Final Without MDTC

Direct Torque Control of Induction Motor
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS i
ABSTRACT iii
LIST OF SYMBOLS v
LIST OF FIGURES vii
LIST OF TABLES ix
1. LITERATURE SURVEY 1
2. INTRODUCTION 3
3. INDUCTION MACHINE MODEL 7
3.1 CIRCUIT MODEL OF A THREE PHASE INDUCTION MACHINE
7
3.2 DYNAMIC d-q MODEL 9
3.3 AXES TRANSFORMATION 10
3.4 SYNCHRONOUSLY RATATING REFERENCE FRAME-DYNAMIC MODEL 14
3.5 STATIONARY FRAME DYNAMIC MODEL 20
3.6 DYNAMIC MODEL STATE SPACE EQUATIONS 21
4. FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL 25
4.1 DIRECT FIELD ORIENTED CURRENT CONTROL
27
4.2 INDIRECT FIELD ORIENTATION METHODS
30

5. COMPARISON OF VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES 32
5.1 DC MOTOR DRIVES
32
5.1.1 FEATURES
32
5.1.2 ADVANTAGES
33
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5.1.3 DRAWBACKS
33
5.2 AC DRIVES-INTRODUCTION
34
5.2.1 AC DRIVES-FREQUENCY CONTROL USING PWM
34
5.2.1.1 FEATURES 34
5.2.1.2 ADVANTAGES 35
5.2.1.3 DRAWBACKS 35
5.2.2 AC DRIVES-FLUX VECTOR CONTROL USING PWM 36
5.2.2.1 FEATURES 36
5.2.2.2 ADVANTAGES 37
5.2.2.3 DRAWBACKS 37
5.2.3 AC DRIVES- DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL 38
5.2.3.1 CONTROLLING VARIABLES 38
5.3 COMPARIAON OF VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES
39
6 DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL(DTC) 41
6.1 TORQUE EXPRESSIONS WITH STATOR AND ROTOR FLUXES
41
6.2 CONTROL STRATEGY OF DTC
43
6.3 SIMULATION USING MATLAB
47
SUMMARY 56
CONCLUSION 58
REFERENCES 59
APPENDIX-A 61
APPENDIX-B 65
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ABSTRACT
At present, induction motors are the dominant drives in various industries around the
world, owing to their rugged construction and easy maintenance. However, it is quite
cumbersome to control an induction motor because of its poor dynamic response in
comparison to the DC motor drives. Consequent to the painstaking research put in by
Power Electronic engineers around the globe, the dynamic response of an induction motor
is brought on par to that of a separately excited DC motor drive.
Earlier, scalar controlled drives such as a simple V/Hz control is used to control the
induction motor. While this method is simple to implement, it results in a poor dynamic
response of the torque developed by the motor. In 1971, Blaschke had shown that it is, in
principle, possible to derive a DC-motor like response from an induction motor by resorting
to the Vector control. The central theme of vector control is to decouple the stator current
of the induction motor into two orthogonal components and is to control these two
components individually so as to achieve an independent control of flux and torque of the
induction motor. Though this method imparts a much better elegance to the dynamics of
induction motors, it required a very complex processing of signals. Interest in the
implementation of vector control was renewed with the advancements in technology, such
as Digital Signal Processors, as they facilitated an easy and flexible control.
However, the vector control is still very complex to implement. This motivated
engineers to look for alternative solutions for an enhanced performance with a little
computational overhead on the digital control platform. As a consequence of the
perseverant efforts of various research engineers, an improvised scalar method known as
Direct Torque Control (DTC) was invented. This method considerably alleviates the
computational burden on the control platform while giving a performance which is
comparable to that of a vector controlled drive.
With the DTC scheme employing a Voltage Source Inverter (VSI), it is possible to
control directly the stator flux linkage and the electromagnetic torque by the optimum
selection of inverter switching vectors. The selection of inverter switching vector is made
National Institute of Technology, Warangal Page iii

