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Basic Concepts of Surface Mining

Minerals are the basic raw materials for manufacturing the goods required for fulfilling the needs of the developed society. Fossil fuels like coal and lignite are still the major sources of energy in the world. The minerals and fossil fuels occur in the earth at different places of the earth under different situations. Mining is the process by which these earth resources are made available for human welfare. Earth scientists i.e. the geologists and geophysicists explore the occurrences of mineral resources and provide the necessary information regarding how particular mineral deposits exist under the earth surface. Mining engineers use this information to determine the amount of economically mineable resources considering the grades of the deposits, processing needs, market demands and the technology available for mining the deposit. Thus it is essential for the mining engineers to understand the basic terminology the geologists use for describing the occurrence of mineral deposits. These are covered in the course of Geology that is compulsory for any undergraduate mining engineering course. The important definitions are discussed below for quick recapitulations.

Ore The earth materials from which metals are extracted economically are called ores. Ores occurs in many different kinds of rocks and in many different geological environments.

Deposit

The metalliferous compound from which metals are extracted is concentrated by geologic processes to form commercial deposits at specific locations. Types of deposits vary with metal to metal. Gold deposits are of two principal types: lode (primary) deposits and placer (secondary) deposits. Hypothesis of formation of Gold Deposits One widely accepted hypothesis proposes that many gold deposits, especially those found in volcanic and sedimentary rocks, formed from circulating ground waters driven by heat from bodies of magma (molten rock) intruded into the Earth's crust within about 2 to 5 miles of the surface. Active geothermal systems, which are exploited in parts of the United States for natural hot water and steam, provide a modern analog for these gold-depositing systems. Most of the water in geothermal systems originates as rainfall, which moves downward

through fractures and permeable beds in cooler parts of the crust and is drawn laterally into areas heated by magma, where it is driven upward through fractures. As the water is heated, it dissolves metals from the surrounding rocks. When the heated waters reach cooler rocks at shallower depths, metallic minerals precipitate to form veins or blanket-like ore bodies. Another hypothesis suggests that gold-bearing solutions may be expelled from magma as it cools, precipitating ore materials as they move into cooler surrounding rocks. This hypothesis is applied particularly to gold deposits located in or near masses of granitic rock, which represent solidified magma. A third hypothesis is applied mainly to gold-bearing veins in metamorphic rocks that occur in mountain belts at continental margins. In the mountain-building process, sedimentary and volcanic rocks may be deeply buried or thrust under the edge of the continent, where they are subjected to high temperatures and pressures resulting in chemical reactions that change the rocks to new mineral assemblages (metamorphism). This hypothesis suggests that water is expelled from the rocks and migrates upwards, precipitating ore materials as pressures and temperatures decrease. The ore metals are thought to originate from the rocks undergoing active metamorphism. Placer deposits represent concentrations of gold derived from lode deposits by erosion, disintegration or decomposition of the enclosing rock, and subsequent concentration by gravity.
Classification of Deposits

Basis 1. Shape

Types Isometric

Description Extending in all directions, e.g. massive deposits, bosses, nests

Bedded, flat

Stretched in two directions, layers

Pipe-like and columnar Intermidiate

Extended in one direction

Lens, vein, folds, bends, tectonically dislocated strata

2. Surface Relief

Slope

Hill 3. Position with respect to surface Surface type OB thickness of 20-30 m

Deep

OB thickness 40-250m

High Type

Above the prevailing surface

High-Deep

Partially above and partially below the prevailing surface

4. Angle of inclination

Gently dipping

Dip upt 8-100

Dipping or inclined Steeply dipping Steep 5. Complex bedding

Dip between 8-100 to 25-300 Dip more than 25-300 Dip within 56-900 Anticlinal or synclinal folds, faults, variable dip

When mining horizontal and gently dipping deposits, it is possible to locate waste dumps in the mined out area of a quarry. This is sometimes possible in the mining of dipping and steeply dipping stretched deposits.

I I I II III II III

II

III

Hq

What is surface mining?

Surface mining can loosely be defined as extraction of valuable minerals, coal or lignite by forming pits. Surface mining basically involves three specific tasks. These are stripping, mining proper and development.

DEVELOPMENT
REMOVAL TRANSPORTATION DISPOSAL

STRIPPING

OB

Road
MINERAL EXPOSED EXTRACTION HAULAGE STORAGE RECLAMATION

MINING PROPER

MINERAL

Pumping

Trenching

Figure 1 Broad groups of surface mining operations. Stripping includes removal, haulage and disposal of over burden. Mining Proper means extraction, haulage, storage and unloading of valuable minerals. Development tasks are manifold. All other activities necessary to stripping and mining proper are categorised as development activities. Trenching, pumping, road construction, etc. are some of the important development tasks.

Schemes of Opencast Mining of Deposits

NON-WORKING BENCH INTERNAL WASTE DUMP MINED OUT SPACE WORKING BENCH ULTIMATE PIT CONFIGERATION

Hq

EXTERNAL DUMPK

INTERNAL WASTE DUMP

WORKING BENCH

ULTIMATE PIT CONFIGERATION

Hq

EXTERNAL DUMPK

WORKING BENCH MINED OUT SPACE WORKING BENCH

Hq Grade Control
ULTIMATE PIT CONFIGERATION ULTIMATE PIT CONFIGERATION BERM

The mining operation is an integration of number of tasks arranged in sequence. These are often referred to as unit operations. Site preparation, Drilling and blasting, Excavation and Loading, Transportation, Stock Piling or Spreading and Reclamation are such unit operations required to be carried out as surface mining unit operations. There are numerous ways of performing these tasks. These methods depend on the characteristics of deposits, expected rate of extraction and life of the mine, scheme of completion of the unit operations. Table 1 shows the main unit operations that are sequentially carried out in a surface mine. Following a system approach the operations mentioned in

Table 1 are carried out and thus the whole opencast mining can be considered as comprised of well defined unit operations or mining subsystems. Each of these subsystems is characterised by the type of equipment deployed and subsequent methodology followed. The selection of equipment and design of work organisation are dependent on the characteristics of the deposit, market demand and available technological know-how.

Table 1 Operations at different phases of surface mining.

Phases Operations Clearance of wood Timber felling and stumping Drainage network construction Top-soil excavation and storage Infra-structure development Construction of erection yard Approach road construction Electricity supply system construction Temporary and permanent building construction Removal of overburden Drilling Blasting Excavation Loading Transportation Dumping Dump yard construction Levelling Environmental Protection Measures Infrastructure Development Overburden removal Mineral/ore excavation Drilling Blasting Excavation Loading Transportation Storage Reclamation (Work is similar to construction phase with additional machinery and more work loads) As in Development Phase. However, full set of machinery is deployed for targeted production. Replacement of old machines or technology Restoration of site for alternative uses

Preparation

Construction phase

Development phase

Exploitation phase Reconstruction phase Extinction phase

Types of Surface Mines and Quarries Depending on the geo-technical and economic consideration surface mines and quarries are operated by various ways. Figure 2 shows various types of surface excavations. Surface type of mining is suitable for horizontal or gently dipping deposits, placer deposits and stone quarries. Deep-surface type of mines is more practical in mining ore deposits and steeply dipping coal deposits. These mines may be as deep as 800 metres. On-slope type surface mining is applicable for deposits lying at a level higher than the prevailing surface level. Some deposits lie under the river bed, sea bed or lake bed. The mining type used in these cases is under-water type of mining. Each of these methods deploys different set of machinery. Figure 3 shows examples of surface mining using different machinery. Vast mines are characterised by depth up to 100 metres and occupying a large surface area. The elongated mines are characterised by larger dimension along the strike length several times larger than the dimension across the strike length. For columnar type of deposits and for deep deposits rounded mines are constructed. Rzhevsky (1985) classified opencast mines as shown in Table 2. Continuous mining is a system of mining in which there is no time delay between extraction and loading and loading and transport. The excavation continues without stopping and loading to the transport system is done simultaneously. For example when a bucket wheel excavator is continuing to excavate loading to the conveyor is also simultaneously done. However, in a shovel operation the shovel does not excavate while the bucket is carrying the excavated material to load on a dumper. That is why the shovel-dumper system is not a continuous system but a BWE-conveyor is a continuous mining system.

