AGITATORS

Robert L. Bates, President

Chemineer, Inc,
Reprinted from:
Encyclopedia of Chemical Process Equipment
Edited by William J. Mead .
Reinhold Pubiishing Corp., New York, 1964.
INC.
A
AGITATORS
The operation of agitation, which includes
mixing as a special case, is now well-estab-
lished as an important and effective element
in a wide variety of chemical processes. The
past two decades have seen especially rapid
development of the fundamental knowledge
and equipment in this area of chemical en-
gineering. The result for most chemical
process plants has been not only better
products, greater utilization of reactant ma-
terials, better quality control and lower
power requirement but, in some cases, such
striking advances have occurred as to
change a whole method of processing.
Specifically, agitators of the impeller
type are applied to three general classes of
problem:
(I) To produce static or dynamic uni-
formity in multicomponent multiphase sys-
tems. This covers such operations as blend-
ing of liquids, both miscible and immiscible,
and suspension of solids.
(2) To facilitate mass or energy transfer
between parts of a system not in equilib-
rium. The applications here are heat trans-
fer and mass transfer, the latter including
liquid extraction, leaching, dissolution of
solids, etc.
(3) To promote phase changes in a mul-
ticomponent system with or without a
change in composition. Homogenization or
emulsification, gas dispersion, and crystal-
lization typify this category.
The complete design of an agitated sys-
tem encompasses consideration of: the proc-
ess requirement; the fluid properties; the
environment, i.e., the vessel and auxiliaries;
and the mechanical design features. Treat-
I
ment of the first two sections is not within
the scope of this article; however a few
general comments on them are a necessary
preamble to the treatment of equipment
design. (See also Mixing Equipment)
The technology of agitation, while vastly
improved in many respects in recent years,
still suffers from lack of a satisfactory cri-
terion of performance. But there has been
much progress in this area stemming from
the realization, finally, that a special index
applicable to all agitation problems is nei-
ther feasible nor necessary. Measurement
of direct or indirect effects is meeting with
considerable success in characterizing agita-
tion, not too surprising in view of the fact
that an agitator is usually applied solely to
enhance performance of another unit opera-
tion whose efficacy can be measured. Power
theory for impellers is now well-established
for all states of fiowand quantitative design
data are available for all but very special
designs. Selection of the proper impeller
system and establishment of the energy re-
quirement are still somewhat qualitative
procedures, but the"art" approach is now
reduced to a relatively few areas. For ex-
ample, good process design techniques are
now available for such operations as blend-
ing, both batch and continuous, and heat
transfer.
Almost all of the fluid physical proper-
ties have some importance in agitation, but
density and viscosity enter most seriously
into the selection and design of equipment.
As will be shown later, power consumption
of an impeller can be affected by one or
both of these properties. At the same time,
process design must recognize them as "re-
sistances" to flow. For example, the density
{
,
AGITATORS
2
FIG. 1. Classification of impellers by flow char-
acteristic.
mercially available designs used for other
machines and are covered in another chap-
ter; however some modifications are unique
to agitators and will be discussed here. The
equipment types have multiplied needlessly
and, in many cases, different industries
have developed different machines for the
same purpose. But in general, it can be said
that machine design has more than kept
pace with the progress in application tech-
nology.
Impellers
An agitator achieves its objective by in-
vesting energy via an impeller which con-
verts the energy to fluid flow and head
(velocity or shear). While almost any im-
peller style can be adjusted in design to
cope with agiven problem, good engineer-
,ing practice demands economy of design
and thus selection of the appropriate impel-
ler style and system geometry. Based on the
predominate flow pattern, impellers can be
collected into three groups as shown in
Fig. l.
(1) Radial flow impellers discharge nor-
mal to the shaft such as in a centrifugal
pump. A flat blade turbine impeller in a non-
swirling system is the ideal example of this
case.
(2) Axial flow impellers have suction
and discharge in a plane parallel to the
shaft axis. In this group are the marine pro-
peller and the pitched blade turbine.
(3) Tangential flow can exist with any
impeller at a low apparent viscosity if swirl
)
J
difference of two phases, liquid-liquid or
liquid-solid, directly dictates the effort re-
quired to establish or maintain homoge-
neity.
The flow behavior of a liquid, defined by
its viscosity, is a significant factor in al-
most all problems and is frequently the
most difficult to evaluate. Newtonian fluids,
exhibiting a single viscosity value for all
rates of shear, are capable of reasonably rig-
orous handling in both process and impeller
power design. But non-Newtonian fluids, en-
compassing the subclasses of pseudo-plastic,
thixotropic, dilatant and rheopectic, do not
yet have well-defined correlations avail-
able. The prediction of impeller power in
non-Newtonian liquids does not now possess
an over-all reliability better than 20 per
cent. In contrast, power for a conventional
impeller in a Newtonian liquid can be es-
tablished within 5 per cent. It is, of course,
necessary to characterize non-Newtonian
liquids by using a multishear viscometer
yielding a relationship between viscosity
and shear rate. Interpretation of the visco-
metric data, in consideration of impeller
design, is then the area of uncertainty. But,
a field in which much of value is now being
published.
The impeller agitators covered in this
chapter are generally considered applicable
to "low" viscosity liquids. This usually
translates to a maximum of 3000 centipoises
for propellers, 50,000 centipoises for tur-
bines and 100,000 centipoises for paddles;
however the limit of each type can be
shifted upward by at least 100 per cent by
special design if the application warrants.