to restrict the flux and torque errors within the respective flux and torque hysteresis bands.
This achieves a fast torque response, low inverter switching frequency and low harmonic
losses. The modeling and simulation of an induction motor drive employing DTC is
performed and the results are reported.
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LIST OF SYMBOLS
SUBSCRIPTS:-
a, b,c => for respective phase sequence components.
s, r => for respective stator and rotor quantities.
e.g.
as
v is Phase a voltage of stator winding.
q ,d => For respective quadrature and direct axis components.
e.g.
qr
i is quadrature axis component if rotor current.
0 => For Zero-sequence components.
e.g.
s
v
0
Is the zero-sequence of the stator current.
l => For leakage quantity.
e.g.
ls
L leakage inductance of stator winding.
em => For electromagnetic.
e.g. T
em
is the electromagnetic torque developed by the machine.
sl => slip quantity.
e.g
sl
is the slip speed of the induction motor.
b => For base quantities.
e.g. I
b
is the base current.
m => For the magnetizing quantity.
e.g. L
sl
is the stator leakage inductance.
SUPERSCRIPTS:-
s => For these quantities in stationary reference frame.
e.g .
s
qr
v is the quadrature axis component rotor voltage in stationary
reference frame.
r => For the quantities in rotor reference frame.
e.g.
r
ds
i is the direct axis component stator current in rotor reference frame.
e => For the quantities in synchronously rotating reference frame.
e.g
e
qs
v is the quadrature axis component stator voltage in
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Synchronously rotating reference frame.
(dash) => For the rotor quantities referred to stationary side.
e.g.
e
dr
i
'
is the direct axis component stator current in
Synchronously rotating reference frame as referred to stator side.
* (star) => For the reference input quantity in simulation.
e.g.
*
bm
is the reference speed input in the simulation of indirect vector
control drive.
abc => For the matrix notation of any a,b,c phase quantities.
e.g.
abc
s
v is the column matrix vector of the phase voltages respective a, b, c
Windings.
qd0 => For the matrix notation of any q,d,0 axis quantities.
e.g.
0 qd
r
i
is the column matrix vector of the respective q,d,0 axis currents
windings.
SYMBOLS:-
V: - Voltage in Volts
i :- Current in Ampere
z :- Impedance in Ohm
r :- Resistance in Ohm
:- Flux linkages in Wb.turn
L :- Inductance in Henry
x :- Reactance in Ohms
:- Flux linkages in Volts
:- Angular speed in rad / sec
T :- Torque in Nm
P
in
:- Power in Watts
p :- Differential operator.
P :- No. of Poles.
n :- stator to rotor turns ratio.
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 3-1: PER PHASE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF INDUCTION MOTOR 8
FIGURE 3-1: (A) COUPLING EFFECT IN THREE-PHASE STATOR AND ROTOR WINDINGS OF
MOTOR (B) EQUIVALENT TWO-PHASE MACHINE 9
FIGURE 3-2: STATIONARY FRAME A~B~C TO D
S
~Q
S
AXES TRANSFORMATION 11
FIGURE 3-3: STATIONARY FRAME D
S
- Q
S
TO SYNCHRONOUSLY ROTATING FRAME D
E
- Q
E
TRANSFORMATION 13
FIGURE 3-4: DYNAMIC D
E
-Q
E
EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF MACHINE (A) Q
E
AXIS
CIRCUIT, (B) D
E
AXIS CIRCUIT
16
FIGURE 3-5: COMPLEX SYNCHRONOUS FRAME DQS EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
17
FIGURE 3-6: FLUX AND CURRENT VECTORS D
E -
Q
E
FRAME 19
FIGURE 3-7: SYNCHRONOUSLY ROTATING FRAME MACHINE MODELS WITH INPUT
VOLTAGE AND OUTPUT CURRENT TRANSFORMATIONS 19
FIGURE 3-8: D
S
Q
S
EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS 20
FIGURE 3-9: COMPLEX STATIONARY FRAMES WITH DQ
S
EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS 22
FIGURE 4-10: PROPERLY ORIENTED QD SYNCHRONOUSLY REFERENCE 27
FIGURE 4-11: DIRECT FIELD-ORIENTED CONTROL OF A CURRENT REGULATED PWM
INVERTER INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVE. 28
FIGURE 4-12: INDIRECT FIELD-ORIENTED CONTROL OF A CURRENT REGULATED
INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVE
31
FIGURE 5-1: CONTROL LOOP OF A DC MOTOR DRIVE 32
FIGURE 5-2: CONTROL LOOP OF AN AC DRIVE WITH FREQUENCY CONTROL 34
FIGURE 5-3: CONTROL LOOP OF AC DRIVE WITH FLUX VECTOR CONTROL 36
FIGURE 5-4: CONTROL LOOP OF AN AC DRIVE USING DTC 38
FIGURE 5-5: CONTROL LOOP OF A DC DRIVE 39
FIGURE 5-6: CONTROL LOOP WITH FREQUENCY CONTROL 39
FIGURE 5-7: CONTROL LOOP WITH FLUX VECTOR CONTROL 39
FIGURE 5-8: CONTROL LOOP OF AN AC DRIVE USING DTC 39
FIGURE 6-13: STATOR FLUX, ROTOR FLUX, AND STATOR CURRENT VECTORS ON DS-QS
PLANE (STATOR RESISTANCE NEGLECTED) 42
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FIGURE 6-2: DIRECT TORQUE AND FLUX CONTROL BLOCK DIAGRAM. 44
FIGURE 6-3: (A) TRAJECTORY OF STATOR FLUX VECTOR IN DTC CONTROL, (B) INVERTER
VOLTAGE VECTORS. 45
FIGURE 6-5 TO 6-22 SIMULATION RESULTS 49
FIGURES B-1 TO B-13: SIMULINK BLOCKS 62
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 5-1: COMPARISON OF CONTROL VARIABLES 40
TABLE 6-1: SWITCHING TABLE OF INVERTER VOLTAGE VECTORS 46
TABLE 6-2: FLUX AND TORQUE VARIATIONS DUE TO APPLIED VOLTAGE VECTOR IN
(ARROW INDICATES MAGNITUDE AND DIRECTION) 46
TABLE 6-3: BEHAVIOR OF EACH STATE JUST IN THE FIRST ZONE FOR THE CLASSICAL DTC
AND THE MODIFIED DTC 48
TABLE 6-4: THE M_DTC LOOK UP TABLE FOR ALL ITS SIX SECTORS 49
TABLE 6-5: BEHAVIOR OF EACH STATE JUST IN THE FIRST ZONE FOR THE CLASSICAL DTC
AND THE MODIFIED DTC 50
National Institute of Technology, Warangal Page ix
1. LITERATURE SURVEY
Most of the industrial motor applications use AC induction motors. The reasons for
this include high robustness, reliability, low price and high efficiency. Industries have many
applications, where variable operating speed is a prime requirement. Principal benefits of
variable speed drives in industrial applications are that they allow the drive speed and
torque to be adjusted to suit the process requirements. In many applications, operating the
plant at a reduced speed when full output is not needed produces a further important
benefit: energy savings and reduced cost. Plant wear and hence, maintenance requirements,
are also minimized by operation at reduced speed. The various methods of speed control
of squirrel cage induction motor through semiconductor devices are given in [1, 2 and 4] as
under:
1. Scalar control.
2. Vector control (Field-Oriented Control, FOC).
3. Direct Torque Control (DTC).
4. Fuzzy based control.
Constant voltage/hertz control is one of the popular methods for speed control of
induction motor. This aims at maintaining the same terminal voltage to frequency ratio so
as to give nearly constant flux over wide range of speed variation. In this control scheme,
the performance of machine improves in the steady state only, but the transient response is
poor. More over Constant voltage/hertz control keeps the stator flux linkage constant in
steady state with out maintaining decoupling between the flux and torque [1].
In 1971, Blaschke propose a scheme which aims as the control of an induction
motor like a separately excited dc motor, called field oriented control, vector control, or
Trans vector control [4]. In this scheme the induction motor analyzed from a synchronously
rotating reference frame where all fundamental variables appears to be dc ones. The torque
and flux component of currents are identified and controlled independently to achieve good
dynamic response [4]. However there is a necessity of transforming the variables in the
synchronously rotating reference frame to stator reference frame to affect the control of
actual currents/voltages [4]. This transformation contains transcendental functions like sine
cosine and also introduces computational complexity into the system. Additionally the
transformation also needs the approximate flux vector angle, where is either calculated slip
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angle and measured rotor angle as indirect vector control or by estimating the flux angle
directly by employing a flux observer as in direct vector control. Thus the accuracy of the
vector control governed by the accuracy with which flux angle is calculated and the rotating
reference frame variables are transformed into the stator variables [4].
Recently advanced control strategies for PWM inverter fed induction motor drives
have been developed based on the space vector approach, where the induction motor can be
directly and independently controlled with out any co-ordination transformation. One of the
emerging methods in this perspective is the direct torque and flux control. In DTFC, the
motor torque and the flux are calculated from the primary variables, and they are controlled
directly and independently by selecting optimum inverter switch modes. This selection is
made so as to restrict the errors of flux and torque with in hysteresis bands. This control
results in quick torque response in the transient operation and improvement in the steady
state efficiency. [5]
2. INTRODUCTION
The history of electrical motors goes back as far as 1820, when Hans Christian
Oersted discovered the magnetic effect of an electric current. One year later, Michael
Faraday discovered the electromagnetic rotation and built the first primitive D.C. motor.
Faraday went on to discover electromagnetic induction in 1831, but it was not until 1883
that Tesla invented the A.C. asynchronous motor.
Currently, the main types of electric motors are still te same, DC, AC asynchronous
and synchronous, all based on Oested, Faraday and Teslas theories developed and
discovered more than a hundred years ago.
Since its invention, the AC asynchronous motor, also names induction motor has
become the most widespread electrical motor in use today.
These facts are due to the induction motors advantages over the rest of the motors.
The main advantage is that induction motors do not require an electrical connection
between stationary and rotating parts of the motor. Therefore, they do not need any
mechanical commutator (brushes), leading to the fact that they are maintenance free
motors. Induction motors also have low weight and inertia, high efficiency and a high
overload capability. Therefore, they are cheaper and more robust, and less proves to any
failure at high speeds. Furthermore, the motor can work in explosive environments because
no sparks are produced.
Taking into account all the advantages outlined above, induction motors must be
considered the perfect electrical to mechanical energy converter. However, mechanical
energy is more than often required at variable speeds, where the speed control system is not
a trivial matter.
The only effective way of producing an infinitely variable induction motor speed
drive is to supply the induction motor with the three phase voltages of variable frequency
and variable amplitude. A variable frequency is required because the rotor speed depends
on the speed of the rotating magnetic field provided by the stator. A variable voltage is
required because the motor impedance reduces at low frequencies and consequently the
current has to be limited by means of reducing the supply voltages.
Before the days of power electronics, a limited speed control of induction motor
was achieved by switching the three-stator windings from delta connection to star
connection, allowing the voltage at the motor windings to be reduced. Induction motors
also available with more than three stator windings to allow a change of the number of pole
pairs. However, a motor with several windings is more expensive because more than three
connections to the motor are needed and only certain discrete speeds are available. Another
alternative method of speed control can be realized by means of a wound rotor induction
motor, where the rotor winding ends are brought out to slip rings. However, this method
obviously removes most of the advantages of induction motors and it also introduces
additional losses. By connecting resistors or reactance in series with the stator windings of
the induction motors, poor performance is achieved.
At that time the above described methods were the only ones available to control
the speed of induction motors, whereas infinitely variable speed drives with good
performances for DC motors already existed. These drives not only permitted the operation
in four quadrants but also covered a wide power range. Moreover, they had a good
efficiency, and with a suitable control even a good dynamic response. However, its main
drawback was the compulsory requirement of brushes.
With the enormous advances made in semiconductor technology during the last 20
years, the required conditions for developing a proper induction motor drive are present.
These conditions can be divided mainly in two groups:
1. The decreasing cost and improved performance in power electronic switching
devices.
2. The possibility of implementing complex algorithms in the new microprocessors.
However, one precondition had to be made, which was the development of suitable
methods to control the speed of induction motors, because in contrast to its mechanical
simplicity their complexity regarding their mathematical structure (multivariable and non-
linear) is not a trivial matter.
It is in this field, that considerable research effort is devoted. The aim being to find
even simpler methods of speed control for induction machines one method, which is
popular at the moment, is Direct Torque Control.
Historically, several controllers have been developed:
Scalar controllers: Despite the fact that Voltage-Frequency (V/f) is the simplest
controller, it is the most widespread, being in the majority of the industrial
applications. It is known as a scalar control and acts by imposing a constant relation
between voltage and frequency. The structure is very simple and it is normally used
without speed feedback. However, this controller does not achieve a good accuracy
in both speed and torque responses, mainly due to the fact that the stator flux and
torque are not directly controlled. Even though, as long as the parameters are
identified, the accuracy in the speed can be 2% (expect in a very low speed), and the
dynamic response can be approximately around 50ms.
Vector controllers: In these types of controllers, there are control loops for
controlling both the torque and the flux. The most widespread controllers of this
type are the ones that use vector transform such as either Park or Ku. Its accuracy
can reach values such as 0.5% regarding the speed and 2% regarding the torque,
even when at standstill. The main disadvantages are the huge computational
capability required and the compulsory good identification of the motor parameters.
Field Acceleration method: This method is based on maintaining the amplitude and
the phase of the stator current constant, whilst avoiding electromagnetic transients.
Therefore, the equations used can be simplified saving the vector transformation,
which occurs in vector controllers. This technique has achieved some computational
reduction, thus overcoming the main problem with vector controllers and allowing
this method to become an important alternative to vector controllers.
Direct Torque Control (DTC) has emerged over the last decade to become one possible
alternative to the well-known Vector Control of Induction machines. Its main characteristic
is the good performance, obtaining results as good as the classical vector control but with
several advantages based on its simpler structure and control diagram.
DTC is said to be one of the future ways of controlling the induction machine in four
quadrants. In DTC it is possible to control directly the stator flux and the torque by
selecting the appropriate inverter state.
DTC main features are as follows:
Direct control of flux and torque.
Indirect control of stator currents and voltages.
Approximately sinusoidal stator fluxes and stator currents.
High dynamic performance even at stand still.
The main advantages of DTC are:
Absence of co-ordinate transforms.
Absence of voltage modular block, as well as other controllers such as PID for
motor flux and torque.
Minimal torque response time, even better than the vector controllers.
However, some disadvantages are also present such as:
Possible problems during starting.
Requirement of torque and flux estimators, implying the consequent parameters
identification. .
Inherent torque and stator flux ripple.