TYPES OF SURFACE EXCAVATION Surface Excavation

Position

Shape and Size

Mining Method

Deep Surface Types

Under Water Type

On Slope Type

Surface Type

Figure 2 Types of surface mines

Combination

Continuous

Elongated

Rounded

Vast

Cyclic

Figure 3 Different types of surface excavation

Table 2 Classification of opencast mines (Rzhevsky, 1985).

Field Size Very small Small Type of OCM Surface On-Slope Surface On-Slope and Deep Surface On-Slope and Deep Surface On- Slope and Deep Surface Deep Open pit Area (Km2) up to 0.4 up to 0.3 0.4 ---- 2.0 0.3 ---1.5 2.5 --- 6.0 1.5 ---5.0 4 --- 20 4 --- 12 10 ---40 10 --- 30 Open- Pit Depth (m) up to 20 up to 40 up to 40 40 ---100 up to 60 100 --- 200 up to 80 100 --- 250 up to 120 200 ---800 Volume of Rock(m3) up to 10 10 ------ 100 Quarry Life (Years)

up to 10 10 ---- 25

Medium

100 --- 500

25 --30

Large

500 --- 2000

30 --- 60

Very Large

2000 ---10,000

Common Types of surface mining methods include 1. 2. 3. 4. open pit mining quarrying, glory holing strip mining placer mining.

1. Open pit mining is a surface mining method in which nearly all of the deposit and ore is removed in terrace-like working areas on the side of a pit. Grade and tonnage of materials available determine the size and limits of the pit developed as well as the size and configuration of waste rock dumps. In this type of mining, it is often necessary to blend different ore types to maintain character and grade of the mill feed, or different types of ore (i.e., oxide verses sulfide and low-grade ore) may need to be managed and processed differently (Lacy, 1999). Oxide and sulfide ores require different types of beneficiation and processing, and some low-grade oxide ores may be processed in a leach pad facility. Open pits are often closed or reclaimed by simply allowing the pit to develop into a pit lake and waste rock dumps are usually closed and reclaimed in place.

2. Quarrying is similar to open-pit mining, however, it is usually restricted to mining dimension stone or prismatic blocks of marble, granite, limestone, sandstone, etc.

3. Surface Glory Hole method is generally performed on hillsides and often used to define irregular deposits of the surface. The method has a mine opening at the surface and ore is removed by gravity through raises connected to adit haulage ways. Ore is transported to the surface or side-hill using tramways (Lacy, 1999). This method generally results in smaller volumes of waste rock removed and deposited in surface dumps.

4. Strip mining is surface mining where reclamation is contemporaneous with extraction. It is applicable to shallow, flat-lying deposits of coal, oil-shale, clay, sand, gravel, and some uranium, phosphate and placer deposits. As the overburden is removed from one portion of a mineral deposit, it is used to fill in the trench left by the previous removal. In this manner, the overburden is continuously refilled to the adjacent previously mined area and reclaimed.

5. Placer mining is a method for the recovery of heavy minerals using water to excavate, transport, and or concentrate the mineral being mined (Lacy, 1999). Placer methods vary greatly depending on the size and characteristics of the deposit being mined. However, placer mining in general, usually affects large areas because the ore bodies are in large alluvial deposits with low-grade, but a high volumes of mineral. The method can be highly visible and create large areas of disturbance. Many historic placer operations created serious impacts to stream channels, hydrologic systems and aquatic habitats.

Ref: http://www.epa.gov/ORD/NRMRL/Pubs/600R01043/600R01043AppA.pdf

Classification of Surface Mining Systems.

Classification of mining systems may be based on different operational features. Systems with machines capable of excavating continuously and loading the excavated material simultaneously to a means of continuous transport are known as continuous mining system. Bucket Wheel Excavator (BWE) with belt conveyor is such a system. Direct hydraulicking of soft solid without ground preparation is also in this category. All other mining systems are non-continuous mining system. Systems with shovel and truck or excavating with dragline follows a definite working cycle. That is why such systems are also referred as cyclic system. Based on the mode of movement of excavated material surface mining systems can be transportless or direct casting type. Mining with dragline or stripper shovel falls under this category.

In the semi-continuous system the excavation is carried out by conventional non-continuous or cyclic machine but the transportation is by belt conveyors. Figure 4 shows the classification of surface mining system.
SURFACE MINING

TRANSPORT-LESS
DRAGLINE STRIPPER SHOVEL

WITH TRANSPORT MACHINES

CONTINUOUS
BUCKET WHEEL EXCAVATOR BUCKET CHAIN EXCAVATOR DREDGER

SEMI-CONTINUOUS
SHOVEL-BELT CONVEYOR

NON-CONTINUOUS
SHOVEL-TRUCK FRONT END LOADER-TRUCK

Figure 4 Classification of surface mining system. Mining system may also be classified based on method of face advance. There are two principal methods applicable to stratified deposits, which may be applied separately or in combination. One is the parallel advancing of faces called as parallel advance system. The other is pivotal advance system. In the former transport arrangements are to be advanced at regular intervals, while in the latter, permanent transport arrangements from the pivot is easily arranged.

A surface mine being highly mechanised the performance of any mining venture depends mainly on the selected equipment for the system. Table 3 shows the equipment complexes in different unit operations of various opencast mining systems. Table 3 Equipment complexes in different unit operations of various opencast mining systems.
Systems Cyclic Drilling and Blasting 1. Drill 2. Drill 3. Drill Semi-Cyclic 1. Drill Excavation and Loading Electric Shovel Hydraulic Shovel Dragline Shovel, Mobile Crusher Shovel, Unit Operations Transport Dump Truck Dump Truck --------Conveyor Belts Storage and Dumping Dozer Dozer ------Do----Tripper, Spreader, Dozer -----Do---Auxiliary Equipment Dozer, Crane, Grader Do Do -----Do-----

2. Drill

Dumper and Conveyor Belt

-----Do----, Semi-Mobile or In-Pit Crusher, Dozer, TrackShifter, Crane, Grader, Mobile Crusher

Continuous

1. Drill

Bucket Wheel Excavator, Mobile Transfer Conveyor, Transfer Feeder

Conveyor Belts

Tripper, Spreader, Dozer, Reclaimer

2. Drill 3. -------

Bucket Chain Excavator Continuous Surface Miner

------Do--------Do-----

-----Do----------Do----

----Do---------Do----

Surface Mining Operations Surface mining operations involve the following operations: 1. Performing basic earth moving operations: The loose or loosened earth materials or broken rock mass are separated from the massif and moved for further handling. The basic earth moving operations are carried out during site preparation as well as during production and site restoration. These operations include dozing, ripping, levelling, spreading, stacking etc. a. Operations with dozers b. Operations with scrapers 2. Haul road construction and maintenance operations a. Operations with motor graders b. Operations of compactors c. Operations of water truck for haulroad dust control 3. Drilling and blasting operations: To produce broken rock mass from the insitu rock blast holes are drilled for placing explosives to blast the rock. Surface mining involves blasting of the overburden or waste rock and the minerals or coal separately ensuring that the grade of the ore is not diluted by mixing of more overburden with the ore or loosing ore with the overburden. 4. Operations of excavators: The loosened rock mass is excavated by using excavators suitable for the operations under the site specific geo-mining conditions and production requirements. Different systems used in surface mining include: a. Operations with electric rope shovel b. Operations with hydraulic excavators and back hoe c. Operations with front end loaders d. Operations with dragline e. Operations with bucket wheel excavators f. Operations with bucket chain excavators g. Operations with surface miner h. Operations with auger miner i. Operations with high wall miner 5. Transporting operations in surface mines a. Bulk material transport by truck b. Conveyor operations: shiftable, mobile and slew conveyors c. Bridge conveyor operations d. Slurry transport operations

6. Dewatering operations in surface mines 7. Stacking and reclaiming operations 8. Operations for dump formations

Mining Industry in India

India is one of the important mineral producing country in the world. Mining industry in India plays an important role in Indian economy. Production and use of minerals in India has a very old history. Coal, iron-ore, copper, lead-zinc were mined in India from the dawn of civilisation and does not have any systematic records. Records of mining activities in India is found in the Kautilyas Arthasastra which indicates taxation on mineral produced in the 4th century. After India was captured by the British, East India Company permitted a English Company to undertake mining operation at Raniganj Coal field in 1774. In 1880, M/s John Taylor & Sons Ltd. started gold mining in Kolar Gold Fields. Oil production started in India in 1866 and coal production in Makum Coal field of Assam started in 1882. Mining industry in India started developing in the 20th century and was predominantly to serve the interest of the British Government. After independence, the mining industry is being continuously shaped to serve the National interest and welfare of Indian People. In 1971 coal mines were nationalised. Subsidy was given to the industry so that basic raw materials for Nation building could be made affordable. National investment for mining is planned in every Five Year Plans and the activities inn this industry are governed by National Mineral Policy, which has been recently modified to encourage more International investment and welfare generation in the country.

