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11/22/2010 Commndant Manish Verma 521034791

Name Manish Verma Roll No 521034791 Local Centre Code 01561 (Surat)

ASSIGNMENT SET 1 MB0038 Management Process and Organization Behaviour

Q1 Ans

Write a note on the managerial roles and skills. 1. Mangerial Roles: Various managerial roles are described as follows:

(a) Informational roles: This involves the role of assimilating and disseminating information as and when required. Following are the main subroles, which managers often perform: (i) Monitor collecting information from organizations, both from inside and outside of the organization (ii) (iii) Disseminator communicating information to organizational members Spokesperson representing the organization to outsiders

(b) Decisional roles: It involves decision making. Again, this role can be sub-divided in to the following: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Entrepreneur initiating new ideas to improve organizational performance Disturbance handlers taking corrective action to cope with adverse situation Resource allocators allocating human, physical, and monetary resources Negotiator negotiating with trade unions, or any other stakeholders

(c) Inter`personal roles: This role involves activities with people working in the organization. This is supportive role for informational and decisional roles. Interpersonal roles can be categorized under three sub-headings: (i) Figurehead Ceremonial and symbolic role

(ii) (iii)

Leadership leading organization in terms of recruiting, motivating etc. Liaison liasoning with external bodies and public relations activities. skills viz; technical, human, and

2. Managerial skills: Management conceptual are described as follows:

(a) Technical skills: The ability is to apply specialized knowledge or expertise. All jobs require some specialized expertise, and many people develop their technical skills on the job. Vocational and on-the-job training programs can be used to develop this type of skill. (b) Human Skill: This is the ability to work with, understand and motivate other people (both individually and a group). This requires sensitivity towards others issues and concerns. People, who are proficient in technical skill, but not with interpersonal skills, may face difficulty to manage their subordinates. To acquire the Human Skill, it is pertinent to recognize the feelings and sentiments of others, ability to motivate others even in adverse situation, and communicate own feelings to others in a positive and inspiring way. (c) Conceptual Skill: This is an ability to critically analyze, diagnose a situation and forward a feasible solution. It requires creative thinking, generating options and choosing the best available option.

Q2 Ans

Discuss the methods of shaping behaviour in detail. Shaping Behavior When a systematic attempt is made to change individuals behaviour by directing their learning in graduated steps, it is called shaping behavior. There are four methods of Shaping Behavior. They are as follows: (a) Positive reinforcement This is the process of getting something pleasant as a consequence of a desired behavior, to strengthen the same behavior. For example, one get a commission, if he/she achieves sales target. For example, (i) Bonuses paid at the end of a successful business year are an example of positive reinforcement. (ii) Employees will work hard for a raise or a promotion. (iii) Salesmen will increase their efforts to get rewards and bonuses.

(iv) Students will study to get good grades, and (v) In these examples, the rises, promotions, awards, bonuses, good grades, are positive reinforces. (b) Negative reinforcement This is the process of having a reward taken away as a consequence of a undesired behavior. For example, scholarship is withdrawn from the student who has not done well on the examination. Just as people engage in behaviours in order to get positive reinforces, they also engage in behaviours to avoid or escape unpleasant conditions. Terminating an unpleasant stimulus in order to strengthen or increase the probability of a response is called negative reinforcement. (c) Punishment is causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable behavior. This is the process of getting a punishment as a consequence of a behavior. According to B. F. Skinner, punishment is still the most common technique of behaviour control in todays life. When a child misbehaves, he is spanked. If a person does not behave as the society or law wants him to do, he is punished by arrest and jail. Example: Loss of pay for coming late to office. Punishment can be accomplished either by adding an unpleasant stimulus or removing a pleasant stimulus. The added unpleasant stimulus might take the form of criticism, a scolding, a disapproving look, a fine, or a prison sentence. The removal of a pleasant stimulus might consist of withholding affection and attention, suspending a drivers license, or taking away a privilege such as watching television. Accordingly, in situations where punishment is desirable as a means of behaviour modification, certain guidelines would make it more effective thus minimizing its dysfunctional consequences. (i) Praise in public; punish in private. (ii) Apply punishment before the undesirable behaviour has been strongly reinforced. Thus, the punishment should immediately follow the undesirable behaviour. (iii) The punishment should focus on the behaviour and not on the person. (d) Extinction An alternative to punishing undesirable behaviour is extension the attempt to weaken behaviour by attaching no consequences (either positive or negative) to it. It is equivalent to ignoring the behaviour. The