Initially the theory of induction machine model is given. The understanding of this
model is mandatory to understand both the control strategies (i.e. FOC and DTC). The
theoretical details of vector control .This part will elaborately discuss the Vector control.
After this, comparison of variable speed drives is given. The analysis of Direct
Torque Control (DTC) strategy will take place. Then all these are followed by summary.
Finally the conclusion of all work is given.
3. INDUCTION MACHINE MODEL
The steady-state model and equivalent circuit are useful for studying the performance
of machine in steady state. This implies that all electrical transients are neglected during
load changes and stator frequency variations. Such variations arise in applications involving
variable-speed drives. The dynamic model considers the instantaneous effects of varying
voltages/currents, stator frequency and torque disturbances. The dynamic model of
induction motor is derived by using a two-phase motor in direct and quadrature axes. This
approach is desirable because of the conceptual simplicity obtained with the two sets of the
windings, one on the stator and the other on the rotor.
The equivalence between the three-phase and two-phase machine models is derived
from the simple observation, and this approach is suitable for extending it to model an n-
phase machine by means of a two phase machine. The concept of power invariance is
introduced: the power must be equal in the three-phase machine and its equivalent two-
phase model. The required transformation in voltages, currents, or flux linkages, is derived
in generalized way. The reference frames are chosen to arbitrary and particular cases such
as stationary, rotor, and synchronous reference frames, are simple instances of the general
case. Derivations for electromagnetic torque involving the currents and flux linkages are
given. The space-phasor model is derived is derived from the dynamic model in direct and
quadrature axes. The space-phasor model powerfully evokes the similarity and equivalence
between the induction machines and DC machines from the modeling and control points of
view.
3.1 CIRCUIT MODEL OF A THREE PHASE INDUCTION MACHINE
(EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT)
A simple per phase equivalent circuit model of an induction motor is very
important tool for the analysis and performance prediction at steady-state condition. The
Figure 3.1 shows the development of a per phase transformer-like equivalent circuit. The
synchronous rotating air gap flux generates a counter emf (CEMF) V
m
, which is then
converted to slip voltage
m r
nSV V
in rotor phase, where n = rotor-to stator turns ratio
and S = per unit slip. The stator terminal voltage V
s
differs from voltage V
m
by the drops
in stator resistance R
s
and stator leakage inductance L
ls
. The excitation current I
0
consists of
two components: a core loss component I
c
=V
m
/R
m
and a magnetizing component
Im=V
m
/
e
L
m
, where R
m
= equivalent resistance for core loss and Lm = magnetizing
inductance.
Figure 3-14: Per phase equivalent circuit of induction motor
The rotor-induced voltage
'
r
V
causes rotor current
'
r
I
at slip frequency
sl
,which is
limited by the rotor resistance
'
r
R
and the leakage reactance
'
lr sl
L
.The stator current I
s
consists of excitation component I
0
and the rotor-reflected current
r
I
.Figure 3.1(b) shows
the equivalent circuit with respect to the stator, where I r is given as

' '
2
'
lr sl r
m
r r
L j R
SV n
nI I
+

' '
lr sl r
m
L j R
V
+

and parameters R
r
(R
'
r
/ n
2)
and L
lr
(=L
'
lr
/n
2
) are referred to the stator. At standstill, S=1,
and therefore, Figure 3.1(b) corresponds to the short-circuited transformer Equivalent
circuit. At synchronous speed, S=0, current I
r
=0 and the machine takes excitation current
I
0
only. At any sub synchronous speed, 0<S<1.0, and with a small value of S, the rotor
current I
r
is principally influenced by the ( R
r
/S >>
lr e
L ) parameter.
3.2 DYNAMIC d-q MODEL
The following assumptions are made to derive the dynamic model:
(i) uniform air gap;
(ii) balanced rotor and stator windings, with sinusoidal distributed mmf;
(iii) inductance vs. rotor position in sinusoidal; and
(iv) Saturation and parameter changes are neglected
The dynamic performance of an ac machine is somewhat complex because the
three-phase rotor windings move with respect to the three-phase stator windings as shown
in Figure 3.2(a).
Figure 3-15: (a) Coupling effect in three-phase stator and rotor windings of motor,(b) Equivalent two-
phase machine
Basically, it can be looked on as a transformer with a moving secondary, where the
coupling coefficients between the stator and rotor phases change continuously with the
change of rotor position
r
correspond to rotor direct and quadrature axes. The machine
model can be described by differential equations with time-varying mutual inductances, but
such a model tends to be very complex. Note that a three-phase machine can be represented
by an equivalent two-phase machine as shown in Figure 3.2(b), where d
s
~q
s
correspond to stator direct and quadrature axes, and d
r
~q
r

Although it is somewhat simple, the problem of time-varying parameters still
remains. R.H. Park, in the 1920s, proposed a new theory of electric machine analysis to
solve this problem. He formulated a change of variables which, in effect, replaced the
variables (voltages, currents and flux linkages) associated with the stator windings of a
synchronous machine with variables associated with fictitious windings rotating with the
rotor at synchronous speed. Essentially, he transformed or referred, the stator variables to a
synchronously rotating reference frame fixed in the rotor. With such a transformation
(called Parks transformation), he showed that all the time-varying inductances that occur
due to an electric circuit in relative motion and electric circuits with varying magnetic
reluctances can be eliminated. Later, in the 1930s, H. C. Stanley showed that time- varying
inductances in the voltage equations of an induction machine due to electric circuits in
relative motion can be eliminated by transforming the rotor variables to variables
associated with fictitious stationary windings. In this case, the rotor variables are
transformed to a stationary reference frame fixed on the stator. Later, G. Kron proposed a
transformation of both stator and rotor variables to a synchronously rotating reference
frame that moves with the rotating magnetic field. D. S. Brereton proposed a transformation
of stator variables to a rotating reference frame that is fixed on the rotor. In fact, it was
shown later by Krause and Thomas that time-varying inductances can be eliminated by
referring the stator and rotor variables to a common reference frame which may rotate at
any speed (arbitrary reference frame).
3.3 AXES TRANSFORMATION
Consider a symmetrical three-phase induction machine with stationary as-bs-cs axes
at 2/3-angle apart, as shown in Figure 3.3. Our goal is to transform the three-phase
stationary reference frame (as bs cs) variables into two-phase stationary reference frame
(d
s
~q
s
) variables and then transform these to synchronously rotating reference frame
(d
e
~q
e
), and vice-versa.
Figure 3-16: Stationary frame a~b~c to d
s
~q
s
axes transformation
Assume that the d
e

q
e.
Axes
are
oriented at angle, as shown in Figure 3.3. The voltages
s
ds
V and
s
qs
V
can be resolved into as bs cs components and can be represented in the
matrix form as

1
1
1
]
1
cs
bs
as
V
V
V
=
1
1
1
]
1
+ +

1 ) 120 sin( ) 120 cos(
1 ) 120 sin( ) 120 cos(
1 sin cos
0 0
0 0

1
1
1
]
1
s
os
s
ds
s
qs
V
V
V
(3.1)
The corresponding inverse relation is

1
1
1
]
1
s
os
s
ds
s
qs
V
V
V
=
3
2
1
1
1
]
1
+
+
5 . 0 5 . 0 5 . 0
) 120 sin( ) 120 sin( sin
) 120 cos( ) 120 cos( cos
0 0
0 0

1
1
1
]
1
cs
bs
as
V
V
V
(3.2)
Where
s
os
V is added as the zero sequence component, which may or may not be present.
We have considered voltage as the variable. The current and flux linkages can be
transformed by similar equations. It is convenient to set = 0, so that the q
s
axis is
aligned with the as-axis. Ignoring the zero sequence components, the transformation
relations can be simplified as

s
qs as
V V
(3.3)

s
ds
s
qs bs
V V V
2
3
2
1
(3.4)

s
ds
s
qs cs
V V V
2
3
2
1
+ (3.5)
And inversely

as cs bs as
s
qs
V V V V V
3
1
3
1
3
2
(3.6)

cs bs
s
ds
V V V
3
1
3
1
+
(3.7)
Figure 3.4 shows the synchronously rotating d
e
- q
e
, which rotate at synchronous speed
e

with respect to the d
s
-q
s
axes and the angle
. t
e e

the two-phase d
e
- q
s
windings are
transformed into the hypothetical windings mounted on the d
e
-q
e
axes. The voltages on the
d
s
-q
s
axes can be converted (or resolved) into the d
e
-q
e
frame as follows:

e
s
ds e
s
qs qs
V V V sin cos
(3.8)

e
s
ds e
s
qs ds
V V V cos sin +
(3.9)
For convenience, the superscript e has been dropped from now on from the
synchronously rotating frame parameters. Again, resolving the rotating frame parameters
into a stationary frame, the relations are

e ds e qs
s
qs
V V V sin cos +
(3.10)

e ds e qs
s
ds
V V V cos sin +
(3.11)
As an example, assume that the three-phase stator voltages are sinusoidal and balanced, and
are given by
) cos( + t V V
e m as
(3.12)
)
3
2
cos(
+ t V V
e m bs
(3.13)
)
3
2
cos(
+ + t V V
e m cs
(3.14)
Substituting Equations (3.12) - (3.14) in (3.6) - (3.7) yields
) cos( + t V V
e m
s
qs
(3.15)
) sin( + t V V
e m
s
ds
(3.16)
Again, substituting Equations (3.8) - (3.9) in (3.15) - (3.16), we get
cos
m qs
V V
(3.17)
sin
m ds
V V
(3.18)
Figure 3-17: Stationary frame d
s
- q
s
to synchronously rotating frame de - q
e
transformation

Equations (3.15) - (3.16) show that
s
qs
V
and
s
ds
V are balanced, two-phase voltages of equal
peak values and the latter is at /2 angle phase lead with respect to the other component.
Equations (3.17) - (3.18) verify that sinusoidal variables in a stationary frame appear as dc
quantities in a synchronously rotating reference frame. Note that the stator variables are not
necessarily balanced sinusoidal waves. In fact, they can be any arbitrary time functions.
The variables in a reference frame can be combined and represented by a complex space
vector (or phasor). For example, from Equations (3.15) - (3.16),

[ ]
) (
2
) sin( ) cos(

+
+ + +

e
e e
j
s
t j j
m
e e m
s
ds
s
qs
s
qds
e V
e V
t j t V
jV V V V
(3.19)
Which indicates that the vector V rotates counter-clockwise at speed
e
from the initial (t

= 0) angle of
to the q
e
- axis. Equation (3.19) also indicates that for a sinusoidal
variable, the vector magnitude is the peak value (
m
V
) which is 2 times the rms phasor

magnitude (V
s
).The q
e
-d
e
components can also be combined into a vector form:

e e
j j s
ds
s
qs
e
s
ds e
s
qs e
s
ds e
s
qs ds qs
e
qds
e V e jV V
V V j V V jV V V