Surface Mining in India

India produces both fossil fuel and ores from surface mines. Number of surface mines are operating in different parts of India. A brief overview of the occurrence of mineral deposits are presented below: Coal Deposits in India

Todays coal mining in India exploits coal seams up to a depth of about 600m. However, coal seams are available up to a depth of 1000-1200m. The mineability of these deeper seams is yet to be properly evaluated. The major coal fields are discussed below:

Raniganj Coalfield This coalfield spreads in the states of West Bengal and Jharkhand. This is the easternmost field of the Damodar valley. It is a synclinal basin and its southern side is bounded by faults. It covers an area of 1550 sq km. The coal seams in this coalfield belong to Raniganj & Barakar formations (Table 1). There are 10 major coal seams in Raniganj formation, thickness ranging from 1-11m and 7 major seams in Barakar formation, thickness ranging from 1- 24m. The coal seams dip to the south at angles between 3- 11. In some places they are invaded by igneous sills and dykes and faults. Total in situ coal reserve of this coal field has been estimated as 22 Gt. The gas content is about 5 7 m3/t. It covers an area of 1550 sq. km.The geothermal gradient varies from 25 C -52 C for 1 km. Coal of Barakar formation is of coking type with low moisture and low to medium volatile mater content. Coal of Raniganj formation is non-coking type with high moisture and high volatile matter. Table 1 Geologic succession of Raniganj Coalfield Age Recent Sub-recent Jurassic or Tertiary Jurassic Upper Triassic Formation River alluvium Laterite Rajmahal traps or Deccan traps Rajmahal traps or Earlier Supra-panchet ------------------UNCONFORMITY---------------Lower Triassic Upper Permian Middle Permian Lower formation Upper Carboniferous Panchet formation Raniganj formation Ironstone Shale Barakar formation Talchir formation 610 1035 365 610 375 305 Thickness ( m)

------------------UNCONFORMITY---------------Crystalline archaeans (basement rocks)

Figure 1 shows the geological map of this coalfield.

Figure 1 Geological sketch map of the Raniganj coalfield showing major structural features and various localities mentioned in the text. Note numbered squares denoting Poradih (1), Jemua (2), Jaideb (3) and Dishermohan (4) (S.C. Ghosh / Sedimentary Geology 147 (2002) 155176)

Subsidence is common phenomena in coal mining areas of this coalfield. The coal seams are of shallow depth. There are two sets of major faults with trends NNE-SSW in the Western part and NNW-SSE in the eastern part traverse the area. The latter one has better potential for ground water. The Jharia Coalfield It is the most important coalfield in India with the sole deposit of the coking coal. It is situated in the heart of the Damodar valley along the north of Damodar River. It covers an area of 450 sq km in the state of Jharkhand. The coalfield is bound by major faults towards SSW direction. The stratigraphic succession at the coalfield is given in Table 2. Table 2 Stratigraphic succession of Jharia Coalfield
Age Jurassic or Tertiary Lower Jurassic Upper Permian Middle Permian Raniganj Barakar measures Formation Dolerite dyke Mica lamprophyre, dykes & sills Fine grained feldspathic sandstone, Shale with coal seams Buff coloured sandstone, Shale & 800 m 730 m Litho-type Maximum thickness

carbonaceous shale Lower Permian Upper Carboniferous Barakar Talchir Buff coloured sandstone, carbonaceous shales & coal seams Grits, 1250 m 245 m

Greenish shale & fine- grained sandstone -----------------UNCONFORMITY-------------------

Archaean

Metamorphics (Basement complex)

The structure is a half graben bounded by major faults towards SSW direction. In this coalfield (Figure 2) there are a total of 42 coal seams present upto a depth of 1200m, which belong to Barakar formation (individual seam thickness varies from 0.3 33.0 m) and 10 20 coal seams are present in Raniganj formation (thickness varies from 0.1 4.7 m). It covers an area of 450 sq. km. The total reserve estimated as 17 Gt. The gas content of these coal beds is estimated as 7 26 m3/t.

Figure 2 Geological map of Jharia Basin, India The CBM production initiatives in this coalfield have successfully implemented to have the first CBM well in the country. These coal field is one of the oldest coalfields in India. The multiple seams occur to a greater depth ( Barakar formation). Talcher Coalfield It covers an area of 1815 sq km in Orissa. Structurally it is a broad synclinal basin with a dip varying from 3 - 7. No igneous intrusion has taken place. The total reserve estimated is around 36 Gt with

huge quantity of inferior grade non-coking coal in thick seams, lying at comparatively shallow depths. The degree of faulting varies across the field. The coal seams belong to Karharbari (12 seams) & Barakar (1 seam) formation (Table 3). The thickness of the coal seams varies from 1- 60 m. Barakar formations are of low quality with high ash, high volatile and high moisture content. The total reserves were estimated 28 Gt in 1993. Structurally it is a broad syncline. The degree of faulting varies across the field. No igneous intrusion has taken place. Table 3 Stratigraphic succession of the Talchir Coalfield
Age Recent Upper Permian to Triassic Kamthi Barakar Karharbari Lower Permian Talchir Formation Alluvium & Laterite Fine to medium grained sandstone, Carbonaceous shale, coal bands with greenish sandstone and pink clays Medium to coarse grained sandstone, Shale, coal Seams with conglomerate (500 m thick) Medium to coarse sandstone, shale & coal seams (270 m thick) Dimictite, fine to medium grained green sandstone, Shale, Rhythmite (170 m thick) ---------------------UNCONFORMITY--------------------Precambrian Granite Gneisses, Amphibolites, Migmatites Lithology

A study conducted by CIMFR, Dhanbad based on their theoretical model and geological information estimated that there are 1017 Mt of unmineable coal reserve in this coal field and noted that the average adsorption capacity of CO2 is 20.4 m3/t. The extension of coal beds below 1200m depth cover in coking and superior grade non coking coal have not been explored even though the continuity of the coal beds was well indicated within the lineament. The coal beds of such zones beyond mineable limit have been classed as Grey Area reserve. For the inferior grade non coking coal, the limit is 600m for Son Mahanadi Valley coal fields. It has been reported that the grey area coal reserve in Talcher coalfield is 2.41 Bt and the cumulative coal seam thickness is 120 m.

There are 13 coal seams are occurred in this field with individual seam thickness vary from 1 to 80 meters with a cumulative thickness vary from 80 to 160 meters. A lot of faults are present across the field with different orientations. Power grade non-coking coal is occurred here. Unmineable coalbeds are identified in this field below 600m depth. Proximate analysis of Talcher coalfield shows 35-45% of volatile mater and 79-82% of fixed carbon ratio and 0.50-0.55% vitrinite reflectance. Figure 8.21 and 8.22 shows geological map and coal fields map of the area in Talcher coalfield. This area has been explored by GSI for the production of CBM.

Figure 8.21 Geological map of Talcher coal field showing explored area by GSI for CBM production (Web 21)

The Talcher coalfield is now explored by GSI under Indo-US collaboration programme for the production of coal bed methane (CBM) as and could be used in future for enhanced coal bed methane production using CO2 injection.