rationale for using extinction is that a behaviour not followed by any consequence is weakened. However, some patience and time may be needed for it to be effective. This type of reinforcement is applied to reduce undesirable behaviour, especially when such behaviours were previously rewarded. This means that if rewards were removed from behaviours that were previously reinforced, then such behaviours would become less frequent and eventually die out. For example, if a student in the class is highly mischievous and disturbs the class, he is probably asking for attention. If the attention is given to him, he will continue to exhibit that behaviour. Both positive and negative reinforcement result in learning. They strengthen a response and increase the probability of repetition. Both punishment and extinction weaken behavior and tend to decrease its subsequent frequency Schedules of reinforcement The two major types of reinforcement schedules are continuous and intermittent. 1. Continuous reinforcement schedule: It reinforces the desired behavior each and every time it is demonstrated. It is the traditional reinforcement schedule and is called a continuous reinforcement schedule. Each time the correct behavior is performed it gets reinforced. When there is a 1:1 relationship between the occurrence of a key response and a rewarding result, the schedule of reinforcement is said to be continuous. For E.g. When a new employee joins the organization the boss/senior may praise the employee every time he /she is able to do the assigned task successfully. The main aim behind such action by the boss is to reinforce the right action of the new employee. 2. Intermittent reinforcement schedule: There are fixed and variable categories. In an intermittent schedule, not every instance of the desirable behavior is reinforced, but reinforcement is given often enough to make the behavior worth repeating. The intermittent, or varied, form of reinforcement tends to promote more resistance to extinction than does the continuous form. Intermittent techniques are placed into following categories: Fixed-interval reinforcement schedule rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals; the critical variable is time, and it is held constant. In a fixed-ratio schedule, after a fixed or constant number of responses are given, a reward is initiated. For example, honesty pay is fixed interval reinforcement, and piece rate is fixed ratio reinforcement scheme.

Variable-interval reinforcements rewards are distributed in time so that reinforcements are unpredictable. When the reward varies relative to the behavior of the individual, he or she is said to be reinforced on a variable-ratio schedule. In general, variable schedules tend to lead to higher performance than fixed schedules. Continuous reinforcement schedules may lead to early satisfaction and behavior may weaken when reinforcers are withdrawn. Continuous reinforcers, thus, are appropriate for newly desired, unstable, or lowfrequency responses. Intermittent reinforcers do not follow every response and thus, they also may lead to early satisfaction. They are appropriate for stable or high-frequency responses. Variable-interval schedules generate high rates of response and more stable and consistent behavior because of a high correlation between performance and reward.

Q3 Ans

Explain the classification of personality types given by Myers-Briggs. The Myers Briggs Type Indicators (MBTI) classifies human beings into four opposite pairs (dichotomies), based on their psychological opposites. These four opposite pairs result into 16 possible combinations. In MBTI, Individuals are classified as: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Extroverted or introverted (E or I). Sensing or intuitive (S or N). Thinking or feeling (T or F). Perceiving or judging (P or J).

These classifications are then combined into sixteen personality types. For example: (a) INTJs are visionaries. They usually have original minds and great drive for their own ideas and purposes. They are characterized as skeptical, critical, independent, determined, and often stubborn. (b) ESTJs are organizers. They are realistic, logical, analytical, decisive, and have a natural head for business or mechanics. They like to organize and run activities. (c) The ENTP type is a conceptualizer. He or she is innovative, individualistic, versatile, and attracted to entrepreneurial ideas. This person tends to be resourceful in solving challenging problems but may neglect routine assignments.