+
) (
) cos sin ( ) sin cos (
(3.20)
Or inversely
e
j
ds qs
s
ds
s
qs
e jV V jV V V
+
) (
(3.21)
Note that the vector magnitudes in stationary and rotating frames are equal, that is,
2 2
ds qs m
V V V V + (3.22)
The factor
e
j
e

may be interpreted as a vector rotational operator (defined as a vector rotator
(VR) or unit vector) that converts rotating frame variables into stationary frame variables.
Cos
e
and sin
e
are the Cartesian components of the unit vector. In Equation (3.20),
e
j
e

is
defined as the inverse vector rotator (VR-1) that converts d
s
-q
s
variables into d
e
- q
e
variables. The vector V and its components projected on rotating and stationary axes are
shown in Figure 3.4. The as-bs-cs variables can also be expressed in vector form.
Substituting Equations (3.6) (3.7) into (3.19)

[ ]
cs bs as
cs bs cs bs as
s
ds
s
qs
V a aV V
V V j V V V
jV V V
2
3
2
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
2
+ +
,
_
,
_

(3.23)
Where a=e
j 2 / 3
and a
2
= e
-j 2 / 3
. The parameters a and a
2
can be interpreted as unit
vectors aligned to the respective bs and cs axes of the machine, and the reference axis
also corresponds to the v
as
- axis. Similar transformations can be made for rotor circuit
variables also.
3.4 SYNCHRONOUSLY ROTATING REFERENCE FRAME - DYNAMIC
MODEL
For the two-phase machine shown in Figure 3.2(b), we need to represent both d
s
-q
s
and d
r
q
r
circuits and their variables in a synchronously rotating d
e
-q
e
frame. We can write
the following stator circuit equations:
s
qs
s
qs s
s
qs
dt
d
I R V + (3.24)
s
ds
s
ds s
s
ds
dt
d
I R V + (3.25)
Where
s
qs
and
s
ds
are q- axis and d-axis stator flux linkages, respectively. When these
equations are converted to d
e
-q
e
frame, the following equations can be written:
ds e qs qs s qs
dt
d
I R V + + (3.26)
qs e ds ds s ds
dt
d
I R V + (3.27)
Where all the variables are in rotating form the last term in Equations (3.26) and (3.27)
can be defined as speed emf due to rotation of the axes, that is, when
e
=0, the equations

revert to stationary form. Note that the flux linkages in the d
e
and q
e
axes induce emf in the
d
e
and q
e
axes, respectively, with /2 angle lead.
If the rotor is not moving, that is, 0
r
, the rotor equations for a doubly fed wound-rotor
machine will be similar to Equations (3.26) - (3.27):
dr e qr qr r qr
dt
d
i R V + + (3.28)
qr e dr dr r dr
dt
d
i R V + (3.29)
where all the variables and parameters are referred to the stator. Since the rotor actually
moves at speed
r
, the d - q axes fixed on the rotor move at a speed
e
-
r
relative to the
synchronously rotating frame. Therefore, in d
e
q
e
frame, the rotor equations should be
modified.
dr r e qr qr r qr
dt
d
i R V ) ( + + (3.30)
qr r e dr dr r dr
dt
d
i R V
)
( + (3.31)
Figure 3.5 shows the d
e
-q
e
dynamic model equivalent circuits that satisfy Equations (3.26) -
(3.27) and (3.30) - (3.31). A special advantage of the d
e
-q
e
dynamic model of the machine
is that all the sinusoidal variables in stationary frame appear as dc quantities in synchronous
frame. The flux linkage expressions in terms of the currents can be written from Figure 3.5
as follows:
) (
qr qs m qs ls qs
i i L i L + +
(3.32)
) (
qr qs m qr lr qr
i i L i L + +
(3.33)
) (
qr qs m qm
i i L +
(3.34)
Figure
3-18:
Dynamic d
e
-q
e
equivalent circuits of machine (a) q
e
axis circuit, (b) d
e
axis circuit
) (
dr ds m ds ls ds
i i L i L + + (3.35)
) (
dr ds m dr lr dr
i i L i L + + (3.36)
) (
dr ds m dm
i i L + (3.37)
Combining the above expressions with Equations (3.26), (3.27), (3.30) and (3.31), the
electrical transient model in terms of voltages and currents can be given in matrix form as
1
1
1
1
]
1
1
1
1
1
]
1
+
+
+
+
1
1
1
1
1
]
1
dr
qr
ds
qs
r r r r e m m r e
r r e r r m r e m
m m e s s s e
m e m s e s s
dr
qr
ds
qs
i
i
i
i
SL R L SL L
L SL R L SL
SL L SL R L
L SL L SL R
V
V
V
V
) ( ) (
) ( ) (

(3.38).
where S is the Laplace operator. For a singly fed machine, such as a cage motor, V
rq
=
Vdr= 0.
If the speed
r
is considered constant (infinite inertia load), the electrical dynamics of
the machine are given by a fourth-order linear system. Then, knowing the inputs v
sq
, v
sd
and
e
, the currents i
qs
, i
ds,
i
qr
and i
dr can
be solved from Equation (3.38). If the machine is
fed by current source, i
qs
, i
ds
and
e
are independent. Then, the dependent variables v
sq,
v
sd,
i
qr
and idr

can be solved from Equation (3.38).
The speed
r
in Equation (3.38) cannot normally be treated as a constant. It can be
related to the torques as
dt
d
J
P
T
dt
d
J T T
r
L
m
L e
2
+ + (3.39)
Where T
L
= load torque, J = rotor inertia, and
m
= mechanical speed.
Often, for compact representation, the machine model and equivalent circuits are expressed
in complex form. Multiplying Equation (3.27) by j and adding with Equation (3.26) gives
) ( ) ( ) (
ds qs e ds qs ds qs s ds qs
j j j
dt
d
ji i R jV V + + (3.40)
Or
qds r e qds qds s qds
j
dt
d
i R V ) ( + + (3.41)
Where v
qds,
i
qds,
etc. are complex vectors (the superscript e has been omitted). Similarly, the
rotor equations (3.30)-(3.31) can be combined to represent
qdr r e qdr qdr r qdr
j
dt
d
i R V ) ( + + (3.42)
Figure 3.6 shows the complex equivalent circuit in rotating frame where v
qdr
=0. Note that
the steady-state equations can always be derived by substituting the time derivative
components to zero. Therefore from Equations (3.41) - (3.42), the steady-state equations
can be derived as
s e s s s
j I R V +
(3.43)
r e r
r
j I
S
R
+ 0 (3.44)
where the complex vectors have been substituted by the corresponding rms phasors. These
equations satisfy the steadystate equivalent circuit shown in Figure 3.1 if the parameter R
m
is neglected. We know that

sin
2 2
3
r m e
I
P
T

,
_
(3.45)
Figure 3-19: Complex synchronous frame dqs equivalent circuit
From Equation (3.45), the torque can be generally expressed in the vector form as
r m e
I x
P
T
,
_
2 2
3
(3.46)
Resolving the variables into d
e
q
e
components, as shown in Figure 3.7

dr qm qr dm e
I i
P
T
,
_
2 2
3
(3.47)
Some other torque expressions can be derived easily as follows:
ds qm qs dm e
I i
P
T
,
_
2 2
3
(3.48)

ds qs qs ds e
I i
P
T
,
_
2 2
3
(3.49)

) (
2 2
3
qr ds dr qs m e
i i i i L
P
T
,
_
(3.50
) (
2 2
3
dr qr qr dr e
I i
P
T
,
_
(3.51)
Equations (3.38), (3.39), and (3.50) give the complete model of the electro-mechanical
dynamics of an induction machine in synchronous frame. The composite system is of the
fifth order and nonlinearity of the model is evident. Figure 3.8 shows the block diagram of
the machine model along with input voltage and output current transformation
Figure 3-20: Flux and current vectors d
e -
q
e
frame
Figure 3-21: Synchronously rotating frame machine models with input voltage and output current
transformations
3.5 STATIONARY FRAME DYNAMIC MODEL
The dynamic machine model in the stationary frame can be derived by
substituting
0
e
in the Equation (3.38) or in (3.26), (3.27), (3.30) and (3.31).The

corresponding stationary frame equations are given as
s
qs
s
qs s
s
qs
dt
d
i R V + (3.52)
s
ds
s
ds s
s
ds
dt
d
i R V + (3.53)
s
dr r
s
qr
s
qr r
dt
d
i R + 0 (3.54)
s
qr r
s
dr
s
dr r
dt
d
i R + + 0 (3.55)
(a) q
s
circuit (b) ds circuit
Figure 3-22: d
s
q
s
equivalent circuits
Where v
qr
=v
dr
=0. Figure 3.9 shows the corresponding equivalent circuits. As mentioned
before, in the stationary frame, the variables appear as sine waves in steady state with
sinusoidal inputs. The torque equations (3.47) - (3.51) can also be written with the
corresponding variables in stationary frame as
s
dr
s
qm
s
qr
s
dm e
i i
P
T
,
_
2 2
3
(3.56)
s
ds
s
qm
s
qs
s
dm e
i i
P
T
,
_
2 2
3
(3.57)
s
ds
s
qs
s
qs
s
ds e
i i
P
T
,
_
2 2
3
(3.58)
) (
2 2
3
s
qr
s
ds
s
dr
s
ds m e
i i i i L
P
T
,
_
(3.59)
) (
2 2
3
s
dr
s
qr
s
qr
s
dr e
i i
P
T
,
_
(3.60)
Equations (3.24) - (3.25) and (3.54) - (3.55) can easily be continued to derive the complex
model as
s
qds
s
qds s
s
qds
dt
d
i R V + (3.61)
s
qdr r
s
qdr
s
qds r
j
dt
d
i R + 0 (3.62)
s
ds
s
qs
s
qds
jV V V
,
s
ds
s
qs
s
qds
j
,
s
ds
s
qs
s
qds
ji i i
,
s
dr
s
qr
s
qdr
j
etc. The complex
equivalent circuit in stationary frame is shown in Figure 3.10(a). Often, a per phase
equivalent circuit with CEMF (
r r
) and sinusoidal variables is described in the form of
Figure 3.10(b) omitting the parameter L
m
.
3.6 DYNAMIC MODEL STATE SPACE EQUATIONS
The dynamic machine model in state-space format is important for transient analysis,
particularly for computer simulation study. Although the rotating frame model is
generally preferred the stationary frame model can also be used. The electrical variables in
the model can be chosen as fluxes, currents or a mixture of both. In this section, we will
derive state space equations of the machine in rotating frame with flux linkages as the main
variables.
Lets define the flux linkage variables as follows:
qs b qs
F
(3.63)
qr b qr
F
(3.64)
ds b ds
F (3.65)
dr b dr
F (3.66)
Where
b
= base frequency of the machine.

