which relative errors if then with the errors through for of of the the count, the This curve. the
is practically cent
relative
in the
figure due count
considerably to
scattering making
is observed, might count when is visual there accepted and in lie the table dilutions reasonably constandard between instances.
nonconducting of the the susK, of particles
photographed photograph able The standard duced of give close ductivity curve falls plotted points to the and in in specimens at deviation, smooth curve figure
count indicating drawn
made visual
photograph. 7 and figure red
However, method.
is compared
consideras is a variety 9 were to the
in the this and that the visual
electrical test blood. end curve cell accepted

equation for relating of
repro-
One Many
curve the all subjected
normal
figure standard within

derived
specimens
corroborates especially precision

a the suspension medium
quantitative
relationship deviation method
Maxwell0
spheres in
homogenous, to the the specific
nonpolanizable, specific conductance conductance
a conducting the below. specific
medium conductance
volume
concentration Ko and
pension as shown
K,
K/&-i K/K0+iKi/K0+i
K,/&-i
Fnicke1
modified
this
equation
_____ _____
-
for
the
case
of spheroids
K/KU
K,/K9
(2.)
where
K,/Ko.
X,
the
form case
factor, of the red
is
a function cell
=
of
the
axial the
ratios
in
of
the
particles
of K
and to
the
conductance
ratio
In the
K, 0, therefore
equation
terms
reduces
K=
Ko(z-p)X
x+p
of the particles in the case of ellipsoids
()
the equa-
Velich tion in
and terms
Gonin
showed
for was
random
orientation
of conductance
Ko(I
K=
()
)
Cf
in
+
that
which
f represents
the
form
factor.
It is easily
shown
X i/Cf
i).
1032.
ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY
OF
BLOOD
If cubic
is
the
volume
in ()
fraction
of
corpuscles
in
quantity
blood, of
g is
the
number
=
of
corpuscles
per
millimeter
and i/C and
is the
mean
volume
of the individual
corpuscles,
then p
g/C.
Substituting
solving
for
g X(K g=C
-
K)
(5)
From factor stituted
the was in
data determined the
observed formula:
in
Experiments
and
2.
utilizing values
the
method from tables
of Velich 3 and
and 4, and
Gorin, and
the 6 were
form sub-
independently
C. ofThe
known
r/ro
=
r/r0
Where
volume
per
cent
red
cells
r
= =
in
blood of of factor with of0.110. whole plasma of Velich a standard The form and Gonin deviation factor X then
0.138. of
resistance resistance form to be 1.718
blood
f
From Experiment
1.717
1,
f was
found
In
Experiment to be 1.393
2.,
f equalled
0.111.
with
a standard
deviation
was
calculated
The
equation
relating conductivity
to red cell concentration

1.393 1.393
becomes
g=C
(K0 I(
i, .,
K)
+ 4,
K and
.
The
factor C was
then
obtained
from
Experiments
Experiment
Number
of Specimens
Mean
Deviation
i
2.
6 6
7
ii.i 10.95
o.i 0.04
4 5
11.11
0.30
0.II
33 52.
io.8o 567.4!
On
greater
the basis of these, the mean weight from to the samples the 33 normal of the specimens
value C is found of serial dilution as representing
to
be 10.91.
it
However,
was
since
this use
figure theC value
gives cal0.1 I.
experiments,
preferred
to
culated
a better
statistical
average-namely io.8o
It
is clear
from
this
analysis
that
the
average
volume
and to
shape another,
of
the
itso is
red
blood
cells do not deviate greatly from one therefore certain that the conductance curate a greater within these limitations. than that precision obtainable
sample of normal blood method of obtaining opinion by the of the present
a red that visual
cell this
count method.
is ac-
It is the
authors
represents
counting
CONCLUSIONS
These
observations
show
that
the
electrical
conductivity
of
blood
can
be
used
to measure red and the volume
cell concentration. per cent of red
The cells
correlation has been noted
between the previously.
blood
conductance
HIRSCH,
TEXTER,
WOOD,
BALLARD,
HORAN
AND
WRIGHT
1033
These
but
ments
observations
the
give
suggest
of doing
results
that
a visual and are
the
error
erythrocyte a valid
lies
not
in the
for the
electrical
The conductance red cell
measurements
measureconcentra-
in
method
reproducible
count. measure
tion
for
human
.
blood
in
the
normal
range.
SUMMARY
I.
2.. ductivity.
The An
factors accurate cell