Q4 Ans

What are the factors influencing perception? Perception is our sensory experience of the world around us and involves both the recognition of environmental stimuli and actions in response to these stimuli. Through the perceptual process, we gain information about properties and elements of the environment that are critical to our survival. Perception not only creates our experience of the world around us; it allows us to act within our environment. A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception. These factors can reside: (i) (ii) (iii) In the perceiver. In the object or target being perceived or In the context of the situation in which the perception is made.

1. Characteristics of the Perceiver: Several characteristics of the perceiver can affect perception. When an individual looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she stands for, that interpretation is heavily influenced by personal characteristics of the individual perceiver. The major characteristics of the perceiver influencing perception are: (a) Attitudes: The perceivers attitudes affect perception. For example, suppose Mr. X is interviewing candidates for a very important position in his organization a position that requires negotiating contracts with suppliers, most of whom are male. Mr X may feel that women are not capable of holding their own in tough negotiations. This attitude will doubtless affect his perceptions of the female candidates he interviews. (b) Moods: Moods can have a strong influence on the way we perceive someone. We think differently when we are happy than we do when we are depressed. In addition, we remember information that is consistent with our mood state better than information that is inconsistent with our mood state. When in a positive mood, we form more positive impressions of others. When in a negative mood, we tend to evaluate others unfavourably. (c) Motives: Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong influence on their perceptions. For example, in an organizational context, a boss who is insecure perceives a subordinates efforts to do an outstanding job as a threat to his or her own position. Personal insecurity can be translated into the perception that others are out to "get my job", regardless of the intention of the subordinates.

(d) Self-Concept: Another factor that can affect social perception is the perceivers self-concept. An individual with a positive self-concept tends to notice positive attributes in another person. In contrast, a negative selfconcept can lead a perceiver to pick out negative traits in another person. Greater understanding of self allows us to have more accurate perceptions of others. (e) Interest: The focus of our attention appears to be influenced by our interests. Because our individual interests differ considerably, what one person notices in a situation can differ from what others perceive. For example, the supervisor who has just been reprimanded by his boss for coming late is more likely to notice his colleagues coming late tomorrow than he did last week. If you are preoccupied with a personal problem, you may find it hard to be attentive in class. (f) Cognitive Structure: Cognitive structure, an individuals pattern of thinking, also affects perception. Some people have a tendency to perceive physical traits, such as height, weight, and appearance, more readily. Others tend to focus more on central traits, or personality dispositions. Cognitive complexity allows a person to perceive multiple characteristics of another person rather than attending to just a few traits. (g) Expectations: Finally, expectations can distort your perceptions in that you will see what you expect to see. The research findings of the study conducted by Sheldon S Zalkind and Timothy W Costello on some specific characteristics of the perceiver reveal Knowing oneself makes it easier to see others accurately. Ones own characteristics affect the characteristics one is likely to see in others. People who accept themselves are more likely to be able to see favourable aspects of other people. Accuracy in perceiving others is not a single skill.

These four characteristics greatly influence how a person perceives others in the environmental situation. 2. Characteristics of the Target: Characteristics in the target that is being observed can affect what is perceived. Physical appearance plays a big role in our perception of others. Extremely attractive or unattractive individuals are more likely to be noticed in a group than ordinary looking individuals. Motion, sound, size and other attributes of a target shape the way we see it.The perceiver will notice the targets physical features like height, weight, estimated age, race and gender. Perceivers tend to notice physical appearance