Figure 3-23: Complex stationary frames with dq
s
equivalent circuits
Substituting the above relations in (3.26) - (3.27) and (3.30) - (3.31), we can write
ds
b
e
qs
b
qs s qs
F
dt
dF
i R v
+ +
1
(3.67)
qs
b
e ds
b
ds s ds
F
dt
dF
i R v
+ +
1
(3.68)
dr
b
r e
qr
b
qr r
F
dt
dF
i R
) ( 1
0

+ +
(3.69)
qr
b
r e dr
b
dr r
F
dt
dF
i R
) ( 1
0

+ +
(3.70)
where it is assumed that vqr = vdr = 0.
Multiplying equations (3.32) - (3.37) by
b
on both sides, the flux linkage expressions can

be written as
) (
qr qs m qs ls qs b qs
i i X i X F + +
(3.71)
) (
qr qs m qr lr b
i i X i X r Fr + +
(3.72)
) (
qr qs m qm b qm
i i X F +
(3.73)
) (
dr ds m ds ls ds b ds
i i X i X F + +
(3.74)
) (
dr ds m dr lr dr b dr
i i X i X F + +
(3.75)
) (
dr ds m dm b dm
i i X F +
(3.76)
Where X
ls
=
b
L
ls
, X
lr
=
b
L
lr,
and

X
m
=
b
L
m,
or
qm qs ls qs
F i X F +
(3.77)
qm qr lr qr
F i X F +
(3.78)
dm ds ls ds
F i X F +
(3.79)
dm dr lr dr
F i X F +
(3.80)
From Equations (3.77) - (3.80) the currents can be expressed in terms of the flux linkages
as
ls
qm qs
qs
X
F F
i

(3.81)
lr
qm qr
qr
X
F F
i

(3.82)
ls
dm ds
ds
X
F F
i

(3.83)
lr
dm dr
dr
X
F F
i

(3.84)
Substituting Equations (3.81) - (3.84) in (3.77) - (3.78), respectively, the F
qm
expression is
given as
1
]
1
lr
qm qr
ls
qm qs
m qm
X
F F
X
F F
X F
(3.85)
Or
1
]
1
+
lr
qr
ls
qs
m qm
X
F
X
F
X F
1
(3.86)
Where
,
_
+ +
lr ls m
m
X X X
X
1 1 1
1
1
(3.87)
Similar derivation can be made for F
dm
as follows
1
]
1
+
lr
dr
ls
ds
m dm
X
F
X
F
X F
1
(3.88)
Substituting the current equations (3.81) - (3.84) into the voltage equations (3.67) - (3.70)
ds
b
e
qs
b
qm qs
ls
s
qs
F
dt
dF
F F
X
R
v
+ +
1
) (
(3.89)
qs
b
e ds
b
dm ds
ls
s
ds
F
dt
dF
F F
X
R
v
+
1
) (
(3.90)
dr
b
r e
qr
b
qm qr
lr
r
F
dt
dF
F F
X
R
) ( 1
) ( 0

+ +
(3.91)
qr
b
r e dr
b
dm dr
lr
r
F
dt
dF
F F
X
R
) ( 1
) ( 0

+ +
(3.92)
which can be expressed in state-space form as
1
]
1
) (
qm qs
ls
s
ds
b
e
qs b
qs
F F
X
R
F v
dt
dF
(3.93)
1
]
1
+ ) (
dm ds
ls
s
qs
b
e
ds b
ds
F F
X
R
F v
dt
dF
(3.94)
1
]
1
) (
) (
qm qr
lr
r
dr
b
r e
b
qr
F F
X
R
F
dt
dF
(3.95)
1
]
1
) (
) (
dm dr
lr
r
qr
b
r e
b
dr
F F
X
R
F
dt
dF
(3.96)
finally, from equation (3.49)
) (
1
2 2
3
ds qs qs ds
b
e
i F i F
P
T
,
_
(3.97)
Equations (3.93) - (3.97), describe the complete model in state-space form where
, , ,
qr ds qs
F F F
and
dr
F
are the state variables.
4. FIELD-ORIENTED CONTROL
In a dc machine, the axes of the armature and field windings are usually orthogonal to
one another. The mmfs established by currents in these windings will also be orthogonal. If
iron saturation is ignored, the orthogonal fields produce no net interaction effect on one
another. The developed torque may be expressed as,
Nm ) (
a f a em
I I k T (4.1)
Where k
a
is a constant coefficient, (I
f
), the field flux, and I
a
, the armature current.
Here the torque angle is naturally 90
0
, flux may be controlled by adjusting the field current,
I
f
and torque may be controlled independently of flux by adjusting the armature current, I
a
.
Since the time constant of the armature circuit is usually much smaller than that of the field
winding, controlling torque by changing armature current is quicker than changing I
f
, or
both.
In general, torque control of a three-phase induction machine is not straight forward
as that of a dc machine because of the interactions between the stator and rotor fields whose
orientation are not held spatially at 90
0
but vary with operating condition. The field of the
rotor winding in an induction machine may be likened to that of a field winding of a dc
machine, except that it being induced is not independently controllable. With sinusoidal
excitation, the rotor field rotates at synchronous speed. If we were to select a synchronously
rotating qd0 frame whose d-axis is aligned with the rotor field, the q-component of the rotor
field,
e
qr
'
in the chosen reference frame would be zero, that is
Wb.turn 0
' ' '
+
e
qr r
e
qs m
e
qr
i L i L (4.2)

'
' e
qs
r
m e
qr
i
L
L
i
(4.3)
With
e
qr
'
zero, the first equation in (4.1) for the developed torque reduces to
Nm
2 2
3
' ' e
qr
e
dr em
i
P
T (4.4)
Substituting for
e
qr
i
'
using equation (4.3), (4.4) can be written in desired form of,
Nm
2 2
3
' '
'
e
qr
e
dr
r
m
em
i
L
L P
T (4.5)
Which shows that if the rotor flux linkage,
e
qr
'
is not disturbed, the torque can be
independently controlled by adjusting the stator q-component current,
e
qs
i .
For
e
qr
'
to remain unchanged at zero,
e
qr
p
'
must be zero, in which case, the q-axis
voltage equation of the rotor winding with no applied rotor voltages reduces to
V ) (
' ' ' ' ' e
dr r e
e
qr
e
qr r
e
qr
p i r v + + (4.6)
In other words, the slip speed must satisfy
sec elect.rad/
'
' '
e
dr
e
qr r
r e
i r
(4.7)
Also, if
'e
dr
is to remain unchanged,
e
dr
p
'
must be zero too. Using this condition and that
of
e
qr
'
being zero in the d-axis rotor voltage equation, we will obtain the condition that
e
dr
i
'
must be zero, that is
V ) (
' ' ' ' ' e
qr r e
e
dr
e
dr r
e
dr
p i r v + + (4.8)
And, when
e
dr
i
'
is zero,
e
ds m
e
dr
i L
'
. Substituting this into equation (4.7) and using (4.3), we
obtain the following relationship between slip speed and the ratio of the stator qd current
components for the d-axis of the synchronously rotating frame to be aligned with the rotor
field:
sec elect.rad/
'
'
e
ds
e
qs
r
r
r e
i
i
L
r
(4.9)
Figure 4-24: Properly oriented qd synchronously reference
In practice, the magnitude of rotor flux can be adjusted by controlling
e
ds
i , and the
orientation of the d-axis to the rotor field can be maintained by keeping either slip speed or
e
qs
i in accordance to equation (4.9). With proper field orientation, the dynamic of
'e
dr
will
be confined to the d-axis and is determined by the rotor circuit time constant. This can be
seen from equation (4.8) with
e
dr
i
'
replaced by
' '
)/ (
r
e
ds m
e
dr
L i L , that is,
rn Wb.tu
' '
'
' e
ds
r r
m r e
dr
i
p L r
L r
+
(4.9)
Field-oriented control schemes for the induction machine are referred to as the direct type
when the angle, , shown in Figure 4.1, is being determined directly as with the case of
direct air gap flux measurement or as the indirect type when the rotor angle is being
determined from surrogate measures, such as slip speed.
4.1 DIRECT FIELD-ORIENTED CURRENT CONTROL
Figure 4.2 shows a direct field oriented control scheme for torque control using a
current-regulated pwm inverter. For field orientation, controlling stator current is more
direct than controlling stator voltage; the later approach must allow for the additional
effects of stator transient inductances. With adequate dc bus voltage and fast switching
devices, direct control of stator current can be readily achieved. The direct method relies on
the sensing of air gap flux, using specially fitted search coils or Hall-effect devices. The
drift in the integrator associated with the search coil is especially problematic at very low
frequencies. Hall devices are also temperature-sensitive and fragile.
Figure 4-25: Direct field-oriented control of a current regulated pwm inverter induction motor drive.
The measured flux in the air gap is the resultant mutual flux. It is not the same as
the flux linking the rotor winding, whose angle, , is the desired angle for field orientation.
But, as shown by the expression below, in conjunction with the measured stator current, we
can determine the value of and the magnitude of the rotor flux. The measured abc
currents are first transformed to the stationary qd currents using,
) (
3
1
A
3
1
3
1
3
2
cs bs as
s
ds
cs bs as
s
qs
i i i i
i i i i
+
+
(4.10)
Adding and subtracting a
s
qs lr
i L
'
term to the right-hand side, the rotor q-axis flux linkage in
the stationary reference frame may be expressed as
n Wb.tur ) ( ) (
' ' ' ' ' s
qr lr m
s
qs lr lr m
s
qr
i L L i L L L + + + (4.11)
Since
s
mq
is equal to ) (
's
qr
s
qs m
i i L + , we can determine
s
qr
'
from the measured quantities,
that is

