SURVEYING & LEVELLING

Survey is the determination of horizontal distance, differences in elevation, direction, angle, location, area, and volume on or near the surface of the earth. It involves the measurement and recording of the size and shape of an area on the earth's surface. This process may be divided into fieldwork of taking measurement and the office work of computing and drawing. Surveying may be divided into two different categories (1) geodetic surveying (2) plane surveying. In geodetic surveying the curvature of earth is taken under consideration since large areas and distance are covered. It is required to determine the precise position on the earth surface. In plane surveying curvature of earth is ignored as the survey is extended only into small area. Agricultural surveying is simple plane surveying. It includes layout of contour and terrace for soil conservation, drainage line, profile line for land leveling and ditch line for irrigation. Establishing and preparing maps of properties, computing field & farm area and laying out farm building and roads. From soil and water conservation aspect, four type of surveying are very useful. (1) Plane table surveying (2) Profile surveying (3) Contour surveying (4) Grid surveying PLANE TABLE SURVEY:Plane table is a method of surveying in which field work & plotting are done simultaneously. It is particularly adopted for small & medium scale mapping in which the speed of more important than the accuracy in detail. MATERIAL REAQUIRED:A drawing board mounted on tripod stand, compass, drawing sheet, board pin, sprit level, pencil, U-fork, plum bob with thread, scale, ranging rod, tape. PROFILE SURVEY:It is the process determining the elevation of a series of points at measured longitudinal intervals along a selected or predetermined course of drainage line. It is also called longitudinal leveling or sectioning. The elevation determines can be plotted on a paper to a selected scale and depict the profile elevation of drainage line. These studies can be suitably utilized for relating stream grades, depth, high & low spots for deciding appropriate locations of check dams and other structures for water harvesting as well as water velocity controls. MATERIAL REQUIRED:- I.O.P.level, Tripod stand, levelling staff, tape.

GRID SURVEYING:-

Grid surveying is a specific type of topographic surveying, which is done to get the necessary data to produce a topographic map, which shows the relief of topography of an area on earth surface. This map includes contour lines, local and natural features like streams, gullies and ditches and location of manmade features like bridges, culverts building, roads etc. Grid survey is commonly used to easily accomplish this task at macro level and thus produce a detailed map. MATERIAL REQUIRED:- I.O.P.level, levelling staff, tripod stand, tape, pegs. PROCEDURE:-Grid surveying was done in the farm pond at C.S.W.C.R.T.I. At first a base line is fixed in a known direction. Then lines parallel and perpendicular to the base line were laid out at a fixed 30m horizontal interval to get the required sized grid pattern. Accordingly the area was divided into smaller squares of 5X5m. Corners of these squares were marked with pegs and elevation of various grid points were determined by levelling. The elevations were worked out for different points of squares and plotted by mines of interpolation and eye judgment. Contours were plotted at vertical intervals of 2m.Interpolation was precisely applied by spacing the contour lines proportionally between plotted points. Visual estimation and arithmetic calculations were made accordingly in order to interpolated points and their elevations using a commercial software (surfer-8).

Contour Surveying Contour surveying is one of the major surveys for engineers for planning
and execution of various soil and water conservation engineering measures in the field. The success of contour surveying depends upon the precision with which contour lines are drawn on map. A contour is an imaginary line of constant elevation on the surface of the ground. Contour is represented on the map by contour lines. The terms contours and contour lines are often used inter changeably. On a given map, successive contour lines represent elevations differing by a fixed vertical distance, called contour interval. Contour intervals usually vary from 25 to 250 cm in engineering works, in comparatively flat country 25 to 50 cm contours are used, while in rough country the vertical distance between contours are kept greater. These contours are invariably utilized for construction of various structures in the field like contour trenching.

Characteristics of contour lines:

1) All points on contour lines have the same elevation. 2) Contour lines close to each other on a plain view represent very steep ground. If far apart they indicate that the land is relatively flat. 3) On the uniform slopes the contour lines are spaced uniformly. Along plane surfaces these lines are straight and parallel to one another. 4) As contour lines represent level lines, they are perpendicular to the lines of steepest slope. 5) Contour lines can't end anywhere but close themselves, either within or outside the limits of map. 6) Contour lines can't cross one another except in the case of over hanging cliff.

7)

Contour lines can cross a ridgeline or valley line at straight angle. At ridge area

ridgeline the contour line forms curves of "U" shape. At valley area valley line forms sharp curves of "V" shape and the lower values are inside the loop.

