CHAPTER 2 Review of Related Literature Description of the Crop Cover Oryza sativa Linn. is an erect annual grass, to 1.

2 m tall; culms angled, smooth, nearly enclosed in glabrous, strongly-nerved leaf-sheaths; leaf-blades long, flat, 1.2 cm broad, more or less scabrous; panicle terminal, narrow, curved or nodding to one side, 1530 cm long, with many long, ascending branches; spikelets strongly flattened sidewise, perfect, ribbed pubescent, awned or awnless; palea with 2 nerves near margin; kernel free-threshing, oblong, flattened on the sides, with long hilum, straw-colored or yellow, from 28,000 to 44,000 per kg, depending on the variety (Reed, 1976). Nematode Function in Soil Nematodes are non-segmented worms which are the most abundant among the metazoan (Ferris and Bongers, 1999). Nematodes are an important component of the soil ecosystem with profound effects on organic mater decomposition, nutrient transformation and energy transfer (Yuan Shao et al., 2008; Coleman et al., 2004; Neher, 2001; Yeates and Bongers, 1999; Bongers and Bongers, 1998; Freckman, 1988; Anderson et al., 1981). In fact, they occupy key positions in soil food webs and are present across many trophic levels (Barker and Koenning, 1998; Ingham et al., 1986); by being the early colonizer on a recently disturbed site or r-strategists or as an equalizer of soil diversity in a

structured stage or the K-strategists (Porazinska et al., 1999, Bongers and Bongers, 1998; Yeates et al. 1993, Freckman, 1988). Nematodes that feed on bacteria and fungi play important roles in influencing the turnover of the soil microbial biomass and thus in the availability of plant nutrients (Bardgett et al., 1999). Decomposition processes in the soil, although ultimately dependent on the plant resource base, are often allocated to either the bacterial-based energy channel, or pathway, or the slower fungalbased channel (Moore and Hunt, 1988). The relative use of bacteria and fungi by nematodes reflects differences in decomposition pathways or channels. Within the constraints of soil type, soil moisture and temperature, the nature of the food resource influences the species and dominance within each nematode trophic group (Yeates, 2003). Under the Nitrogen fertilization, plant parasitic nematodes increases as a result of high carrying capacity of plants which these nematodes fed upon (Bongers et al, 1997). The subgroups of these organisms that form parasitic relationships with plants and their roots are the best known of soil organisms because of the damage they cause to agricultural cropssuch as decreasing plant production, disrupting plant nutrient and water transfer, and decreasing fruit and tuber quality and size (Brussaard et al., 1997; Yeates and Coleman, 1982). However, most of the soil nematode species (free-living) actually have benecial roles in ecosystem process and are not parasites or pests (Neher, 2001).

Classification of Nematodes According to Life Strategy The r-strategists nematodes commonly arise when environmental conditions are favorable. They tend to flourish as there is existence of organic enrichment. This enrichment encourages the growth of various bacteria and fungi in which the colonizer nematodes fed (Bulluck et al., 2002; McSorley and Frederick, 1999; Neher, 1999; Bongers and Bongers, 1998). This microbialgrazing nematodes, affect growth and metabolic activities of microbes and alter the microbial community, thus regulating rates of decomposition (Seastedt, 1984; Trofymow and Coleman, 1982; Wasilewska et al., 1975; Whitford et al., 1982; Yeates and Coleman, 1982) and nutrient mineralization (Seastedt et al., 1988; Sohlenius et al., 1988); which is determined attributes, by life history, and by the by metabolic relative C-to-N and behavioral of the

ratios

nematodes and their bacterial prey (Ferris et al., 1997). K-strategist nematodes tend to be in the higher trophic level; they are omnivore, carnivore and plant feeding in nature. These nematodes help in maintaining the biodiversity in the soil fauna by regulating the soil mesofauna including the nematodes itself (Bongers and Bongers, 1998). As the soil condition becomes structured and the microbial activity decreases, the rstrategist nematodes tend to form a dauer larvae; the dormant stage of nematodes and the K-strategists take over (Bongers et al., 1995).