'
'
' s
qs lr
s
mq
m
lr s
qr
i L
L
L
(4.12)
Similarly,
s
dr
'
can be determined from
Wb.turn
'
'
' s
ds lr
s
md
m
lr s
dr
i L
L
L
(4.13)
Using
s
qr
'
and
s
dr
'
computed from equations (4.13) and (4.14), we can determine the
cosine and sine of by the following geometrical relations that are deducible from Figure
4.2:
sin
2
cos
cos
2
sin
'
'
'
'
s
r
s
qr
s
r
s
dr
,
_
,
_
(4.14)
Where,

2
'
2
' ' ' s
qr
s
dr
s
r
e
r
+
(4.15)
The above computations from equations (4.11) to (4.16) are performed inside the
field orientation block shown in the middle of Figure 4.2. The calculated value of
e
r
'
is fed
back to the input of the flux controller regulating air gap flux. Inside the torque calculation
block , the calculated values of
e
r
'
and
e
qs
i are used in equation (4.5) to estimate the value
of the torque developed by the machine, and the estimated torque is fed back to the input of
the torque controller.
The respective output of the torque and flux controllers are the command value
* e
qs
i and
* e
ds
i , in the field-oriented rotor reference frame. Inside the qd abc transformation
block are the following transformations from qde to qds and qds to balanced abc:
* *
* * *
* * *
cos sin
A sin cos
s
qs as
e
ds
e
qs
s
ds
e
ds
e
qs
s
qs
i i
i i i
i i i
+
+

(4.16)
* * *
* * *
2
3
2
1

2
3
2
1
s
ds
s
qs cs
s
ds
s
qs bs
i i i
i i i

(4.17)
4.2 INDIRECT FIELD-ORIENTATION METHODS
For very low-speed operations and for position type control, the use of flux sensing
that relies on integration which has a tendency to drift may not be acceptable. A commonly
used alternative is indirect field orientation, which does not rely on the measurement of air
gap flux, but uses the condition in equations (4.5), (4.9) and (4.10) to
Satisfy the condition for proper orientation. Torque can be controlled by regulating
e
qs
i and
slip speed, (
e
-
r
). Rotor flux can be controlled by regulating
e
ds
i . Given some desired
level of rotor flux,
'*
r
, the desired value of

* e
ds
i may be obtained from

rn Wb.tu
*
' '
'
'* e
ds
r r
m r
dr
i
p L r
L r
+

(4.18)
For the desired torque of
*
em
T at the given level of rotor flux the desired value of
* e
qs
i in accordance with equation (4.5) is,
Nm
2 2
3
* * '
'
* e
qs
e
dr
r
m
em
i
L
L P
T (4.19)
It has been shown that when properly oriented,
e
dr
i
'
is zero and
e
ds m
e
dr
i L
'
; thus the slip
speed relation of equation (4.9) can also be written as
sec elect.rad/
*
*
'
'
*
2
e
ds
e
qs
r
r
r e
i
i
L
r
(4.20)
The above conditions, if satisfied, ensure the decoupling of the rotor voltage
equations. To what extent this decoupling is actually achieved will depend on accuracy of
motor parameters used. Since the values of rotor resistance and magnetizing inductance are
known to vary somewhat more than the other parameters, on-line parameter adaptive
techniques are often employed to tune the value of these parameters used in an indirect
field-oriented controller to ensure proper operation.

Figure 4-26: Indirect field-oriented control of a current regulated induction motor drive
Figure 4.3 shows an indirect field-oriented control scheme for a current controlled pwm
induction motor drive. The field orientation, , is the sum of the rotor angle from the
position sensor
r
, and the angle
2
, from integrating the slip speed. If orthogonal outputs of
the form cos
r
and sin
r
are available from the shaft encoder, the values of cos and sin
can be generated from the following trigonometric identities:
sin cos cos sin ) sin( sin
sin sin cos cos ) cos( cos
2 2 2
2 2 2

r r r
r r r
+
+
(4.21)
In simulation, the value of cos
2
and sin
2
may be generated from a variable-frequency
oscillator.
5. COMPARISON OF VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES
5.1 DC MOTOR DRIVES:

Figure 5-1 Control loop of a DC Motor Drive
5.1.1. FEATURES:
Field orientation via mechanical commutator
Controlling variables are Armature Current and Field Current, measured
DIRECTLY from
the motor.
Torque control is direct
In a DC motor, the magnetic field is created by the current through the field winding in
the stator. This field is always at right angles to the field created by the armature winding.
This condition, known as field orientation, is needed to generate maximum torque. The
commutator-brush assembly ensures this condition is maintained regardless of the rotor
position once field orientation is achieved; the DC motors torque is easily controlled by
varying the armature current and by keeping the magnetizing current constant. The
advantage of DC drives is that speed and torque the two main concerns of the end-user -
are controlled directly through armature current: that is the torque is the inner control loop
and the speed is the outer control loop. (see figure1.)
5.1.2. ADVANTAGES:
Accurate and fast torque control
High dynamic speed response
Simple to control
Initially, DC drives were used for variable speed control because they could easily
achieve a good torque and speed response with high accuracy.
A DC machine is able to produce a torque that is:
Direct - the motor torque is proportional to the armature current: the torque can
thus be controlled directly and accurately.
Rapid - torque control is fast; the drive system can have a very high dynamic
speed response. Torque can be changed instantaneously if the motor is fed from an ideal
current source. A voltage fed drive still has a fast response, since this is determined only by
the rotors electrical time constant (i.e. the total inductance and resistance in the armature
circuit)
Simple - field orientation is achieved using a simple mechanical device called a
commutator/brush assembly. Hence, there is no need for complex electronic control
circuitry, which would increase the cost of the motor controller.
5.1.3. DRAWBACKS:
Reduced motor reliability
Regular maintenance
Motor costly to purchase
Needs encoder for feedback
The main drawback of this technique is the reduced reliability of the DC motor; the
fact that brushes and commutators wear down and need regular servicing; that DC motors
can be costly to purchase; and that they require encoders for speed and position feedback.
While a DC drive produces an easily controlled torque from zero to base speed and beyond,
the motors mechanics are more complex and require regular maintenance.
5.2 AC DRIVES INTRODUCTION:
Small size
Robust
Simple in design
Light and compact
Low maintenance
Low cost
The evolution of AC variable speed drive technology has been partly driven by the
desire to emulate the performance of the DC drive, such as fast torque response and speed
accuracy, while utilizing the advantages offered by the standard AC motor.
5.2.1. AC DRIVES FREQUENCY CONTROL USING PWM:
Figure 5-2 Control loop of an AC Drive with frequency control using PWM
5.2.1.1. FEATURES:
Controlling variables are Voltage and Frequency
Simulation of variable AC sine wave using modulator
Flux provided with constant V/f ratio
Open-loop drive
Load dictates torque level
Unlike a DC drive, the AC drive frequency control technique uses parameters
generated outside of the motor as controlling variables, namely voltage and frequency. Both
voltage and frequency reference are fed into a modulator which simulates an AC sine wave
and feeds this to the motors stator windings. This technique is called Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM) and utilizes the fact that there is a diode rectifier towards the mains and
the intermediate DC voltage is kept constant. The inverter controls the motor in the form of
a PWM pulse train dictating both the voltage and frequency. Significantly, this method
does not use a feedback device which takes speed or position measurements from the
motors shaft and feeds these back into the control loop. Such an arrangement, without a
feedback device, is called an open-loop drive.
5.2.1.2. ADVANTAGES:
Low cost
No feedback device required simple.
Because there is no feedback device, the controlling principle offers a low cost and
simple solution to controlling economical AC induction motors. This type of drive is
suitable for applications which do not require high levels of accuracy or precision, such as
pumps and fans.
5.2.1.3. DRAWBACKS:
Field orientation not used
Motor status ignored
Torque is not controlled
Delaying modulator used
With this technique, sometimes known as Scalar Control, field orientation of the
motor is not used. Instead, frequency and voltage are the main control variables and are
applied to the stator windings. The status of the rotor is ignored, meaning that no speed or
position signal is fed back. Therefore, torque cannot be controlled with any degree of
accuracy. Furthermore, the technique uses a modulator which basically slows down
communication between the incoming voltage and frequency signals and the need for the
motor to respond to this changing signal.
5.2.2. AC DRIVES - FLUX VECTOR CONTROL USING PWM:
Figure 5-3 Control loop of an AC Drive with flux vector control using PWM
5.2.2.1 FEATURES:
Field-oriented control - simulates DC drive
Motor electrical characteristics are simulated - Motor Model
Closed-loop drive
Torque controlled INDIRECTLY
To emulate the magnetic operating conditions of a DC motor, i.e. to perform the
field orientation process, the flux-vector drive needs to know the spatial angular position of
the rotor flux inside the AC induction motor. With flux vector PWM drives, field
orientation is achieved by electronic means rather than the mechanical commutator/ brush
assembly of the DC motor. Firstly, information about the rotor status is obtained by feeding
back rotor speed and angular position relative to the stator field by means of a pulse
encoder. A drive that uses speed encoders is referred to as a closed-loop drive. Also the
motors electrical characteristics are mathematically modeled with microprocessors used to
process the data. The electronic controller of a flux-vector drive creates electrical quantities
such as voltage, current and frequency, which are the controlling variables, and feeds these
through a modulator to the AC induction motor. Torque, therefore, is controlled
INDIRECTLY.
5.2.2.2. ADVANTAGES:
Good torque response
Accurate speed control
Full torque at zero speed
Performance approaching DC drive
Flux vector control achieves full torque at zero speed, giving it a performance very
close to that of a DC drive.
5.2.2.3. DRAWBACKS:
Feedback is needed
Costly
Modulator needed
To achieve a high level of torque response and speed accuracy, a feedback device is
required. This can be costly and also adds complexity to the traditional simple AC
induction motor. Also, a modulator is used, which slows down communication between the
incoming voltage and frequency signals and the need for the motor to respond to this
changing signal. Although the motor is mechanically simple, the drive is electrically
complex.
5.2.3. AC DRIVES - DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL:
Figure 5-4 Control loop of an AC Drive using DTC
5.2.3.1. CONTROLLING VARIABLES:
With the revolutionary DTC technology developed by ABB, field orientation is
achieved without feedback using advanced motor theory to calculate the motor torque
directly and without using modulation. The controlling variables are motor magnetizing
flux and motor torque. With DTC there is no modulator and no requirement for a
tachometer or position encoder to feed back the speed or position of the motor shaft.
DTC uses the fastest digital signal processing hardware available and a more
advanced mathematical understanding of how a motor works. The result is a drive with a
torque response that is typically 10 times faster than any AC or DC drive. The dynamic
speed accuracy of DTC drives will be 8 times better than any open loop AC drives and
comparable to a DC drive that is using feedback.
5.3 COMPARISON OF VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES:
Let us now take a closer look at each of these control blocks and spot a few differences.
Figure 5-5 Control loop of a DC Drive
Figure 5-6 Control loop with frequency control
Figure 5-7 Control loop with flux vector control
Figure 5-8 Control loop of an AC Drive using DTC
The first observation is the similarity between the control block of the DC drive
(Figure 5-5) and that of DTC (Figure 5-8). Both are using motor parameters to directly
control torque. But DTC has added benefits including no feedback device are used; all the
benefits of an AC motor and no external excitation is needed.
Table 5-1 Comparison of control variables
As can be seen from Table 5-1, both DC drives and DTC drives use actual motor
parameters to control torque and speed. Thus, the dynamic performance is fast and easy.
Also with DTC, for most applications, no tachometer or encoder is needed to feed back a
speed or position signal. Comparing DTC (Figure 5-8) with the two other AC drive control
blocks (Figures 5-6 & 5-7) shows up several differences, the main one being that no
modulator is required with DTC. With PWM AC drives, the controlling variables are
frequency and voltage which need to go through several stages before being applied to the
motor. Thus, with PWM drives control is handled inside the electronic controller and not
inside the motor.
6. DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL (DTC)
In addition to vector control systems, instantaneous torque control yielding fast torque
response can also be obtained by employing direct torque control. Direct torque control was
developed more than a decade ago by Japanese and German researchers (Takahashi and
Noguchi 1984, 1985; Depenbrock 1985). Drives with direct torque control (DTC) are being
shown at great interest, since ABB has recently introduced a direct-torque controlled
induction motor drive, which according to ABB can work even at zero speed. This is a very
significant industrial contribution, and it has been stated by ABB that direct-torque control
(DTC) is the latest a.c. motor control method developed by ABB (Tiitien 1996). It is
expected that other manufacturer will also release their DTC drives and further
developments are underway for speed-sensor less and artificial intelligence based
implementations.
In a DTC drive, flux linkage and electromagnetic torque are controlled directly
independently by the selection of optimum inverter switching modes. The selection is made
to restrict the flux linkages and electromagnetic torque errors within the respective flux and
torque hysteresis bands, to obtain fast torque response, low inverter switching frequency
and low harmonic losses. The required optimal switching vectors can be selected by using
so-called optimum switching-voltage vector look-up table. This can be obtained by simple
physical considerations involving the position of the stator-flux linkage space vector, the
available switching vectors, and the required torque flux linkage.
6.1 TORQUE EXPRESSIONS WITH STATOR AND ROTOR FLUXES
The torque expression for induction machine can be expressed in vector form as,