The very viscous regimes, in which flow is
fully laminar and no impeller discharge oc-
curs, are generally termed "pastes." Special
equipment designs have evolved for this
class of mixing and are covered in a sepa-
rate chapter.
Basically, all agitators consist of: an im-
peller; a shaft; a seal; a support and
mounting i a coupling or transmission com-
ponent; and a prime mover. The general
features of the last two are those of com-
RADIAL
AXIAL
TANGENTIAL
- ~ -
I tit t t
eli AIi;>
I tit
3
exists, but it usually occurs with paddles at
high viscosities. The lines of flow are tan-
gential to the impeller periphery and, in the
pure case, no fluid discharge occurs.
Quite often, an impeller will exhibit a
combination of several types of flow. And
changes in environment, both physical and
fluid, can alter completely the directional
characteristic of an impeller. However, it is
usually possible to detect or predict the pre-
dominate or controlling flow pattern.
Power Characteristics. Power theory has
been studied and discussed in much detail
for many years, and a generalized power
equation encompassing most of the vari-
ables has been developed. However, the ac-
tual impeller power data available are most
universally based on a simplification of the
full correlation. Assuming full geometric
similarity of impeller and system, most of
the shape factors have a minor effect and
the relationship reduces to
Np = K(NRe)a
where NP, termed the Power Number, is
dimensionless and NR, is the "Impeller
Reynolds Number." Figure 2 is the typical
graphical representation of the simplified
equation. Here,
where P is power, gc is gravitational conver-
sion constant, p is density, N is impeller
speed and D is impeller diameter. The spe-
cial "Impeller Reynolds Number" is dimen-
sionless and is represented by
H pND2

where !J- is viscosity.
In the laminar range, where no fluid dis-
charge occurs, the slopes shown (A-B and
G-H) are typical for all types of impellers.
In this range the slope is -1 and the rela-
tionship is
AGITATOI\S
In the turbulent range (C-D and point
I), where the slope is 0, viscosity has no
effect and
,
G
ROdl'" Fl....
C (t1lfbu....1,1IO lIWirl) 0
'0'
"'
Mind Flow
(l"rbu.... ' .... irJl
Alicl !'"low
(turbule!ll,no Iwl.l)
FIG. 2. Typical power correlations.
In the transition range the change from
laminar to fully turbulent flow is gradual,
but the curves are of different shape and
extent for various impeller styles. In this
range both viscosity and density have an
effect on power. It should be noted that
axial flow impellers do not have fully de-
veloped turbulence until a high Reynolds
number is achieved, thus their normal oper-
ating range is almost wholly of the transi-
tion character.
Figure 3 is a quantitative presentation of
power data for several of the basic impel-
lers described later. As is conventional, the
full curve extending into the laminar range
is shown; however these impellers obviously
seldom operate in that condition of flow.
Paddles OCCur in too wide a variety of phys-
ical forms and operate in too many different
flow states to allow condensed representa-
tion of power. Reference 8 is helpful for
basic paddles and 9 should be consulted for
special designs. (See also Pumps, Centrif-
ugal)
Propellers. The modified marine propel-
ler shown in Fig. 4 is in almost universal
use today. An axial flow type, it has a high
circulating capacity. Specification of pitch
is by theoretical advance per revolution,
e.g., a 12 in. x 12 in. propeller would have a
pitch equal to the diameter and is termed
a "square" pitch design. Propeller blades
_\GIT.UORS 4
.4
10
.l'NDI 10
NR1I --:;:r-
10' 10
s
"-

-,
I
I
I I
I I
,
,
<,
10..
a
<,
,
,
--
l"-

.

o
10
1.0
'.'

)
FIG. 3. impeller power curves.
(1) Flat 6-blade disc turbine, D/W =5.
(2) Flat 6-blade open turbine, D/W =5.
(3) Flat 6-blade open turbine, D/W:;::: 8.
(4) Curved 6-blade open turbine. D/W = 8.
(5) Pitched 6-blade 45
0
turbine, D/W = 8.
(6) Propeller, 3-blade, square pitch.
J
can be arranged to thrust the fluid in either
direction. Definition of the arrangement de-
rives from screw thread terminology and
states that a lefthand propeller would thrust
Fro. 4. Three-blade marine type propeller.
(r: hemineer, !n<:.)
downward when rotating clockwise, viewed
from above. Conversely, a riqhihanii pro-
peller would thrust upward when operat-
ing clockwise. These impellers are almost
always produced as castings. Many modifi-
cations of the propeller are used, some of
them approaching a pitched blade turbine
in application. Figure 5 is a large 2-blade
propeller with adjustable pitch.
Turbines. The term turbine is applied to
a wide variety of impellers without particu-
lar regard for design, direction of discharge,
or character of flow. In general, they have a
constant blade angle with respect to a verti-
cal plane, and blades are either vertical or
at some angle less than 90. It is assumed
that fluid discharge occurs, of the axial or
radial type, and that operation is in the
transition or turbulent range of flow. Cus-
tomary operation in a peripheral speed
range of 600 to 900 ft/min. Blade widths
5
AGITATORS
FIG. 5. Two-blade adjustable pitch propeller. (Maschinen/abrik Augs-
burg-Nurnburg A.G.)