Figure 8.22 Talcher coalfield map (Web 22) This coal field is of shallow depth without having proper caprock and thus not suitable for CO 2 storage. Ib Valley Coalfield It covers an area of 1375 sq km in the state of Orissa. Structurally the coalfield is a half-graben bounded by large fault in the SW direction. Coal seams belong to Karharbari and Barakar formation. Coal seams belong to Karharbari & Barakar formations (Table 8.15). A total of 6-7 coal horizons (seams) are present. Thickness of coal seams under Barakar formation vary from 20 60 m with banded structure and high ash, high moisture and volatile content and therefore coal is of low rank. Seams under Karharbari formation are 1 7 m thick and are of better quality. Total reserve estimate was 22.23 Gt in 2002 (IPICOL, 2002).

Table 8.15 Stratigraphic succession of the Ib Valley Coalfield Age Recent Formation Lithology Thick alluvium, laterite, recent gravel & Conglomerate bed

Upper Permian to Lower Triassic

Kamthi Barakar Karharbari

Conglomerate, Fe-sandstone, Red shale (300 m thick) Fine sandstone with conglomerate bands, Carbonaceous shale, Fine clay, coal seams (600 m thick) Coarse grained sandstone with 1 thin coal seam (90 125 m thick) Dimictite, greenish sandstone, olive chocolate colored needle shaped rhythmite (130 m) ---------------------UNCONFORMITY---------------------

Lower Permian Talchir

Precambrian

Granite Gneisses, Amphibolites, Migmatites

Figure 8.23 gives the geological map of this coal field.

Figure 8.23 Geological map of Ib-Valley coalfield (Web 23) This coalfield is overlaid by formation with conglomerate which will not be suitable for limiting any upward movement of pressurized gas if injected underneath. Singrauli Coalfield This coal field is located in the northern Madhya Pradesh near to the Ganga Basin. High capacity thermal power stations are located in this coal field. The area has number of large point sources of CO2. However, the sequestering capabilities are not yet fully established. Figure 8.24 shows a geological map of the area showing large number of fault lines.

Figure 8.24 Geological map of Singrauli coalfield (Web 24) This coalfield is situated on the border of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh and covers an area of about 2300 km2. Most part of the coalfield lies in M.P. while a small part of it is situated in the Mirzapur district of U.P. The coals of this field are of non coking type. The total coal reserve of this field 12.41 Bt. The Barakar and Raniganj formations are the coal bearing measures. Dolerite dykes and sills are invaded in the west and south of the basin. The faults are very rarely present even these are along the boundary. The dips of the strata vary from 2 to 5.

Stratigraphy
The stratigraphic succession of the Singrauli coalfield has written in Table 8.16. Table 8.16 Stratigraphy of Singrauli Coalfield. Age Recent Upper Permian Damuda Raniganj Group Formation Lithology Alluvium Fine grained sandstone, shales, carbonaceous shales, white to grey clays, with thick coal seams Very coarse grained to ferruginous sandstones, shales with red green clays Medium to coarse grained sandstones, shales, carb, shales, white to pink clays, and coal seams Tillite, sandstones, needle shales, siltstones, boulder conglomerates

Middle Permian

Barren Measure

Lower Permian

Barakar

Upper carboniferous

Talchir

.Unconformity.. Precambrian Bijawar Phyllite, quartzite, schists and gneisses

Pranhita-Godavari Valley Coalfield The Godavari valley coalfield comprises of 16000 km2 area extends over a length of about 320 km with an average width of about 55 km. The total coal reserve in this coalfield are estimated as 8.5 Bt of which 2.129 Bt is under proved category. It is a bituminous coal bearing coalfield in India. The Gondwana sediments attain a thickness of more than 3000 m. Linear and discontinuous patches of coal measures are occurred in this Godavari rift basin. The coalfield consists of numerous faults e.g. strike fault, oblique fault or dip fault etc. The general trend of the coal measures is NW-SE with dips varying from 10 to 25 in NE direction except some places. In this coalfield, Barakars and Kampthi formation are coal bearing formation. The coalfield is devoid of igneous intrusion. The Barakar formation contains 3 to 10 coal seams out of which 2 to 4 seams are of considerable thickness. The thickness of the coal seams varies from few centimetres to as much as 30 m. The coals are noncoking, high moisture, high ash and high volatile type. The lower seams are of better quality than the upper seams. (R. D. Singh, Principles and Practices of Modern Coal Mining) . The stratigraphy of this coalfield has shown by Table 8.17 below. Figure 8.25 shows the geological map of this coalfield. Table 8.17 Stratigraphy of Pranhita-Godavari valley coal field (Modified from Sengupta, 2003 and Chandra, 2000) Age Holocene Formation Alluvial sand and clays .Unconformity Deccan Tap ..Unconformity. Chikiala Sandstone .Unconformity Kota Unconformity Maleri Conglomerates and ferruginous sandstone Sandstone, Siltstone, Clays, Limestone bands Red or purple clays and sandstone Sandstone, ferruginous, purple siltstone, coal Sandstone, Ironstone and clay bands Lithology Thickness(m) 25+

Upper Cretaceous Upper JurassicLower Cretaceous Lower-Early Jurassic Middle-Upper Triassic Upper PermianLower Triassic Upper Permian

65

300

675

1000

Kamthi

600

Barren Measures

500

Upper part of Lower Permian Lower Permian

Barakar Talchir .Unconformity Sullavai Unconformity Pakhal .Unconformity. Granites, Banded gneisses, Biotite gneisses, Hornblende gneisses, Quartz magnetite schist, Biotite schist, Quarz and pegmatite veins

Feldspathic sandstone, Carbonaceous shale and coal Tillite, Greenish shale

300

350

Upper Proterozoic

545

Lower Proterozoic

3335

Archaean

Figure 8.25 Geological map of the PranhitaGodavari Valley (Source: S. Sengupta, Gondwana sedimentation in the PranhitaGodavari Valley: a review, Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 21 (2003) 633642 Risk associated As the coals in this field occur in form of discontinuous patches, so it is difficult to identify a suitable potential site. The presence of numerous different type of faults make the probability of leakage occurrence is more. Though faults can be proved as suitable traps for sequestration, In that case also a greater monitoring and verification is needed for leakage. Korba coalfield The Korba coalfield situated around Korba town of Madhya Pradesh state. It occupies an area of about 520 km2. The coal reserves in Korba coalfield is estimated as 10,000 Mt. The coal in this field is of sub-bituminous non-coking type of coal. The Barakar formation is the coal bearing measureswhich overlies the Talchir formation. The lithology of Barakar formation consists mainly of sandstone, shale and coal seams. The thickness of the Barakar formation is more than 800 m. The general strike of the rocks of Barakar formation is E-W and beds dip to the south below 10. There are 21 coal seams are occurred in this coalfield out of which nine seams are belong to lower barakarwith individual seam thickness are less than 4 m. But the upper Barakar formation consists of thick seams with a thickness range from less than one meter to over 30 meter than the lower Barakar formation (Chandra, 2000). East Bokaro coalfield The Bokaro coalfield is situated in Hazaribagh and Giridih districts of Jharkhand state extends over an area of 237 km2. The total coal reserve in this field is about 5.6 Bt. Out of which 2.8 Bt of coal occur below 300 m depth.. This coalfield has been divided into two distinct zones namely East Bokaro coalfield ansd West Bokaro coalfield by the Lugu hill. The East Bokaro coalfield is the eastern zone of the main Bokaro coalfield. A number of faults are are traversed across the coalfield. Igneous intrusions are invaded into the coalfield. There are 21 coal seams in Barakar and 8 coal seams in Raniganj formation are present. Total coal reserve was estimated at 5.6 Gt in 1993. The coal seams of East Bokaro coalfields are bituminous to sub-bituminous in nature with high gas contents. So these seams have potential for CBM. The maturity of gas contents increases with increasing depth due to increase in temperature and pressure conditions. It has experienced igneous intrusions like dykes, sills & faults. Three coal bearing formations are present. These are i. Karharbari formation consisting of 4 seams

ii. Barakar formation consisting of 21 seams iii. Raniganj formation consisting of 8 seams