Measures of Nematode Community Structure In ecological studies, diversity indeces such as species richness and species evenness are used as a tool in ecosystem assessment (Lumactud, 2010). Phylum Nematoda present a large group comprising different life-history strategies that make them respond differently to changes in the environment (Neher, 2001). With this, nematode ecologists used indeces such as Maturity (Bongers, 1990), Enrichment and Structure (Ferris et. al, 2001) indeces. The Maturity Index (MI) was developed by Bongers (1990) as an ecological measure for environmental disturbance of soil-ecosystems based on nematode-composition. For this index, nematode families were assigned a cpvalue (colonizer-persister), based on their life-history strategies. Ferris et. al (2001) have reassessed the Maturity Index formulated by Bongers (1990) by incorporating the feeding habits of nematodes. Within this framework, weighted functional guilds of the nematodes give rise to an Enrichment Index (EI) and a Structure Index (SI) (Fig.1). Ferris et al. (2001) used a weighted system based on the structure and enrichment trajectories in the food web.

Nematodes as an Environmental Indicator Nematode faunal analysis is evolving as a powerful bioindicator of the soil condition and of structural and functional attributes of the soil food web (Neher, 2001; Bongers and Ferris, 1999). Nematodes (free-living and plant-parasitic) exceeds its competitors; the Collembola (Frampton, 1997), and mites (Ruf, 1998) as an effective biological indicator in mesofauna, It is the most useful group for community indicator analysis because more information exists on their taxonomy and feeding roles (Gupta and Yeates, 1997). This organism possess the most important attributes that are expected for any bioindicator organism (Cairns et al., 1993) namely: abundance in virtually all environments, diversity of life strategies and feeding habits (Ferris and Bongers, 2006; Bulluck III et al., 2002; Bongers and Bongers, 1998; Yeates et al.., 1993; Freckman, 1988), short life cycles, and relatively well-defined sampling procedures (Bongers 1990). Several studies involving nematodes as bioindicator proves to have a positive correlation between stressors like; several anthropogenic activity such as soil tillage, inorganic and organic amendments of soil nutrients, pesticides and heavy metals contamination to the community structure status of nematodes in situ (Shao et al., 2008; Ferris and Bongers, 2006; Liang et al., 2005; Bulluck III et al., 2002; Porazinska et al., 1999; Bongers, 1990). In a study on mine tailings in Guiyang County, Hunan Province, China made by Shao et al. (2008), cp-3, cp-4 and cp-5 nematode groups were severely affected by heavy metal concentration. Lead (Pb) concentrations did not affect

the density of individuals, but significantly reduced the total biomass of nematodes, the number of species, and Shannon diversity index. In a same study made by Zullini and Peretti (1986), it is showed that nematode suborder Dorylaimina (mainly cp-4 and cp-5 omnivores) was the most sensitive to Pb pollution. Heavy metals such as Cu, Ni and Zn produce the same limiting effect on the groups of nematode stated above (Korthals et al., 1996). Organic residue inputs in Lycopersicon esculentum L. var. Rio Colorado, Triticum aestivum L. and Zea mays L. crop cover have initially increased the number of bacteria and fungi feeding nematode by dramatically increasing the soil nutrient in which facilitates the bacteria and fungi growth (Zhang et al., 2012, Bulluck III et al., 2002) but then decreases as the resources become scarce. As compared to inorganic counterparts, organic soil amendments such as chicken, swine and green manure can suppress plant-parasitic nematodes (Abawi and Widmer, 2000; McSorlry et al., 1999; Viaene and Abawi, 1998). Furthermore, the research of Bullock et al. (2002) on tomato crops seconded the earlier claim that there is a lesser prevalence of plant-parasitic nematodes on organic amendments as compared to inorganic counterparts. The gall indices for swine manure and cotton-gin trash (5.3 and 5.5 respectively) is lower than synthetic fertilizers or rye-vetch green manure (7.2 and 7.3 respectively) in 1998 observation. Given all these studies, it is important to take note that results on nematode community is restricted to be true only in the same crop cover. In fact, the biomass and vigor of crop cover according to the study of Shao et al. (2008),