Use of contour maps:

In agricultural work, contour map are useful as guideline in planning of land improvement projects, tile drainage system can be conveniently planned on contour maps, cost estimate can be made with the aid of contour maps. Map, which show the both topography and land use capability classification are important in the development of conservation plans for farmland. Watershed measured from maps are used in estimating runoff to be handled by waterways, gully control structures farm pond spillways. The contour maps are used for measurement of drainage area. The volume of water between two contours will be equal to the average of areas at the two stage within corresponding contours multiplied the contour interval. Detailed principles of using survey and mapping equipments/instruments were nicely narrated by faculty to learn the basic utilization of these instruments for delivering different kind of surveying/mapping outputs, stepwise procedures.

LEVELLING:
datum.

- Leveling is a branch of surveying the objective of which are

(I) to find the elevations of given points with respect to a given or assumed datum (ii) to establish points at a given elevation or at different elevations with respect to a or assumed

Level surface: - A level surface is defined as a curved surface, which at each point is
perpendicular to the direction at gravity at the point.

Level line: - A level line is a line lying in a level surface. It is therefore, normal to the plumb at all
points.

Horizontal plane: - Horizontal plane through a point is a plane tangential to the level surface at
that point.

Horizontal line: - It is straight line tangential to the level line at a point. Vertical line: - It is a line normal to the level line at a point. Datum: - Datum is any surface to which elevations are referred. Elevation: - The elevation at a point on or near the surface at the earth is its vertical distance
above or bellows an arbitrarily assumed level surface or datum.

Vertical angle: - Vertical angle is an angle between two intersecting lines in a vertical plane. Mean sea level: - Mean sea level is the average height at the sea for the all stages at the tide. Bench mark: - Benchmark is a relatively permanent point at reference whose elevation with
respect to some assumed datum is known. We surveyed a mini watershed area of about 0.3 ha with plane table and collected the spot levels by dumpy level, which are presented in the following table:

Table: Details of surveyed data of mini watershed

X -2 -3 -4 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -6.2 -7.3 -8.4 -9.5 -10 -10 -10 -10 -10.5 -11.6 -12.7 -14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Y 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 15 10 5 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 Z 99.16 99.01 98.86 98.68 98.51 98.38 98.25 97.87 97.86 97.91 97.73 97.70 98.59 98.55 98.51 98.46 98.43 98.40 98.36 98.32 98.28 98.24 98.23 98.21 98.03 97.77 97.86 97.88 97.825 97.86 98.06 98.19 98.66 98.81 98.51 99.36 98.15 97.94 98.055 97.76 98.01 97.96 97.91 98.09 98.17 98.31 98.50 99.26 X 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 Y 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 Z 98.26 98.14 98.235 98.21 98.28 98.25 98.17 98.34 98.40 98.60 98.74 99.01 98.49 98.40 98.45 98.41 98.49 98.47 98.37 98.45 98.56 98.72 98.91 99.31 98.71 98.52 98.67 98.745 98.78 98.85 98.82 98.855 98.86 99.00 99.18 99.26 98.95 98.80 98.84 98.96 98.97 99.09 99.10 99.09 99.13 99.18 99.38 99.68 X 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 31.3 31.5 31.5 32.3 33.3 34.3 35 35 35 35 35 35 36.2 37.2 38.2 39.2 40 Y 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 35 40 45 50 55 Z 99.02 98.91 98.95 98.98 99.85 99.355 99.25 99.28 99.37 99.44 99.54 99.74 100.01 99.99 99.97 100.02 100.00 100.03 99.44 99.49 99.56 99.58 99.70 99.78 99.36 99.46 99.56 100.02 100.04

1 1 1 1 1 9 9 9 9

0 0 0 0 0 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 7 7

0 0 0 0 0 . 8 . 6 . 4 . 2 . 8 . 6 . 4 . 2 . 8 . 6

. 8 . 6 . 4 . 2

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

0 - 1 0 - 5 0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 4 0

Contour Map of mini watershed at CSWCRTI, Research Centre, Datia(M.P.)