2 2
3
s s e
I
P
T
,
_
(6.1)
where
s
ds
s
qs s
j and
s
ds
s
qs s
ji i I . In this equation,
s
I is to be replaced by
rotor flux
r
. In the complex form,
s
and
r
can be expressed as function of currents as,

r m s s s
I L I L + (6.2)

s m r r r
I L I L + (6.3)
Eliminating
r
I from equation (6.2), we get

'
s s r
r
m
s
I L
L
L
+ (6.4)
where
2
'
m r s s
L L L L . The corresponding expression of
s
I is

1
' '
r
s r
m
s
s
s
L L
L
L
I (6.5)
Substituting equation (6.5) in (6.1)and simplifying yields
s r
s r
m
e
L L
L P
T
'
2 2
3
,
_
(6.6.)
That is, the magnitude torque is
sin
2 2
3
'

s r
s r
m
e
L L
L P
T

,
_
(6.7)
Figure 6-27: Stator flux, rotor flux, and stator current vectors on ds-qs plane
(stator resistance neglected)
where is the angle between the fluxes. Figure 6.1 shows the phasor (or vector) diagram
for equation (6.6), indicating the vectors
s
,
r
, and
s
I for positive developed torque.
If the rotor flux remains constant and stator flux is changed incrementally by stator voltage
s
V as shown and the corresponding change of angle is

, the incremental torque
e
T
expression is given as
sin
2 2
3
'
+
,
_

s s r
s r
m
e
L L
L P
T (6.8)
6.2 Control Strategy of DTC
The block diagram of direct torque and flux control is shown in Figure 6.5 and Figure
6.6 explains the control strategy. The speed control loop and the flux program as a function
of speed are shown as usual and will not be discussed. The command stator flux
*
s
and
torque
*
e
T magnitudes are compared with the respective estimated values and the errors are
processed through hysteresis-band controllers, as shown. The flux loop controller has two
levels of digital output according to the following relations:
for 1

HB E H + > (6.9)