(1'1) TILTED BLADE
(d) PITCHED VANE
(I}PUMP IMPELLER
(b)OISe FLAT BLADE:
(.}SHROUDD
((l}FLAT BLADE
FIG. 6. Turbine impellers.
+
{g)PITGHED BLAD
(<:)eURVED BLADE
of the paddle impeller, and many of the
physical forms which exist are attempts to
alleviate this condition.
are generally Y5 to Ys the impeller diam-
eter, and the number of blades ranges from
three to ten.
Figure 6 illustrates schematically the
conventional turbine designs and the more
popular modifications. All but the pitched
blade (g) are the radial discharging type.
The flat blade (a) is the basic physical
form of the radial discharging class. Others
are modifications for alteration of flow pat-
tern or head/flow relationship or to allow
a desired manufacturing method.
While some are produced as castings,
most turbines are now weldments with
bolted detachable blades. This not only
gives an optimum strength-weight relation-
ship but, more important, is a construction
which permits modification in design and
allows dissembly for installation through a
small tank opening.
Paddles. In its simplest form, the paddle
consists of two or more blades, horizontal or
vertical) usually with a high impeller to
tank diameter ratio. It must be considered
essentially a tangential flow device, whether
by operation in the laminar condition or as
a result. of swirl of a low viscosity regime.
The absence of a flow pattern characteristic
may be considered the major disadvantage
-,
AGITATORS 6
F1C. 9. Modified cone impeller. (Premier Jlill
COJ"j).)
(e) GLASSED
! n !



L.__'_.::'J
lblREVEflSE PITCH
1cI1BASlC
In Fig. 7 are shown the basic paddle, a
single horizontal flat beam, and many of the
commonly used modifications. Paddles used
in the USA generally have a ratio of blade
width to diameter in the range of Yo to :y,2'
but European practice tends toward higher
width values-. to Yo is common and ex-
tremes such as the leaf design (e) appear.
The helix (i) must be grouped with paddles
since it operates under laminar flow condi-
tions, but it does produce axial flow and is
quite effective for high viscosity fluids. Only
a few special-purpose paddles are cast,
and most are fabricated.
High Shear Impellers. The operations of
dispersion, homogenization, emulsification
and size reduction require impellers with a
high velocity characteristic. A plain disc
can serve as a high shear impeller if oper-
ated at a high peripheral speed, but it has
a relatively poor circulating capacity and is
effective only in very low viscosity liquids.
A popular modification of the disc which
magnifies the circulating capacity is shown
in Fig. 8. A modification of a conical scc-
lW; [TIt
urn!

L.::.._ .. :::!J l.':.. _ ..
(d) ANCHOR (llGATE
III

FIG. 8. Modified disc style impeller. (Cowles
Dissolver Co.)
)
.. ..
L.__..
tillFINGER (h}OOlIlLE-MOTlON (l)HELIX
FIG. 7. Paddle impellers.
7
FIG. 10. Modified turbine impeller. (Chemineer,
Inc.)
tion, designed to allow circulation through
side slots, is illustrated by the two labora-
tory size impellers in Fig. 9, The modified
turbine of Fig, 10 controls power consump-
tion and retains the required peripheral
shear effect by using tapered blades to
lower the circulating capacity. Figure 11 is
typical of the rotor-stator type,
Reciprocating Impellers. Impellers in this
class are represented by two design and op-
erating traits. Large area impellers with a
long stroke and relatively long time cycle
are used to produce a "stirring" effect simi-
lar to paddles. A more intensive action is
obtained when a plate is operated at a high
frequency and witl: a short stroke. Typical
of the latter is the perforated plate design
(Fig. 12i which reciprocates with the fre-
quency or the alternating current available
and has an amplitude or approximately 1.5
mm.
AGITATOES
Standard Application Types
Modern agitation equipment is essen-
tially similar in general design and appear-
ance to that available 20 to 30 years ago.
But in all the vital areas of design-shaft
support, speed reduction and correlation of
components-real improvement has oc-
curred.
Traditionally, manufacturers of agitation
equipment catalog their complete assem-
blies by grouping according to impeller type
and method of mounting, This yields three
styles of propeller unit and at least two
styles for the lower speed turbine and
paddle assemblies. Since it is commercial
convention, this system of classification will
be used here.
FIG. 11 Rotor-sta tcr irnpclle- (Gifjord-"1VQod Co.)
)
J
AGITATORS
FlG. 12. Reciprocating impeller. (Hudson Indus-
tries Corp. and Chemie-Apporatebcu MannedorJ-
Z'uricli)
Portable Agitators. A propeller type
adaptable to a wide variety of open-top
tanks, the portable agitator is the most
commonly encountered standard design.
These units generally range in size from ~
through 3 hp. Two direct drive speeds, cor-
responding to 4- and 6-pale motor speeds,
are usually offered. A gear reduction of
about 4: 1 is used Tor a low speed design)
giving a shaft speed such as 430 rpm. The
slow speed, since it uses a larger impeller, is
capable of handling higher viscosities and
also provides a higher pumping capacity.
Figure 13 shows a direct and a gear-driven
style. Variable speed motors of several
types arc also used. generally only on the
fractional l.orsopowcr sizes.