Wire mesh Diagram of mini watershed

0 - 1 0 - 5 0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 4 0

Post map of the mini watershed

5 5 5 0

0 - 1 0 - 5 0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 4 0

Vector map the mini watershed

Infiltration Studies and Ground Water Recharge

Generally when water is applied to the surface of soil, a part of water seeps into the soil. The part of water, which seeps into the soil is infiltration, infiltration is the primary step in the natural ground water recharge .It play a very significant role in the runoff process by affecting the magnitude of surface runoff. Infiltration may be defined as the vertical downward movement of water through the soil surface into the soil. The maximum rate at which the ground can absorb water in the infiltration capacity in the volume of water that it can hold is the field capacity. The infiltration rate is the function of time. It depends on the surface &type of soil. If there is the vegetation coating on the soil surface then the rate of infiltration is more than a surface of soil without any coating. A loose, permeable, sandy soil will have a large infiltration capacity than a stiff clayey soil. The capacity of any soil to absorb the rainwater, falling continuously at an excessive rate, goes on decreasing with time until a minimum steady state rate of infiltration is reached. Keeping in view the important of infiltration parameter in overall watershed management we conducted a few ground infiltration tests at certain location. Double ring infiltrometer we are utilized while conducting the infiltration test under constant water ponding condition. The detailed observation regarding variability of infiltration rates are illustrated in the form of graph. MATERIAL REQUIRED: - Double ring infiltrometer, A marking pin, A measuring cylinder. Scale, Stop watch Methodology: - At first a double ring infiltrometer were placed into the land, which was selected for infiltration test. Marking pin was placed at the center of both the ring. Water was poured into the space between two rings as well as inside area of inner ring. A constant water head was maintained over the soil surface; in both the ring. The reading was taken at discreet and minute time interval to compute the rate of infiltration. The observation was continued till a uniform study state rate of infiltration achieved.

Plot -1
Date 19.06.2012 Time interval (minutes) 0 1 2 2 5 5 5 10 10 10 15 15 15 20 20 20 30 30 30 40 40 40 Cumulative Time 0 1 3 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 65 80 95 115 135 155 185 215 245 285 325 365 Water infiltrate ( ml ) 0 980 750 350 400 370 250 480 470 290 530 430 380 470 510 440 700 690 700 890 910 900 r=15cm Total water, ( ml ) 0 980 1730 2080 2480 2850 3100 3580 4050 4340 4870 5300 5680 6150 6660 7100 7800 8490 9190 10080 10990 11890

vol./3.14*r2
Height (cm) 0.00 1.39 1.06 0.49 0.57 0.52 0.35 0.68 0.66 0.41 0.75 0.61 0.54 0.66 0.72 0.62 0.99 0.98 0.99 1.26 1.29 1.27 Infilt.rate, cm/hr 0.00 83.15 31.82 14.85 6.79 6.28 4.24 4.07 3.99 2.46 3.00 2.43 2.15 1.99 2.16 1.87 1.98 1.95 1.98 1.89 1.93 1.91 Cumulative Infilt. 0 83.15 114.97 129.82 136.61 142.88 147.13 151.20 155.19 157.65 160.65 163.08 165.23 167.22 169.39 171.25 173.23 175.18 177.16 179.05 180.98 182.89

90.0 Infiltration rate (cm/hrs) 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0 0 50

Infiltration study

100

150 200 250 Time (minute)

300

350

400

Plot -2
Date 19.06.2012 Time interval (minutes) 0 1 2 2 5 5 5 10 10 10 15 15 15 20 20 20 30 30 30 40 40 40 Cumulative Time 0 1 3 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 65 80 95 115 135 155 185 215 245 285 325 365 Water infiltrate ( ml ) 0 790 720 390 750 600 590 1000 770 800 960 900 900 1000 1000 1000 1500 1500 1485 1500 1900 1970 r=15cm Total water, ( ml ) 0 790 1510 1900 2650 3250 3840 4840 5610 6410 7370 8270 9170 10170 11170 12170 13670 15170 16655 18155 20055 22025

vol./3.14*r2
Height 0.00 1.12 1.02 0.55 1.06 0.85 0.83 1.41 1.09 1.13 1.36 1.27 1.27 1.41 1.41 1.41 2.12 2.12 2.10 2.12 2.69 2.79 Infilt.rate, cm/hr 0.00 67.03 30.55 16.55 12.73 10.18 10.01 8.48 6.53 6.79 5.43 5.09 5.09 4.24 4.24 4.24 4.24 4.24 4.20 3.18 4.03 4.18 Cumulative Infilt. 0 67.03 97.58 114.12 126.85 137.03 147.04 155.53 162.06 168.85 174.28 179.37 184.46 188.70 192.95 197.19 201.43 205.67 209.87 213.05 217.08 221.26

AxInfiltration rate (cm/hrs)

Infiltration S tudy
8 .0 0 7 .0 0 6 .0 0 5 .0 0 4 .0 0 3 .0 0 2 .0 0 1 .0 0 0 .0 0 5 0 10 0 10 5 20 0 20 5 30 0 30 5 40 0

Tim (m e inutes )