to
influencing apparatus has

exist
blood conductivity has been designed designed

normal blood
to
have been measure
noted. blood
and
plasma
con-
3.
been
5.
A new
shown
been
on between
to
blood
measure
before
conductivity
and after and the dilution, red
of blood.
a correlation cell count.
1.393. to
4 Through
studies
has
conductivity
The
normal
form
blood.
factor
for
normal
human is presented
red
cells relating
has red
been cell
determined count with
be
6. A mathematical
for
equation
conductivity
1.393
(K,,
K)
K
g=
C .393 K +
7. The
io.8o.
factor
on
the
basis
of
33
determinations
has
been
calculated
to
be
REFERENCES
1 HORAN,
F. F.
E.,
HIRSCH,
F. G., WOOD, L.
L.
A., AND
WRIGHT,
I. S.:
Surface
29? WRIGHT,
effects
2.02.,
on
1950.
blood
clotting beBull.
WRIGHT,
com-
ponents
2 HIRSCH,
as determined G., WooD, the erythnocyte

24.
by zeta potentials. J. Clin. Investigation I. A.,BALLARD, W. C., JR., FREY, C., AND concentration and the specific L. electro
I. S.:
The
relationship
tween Acad.
TEXTER,
conductivity W.
of blood. C., JR.,

AND
New
York
Med. E. C., The F. to G.
393,
1948.
Ja.,
HIRSCH,
F. E.
G., HORAN,
AND
F. E., WOOD, II. I.

WRIGHT,
A., BALLARD, to red cell
I. S.:
HIRSCH,
electrical G., TEXTER, clotting N.: The Boston and
conductivity C., JR., clot of retraction. the
of blood. (In electrolytes i8,
Relation S.: The to the
count.
Blood,
this
issue, Ill. Recorpuscles
p.
io6.
electrical conductivity non-electrolytes

1897.
of blood. the blood
lation
STEWART,
preparation.) in and
1897.
relations Soc. M.
blood
-:
serum.
J.
Sc., No. If,
The
measurement
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2.97, 1897.
Elektnische
8
Leitf#{228}higkeit thierscher
TANGL,
f. Physiol. ii. Centralb.
332.,
1897. 1897.
ROTH,
W.: Elektnische S.,

AND
f. Physiol. 2.71, ii.
BUGARSZKY,
F.: Eine methode Centralb. f. Physiol. ii.
des nelitiven volumen
des Blutkorper-
chen
10
und G.
des Plasmas. N.: A Manual ,9o5. P. 50. of the
STEWART,
of Physiology hemoglobin or weight F.: and
with
Practical Exercises, of the plasma
ed.London, corpuscles
Bailli#{232}re, Tindall when

24?
and Cox,
-:
The
behavior
electrolytes and
colored
blood
1899.
is laked.
J.
12
13 -:
Physiol. 24: 111, 1899. The relative volume S., AND

TANGL,
of corpuscles
in blood.Physiol. J.
356,
BUGARSZKY,
Physikalisch-chemische
Untensuchungen ges. Physiol. Volumen

72?
#{252}ber Molecularen die

531,
Kon-
14
FRAENICEL,
centrations Kenholtnisse des Blutserums. Arch.f. d. P.: CJber die Bestimmung des Blutkorperchen Ztschr. f. kIm. M.: Med.
52. 470,
1904.
aus
den
1898. Elektnischen Beziehung.
Leitfahigheit. Pflugers Arch.
OJCER-BLOM,
Thienische
510,
S#{227}fte Gewebe und

I9oo.
in physikalisch-chemischer
f. d. ges. Physiol. 79.
1034
ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY
OF
BLOOD
16
____ :
Thienische
S#{228}fte und Leitf#{228}higheit Arch. f. Physiol. von