8
Clamp mounting on the rim of a tank is
most often used but, since the majority of
portable agitators are installed semiperma-
nently, a plate mounting (Fig. 14) is find-
ing increasing usage. In either case, a ball-
and-socket-swivel arrangement is used to
allow proper off-center positioning of the
propeller. For maximum shaft rigidity, the
fixed design at the right in Fig. 13 is used
and is especially recommended where long
shaft extensions or coverings such as rubber
or lead are used. More flexibility of applica-
tion is ohtained in an adjustable shaft fea-
ture as shown on the direct drive unit in
Fig. 13. Both length adjustment and easy
removal of the shaft are obtained by a tube
and collet design.
Air motors of the vane type can be sub-
stituted for the electric motors in both the
direct and gear-driven portahles. They have
the advantage of light weight and low cost,
are inherently "explosion-proof," and also
offer a variable speed feature.
Top-Entering Propeller Agitators. Fixed
mounting designs of top-entering propeller
agitators are essentially modified portable
agitators and are available in the same
range of horsepower and speed. For this
permanent mounting, a pedestal supporting
the prime mover is designed to allow access
to the shaft coupling and the bearing or
seal. For open tanks, the base is usually a
square plate containing an antifriction
bearing and a light-duty seal. The variable
speed unit in Fig. 15 (a) is this type,
equipped with an angle-riser to give the
desired shaft entrance angle. For pressure-
or vacuum operation in closed vessels] the
hase is a round flange such as the ASA
standard, which has integral with it a stuff-
ing box or mechanical seal assembly. The
gear-driven style in Fig. 15(b) illustrates
this type of base.
Side-Entering Agitators. Side-entering
agitators always use an axial flow impeller,
as a rule a 3-bladc propeller. They are par-
ticularly suitable for large tanks ~ neverthe-
less they are also ideal for installation
where headroom is lacking or the tank is
9
AGITATORS
FIG. 13. Portable agitators. Left is direct drive unit with
adjustable shaft. Right is gear-driven style with rigid shaft.
(Chemineer, Inc.)
too tall for an economical top-entering
style.
Most manufacturers offer units in the
size range from 1 to 40 H.P. A speed of 420
rpm (350 rpm with a 50-cycle motor) is
commonly used, simply because it is a low
speed conveniently obtained by both belt
and gear reductions. In theory, more circu-
lation without an increase in power would
be possible by using a lower speed and a
larger propeller, which is occasionally done.
But factors other than pumping capacity
must be considered: (I) the need for ve-
locity to control the full batch must be
served; (2) the increase in drive cost with
a lower speed may nullify any real gain in
performance. Another approach to a "high-
flow" system is to use the normal 420-rpm
speed but obtain the larger propeller diam-
eter by decreasing the pitch.
A typical belt drive unit is shown in Fig.
16. The low cost, ease of maintenance, qui-
etness of operation and inherent flexibility
are prime reasons for the popularity of this
style. Gear drive units are either an in-line
(Fig. 17) or a right angle (Fig. 18) style. A
feature of design unique to side-entering
FIG. H. Socket plate mounting for portable
agitator. (Chemineer, Inc.)
t
!
1
,
,
AGITATORS
(a) (b)
10
FIG. 15. Top entering propeller agitators. (a) is variable speed
unit with angle-riser. (b) is gear-driven style with flanged
stuffing box. CMixing Equipment Co., Lnc.)
FIG. 16. Belt-driven side-entering agitator. (Ncuco COTp.)
11
AGITATORS
FIG. 17. In-line gear-driven side-entering agitator. (Chemineer, Inc.)
agitators is the arrangement which allows
servicing of the stuffing box or mechanical
seal without emptying the tank. Different
devices are employed by various manufac-
turers; however all of them serve to create
a temporary static seal at the point where
the shaft passes through the mounting
flange thus permitting maintenance or re-
placement of the seal elements.
Small Turbine and Paddle Agitators. The
area of application between top-entering
propeller designs and the large slower speed
FIG. IS. Right angle gear-driven side-entering
agitator. (Philadelphia Gear Corp.) FIG. HI, Small turbine agitator. (C'hemineer, Inc.)
(
}
AGITATORS
(a) (bl
12
FIG. 20. Small turbine agitator drives. (a) Belt drive for intermediate speeds. (b) Vari-
able speed. (Chemineer, Inc.)
I
~

drives is served by a style of machine de-

sign containing features of both classes.
Tbis class of agitator has a size range from
Y2 through 5 H.P. overlapping the adjacent
classes and is generally offered in five to six
fixed speeds in tbe middle range of opera-
tion. Figure 19 is a typical unit employing
a vertical flanged motor and arranged for
mounting on a closed tank. Figure 20 shows
modifications of motor mounting to give in-
termediate or variable speeds. The latter is
particularly useful for pilot-plant systems
where the performance characteristics of
turbines or paddles arc demanded.
Large Turbine and Paddle Agitators.
Heavy duty drives for turbine and paddle
agitators range in size from 3 to 500 H.P.
Speeds generally fall in the range from 350
to 16.5 rpm, the 14 intermediate speeds
available being in increments averaging 21
per cent. Inst.allation of these units is al-
ways with the shaft vertical, usually on the
top center of the tank. On occasion, these
drives are inverted and installed as bottom-
entering units.
Many types of gearing are used in these
drives hut helical or helical in conjunction
with spiral bevel gears are most widely em-
ployed. Standard transmissions are seldom
adequate for turbine or paddle drives be-
cause of the special need for shaft support.