HB E H < for 1 (6.10)
Where
HB 2
= total hysteresis-band width controller. The circular trajectory of the
command flux vector
*
s
with the hysteresis band rotates in an anti-clockwise direction as
shown in Figure 6.6(a). The actual stator flux
s
is constrained within the hysteresis band
and it tracks the command flux in a zigzag path. The torque control loop has three levels of
digital output, which have the following relations:
Te Te Te
HB E H + > for 1 (6.11)
Te Te Te
HB E H < for 1 (6.12)
for 0
Te Te Te Te
HB E HB H + < < (6.13)
The feedback flux and torque are calculated from the machine terminal voltages and
currents. The signal computation block also calculates the sector number S(k) in which the
flux vector
s
lies. There are six sectors (each /3 angle wide), as in Figure 6-2(a).
Figure 6-2: Direct torque and flux control block diagram
Figure 6-3: (a)Trajectory of stator flux vector in DTC control, (b) Inverter voltage vectors and
corresponding stator flux variation in time t.
The voltage vector table block in Figure 6-2 receives the input signals
, ,
Te
H H
and
S(k)and generates the appropriate control voltage vector (switching states) for the inverter
by lookup table, which is shown in table 6.2(the vector sign is deleted). The inverter
voltage vector (six active and two zero states) and a typical
s
are shown in Figure 6-3(b).
Neglecting the stator resistance of the machine, we can write
) (
s s
dt
d
V (6.14)
Or
. t V
s s
(6.15)
Which means that
s
can be changed incrementally by applying stator voltage
s
V for time
increment t. The flux increment vector corresponding to each of six inverter voltage
vectors is shown in Figure 6-3(b). The flux in machine is initially established to at zero
frequency (dc) along the trajectory OA shown in Figure 6-3(a). With the rated flux, the
command torque is applied and the
*
s
vector starts rotating.
Table 6.2 applies the selected voltage vector, which essentially affects both the torque and
flux simultaneously. The flux trajectory segments AB, BC, CD and DE by the respective
voltage vectors
4 3 4 3
and , , , V V V V are shown in Figure 6-3(a). The total and incremental
torque due to
s
are explained in figure 6-1. Note that the stator flux vector changes
quickly by, but the
r
change is very sluggish due to large time constant T
r
. Since
r
is
more filtered, it moves uniformly at frequency
e
, whereas
s
movement is jerky. The
average speed of both, however, remains the same in the steady-state condition. Table 6-2
summarizes the flux and torque change (magnitude and direction) for applying the voltage
vectors for the location of
s
shown in Figure 6-3(b). The flux can be increased by the
6 2 1
and , , V V V vectors (vector sign is deleted), whereas it can be decreased by the
5 4 3
and , , V V V vectors.
H
H
TE
S(1) S(2) S(3) S(4) S(5) S(6)
1
1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V1
0 V0 V7 V0 V7 V0 V7
-1 V6 V1 V2 V3 V4 V5
-1
1 V3 V4 V5 V6 V1 V2
0 V7 V0 V7 V0 V7 V0
-1 V5 V6 V1 V2 V3 V4
Table6-1: Switching table of inverter voltage vectors
Voltage
vector
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V0 or v7
s
0
T
e
Table6-2: Flux and Torque variations due to applied voltage vector in
Figure (6-5b) (Arrow indicates magnitude and direction)
Similarly, torque is increased by the
4 3 2
and , , V V V Vectors, but decreased by the
6 5 1
and , , V V V vectors. The zero vectors (V
0
or V
7
) short-circuit the machine terminals
and keep the flux and torque unaltered. Due to finite resistance (R
s
) drop, the torque and
flux will slightly decrease during the short-circuit condition.
Consider for example, an operation in sector S (2) as shown in Figure 6-3(a), where
at point B, the flux is too high and the torque is too low; that is, 1
H and 1 +
Te
H
. From table 6-1, voltage V
4
is applied to the inverter, which will generate the trajectory
BC. At point C,
1 +
H
and 1 +
Te
H and this will generate the V
3
vector from the
table. The drive can easily operate in the four quadrants, and speed loop and field-
weakening control can be added, if desired. The torque response of the drive is claimed to
be comparable with that of a vector-controlled drive.
6.3 SIMULATION USING MATLAB
We run the model for typical conditions of reference speed and applied torque
values. Initially we will see the starting transients for the DTC drive at no load condition.
Next we will check out the performance of the machine for the speed reversal
characteristics. Finally we will check out the performance of the DTC drive for load
variations. Lastly the hexagonal flux plot of this typical DTC drive has shown.
SIMULATION RESULTS:
WHEN LOAD IS APPLIED:
Figure 6-5: stator A phase current Vs time
Figure 6-6: D-axis flux Vs time
Figure 6-7: Q-axis flux Vs time
Figure 6-8: Stator flux Vs time
Figure 6-9: Vas Vs time
Figure 6-10: Vbs Vs time
Figure 6-11: Vcs Vs time
Figure 6-12: Hexagonal Flux plot
Figure 6-13: Electromagnetic torque, applied torque Vs Time
Figure 6-14: speed in rpm Vs Time
Figure 6-15: Command Torque Vs Time
WHEN SPEED IS REVERSED:
Figure 6-16: Flux plot
Figure 6-17: Speed Vs time
Figure 6-18: Te, Tapp Vs Time
Figure 6-19: Stator Flux Vs Time
Figure 6-20: Stator A phase current Vs time
Figure6-21: D-Axis flux Vs Time
Figure6-22: Q-Axis flux Vs Time
SUMMARY
Flux and torque control mechanism:-
FOC scheme uses a d-q co-ordinates frame having the d-axis aligned with the rotor
flux vector that rotates at the stator frequency. This particular situation allows the flux and
torque to be separately controlled by the stator current d-q components. The rotor flux is a
function of the d-axis component of the Stator current. The developed torque is controlled
by the q-axis component of the stator current. The decoupling between the flux and torque
control is achieved only if the accurate rotor position is known. This can be done by the
direct flux sensors or by using flux estimator that computes the rotor flux vector from the
stator voltages and currents and/or speed sensor signals.
On the other hand, the direct torque control scheme uses a stationary d-q reference
frame having d-axis aligned with the stator axis. Torque and flux are controlled by the
stator voltage space vector which is defined in the same reference frame. The variation of
the stator flux vector due to application of the stator voltage vector, during a time interval
of t can be given by equation no.6.15 which is as; t V
s s
. , in which the stator
resistance is neglected. Since the rotor flux changes slowly, the rapid variation of the stator
flux space vector produce a variation in the developed torque because of the variation of the
angle between the two vectors.
Controllers:-
FOC scheme is based on the assumption that the motor is fed by a three-phase
current source. Since a voltage-source inverter is used, current controllers are required to
impose the stator currents. To obtain the performance torque control, fast current
controllers such as hysteresis current can be used. In the DTC scheme the torque and flux
are directly controlled by the inverter voltage space vector. Two independent hysteresis
controllers are used to select appropriate stator voltage space vector in order to maintain the
flux and torque between the upper and lower limits. The response time of hysteresis
controller is optimal but the switching frequency is the variable.
Estimated variables:-
The operation of both FOC and DTC depends on the system variables that are
computed or estimated from the measured quantities. The accuracy of the estimated
variables has a direct influence on the control performance.
On the FOC scheme, the estimated variable is the rotor flux angle () required for
the co-ordinate transformation. The calculation of requires the measured rotor speed and
estimated slip frequency. The slip frequency depends on the rotor time constant and the
estimated rotor flux amplitude. The electrical angle is of first importance in FOC scheme.
A false position of could lead to undesirable coupling between the d and q axis
components and invalidate the FOC scheme. Because is obtained from the integration of
the sum of rotor speed and slip speed, the error is cumulative and additional calculation
could be necessary to correct this error. During transients the rotor flux position may
change and perfect decoupling may be able to be temporarily lost.
In DTC scheme, the estimated quantities are the stator flux and motor torque which
are required for feedback control. The stator flux is calculated from the stator voltage and
current space vectors and the developed torque is calculated from the stator flux and the
stator current space vectors. The accuracy of stator flux depends mostly on the estimation
accuracy of the stator resistance. An error on the stator flux will affect the behavior of both
flux and torque control loops.
Implementation complexity:-
The implementation of the considered schemes can not be accurately compared
because of the many factors that can influence the actual hardware and software
configurations. The calculations in FOC scheme are done in rotating reference frame so that
co-ordinate transformations involving trigonometric functions are required. These
calculations are time consuming tasks.
On the other hand, in DTC system, the calculations are done in stationary reference
frame using space vector notation. There is no calculation involving trigonometric function.
CONCLUSION
In this dissertation report, main characteristics of direct torque control scheme for
induction motor drives are studied with a view of highlighting the advantages and
disadvantages of direct torque control.
Initially, the model of an induction machine is analyzed with its complete
theoretical details and the required equations. A thorough understanding of this model is
essential to understand DTC scheme in detail. With the DTC scheme employing a Voltage
Source Inverter (VSI), it is possible to control directly the stator flux linkage and the
electromagnetic torque by the optimum selection of inverter switching vectors. The
selection of inverter switching vector is made to restrict the flux and torque errors within
the respective flux and torque hysteresis bands. This achieves a fast torque response, low
inverter switching frequency and low harmonic losses. The performance of direct torque
control of induction motor is observed using MATLAB/SIMULINK.

REFERENCES
1. Bose B.K. ,Modern Power Electronics and AC Drives, Pearson Education, 4th
Edition, 2004
2. R.Krishnan.Electric Motor Drives, Modeling, Analysis, and Control, Pearson Education,
First Indian Reprint, 2003.
3. A.M. Trzynadlowski, Control of Induction Motors, Academic Press, 2001.
4. I. Takahashi and Y. Ohmori, High-performance direct torque control of induction
motor, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 257264, 1989.
5. P.Marino, M.DIncecco and N.Visciano, A comparison of Direct Torque Control
Methodologies for Induction Motor, IEEE transaction 2001.
6. C. Lascu, I. Boldea, F. Blaabjerg. A Modified Direct Torque Control for Induction Motor
Sensor less Drive. IEEE Tram on Industry Applications, vol 36, No-1, 122-130,
January/February 2000.
7. Burak Ozpineci, L.M.Tolbertr, Simulink Implementation of Induction Machine Model-A
modular approach, IEEE Transactions 2003.
8. Xingyi.Xu, D.W.Novotny, Implementation of Direct stator flux orientation control on
versatile DSP based system, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 24, no. 4, JULY/AUGUST 1991.
9. Y.A.Chapuis, D.Roye, J.Davoine, Principles and Implementation of Direct Torque Control
by stator flux orientation of Induction Motor, IEEE Transactions 1995.
10. D. Casadei. G. Sera, A. Tani. Implementation of a Direct Torque Control Algorithm for
Induction Motors Based on Discrete Space Vector Modulation. IEEE Transactions on
Power Electronics. 15(4):769-777, July 2000.
11. S.Vamsidhar, B.G.Fernades, Hardware-in-loop-simulation based design and
experimental evaluation of DTC strategies., 2004, 3
5th
Annual IEEE power Electronics
Special Conference.
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Direct Torque Controlled Induction Motor Drive in Real Time Simulation, The 30
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Annual conference of IEEE Industrial Electronics Society November 2-6, 2004.
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15. http://www.mathworks.com
APPENDIX-A
Parameters of Typical Induction Machine
Stator Resistance 6.03 ohm
Rotor resistance 6.085 ohm
Stator inductance 489.3e-3 H
Rotor Inductance 489.3e-3 H
Mutual Inductance 450.3e-3 H
Number of Poles 4
Moment of Inertia 0.00488 kg.m
2
Dc link voltage 2*190
Reference Speed 157 rad/sec.
Proportional Constant 5.
Integrator Constant 0.75.
APPENDIX-B
Matlab Simulation Blocks
Figure B-1: Classical DTC simulink block diagram
Figure B-2: Subsystem1 block
Figure B-3: DTC switching subsystem block
Figure B- 4: Angle estimator block
Figure B- 5: Sector estimator block
Figure B- 6: Switching table block
SIMULINK DIAGRAM OF INDUCTION MOTOR:
Figure B- 7: Induction motor block-subsystem1
Figure B- 8: Subsystem1 block
Figure B- 9: 3 phase to 2 phase conversion block
Where K= [2/3 -1/3 -1/3; 0 3 / 3 - 3 / 3; 1/3 1/3 1/3]
Figure B- 10: 2 phase to 3 phase conversion block
Where K= [1 0; -1/2 3 / 2 ; -1/2 - 3 / 2 ]
Figure B- 11: Simulink of D_block shown in Figure B- 8.
Figure B- 12: Simulink of Q_block shown in Figure B- 8.
Figure B- 13: Simulink of Current_Flux2Torque_Speed shown in Figure B- 8.
.

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Direct Torque Control of Induction Motor

from the initial (t

) which is 2 times the rms phasor

=0, the equations

in the Equation (3.38) or in (3.26), (3.27), (3.30) and (3.31).The

= base frequency of the machine.

on both sides, the flux linkage expressions can

, the desired value of

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