The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that swept through Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, revolutionizing

ideas of God, nature and reason. Previ ously, God had reigned supreme and the Church was one of the most powerful insti tutions in all of Europe, with the ability to affect not only the religious aspe cts of life, but also social, political and economic policies. However, during the Enlightenment, this all changed. The Enlightenment has many definitions, but it is agreed that it includes hospitality to scientific inquiry, a struggle aga inst superstition, a critical re-examination of basic beliefs and dedication to social and economic reform [i]The enlightenment was also extremely influential in changing political theory, and the basis for constitutional democratic republic s originates in the ideas of the Enlightenment[ii]. The English, French and Ame rican revolutions were clearly products of the Enlightenment age, but did these ideas affect the revolutions and desire for independence in Latin America and sp ecifically Mexico? Political theory completely changed through the ideas of the enl ightenment. Before the Enlightenment, most countries were governed by an extrem ely powerful monarch, while the majority of the populace lived in poverty and ha d absolutely no say in their government. Many monarchs claimed that they were di vinely chosen to be the sovereign (divine right of kings), and they only owed al legiance to God, nobody else[iii]. Enlightened thinkers, determined to use their rationality and logic to find the truth in every case, realized that these mona rchs ruled only because of traditions rooted in superstitions and folklore. The leaders of the enlightenment brought this idea of divine monarchy to an end, by instilling the ideas of democracy and utilitarianism[iv]. Famous leaders of the European Enlightenment, such as John Locke and John Jacque s Rousseau promoted the social contract theory, which essentially states that livi ng in a society is a deal between a government and her citizens. The citizens g ive up some of their freedom and inherent liberties to a government, but in retu rn receive protection of their natural rights[v]. They also endorsed the idea th at every citizen as an individual was an important person, and that he/she held the right to Life, health, liberty or possessions[vi]. Until the countries of Lat in America declared their independence, all the people living there were subject to the whims of the Bourbon king of Spain, Ferdinand VII. Once they gained the ir independence, did the ideas of enlightenment figure at all in their constitut ions and choice of government? One of the main outcomes of the Enlightenment was to focus on pro posed changes and reforms, sometimes including the advocacy of revolutionary mea ns[vii], the idea that a society formed and run through reason and logic would be far superior to a society based on anything else. In Mexico and the rest of La tin America, this eventually led to the reasoning that they should be independen t of Spain, free of her king and her customs. Spain had never held the colony by force but by habit and the claim of its right to rule[viii]. As early as 1810, Mexicans, led by Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, began to revolt against the Spanish rule, fighting for an independent government, redistribution of land and elimina tion of the caste system CITE. Other revolutionaries continued to fight for the se rights, until Agustin de Iturbide signed the Treaty of Cordoba on August 24, 1821. The treaty of Cordoba was essentially based on the Iguala plan, which had three main points: that Mexico was an independent country with constit utional monarchy , that her religion would be Roman Catholic and that there woul d no longer be any difference between Peninsulares, criollos and those born in M exico, whether they be white, black or Indian[ix]. Although shortly after the Tr eaty of Cordoba was signed it was nullified, already there are some clear indica tions of enlightenment influence. Firstly, the new Empire of Mexico declared itself to be a consti tutional monarchy, which is a, system of government in which a monarch shares pow er with a constitutionally organized government.[x] Simply moving from an absolu te monarchy was a big step due to the influence of the Enlightenment and the ide a that the king does not have any sort of divine right to rule. This particular plan, however, called for a constitutional monarchy, indicating that this was a