Stratigraphy
The stratigraphy of the East Bokaro coalfield is shown in the Table 8.18. The deep lying sedimentary strata may have sequestration potential and should be investigated in detail. Table 8.18 Generalized stratigraphic succession of the East Bokaro coalfield (Pophare et al., 2008) Age Lower Cretaceous Formation Intrusive Lithology Lamprophyre and dolerite dykes and sills Coarse grained ferruginous sandstone, pebbly sandstone and red clay ..Unconformity Greenish micaceous sandstone, buff fine-grained sandstone, red and green shale Medium to coarse grained calcareous sandstone, fine grained greenish sandstone, grey shale, carbonaceous shale and thin coal seams Flaggy, fine grained ferruginous sandstone, micaceous sandy shale and black shale with siderite band Coarse grained arkosic sandstone, fine grained laminated sandstone, grey shale, carbonaceous shale and coal seams Tiliite, greenish sandstones and needle shale ..Unconformity... Pre-Cambrian Granite gneisses, amphibolites and mica schist Thickness (m)

Upper Triassic

Supra-Panchet

600

Lower Triassic

Panchet

500-600

Upper Permian

Raniganj

600

Middle Permian

Barren Measure

500

Lower Permian

Barakar

900

Upper Carboniferous to Lower Permian

Talchir

Figure 8.26 shows the geological map of this coal field.

Figure 8.26 Geological map of the East Bokaro coalfield (Pophare et al., 2008)

Detailed site evaluation of the coal beds would be necessary to establish their candidature, because following features make these formations unsuitable for sequestration. 1. The site location is within the moderate seismic zone and is adjacent to the high seismic zone in the north. 2. Mining activities in the overlying seams may induce cracks and fissures in the cap rock of the underlying potential CO2 storage coal beds 3. The deeper seams are yet to be designated as Unmineable Therefore, future initiatives for exploitation of coal bed methane need to be investigated prior to establishing the storage potential. The permeability, porosity, injectivity, storage capacity as well as the geochemical properties etc needs to be evaluated.

The resources reported by GSI and other agencies have been classed as mineable and unmineable on the basis of the following factors (Singh and Sinha, 2007). Exploration limit of coal has been to 1200m depth cover. Coking and superior grade non coking coal up to the explored limit has been classed as mineable. Inferior grade non-coking coal (Grade E-G) up to 900m depth cover in Damodar and Mahanadi Valleys have been taken as within mineable limit. Mineable limit for inferior grade non coking coal of Godavari and Wardha Valleys have been taken as 800m due to premium pricing structure. More scientific study and detailed analysis would be necessary to designate these seams as unmineable. Future development of technology, pricing, alternative exploitation techniques will have to be considered in such studies. Neyveli Lignite Field This is one of the lignite deposit in India with a total reserve 3300 Mt. The lignite field covers an area of more than 480 km2. Within the lignite field the overburden thickness varies from 45 to 150 m and the thickness of the lignite bed varies from 2 to 20 m and it is persistent throughout the field.

Stratigraphy
The stratigraphic succession of Neyveli lignite field is summarized in Table 8.19. (Source: Modified from Geology and tectonics of India: an overview, M. N. Balasubrahmanyam; and D. Chandra et al., Text Book of Coal (Indian Context), 2000, Tara Book Agency Publisher, Varanasi) Figure 8.27 and Figure 8.28 shows the map of the site and the cross section of the area. Table 8.19 Stratigraphy at Neyveli Lignite field Age Sub-Recent to Recent Formation Lithology Alluvium or soil Mottled sandstone and clay Lignite Aquifer sand Thickness (m) 37 20-140 0.2 - 28 376

Mio-Pliocene

Cuddalore formation

.. Unconformity.. Black clays or shales, grey coloured sandstones, calcareous sandstones, shales and siliceous limestones with fossils

Eocene to Oligocene

Neyveli formation

Unconformity.. Mesozoic Cretaceous Shell limestones, siliceous limestones, marls etc.

Unconformity Archaean Intrusives Dolerite, pegmatites, quartz veins, granitoid gneisses

Figure 8.27 Geological plan of Neyveli lignite field (Web 25)

Risks Associated
Semi-confined and confined aquifers are occurred above and below the lignite bed and so there will be contamination. Moreover, the deeper strata must be evaluated for its potential retention capacity. There is no suitable cap rock above the lignite deposit, thus adsorbing CO2 on lignite seams will not be feasible.

Figure 8.28 Geological cross-section along one mine in Neyveli lignite field (Web 26) Wardha Valley coalfields The coalfield is situated in the Valley of Wardha River lying in the Chandrapur district of Maharastra. The coalfield extends in NW-SE direction covering an area of 4130 km2.The coals of this coalfield are non coking type of coal. The coal bearing Barakar formation are 76 m thick and occur in patches. The estimated reserve of this coalfield 5.7 Bte, out of which 4020 Mt occurred above 300 m from the ground.

Stratigraphic Succession
The generalized geological succession of the Wardha valley coalfield is given as follows in Table 8.20. Geological map is shown in Figure 8.29.

Figure 8.29 Geological map of Wardha valley coalfield (Web 27)

Table 8.20 Stratigraphy of Wardha Valley Coal field(reference) Age Recent Eocene Deccan trap .Unconformity Upper Triassic Upper Permian to Lower Triassic Maleri formation (Only in the southeastern extrimity Kamthi formation Unconformity Lower Permian Lower carboniferous to Lower Permian Barakar formation Talchir formation Unconformity Precambrian Sullavai sandstones White to light brown quartzitic sandstones, conglomerates Light grey to white sandstones, shales and coal seams Tillites turbidites, varves, needle shales and sandstones Fine to medium grained sandstone and red shales Red, brown and variegated sandstones, reddish siltstones and variegated shales Formation Lithology Black soil Basalts

..Overlap Precambrian Pakhal limestone Unconformity.. Archaean Quartzites, Granites Grey, bluish or pinkish limestone and cherts

Rajmahal coalfields There are five coalfields are occurred in this area extending for a distance of about 160 km in N-S direction from Suri. The coalfields of this basin are 1. Brahmani, 2. Mahuagarhi, 3. Pachwara, 4. Chuperbhita and 5. Hura. Brahmani coalfield lies in the southern side containing six seams varying in thickness from 1.4 to 1.9 m. The coal seams in Mahuagarhi are lens shaped with individual seam thickness as much as 10 m. There are ten coal seams have been reported in Pachwara coalfield.Chuperbhita coalfield contains 13 coal seams which are of inferior quality. There are 3 coal seams are present at Hura. At places the seam thickness attains 37 m. Coals of this region are subbituminous to high volatile bituminous in rank. The coal seams are trending W to E in the western part of the field, becoming WNW to ESE in the central part, gradually changing to NW to SE and even N to S in the eastern part.

Stratigraphy
The stratigraphic sequence of Rajmahal basin is given in Table 8.21.

Table 8.21 Stratigraphic succession of Rajmahal basin (Tripathi, 2008) Age Recent to subrecent Upper Tertiary Unconformity Lower Cretaceous Lower Cretaceous to Lower Triassic Rajmahal formation ( Traps and intertrappeans) Dubrajpur formation Flows of basalt, pitchstone, and intertrappean beds Pebbly and coarse to medium grained sandstone, siltstone, clay, Grey to pink shale Formation Alluvium Lithology Loose soil, silt and clay Coarse to medium grained sandstone, gravel, pebble beds

.Unconformity.. Upper Permian Lower Permian Barakar formation Coal, shale, sandstone Coarse to medium grained and

pebbly sandstone, grey shale, clay and coal Talchir formation Unconformity.. Precambrian Basement rock amphibolites, quartzite, gneiss and granite Tillite, fine to medium grained sandstone, olive green shale

Vindhyan Basin The geological map of the Vindhyan basin has shown in the Figure 8.30.

Figure 8.30 Geologic map of the Vindhyan basin, central India (Bengtson et al., 2009) The depositional sequence of the Vindhyan succession has also given in the Figure 8.31.