The essentials of this need are: extra-large,
low-speed shaft diameter; shortest possible
bearing span; heavy duty bearings; a hous-
ing engineered to provide rigid support to
this system. Other desirable features of a
drive are a dry-well seal at the output shaft
and accessibility and interchangeability of
the high-speed gear set. Figure 21, a cut-
away of the "Moduflcx" drive of Chemi-
neer, Ine., depicts these constructions. An
alternate method of treating the problem of
shaft deflection is to drive the shaft through
a flexible coupling. I f the drive is a right-
13
AGITATORS
Life-tubed ball bearing
!- Change gear set
.... Ribbed housing
! Spherical roller bearing
!-_..,... Large diameter shaft
___---- Oil pump
. Dry-well seal
_______ Tapered roller bearing
_______ Double lip grease seal
FIG. 21. Cutaway of "Mcdufiex" turbine agitator drive. (Chemineer, Inc.)
angle style such as Fig. 22, a hollow shaft
is used for mounting the 10\v-speed gear and
the agitator shaft is independently sup-
ported.
Many drive configurations with respect
to the position of the prime mover are
used: in-line with integral motor; in-line
with separately coupled motor; right-angle;
belt drive to gearing; variable speed. While
all these arrangements have the same func-
tional characteristic, each has certain fea-
tures 'which recommend it. for specific re-
qui r-ement s. .-\:0: with the top-entering units,
mountings for open and closed tanks are
available. When a rotary mechanical seal is
required, the drive is cust omarily designed
to permit rcmovn! of the seal <1:: a complete
assernbly -vitl.out the drive or
disturbing sha it Unf..' method of
t l.is is to build t l.e seal on a
sleeve which in turn is st at.icallv to
the ::luit. Rcmovn. i the sea' effected by
Fr., Hi",ht-:m\!;le turbine agitator drive.
"Lightnin" E Series. (J[ixing Equipment Co., Inc.)
AGIL\TORS
(al (b)
14
FIG. 23. (a) Seal cartridge in place. (b) Seal cartridge removed. (Chemincer, Inc.)
lowering the shaft through the sleeve, cre-
ating a gap to allow easy removal of the
complete cartridge as illustrated in Fig.
23 (b) ,
Installation Factors
The influence of the physical environ-
ment on agitator performance is 20 consid-
erable as to demand consideration equiva-
lent to that accorded the process require-
ment; the fluid properties and the machine
design. The "Vessel design and geometry are
intrinsically important in every problem.
The auxiliaries, defined as the internal tank
fitting.': whick affect the performance of the
agitator or are affected by it; can contribute
greatly to performance if properly corre-
lated HI the agitator nnd vessel. These fac-
tors, pllJ..,: the WflY in which the agitator is
actually mounted on the tank. arc: ar-eas of
dcsigr. "1" hich arc Sl.lt'ccptiblc to Umgiblc cost
savings : yet they arc the most easy to ana-
lyze awl control.
Vessel Design. The best geometry of ,"es-
sel for opt imurn agitator design gives a
ratio of liquid level to diameter of 1: 1 to
1.25:1 in most cases. To mention a few ad-
vantages: the shaft extension is kept to a
safe value: a single impeller will control the
full batch height; aborted impeller-speed
selections are avoided. Special applications
exist, of course, where the conventional
tank shape is not feasible. For example,
most gas-liquid reactions demand a long
path of travel for the gas and result in a
high ratio of height to diameter for the tank
and ~ l multiple impeller agitator system.
Very large storage tanks involving blending
such as used in the petroleum industry can
only be constructed with a low height to
diameter ratio; however this particular ge-
ometry is effectively handled by the side-
entering agitator normally applied to such
tanks.
Configuration of the l'CS8Cl bottom is not
part icuuu-ly critical wl.cn the application is
blending of pure Jiquids but. for 1110:::t oper-
ations the shape should be conducive to
streamlining flow. 'The well-known dished
bead is the best cl.oiec in most cases. A
COIle bottom should he used only if dictated
15
by other design requirements and should al-
ways be avoided in the case of solids sus-
pensions.
Auxiliaries. Baffles have the most influ-
ence on performance of any of the auxil-
iaries. Unless swirl is desired. all vertical-
shaft centrally mounted impellers operating
in 100v viscosity liquids must have baffles of
some sort. The purpose is to convert rotary
motion to a vertical turnover flow pattern
and to allow investment of the full impeller
power. Many means of introducing opposed
area are possible but the most conventional
is four vertical sidewall plates, each YJ.2 of
the tank diameter, set clear of the wall by
approximately Yo the baflle width, and ex-
tending the full liquid depth.
Coils of the helical type have little effect
on impeller power or performance; thus
they must usually be supplemented with
baffles. When a good portion of the vessel
volume is consumed by coils, the resistance
to circulation is a factor which requires
special attention to impeller selection and
emplacement. Vertical heat transfer tubes
can be arranged in planes to act as baffles.
Draft tubes are primarily used with axial
flow impellers to direct and control the suc-
tion and/or discharge streams. Almost all
applications of this type are special designs
'which have evolved for special processing
problems or to suit unusual tank geom-
etries.
Spargers for introducing gas, thermo-
veits, dip pipes, etc. should all be located to
ser-ve their function with a minimum of in-
terference with the impeller action. Support
for these fittings must be designed to with-
stand drag forces from the liquid.