14.
Gewebe und
13.
in
physikalisch-chemischer als in for between to the osmotic
Beziehung. Indicatoren Blut clinical the cell Serum purposes. and its
VI. den und
Mittheilung. Eiweisspaltung. Muskels#{228}ft. Physiol. Am.

i3: 139,
Die
elektnische
Scandinav.
17
die 359,
Gefnierpunktserniednigung
1901.
: Zur Arch.
WILSoN,
1905.
Frage f. Physiol. M.
den 48,
autolytischen of electrical E. : On the
Erscheinungen conductivity
Scandinav.
18
T. B.,
: Measurement H.
J.
19
MooRE soluble chem.J.

FRICKE, : 1915.
AND
ROAF,
equilibrium reference
environment of the
192.4.
in red
regard
to Bio-
constituents 3. 55 electrical electrical S. : Electric impedance : Sun les

95
with
special conductivity of
equilibrium Physiol. to Cold.

i;.
corpuscles.
20
H. : The The The K. Electrical
electrical capacity
of disperse with
spheres. Gen. J. special
6. 41, 7
21
suspensions of suspensions
reference cells. Physiol. Spr.

iN.
J. Gen. blood.
Spr.
1932..
1933.
Physiol. Hbr.
,
9? 137,
1933.
22
-:
impedance phase angle conductance formes
of biological
Symp. 117,
23 COLE, 24 25 26
----:
of cell
membranes. systems.
J.
Gen. Cold.
64!,
of biological of hipponae des courbes de
Hbr.
1935.
Symp. i, 107,
Electric G.
egg. Gen. J.
Physiol.
877,
ACHARD,
conductivit#{233}
des
suspensions
dhematies
de
boeuf
en
fonc-
non
27 ENDRES,
du nombre d#{233}l#{233}ments disperses G. : Beobachtungen, betreffend

90?
et du pH. Compt. die elektnische impedance Blutes
rend. Soc. Leitfahigheit
de 122. 571, biol. 1936. den fanblosen Blutkorper. suspensions von

6-2.5
Ztschr. eryth-
f, Biol.
28 FRICKE,
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From bloodjournal.hematologylibrary.org by guest on July 30, 2012. For personal use only.

THE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF BLOOD : I. RELATIONSHIP TO ERYTHROCYTE CONCENTRATION

another essential of clotting others8 current. concentration and the the

study for The and Later of Wilson8 hematocrit

blood, A thorough blood and Stewart

tems. human conditions3 In was was possible resistance Cole, tics

also cell the

showed the and

proportional utilized the by values.

erythrocytes,#{176}7 mean and only It has

investigations further and giving one-half not Curtis8

Roaf,9 the while

Achard the red

sedimentation,35 measurements reported geometry of

these cell, and

College, EngineerN6 Albert ONRand Mary

grants grants Hyde

from from the

the the authors

Office Samuel and

Babbitt personal ones Department

Foundation. notofficial, on to be construed

expressed views of the

and concentrations, teins. The presence

colloidal electrolytes, in the plasma in whole

and particularly blood also affects

RBC serum total protein base

Decrease Decrease tein

RBC serum total probase

Fast Laking Hemolysis and Hemoglobin Laking Laking

thawing addition Saponin45

Uncom plasma volume

salt0 Polycythemia Leukemia

previous conductance, electrolyte

investigators and conductivity did

inadequate observe and blood the

apparatus precautions Even

their found workers

measurements necessary have not for

measurements.536 of Jones co-workers5 conductance great

advantage area and

of thestudies surface, and

of frequency measurements accuracy#{176}68 but

effects, eleccan be used of to

includes to and show

a correlation cell count

oscillator.* cycles in figure resistance and

was The The

type be bridge than i

which varied was

operated on spot from suitable This and zero Il for was

frequencies volts. to A dia-

alternating between one

current ohms of the

measurements accomplished adjustable

sistance by for having woo,

a precision from io,ooo i to

Detector. a 6E5 magic

consisted of an amplifier water bath

conductivity and a capacity

cells. A Jones of ml. was

cell with preliminary of

in figure3. The construction

coiledlatinum p of this the