Figure 8.31 Inferred depositional sequences of the Vindhyan succession. (Chakraborty, 2006)(Not to scale )

Indias major workable coal deposits occur in two distinct stratigraphic horizons - Permian, commonly known as Gondwana coals and the Tertiary. About 99% of the countrys coal resources are found within a great succession of fresh water sediments. The major coalfields are represented by isolated basins which occur along prominent present day river valleys, viz., Damodar, Koel, Sone-Mahanadi, Pench-Kanhan, Pranhita-Godavari. Nearly 50 coalfields, varying in size from a few km 2 to as much as 1500 km2 are known today, barring the small and lenticular occurrences of coal along the Himalayan foothills. Coals of practically all ranks occur in India except peat and anthracite. The share of lignite, however, is insignificant as compared to sub-bituminous and bituminous coal. Indian bituminous coals are broadly divided into two categories, coking and non-coking. Coal exploration in India even today is largely being carried out by conventional methods of systematic geological mapping followed by drilling, core drilling playing a dominant role. However, in the recent times modern exploration techniques like photo-geology, remote sensing, non-coring drilling, geophysical surveys etc. are being increasingly used for detailed and precise exploration.

Coal Reserves

The total coal reserves of the country have been estimated from time to time. * Proved Reserves: In this case, the reserves are estimated from dimensions revealed in outcrops, trenches, mine workings and boreholes and the extension of the same for reasonable distance not exceeding 200m on geological evidence. Where little or no exploratory work has been done, and where the outcrop exceeds one km in length, another line drawn roughly 200m in from outcrop will define a block of coal that may be regarded as proved on the basis of geological evidence.

* Indicated Reserves: In the case of indicated reserves, the points of observation are 1,000 m apart, but may be 2,000 m for beds of known geological continuity . Thus a line drawn 1,000 to 2,000 m from an outcrop will demarcate the block of coal to be regarded as indicated.

* Inferred reserves : This refers to coal for which quantitative estimates are based largely on broad knowledge of the geological character of the bed, but for which there are no measurements. The estimates are based on an assumed continuity for which there is geological evidence, and more than 1,000 to 2,000 m from the outcrop.

Statewise and depthwise Coal reserves are given in the following table, In Million Tonnes State West Bengal Bihar Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra 0-300m 11999 40079 32638 4590 300-600m 8933 17626 7433 1686 600-1200m 4191 6666 14 Total 25123 64371 40085* 6276

Orissa Andhra Pradesh North Eastern Region Total Percentage

35015 5245 710 130276 67

11167 3876 155 50876 26

37 1717 12625 7

46219 10838 865 193777 100

* includes 1062 Million. Tonnes in UP The following table gives the Statewise reserves indicating different categories, State Proved Indicated Inferred Total Percentage of total reserve 13 33 20 1 3 24 5 1

West Bengal Bihar Madhya Pradesh Uttar Pradesh Maharashtra Orissa Andhra Pradesh North Region Total Percentage Eastern

10590 28993 9387 662 3170 5714 6079 257

10867 28801 20480 400 1179 22120 916 149

3666 6579 9156 1927 18384 3843 458

25123 64373 39023 1062 6276 46218 10838 864

64852 33

84912 44

44012 23

193777 100

100

Thus, Indias total coal resources now stand at a level of a little over 194 billion tonnes in coal seams of thickness 0.9m and above and upto a depth of 1200m. This is a little over 1% of the global coal resources. Of the total coal reserves of 194 billion tonnes, 85% is of non-coking variety and only 15% is of coking variety. Further, 33% of the reserves fall under Proved category 44% in the Indicated category and 23% in the Inferred category. The coal occurring between 600m and 1200m depths, which may be economically tapped for development in future, may be grouped as Resources and the rest as Reserves.

Lignite Resources

The total lignite deposit of the country is estimated at about 2800 million tonnes, out of which the major deposit is occurring in Tamilnadu ( 2500 million tonnes). The remaining lignite deposits are found in Gujrat, Jammu & Kashmir and Rajasthan. Further exploration activities indicate availability of additional lignite resources in Rajasthan, Gujrat and Tamilnadu.

Indian coal mining and metal mining sector both have large number of opencast mines. There are 205 billion tonne of coal reserve in India of which 15% is coking coal. The reserve of lignite is estimated to be 27 billion tonne. Out of 571 coal mines in India there are 137 surface mines and 369 underground mines. There are 65 mines with both surface and underground operations.

The trends of coal production in India from underground and surface mines are shown in Table 4 and Figure 5.

Table 4 Trends of coal production in India from underground and surface mines.
Year Total (x1000 t) 34983 39911 55709 70387 75642 104639 127325 170159 187179 198349 Opencast (x1000 t) 4784 4786 10822 13387 17090 28440 51120 95132 111777 122104 Opencast OMS 0.54 0.52 0.64 0.99 1.46 1.48 3.02 4.89 5.69 6.16 U/G (x1000 t) 30199 35125 44887 57000 58552 76199 76205 75027 75402 76245 U/G OMS 0.59 0.64 0.68 0.76 0.86 0.91 0.82 0.77 0.78 0.79 % by Opencast 13.67521 11.99168 19.42595 19.01914 22.59327 27.17916 40.14922 55.90771 59.71663 61.56018 % by U/G Overall OMS 0.35 0.39 0.45 0.56 0.67 0.69 0.81 1.01 1.11 1.19

1951 1956 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1987 1988

86.32479 88.00832 80.57405 80.98086 77.40673 72.82084 59.85078 44.09229 40.28337 38.43982

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

206947 212741 237757 249941 260607 267522 284586 304097

133043 143208 167026 178879 186935 196878 216074 233970

6.78 6.95 8.05 8.3 8.75 9.22 10.07 10.69

73904 69533 70731 71062 73672 70644 68512 70127

0.77 0.73 0.73 0.75 0.77 0.77 0.78 0.8

64.28844 67.31566 70.25072 71.56849 71.73061 73.5932 75.92573 76.93927

35.71156 32.68434 29.74928 28.43151 28.26939 26.4068 24.07427 23.06073

1.23 1.26 1.4 1.47 1.57 1.63 1.8 1.91

350

Production (Mt)

300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Total (Mt) Opencast Underground

Figure 5 Trend of coal production in India.

Besides coal about 22.2 Mt of lignite is produced in India from 5 lignite mines. Out of these 2 located at Neyveli in Tamilnadu provide 17.6 Mt of lignite per year. The rest 4.6 Mt come from 3 mines in Gujrat. India also produces iron ore and bauxite mostly from opencast mines. Figure 6 shows the output per manshift achieved in Indian coal mining. This shows that the OMS at opencast mines have been considerably improved. However, the OMS of underground mining have been continuously decreasing after 1988.

12 10 8 Underground OMS Opencast OMS Overall OMS

OMS

6 4 2 0 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Figure 6 Output per manshift (OMS) in Indian coal mining.

In the metal mining sector opencast mining plays an important role in India. All our iron ore mining is from opencast mines. Bauxite mining is also purely surface mining.

History of Indian Surface Mining

The share of surface mining in total coal production in India has continually increased from the 1960s. At the time of nationalisation it was only 25.4 % of the total coal production. In 1983-84 it was 45.4% and it is expected to be 65 % by 2000. First mechanised surface mining in India started during world war II at East Bokaro. In 1958 NCDC (National Coal Development Corporation) started opencast mining in their new areas such as Karanpura, East Bokaro, Chirimiri, Bisrampur, Korba and Talcher.