Agitator Mounting. Proper support of an
agitator d-ive on a tank involves considera-
tion of the requirements of strength) rigid-
ity. alignment of components and accessi-
bility for maintenance. In particular, the
:,upport must be prepared to resist the
momcnr , produced by unbalanced hydraulic
icrccs at the impeller and must be rigid
enough to preclude any effect on the natural
il'C'qllency of the shaft.
AGITATORS
Open tank installation of top-entering
units is accomplished by supporting the
drive on a pair of beams spanning the tank
top and attached to the rim. Cross-bracing
of these beams is desirable to prevent lat-
eral sway. When a lid occurs in such an in-
stallation, it is common to provide a simple
seal to contain 'vapors or exclude contami-
nation.
Mounting on closed tanks requires regard
for the stresses concentrated at the joint of
the nozzle and the tank head. Distribution
of the load can be accomplished by using
one or a combination of several construc-
tions; use of a large diameter nozzle; plate
gussets extending from the nozzle to the
tank head ; and/or auxiliary support of the
drive.
Auxiliary support of drives is most fre-
quently used with side-entering agitators.
A pair of tie rods with screw take-up to
allow proper tensioning is preferred since it
eliminates any possibility of stresses arising
from shifting of the tank. By using a com-
bination of a large flange mounting and a
short overhang, some side-entering units are
installed without auxiliary support (Fig.
24) .
Agitator Positioning. On-center mount-
ing, with the shaft vertical, is the usual po-
sition for turbine and paddle agitators and
is frequently used for propeller units. With
this location, baflles will be required to
eliminate swirl at fluid viscosities up to ap-
proximately 6,000 cent ipoises.
Off-centering a vertical shaft will reduce
or eliminate swir-l since an unbalanced flow
pattern occurs. This type of mounting is
rarely used because it is difficult to prede-
termine the distance the shaft should be
displaced from the axis of the tank for a
given set of geometry and viscosity condi-
tions. Also, the lateral force acting on the
shaft at the impeller. created by the hy-
draulic unbalance, is an undesirable design
element.
Off-center mounting with the shaft at an
angle to the vertical is widely used for all
types of top-entering propeller agitators.
(I
AGITATORS
16
FIG. 24. Side-entering agitator without auxiliary support. (C. Masson, SA.)
(Nde: Uy<lut 1. kSan1leal. U.. tt.- ..... you pl"II'.r.)
FIG. 25. Installation of side entering agitator.
The axial discharge of the propeller is placed
in opposition to the circular motion produced
by its turning moment, and the result is
elimination of swirl. The exact shaft angle
and amount of off-centering are critical for
each condition of tank shape and viscosity,
if power consumption equivalent to full
baffling is desired; however such perfection
is seldom necessary in industrial practice.
In off-center horizontal shaft mounting
of side-entering propeller agitators, the po-
sitioning is critical because of the need to
produce a proper flow pattern. In large
tanks, asis the usual case with a side-enter-
ing unit, the impeller is too small to pro-
duce swirl and full power would be realized
with the shaft entering on a diameter. But
some swirl must be deliberately generated
to give rotary as well as vertical turnover
motion; thus the style of installation shown
in Fig. 25 is used. The two plan views are
identical but illustrate common methods of
specifying the layout. The location of pro-
peller here is specific for a lefthand style.
Shaft Design
The purpose of an agitator shaft is to
transmit power from the prime mover to the
impeller. But the requirement of support of
a load at a considerable distance from the
shaft bearings creates design problems
unique to this class of process equipment.
Shaft straightness, deflection, vibrational
characteristic, and impeller balance must
all be considered and correlated for each
condition of design. Invariably, if these Iac-
tors are satisfied, the torque requirement of
thc shaft will be amply served.
Shaft Straightness. There are no pub-
lished standards relating to straightness of
.l-
o
T
T_
I...i..
-n
o "
1--."
....
17
shafting specific for agitator usage, but a
cumulative tolerance of 0.001 in./ft is gen-
erally acceptable. Use of turned and ground
bar stock is necessary to obtain a straight
shaft initially, but then extreme care must
be exercised in handling, shipping, and in"
stallation to avoid bending. The use of
turned and ground shafting also minimizes
ovality to reduce runout at the seal and
provide a good surface finish for use in
stuffing boxes.
Deflection. The deflection of a shaft must
be held to low limits at the impeller and
near the seal. Excessive runout at the im-
peller will impose severe loads on the sup-
port bearings, increase the impeller power
consumption and perhaps allow the shaft to
whip to destruction. Seal performance is di-
rectly related to deflection or runout of the
shaft. The static runout is determined by
the ovality and straightness of the shaft
and the alignment of the components of the
drive. However, the total runout of the
shaft includes the additional defleetion re-
sulting from unbalanced hydraulic forces at
the impeller.
Critical Frequency. One of the most im-
portant calculations to be made in shaft de-
sign is the critical speed, the speed corre-
sponding to the natural frequency of the
entire shaft system. The factors involved in
the calculation are impeller weight, shaft
weight, shaft length, moment of inertia of
the shaft, modulus of elasticity of the shaft
material and span of the shaft bearings.
Conventional formulas for critical speed are
based on operation in air and introduce no
value for the dampening effec-t of a liquid.