transitional phase; the ideas of the enlightenment hadnt fully permeated through society. The citizens still needed some sort of monarch or leadership figure t o trust in, that is what they were used to, they were not yet completely ready t o abandon the monarchical ideal. While none of the reigning European kings deig ned to be the sovereign of the new Mexican empire, the fact that a monarch was d eemed necessary by the founders indicates Mexicos indecision and insecurity towar ds fully embracing and fostering the ideas of enlightenment at the expense of tr adition and custom. Further proof that Mexico had not fully integrated the ideas of the Enlightenment into her society is the first article of the Iguala Plan, stat ing that La religin de la Nueva Espaa, es y ser la catlica, apostlica, romana, sin sob erana de otra alguna[xi]. The enlightened thinkers of Europe felt that there was an inherent dichotomy between rationality and religion, there was no way to empi rically prove religion, so by default, it could not be true. Perhaps since Mexic o was an extremely religious country, with their love and devotion to the Virgin of Guadalupe, they simply could not conceive of the idea of reason taking prece dence over religion. This lack of opposition towards structured religion was on e of the main differences between the European and Latin American enlightenments and demonstrates how ideas can spread and be influenced by their environment. Yet the idea of equal rights for every person regardless of race , however, was clearly an outcome of the Enlightenment both in Europe and in Mex ico. Prior to this period, it was generally assumed that some people were intri nsically superior to others, whether that be due to their race, religion or soci o-economic status. The ideas of the enlightenment flipped this around, reason l ed them to believe that while each individual might be instilled with different gifts and qualities, every human has the same natural rights, based only on the fact that he is a human. Prior to this, there was prejudice against many people because of their race or other factors, and this led to a lot of oppression and cruelty throughout the world. Locke, Voltaire and Rousseau, among others, debu nked this idea, saying that all are created equal and each citizen should receiv e the same rights and have the same obligations to their government, society and country CITE. However, the government inspired by the Plan of Iguala and the T reaty of Cordoba did not last very long and Mexico was thrown into turmoil due t o the lack of a stable government, among other factors CITE. In March 1823, aft er only 18 months, the government collapsed and was followed by almost fifty yea rs of political turmoil and chaos, where different factions fought for power and control CITE. Yet the ideas of the enlightenment encouraged people, there was , a contagious enthusiasm for creating not only the apparatus of national and lo cal governments, but also a multitude of other projects-educational, economic an d philanthropic-that were to make a society fit for free men and women[xii]. Alth ough the political leaders may have been corrupt and hungry for power, the gener al populace was committed to the ideals of the enlightenment, equality and the p ower of logic to build a structurally sound society. It seems clear that the European Enlightenment had some effect o n the ideals and principles espoused in the new Mexican empire, and that these i deas were influential in the push towards independence from Spain in the first p lace. In particular, the new political theories that developed as a result of E nlightened thinking became an integral part in the formation of the new Mexican government and the social conscience of the people. The wide spread thought be hind the Enlightenment shaped the political ideas of the fledgling empire and he lped Mexico realize her independence.

[i] The Ibero-American Enlightenment The Ibero-American Enlightenment by A. Owen Aldridge Review by: Donald E. Worcester

History of Education Quarterly , Vol. 14, No. 3 (Autumn, 1974), pp. 427-429 Published by: History of Education Society Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/367944 [ii] Bristow, William, "Enlightenment", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/a rchives/sum2011/entries/enlightenment/>. [iii] "Divine Right of Kings." Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia Britannica Online Aca demic Edition. Encyclopdia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 07 May. 2012. <http://www. britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/166626/divine-right-of-kings>. [iv] The Enlightenment in the History of Political Theory Peter Gay Political Science Quarterly , Vol. 69, No. 3 (Sep., 1954), pp. 374-389 Published by: The Academy of Political Science Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2145276 [v] http://www.politicalphilosophy.info/socialcontracttheory.html [vi] Locke, John (1690). Second Treatise of Government (10th edition). Project G utenberg. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/7370/7370-h/7370-h.htm. Retrieved 7May 2012. [vii] Characteristics of Latin American Political Thought John D. Martz Journal of Inter-American Studies , Vol. 8, No. 1 (Jan., 1966), pp. 54-74 Published by: Center for Latin American Studies at the University of Miami Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/165214 [viii] The Mexican Republic: The First Decade, 1823-1832 By Stanley C. Green page 6 [ix] http://www.tamu.edu/faculty/ccbn/dewitt/iguala.htm#cordova [x] Encyclopdia Britannica Online, s. v. "constitutional monarchy," accessed May 08, 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/689632/constitutional-monarc hy. [xi] http://www.tamu.edu/faculty/ccbn/dewitt/iguala.htm#cordova [xii] The Mexican Republic: The First Decade, 1823-1832 By Stanley C. Green p. 32