Table 5 List of some important opencast mining projects (Coal Mining)

Sl. No Names Annual Capacity (Mt) Average Stripping Ratio Total Excavation 3 (Mm ) Total Capital Investment (1983 pricing, MRs) 870 1130 1130 1300 1390 3410 3130 6550

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Rajmahal Sonepur Bazari Jambad Mukunda Bina Dudhichua Jayant Khadia

5.0 3.0 2.25 12.0 4.5 10.0 10.0 10.0

1.94 5.45 7.00 4.5 2.21 3.29 2.6 4.28

8.81 1137 472 309 1356 1132 1457

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Amlohri Nigahi Bharatpur Rajarappa Gevra Kusmunda Manuguru Ramagundam-I Ramagundam-II Piparwar

4.0 14.0 3.5 3.0 10.0 6.0 2.75 2.0 2.75

4.30 3.75 0.80 2.91 1.0 1.41 3.68 3.36 5.61

1579 2163 243 456 1039 760

4370 8360 540 1060 1730 770

The overburden to coal ratio in the earlier mines using truck and shovel was about 2 m3t-1. In mines with draglines the ratio was 5 m3t-1. With the increase in the size of equipment mines with larger stripping ratios were planned. Till mid 50s average over burden thickness was about 50 m in mechanised surface mines having shovels and dump trucks as predominant machinery. The thickness of coal seam in such mines was about 20 m with seam dip of 1in 6 to 1 in 12. At present in India there are opencast coal mines deeper than 100 m. Seam with gradient upto 1 in 3 are also being operated. There are number of mines in Jharia Coalfield and Singrauli Coalfield where opencast mining exploits multi-seams. Some opencast mines are opened over developed seams to excavate the abandoned coal locked in the partially exploited pillars, that is not operable by underground mines. Table 5 shows example of few of the major opencast projects of India. Except Piparwar all the mines listed above are cyclic in nature. Dragline and shovel are the primary mining machinery and dump trucks are used for coal transport. Lignite mining in India is an excellent example of India,s successful implementation of continuous surface mining. Piparwar is an example of semi-cyclic opencast mining. In this mine shovels carry out excavation and the transportation of the excavated material is by conveyor belts. Such system with inpit crushing is also being practiced at Padmapur (Western Coalfields Limited, WCL) and Ramagundam (Sigarenni Collieries).

COAL RESERVES IN INDIA

(As on 1.1.2007)

(in billion tonnes) .

TOTAL

PROVED

INDICATED

INFERRED

RESERVE

RESERVE

RESERVE

RESERVE

COKING

32

17

13

NONCOKING

255

98

119

36

TOTAL

287

115

132

40

Production
RAW COAL PRODUCTION (in Million Tonnes)

OFFTAKE OF COAL (in Million Tonnes)

DESPATCH TO POWER SECTOR (in Million Tonnes)

OVERBURDEN REMOVAL

MAN PRODUCTIVITY

MAN POWER (As on)

Growth & Production

(In Million Tonnes) Terminal Year 1955-56 1960-61 1965-66 1973-74 1978-79 1984-85 1989-90 1996-97 2001-02 Five Year Plan First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Seventh Eighth Ninth Avg. Annual Growth over previous year. 6.95 4.00 0.93 7.52 6.28 6.38 5.16 7.74 4.19 Production (India) 38.13 55.72 67.74 78.17 101.97 147.43 200.91 285.66 327.79

Companywise Production Company ECL

7475 84-85 94-95 2001-02 2002- 2003- 2004- 2005- 200603 04 05 06 07

U/G O/C Total

20.50 16.67 13.61 2.66 6.44 11.24

11.66 16.89 28.55

10.95

9.91

9.45

9.34

8.27

16.23 18.09 17.80 21.78 22.20 27.18 28.00 27.25 31.11 30.47

23.16 23.11 24.85

BCCL
U/G O/C Total 15.64 13.34 11.49 2.10 8.50 17.26 7.59 17.66 25.25 7.29 6.74 6.38 5.47 4.90

16.86 15.94 15.94 17.84 19.30 24.15 22.68 22.32 23.31 24.21

17.74 21.84 28.75

CCL
U/G O/C Total 5.97 5.48 4.01 2.74 31.07 33.81 2.76 2.75 2.65 2.31 1.96

12.34 33.52 27.19 18.31 39.00 31.20

34.22 34.58 34.74 38.20 39.36 36.98 37.33 37.39 40.51 41.32

NCL
O/C 32.50 42.46 45.10 47.03 49.95 51.52 52.16

WCL
U/G O/C Total 15.73 24.57 9.60 9.49 27.52 37.01 9.39 9.51 9.65 10.04 9.92

3.53 21.48 17.64 19.26 46.05 27.24

28.43 30.02 31.76 33.17 33.30 37.82 39.53 41.41 43.20 43.21

SECL
U/G O/C Total 14.55 35.45 50.00 15.91 48.21 64.12 16.16 16.36 16.58 16.52 16.20 50.44 54.65 61.97 66.50 72.30 66.60 71.01 78.55 83.02 88.50

MCL

U/G O/C Total

1.94 25.39 27.33

1.65 46.16 47.81

1.76

2.05

2.18

2.02

1.97

50.47 58.00 63.90 67.59 78.03 52.23 60.05 66.08 69.61 80.00

NEC
U/G O/C Total 0.38 0.14 0.52 0.44 0.37 0.81 0.40 0.79 1.19 0.18 0.46 0.64 0.11 0.52 0.63 0.12 0.61 0.73 0.15 0.48 0.63 0.12 0.98 1.10 0.11 0.94 1.05

COAL INDIA LTD.

U/G O/C Total 58.22 60.50 55.60 20.77 70.31 167.46 78.99 130.81 223.06 49.22 230.43 279.65 48.42 47.44 47.04 45.82 43.32 242.27 258.92 276.54 297.57 317.59 290.69 306.36 323.58 343.39 360.91

Overall CIL 2006-07 2005-06 2004-05 2003-04

OBR (MCum) 537.65 533.95 516.11 496.90

OMS (Tonnes) 3.54 3.26 3.05 2.82

MINERAL INFORMATION

ALL INDIA DISTRIBUTION OF MINING LEASES (AS ON 31/3/2005)

MINERALWISE | STATEWISE

MINERALWISE
Sl.No. Mineral Code 01 65 AGATE AMETHYST Mineral No. of Leases Lease Area (hect.)

1 2

2 5

45.58 40.64

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 67 11 12 14 16 17 18 19 82 69 21 22 23 24 26 27 28 29 86 30

APATITE ASBESTOS BALL CLAY BARYTES BAUXITE CALCAREOUS SAND CALCITE CHALK CHINA CLAY CHROMITE CLAY (OTHERS) COPPER ORE CORRUNDUM DIAMOND DIASPORE DOLOMITE DUNITE EPIDOTE FELSITE FELSPAR FIRECLAY FLUORITE GARNET GOLD GRAPHITE GYPSUM IOLITE IRON ORE

1 39 40 128 289 14 63 167 412 30 44 18 12 2 11 454 1 1 4 184 240 18 83 10 137 52 8 505

13.29 1846.89 1976.19 2542.09 26531.07 151.75 1627.34 677.99 17774.31 9163.70 945.33 10747.16 145.41 576.51 80.11 17575.85 4.45 5.00 80.79 5196.12 16676.52 1807.41 1899.80 6702.62 4792.00 17853.27 76.97 78238.44

31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58

31 33 75 34 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 44 72 81 46 47 48 85 49 50 87 51 52 77 54 55 56 58

JASPER KYANITE LATERITE LEAD & ZINC ORE LIME KANKAR LIMESHELL LIMESTONE MAGNESITE MANGANESE ORE MICA MOULDING SAND OCHRE OPAL PERLITE PHOSPHORITE PYRITES PYROPHYLLITE PYROXENITE QUARTZ QUARTZITE ROCK PHOSPHATE ROCK SALT SAND (OTHERS) SHALE SILICA SAND SILLIMANITE SLATE STEATITE

5 30 131 13 24 29 1544 29 231 249 45 107 1 1 15 1 86 8 909 59 1 3 49 30 483 5 17 426

211.70 3170.50 1463.48 8225.18 891.14 3752.89 113376.15 2546.06 22313.54 7816.08 898.40 3439.06 200.00 144.65 3490.57 647.50 2835.99 78.70 12817.61 757.48 2.20 53.86 4940.64 408.54 20205.90 9945.84 868.47 20736.83

59 60 61

60 62 63 Sum

TIN VERMICULITE WOLLASTONITE

7 11 4 7527

128.83 212.55 202.49 472577.43

STATEWISE
Sl.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 State Code APR ASM BHR CHG GOA GUJ HPR HRN J&K JHK KAR KRL MAN MEG MPR MSH ORI RAJ SKM TMN UPR State ANDHRA PRADESH ASSAM BIHAR CHHATISGARH GOA GUJRAT HIMACHAL PRADESH HARYANA JAMMU & KASHMIR JHARKHAND KARNATAKA KERALA MANIPUR MEGHALAYA MADHYA PRADESH MAHARASHTRA ORISSA RAJASTHAN SIKKIM TAMIL NADU UTTAR PRADESH No. of Leases 1567 11 10 294 250 1094 60 142 19 331 425 108 2 14 758 252 447 1088 4 435 93 Lease Area (hect.) 54634.12 981.33 2030.16 26406.26 18165.99 23783.54 1998.70 15267.21 730.35 36990.92 38627.29 2213.44 610.17 1660.16 19536.80 17154.41 77410.59 103913.78 86.00 6292.91 9424.33

22 23

UTL WBL Sum

UTTARANCHAL WEST BENGAL

70 53 7527

3079.72 11579.25 472577.43

The trend of productionof Iron Ore in India is shown in Table 6 and Figure 7.