The critical speed is independent of the
shaft position. Design of the agitator should
be to provide operation below the first criti-
cal speed, although most portable and top-
entering propeller agitators operate above
it. Typical relationships of operating speed
to critical speed arc: At 80 per cent, if vor-
tex-free conditions exist and full impeller
submergence is guaranteed; at 50 per cent,
if conditions of extreme turbulence or hy-
AGITATORS
draulic unbalance occur; greater than 20
per cent of the first but less than 75 per cent
of the second critical, if operation must be
above the first critical speed.
Impeller Balance. Hydraulic balance of
an impeller is most desirable and is easily
obtained in most cases by control of blade
dimensions and angles. Two-blade impel-
lers and any impellers in a vortexing system
may be expected to have considerable hy-
draulic unbalance.
Static balancing to eliminate eccentric
centrifugal forces, which is required for all
impellers, is easily achieved by making
weight corrections to the blades.
Dynamic balancing must be performed
On the assembly of shaft and impeller, but
it is only required at very high operating
speeds and is seldom necessary for an agi-
tator.
Auxiliary Shaft Support. A stabilizer
(Fig. 26) is frequently mounted beneath an
impeller and, in effect, acts as a hydraulic
support bearing. By dampening the vibra-
tions induced when a liquid interface ap-
proaches or passes through the impeller, it
allows operation of the shaft at a speed
value approaching 80 per cent of the critical
speed. A stabilizer ring does not contribute
to performance unless the hydraulic unbal-
ance of low liquid level operation is a de-
sign condition.
FIG. 26. Stabilizer ring.
(
)
)
AGITATORS
Wear Sleeve
Bushing
FIG. 27. Steady bearing.
A steady bearing is necessary if the re-
quirements of deflection and critical fre-
quency cannot be met within the allowable
design variables. ,Yhile installation and
maintenance of a submerged sleeve-type
bearing are costly) there is often no feasible
alternate. The basic elements of a typical
FH:. 28. Pipeline tl!!itator. CV('llw ('Olp.)
18
FIG. 29, In-line agitator, two-stage design.
(Chemincer, Inc.)
steady bearing assembly are shown in Fig.
27. Support of the bearing may be from the
bottom of the tank by a tripod or by struc-
tural members attached to the vessel shell.
System Adaptations
Most apparently special agitators are
simply standard designs whicl: have been
either modified somewhat for a specific pur-
pose or integrated with a vessel or acces-
sories to create a special effect. Some of
them enj oy such widespread recognition 3 . ~
to be considered individunl types; hence
they will be described briefly here.
Continuous. All systems involving con-
tinuous agitation .sCT\T a single process pur-
pose, but many different plly:::ical arrange-
ments of equipment arc cmplovcd. These
systems may be categorized in three groups,
for convenience in describing generally the
current methods of handling the design pn-
19
FIG. 30. "Turbo'I'ube' agitator, single discharge
draft bend style. (Ch.emineer, Inc.)
rameters of retention time, number of
stages, and control of flow pattern.
Stirred tank rcnct ot-s are usually involved
in problems of chemical kinetics or heat
transfer, where hold-up time is important.
Retention time is high and power per unit
volume is similar to batch systems with
corresponding process requirements. As
would be expected. the equipment consists
of series-connected vessels using anyone of
the conventional :lgitator designs. The
mixer-settler s.ystc-m widely for sepa-
ration of materials is a special
ril.::'C in thi-, CltC"Dj!"Y.
In-line or piprlinc ae.tntors feature a low
AGITATOR,
retention time i.1I1d a high power per unit
volume. This category of design is used for
many applications. including blending, re-
action, viscosity reduction and dispersion.
Figures 28 and 29 illustrate typical in-line
designs. Xote the use of a large drive on a
comparatively small vessel.
Agitated column systems are typically
used for mass transfer operations such as
extraction and absorption. The vessel is 8
vertical tower, compartmented by horison-
tal doughnut-type plates into a series of
stages, each agitated by a radial discharg-
ing impeller. Turbines, flat blade- or disc-
F1G. 31. Glassed-steel agitator and vessel. (Glas-
cote Products I nc., _)."i,}inry ()f A. O. Smith Car-
pU1l1 t if! II I
(
)
I
AGITATORS
type, or plain discs are commonly used. The
impellers are mounted on a common shaft
driven by a conventional turbine agitator
drive.
Draft Tube Devices. Most draft tube
systems involve a simple cylinder centrally
suspended in a vessel, using a top-entering
propeller or pitched blade turbine. :-lainly
intended to accentuate a top-to-bottom
turnover, the design is effective for such op-
erations as evaporation and crystallization.
A continuous helix or screw enclosed by a
draft tube bas long been used for viscous
fluids, especially in soap and detergent
processes.
The draft tube can be integrated with the
agitator assembly as shown in Fig. 30. The
curved draft tube configuration is used to
produce a dominant horizontal flow pattern
20
and finds wide application in tanks of un-
usual geometry.
Classed-Steel Agitators. There are fea-
tures of mounting, sealing, baffling, and
shaft and impeller design peculiar to
glassed-vessel application which are dic-
tated by the manufacturing problems of
this material of construction. While the re-
quirements of the drive are the same as
those of a conventional turbine or paddle
agitator, adaptation to a glassed-vessel in-
volves the need to satisfy several or all of
the following situations:
(1) Support of a drive on the vessel top
in a manner which will relieve or eliminate
stress on the glassed surfaces.