directly affects the integrity of soil food web. Crops that are vigorous tend to have a larger biomass than the less vigorous plants (Lui et al., 2004; Bongers and Ferris, 1999). Faith of Insecticide in Rice Paddies Pesticides in general are ideally toxic only to the target organism, biodegradable and should not leach into ground water (Johnsen et al, 2001); on modern agriculture this is rarely met. The faith of insecticides in paddy field is different than those of nonflooded soils (Sethunathan, 1989; Moon and Kuwatsuka, 1984; Yuh-Lin Chen, 1980). The presence of floodwater and puddle soils in such ecosystem accelerates pesticide dilution because this type of environment facilitates anaerobes that help in the degradation of pesticide (Roger et al., 1994). Even with this biodegradation offered by anaerobic microbes, the susceptible negative effect on the pesticides isomers and immediate product such as the hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (DDD) are still toxic to its immediate environment (Sethunathan, 1989). Implications of Insecticide on Target and Non-Target Organisms Insecticides have a positive effect on decreasing its target organism upon application (Way and Heong, 1994; N. Sethunatan, 1989). Contrary to this statement, a study conducted in the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in Los Baos, Laguna, Philippines (Way and Heong, 1994) concluded that high insecticide application on a tropical rice field has a negative effect on the crop

yield. It is proven that the prevalence of Nilaparvata lugens (Brown Planthopper) in a rice field treated with small amount or no treatment of insecticide is low due to the abundance of their natural predators such as spiders and Veliidae. Furthermore, high doses of insecticide induce a secondary outbreak and pest resurgences due to the absence of their natural predator (Dyck et al., 1979). A study on continuous application of pesticides turns out to induce soil pollution threatening processes driven by soil microorganisms (Cycon et al., 2006; Lpez et al., 2002; Sturz and Kimpinski, 1999). But Eisenhauer et al. (2009) found out that pesticide application increases (chlorpyrifos and fosthiazate) but also decreseas (dimethoate) the activity and biomass of soil microorganism. An increase is such because microbes can use these inorganic amendments as a source of carbon (Radosevich et al., 1995). This partially beneficial effect of pesticide application on the soil microbial community is seconded by the previous study of Roger et al. (1994) stating that pesticides have more effect on non-target invertebrate population. When compared to untreated soil, there was a significant decrease in dehydrogenase activity for those treated with various herbicides (Sebimo et al., 2011; Dzantor and Felson 1991; Perucci and Scarponi, 1990). But there are also literatures that found opposite trend. On a study conducted by Gianfreda et al., (2005, 1994); Quilchano and Maranon (2002), they stated that there is an increase in soil enzyme activity than untreated soil. Still, Nakamura et al. (1990) and Lethbridge et al., (1981) concluded on their studies that there are no effect on soil dehydrogenase activity in herbicide treated soil as compared to the

untreated soil. This variation of result is probably due to variation of doses of pesticide application. In a recent study conducted by Pal et al. (2006), they concluded that there is not detrimental effect in pesticide application to the microbial community when normal/prescribed doses of pesticides are applied. In a study conducted by Zhang et al. (2010) on Soybean (Gylcine max) plantation at Northeast China, herbicide acetochlor and nematicide carbofuran has a significant effect on the nematode community structure. During the half lives of the herbicide and the nematicide, there is an evident reduction in the abundances of total nematodes and plant parasites. Agrochemical treatments caused obvious decreases in the numbers of bacterivores at the 8th week, while the numbers of fungivores and omnivores-predators were not significantly influenced. Waliyar et al. (1992) reported that application of a high dose of carbofuran (10 kg ha-1) could reduce plant parasites in soil. Yeates et al. (1999) reported that the diversity of bacterivores were consistently low in herbicidetreated plots over a seven-year period. Chen et al. (2003) indicated that negative effects of acetochlor on the numbers of total nematode and trophic groups in a Chinese soybean field. Futhermore, non-nematode target pesticides such as fungicide captan and protozoacide fumigillin significantly reduce nematode numbers (Colonas et al., 1994) On a study conducted by Cheng et al. (2006) on turf management, pesticide application has no significant effect on the community structure. It is such because such environment of turf is usually very rich in organic matter due to the continuous addition of clippings and nutrient input, thus having high

microbial biomass and activity, which is helpful to degrade chemical inputs rapidly.