Table 6 Trend of iron ore production in India.

Year Production (Mt) 1951 3.7 1971 33.0 1991 60.0 1994 65.0 1995 73.0 1996 71.6

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Production (Mt)

Year

Figure 7 Trends of production of iron ore in India.

Production (Mt)

5 4 3 2 1 0 1940
0.05 1.45

5.35 4.7 3.86

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

Year

Figure 8 Trend of production of bauxite in India.

India exports about 32 Mt of iron ore every year mainly to Japan and South Korea. Figure 8 shows the trend of bauxite production in India.

The National Aluminium Co. (NALCO) is the main producer of bauxite in India. The bauxite production is expected to go up in the country with the capacity enhancement of Panchpatmali Mines (NALCO) from its existing 2.4 Mt capacity to 4.8 Mt capacity. Figure 9 shows production of some other minerals in Indian surace mines during 1996. Besides these there was 120 Mt of limestone produced by surface mining in India during 1996.

5 4.5 4

4.75

Production (Mt)

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 Copper Gelena and Sphelarite Granite 0.72 2.06

Figure 9 Production of minerals from surface mines in 1996 (Mt).

1000

500 450 400 350

Number of Shovels

900 800 700 600 500 400 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Number of Shovel HP x 1000

300 250 200 150 100

Figure 10 Trend of deployment of shovels in surface coal mines. Usage of Opencast Machinery
As mentioned earlier Indian surface mining is mainly cyclic in nature. With the increase in demand from surface mining, the machinery populations have also increased. The installed horsepower has also increased about 1.5 times during the last ten years. Figures 10-14 show the trend of population increase of shovel, dumper, dozer and dragline in Indian coal mining.

HP x 1000

1000

500

400 800 700 600 500 400 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 350 300 250

Number of Drill HP x 1000

200 150 100

Figure 11 Trend of deployment of drills in surface coal mines.

100

Number of Dragline HP x 1000

9 1 .0 1 3 1 0 3 .2 9 8 1 0 4 .1 5 1 0 2 .7 1 8 9 3 .0 8 5

120
1 1 2 .5 6 5

Number of Draglines

80 70 60 50 40 30 1989 1990 1991

6 0 .6 6 9 36 7 0 .7 8 4

100 90
59

80 70

47 41 41

44

43

42

60 50

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

Figure 12 Trend of deployment of dragline in surface coal mines.

1180
1189 3 9 2 .8 6 7 3 9 6 .8 8 7 1123 4 0 1 .9 3

405 385 375

1130 1080 1030 980 930

983 3 5 2 .3 0 2 1020 3 5 5 .2 2 1 1018

1117

3 8 2 .0 5 8

1071

365 355 3 5 3 .7 4 1 345

Number of Dozer HP x 1000

989

335 325 315

3 1 8 .1 3 9

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

Figure 13 Trend of deployment of dozers in surface coalmines.

Installed HP x 1000

395

Number of Dozer

Installed HP x 1000

90

110

Installed HP x 1000

Number of Drills

900

450

4400 4200 4000 3800 3600

1 4 8 6 .1 1 1 1 7 5 5 .1 9 2 4223

4437 4385 2 1 1 5 .8 5 5

2 2 3 1 .8 7 9 4291

2200
2 1 1 4 .4 5

Number of Dumpers

2 0 6 3 .6 8 3

1 9 0 2 .2 3 2 1 8 3 0 .8 9 8 3846

4038

1800

3663

1600

Number of Dumper HP x 1000

1400

3400 3200

3406

1200 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Figure 14 Trend of deployment of dumpers in surface coalmines.

Table 7 shows the population of HEMM in Indian Surface coal mining.

Table 7 Population of HEMM in Indian surface coal mining.

Year Shovels Dumpers Draglines 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 717 787 864 892 910 946 956 961 3406 3663 3846 4223 4385 4437 4291 4038 36 41 41 47 44 43 42 59 Drills 635 703 703 829 802 822 871 864 Dozers Scrapers Graders Payloader s 983 1020 1018 1189 1117 1123 1071 989 106 100 54 65 16 19 18 15 140 142 161 169 167 186 189 172 227 243 208 271 179 195 179 171 Crane 187 227 236 269 283 288 317 266

In the non-coal sector, surface mining operations involve in producing bauxite, copper, gelena and sphalarite, Granite, Iron Ore, Limestone, Mica and stone. There are number of state government undertakings and private companies working in these areas. Table 8 shows the trend in HEMM used in the non-coal mines.

Installed HP x 1000

2000

Table 8 Trend in HEMM used in the non-coal mines.

Year Number of Mines 188 184 202 209 220 236 274 293 255 286 300 368 397 438 479 448 457 Electric Shovel 76 71 80 86 96 168 161 165 164 88 80 92 99 92 103 97 68 Diesel Shovel 331 333 328 326 349 329 358 418 364 455 474 553 566 697 720 753 841 Dumper Dozer Loader Tractor

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

1160 1259 1291 1309 1355 1434 1590 1784 1748 2391 2263 2744 3067 3221 3416 2814 3409

296 288 316 306 314 334 355 391 336 374 359 433 425 432 428 425 448

139 139 146 148 157 163 189 240 234 214 205 279 393 384 424 399 446

119 124 119 117 104 118 138 141 116 108 108 134 144 145 166 146 150

Manufacture of Surface Mining Machinery in India

In collaboration with foreign companies Heavy Engineering Corporation (HEC), Bharat Earth Movers Limited (BEML), Hinduastan Motor (HM), TELCO manufacture number of surface mining machinery in India. Table 9 shows a list of some machinery manufactured in India.

Surface Mining Machinery Manufactured in India.

Machines Walking Dragline

Size 24/96 32/75 6/45

*

Model W-2000

Make HEC

Collaboration Ramson Rapier, UK

Electric Rope Shovel

4.6/5 m 10 m
3

EQC 4.6 195-B 300CK 90CK H-36 H-51 H-121 PC- 650-1 93 M 101 M
3

HEC HEC L&T L&T HM HM HM BEML HM HM TATA TATA TATA BEML

USSR Bucyrous Errie, USA Poclain, France Poclain, France Demag, France Demag, France Demag, France Komatsu, Japan

3.2 m 6.9 m Hydraulic Shovel 2.5 m 3.3 m 7.5 m 3.8 m 1.9 m 2.3 m Diesel Rope Shovel

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

1.15-1.5 m 1.9-2.3 m 3-5 m 120 T 85 T 85 T

3 3

655 B 955 A 0.55 B

Wabco, USA Texus USA Wabco, USA Wabco, USA Wabco, USA Terex, USA Wabco Terex Wabco Terex.

33-11C Haulpack 85 D Haulpack 50 Haulpack 35 R-35 B Haulpack 25 R-25 3040C H-60T

HM BEML BEML BEML HM BEML HM BEML HM

Rear Dumper

50 T 35 T 35 T 25 T 25 T

Bottom Dump Coal hauler

40 T 60 T

* Bucket size is 24 m3 and boom length is 96 m.