(2) Support of a drive, independent of
the seal nozzle, to provide a plumb shaft.
(3) Positive alignment of the shaft seal
Fro. 32. Laboratory stirrers. (Eastern Iruiuetries Dio., Laboratory for Electronics, Inc.)
21
with respect to the agitator shaft. This
often requires use of a wedge-shaped spacer
or gasket to correct for a tilted nozzle.
(4) Gasketing of a drive or seal to the
tophead nozzle.
(5) Connection of drive shaft to glassed
shaft.
(6) Provision of a sleeve on the section
of shaft in the seal region to give a proper
running surface.
Figure 31 illustrates a typical glass-lined
vessel system. Note the special glass-coated
baffle plate.
Laboratory Agitators. Small size agita-
tors for use in laboratories exist in two
rather distinct categories. Laboratory stir-
rers of sub-fractional horsepower size such
as in Fig. 32 are used for general mixing of
very small volumes. While such miniature
units are usually available with variable
speed, the parameters of impeller design,
geometry, and flow pattern are usually not
controlled in application; therefore useful
agitation data do not result.
Bench scale experimental systems for
fundamental study of agitation require
careful attention to several areas of design.
The drive must have a wide speed range
with a power characteristic of at least con-
stant torque nature. Good speed regulation
under varying load conditions is also im-
portant for multipurpose service. The im-
pellers should be geometrically similar to
the plant-scale types, and dimensions must
be precise. If the system is used with prob-
lems involving non-Newtonian, multiphase
or very viscous fluids, an accurate method
of determining impeller power consumption
is necessary. A drive-reaction type of dy-
namometer is illustrated in Fig. 33.
Inquiry Data
Communication in the field of fluid agi-
tation suffers from several deficiencies; An
ahsence of standardization of both equip-
ment and terminology; no explicit and uni-
versally understood index of performance;
AGITATORS
FIG. 33. Bench scale experimental agitator sys-
tem. (Chemineer, Inc.)
and a lack of appreciation on the part of
the user as to what should be specified and
what should be the prerogative of the
equipment manufacturer. Impeller-type ag-
itators are particularly susceptible to tan-
gible cost improvement, essentially because
of the drastic effect on design resulting from
apparently minor changes in requirement.
Careful attention to a few critical areas will
yield substantial savings in first cost and
maintenance.
In probably no other area of process
equipment are so many miscellaneous items
of data required. A variety of standard
data sheets have evolved and, although no
single form can be optimum for all applica-
tions, they do aid greatly in ensuring that
the obviously important data are transmit-
ted. Manufacturer data sheets are restricted
to coverage of the application, but users
often incorporate sections requiring certain
information from the equipment manufac-
turer.
s .
J
(
AIR DISI!';FECTION AND STERILIZATlO:-l
References
1. A.I.eh.E., "Standard Testing Procedure. Im-
peller-Type Mixing Equipment," New York,
American Institute of Chemical Engineers,
1960.
2. Bates. R. L.. "How to Specify Agitators,"
Petroleum. Refiner, 39, (11),243 (960).
3. Bates, R. L.) "Guide to Industrial Viscometry,"
Ctvem. Eng., 6i, (i), 145 (1960).
4. Bissell, E. S.) Hesse, H. C., Everett. H. J., and
Rushton, J. H., "Design & Utilization of In-
ternal Fittings for Mixing Vessels," Chern.
Eng. Proor., 43, (12),649 (194i).
5. Calderbank, P. R., "The Interfacial Area in
Gas-Liquid Contacting with Mechanical Agita-
tion," Trans. Inst. Chem. En{JTs. (London),
36,443 (1958).
6. Dutton, H. W., Leedom, R. P., MacLeod, 1.,
and Moroz, P. J., "Improve Agitator Per-
formance," Chem. Eng., 65, (2), 172 (958)
7. Metzner, A. E., Feehs, R. H., Ramos, H. L.,
Otto, R. E. and Tuthill, J. D., "Agitation of
Newtonian & Non-Newtonian Fluids," Am.
Inet. Chem. Enore, J., 7, (1),3 (1961).
8. Nagata, S., Yokoyama, T., and Maeda, H.,
"Studies on the Power Requirement of Mixing
ImpeIIers, III," ,Mem. Fac. Eng. Kyoto Univ.
(Japan), 18, (1), 13 (1956).
9. Nagata, S., Yagimoto, M., and Yokoyama, T.,
IlA Study of Mixing of High-Viscosity Liquids,"
Chem. Eng. (Japan), 21, (5), 2i8 (195i).
10. Quillen, C. S., IlMixing," Chern. Eng., 61, (6),
Iii (1954).
11. Rushton, J. H., and Oldshue, J. Y.. "Mixing-
Present Theory & Practice," Chern. Eng. Progr.,
49, (4), 161 (953).
12. Sterbacek, Z., and Tausk, P., "Michani V
Chemickem Prdmyslu," Stfedisko Technichc
Literatury, Praha, 1959.
13. UhI, V. M. (Ed), "Mixing, Theory & Practice,"
New York, Academic Press, 1964.
14. \Veber, A. P., "Selecting Propeller Mixers,"
Chemical Engineering, September 2,1963, p. 91.
ROBERT L. BATES
22
INC.
P.O. BOX 1000. DAYTON, OHIO 45401 TEL: 513 253-8881
(