characteristics that contrast with the norm, that are intense, or that are new or unusual. Physical attractiveness often colours our entire impression of another person. Interviewers rate attractive candidates more favourably and attractive candidates are awarded higher starting salaries. Verbal communication from targets also affects our perception of them. We listen to the topics they speak about, their voice tone, and their accent and make judgements based on this input. Non-verbal communication conveys a great deal of information about the target. The perceiver deciphers eye contact, facial expressions, body movements, and posture all in an attempt to form an impression of the target .As a result of physical or time proximity, we often put together objects or events that are unrelated. For example, employees in a particular department are seen as a group. If two employees of a department suddenly resign, we tend to assume their departures were related when in fact, they might be totally unrelated. People, objects or events that are similar to each other also tend to be grouped together. The greater the similarity, the greater the probability we will tend to perceive them as a group. 3. Characteristics of the Situation: The situation in which the interaction between the perceiver and the target takes place, has an influence on the perceivers impression of the target. E.g. meeting a manager in his or her office affects your impression in a certain way that may contrast with the impression you would have formed, had you met the manager in a restaurant. The strength of the situational cues also affects social perception. Some situations provide strong cues as to appropriate behaviour. In these situations, we assume that ie individuals behaviour can be accounted for by the situation, and that it may not reflect the individuals disposition. This is the discounting principle in social perception. For example, you may encounter an automobile salesperson who has a warm and personable manner, asks you about your work and hobbies, and seems genuinely interested in your taste in cars. Can you assume that this behaviour reflects the salespersons personality? You probably cannot, because of the influence of the situation. This person is trying to sell you a car, and in this particular situation, he probably treats all customers in this manner. Q5 Mr. Solanki is the VP-HR of a leading Financial services company. He is having a meeting with Ms Ramani leading HR consultant. Mr. Solanki is concerned about creating an environment that helps in increasing the job satisfaction amongst employees. Assume that you are Ms. Ramani, the HR consultant. What suggestions you will give to Mr. Solanki, for creating an environment that increases job satisfaction.

Ans.

If I am Ms. Ramani, the HR consultant, I shall address specific challenges in terms of motivation which are explained below: (a) Motivating the Diversified Work Force: Not everyone is motivated by money. The needs of women, physically disabled and other diverse groups are not the same. If you are going to maximize your employees motivation, you have got to understand and respond to this diversity. This can be done in the following ways: (i) We should be ready to design work schedules, compensation plans, benefits, and physical work settings, etc., to reflect the employees varied needs. (ii) Allowing employees who are going for further training to colleges to vary their work schedule. (iii) Offering employees facilities like childcare, flexible work hours and job sharing for employees with family responsibilities. (iv) For employees coming from other states /countries- providing them flexible leave possibilities to enable them to go home for extensive periods. (b) Motivating Temporary Workers: Temporary workers may be motivated in the following ways: (i) When there is a system whereby permanent employees are selected from a pool of temporary employees, the latter will often work hard in hopes of becoming permanent. (ii) The ability of a temporary employee to find a new job is largely dependent on his or her skills. Therefore, temporary employees may be provided with the opportunity for training. (iii) When temporary employees work alongside permanent employees who earn more pay for doing the same job, they are likely to be demotivated. Separating such employees might help to lessen this problem. (c) Motivating Professionals: Professionals have a strong and long-term commitment to their field of expertise. Their loyalty is more often to their profession than to their employer. These professionals receive a great deal of intrinsic satisfaction from their work. They may be motivated in the following ways:

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(i) Their loyalty is towards their profession. To keep current in their fields, they need to regularly update their knowledge. Therefore, providing them opportunities for training and development is one sure way of motivating them. Reward them with educational opportunities staging workshops, attending conferences that allow them to keep current in their field. (ii) The chief reward of a professional is the job itself. They prefer challenging jobs. Therefore, provide them with ongoing challenging projects. (iii) Professionals want others to think what they are working-on is important. Therefore, ask questions and engage in other actions that demonstrate that you are sincerely interested in what they are doing. Q6 Given below is the HR policy glimpse of the VARK-LEARNING a learning and training solution company. 1. It offers cash rewards for staff members 2. It promotes the culture of employee referral and encourages people to refer people they know may be their friends, ex. Colleagues, batch mates, relatives. 3. What all needs do it takes care off according to Maslows Need Hierarchy 4. It recognizes good performances and give fancytitles and jackets to the people who perform well and also felicitates them in Annual Day of the company. What all aspects does it takes care of according to the Maslows Need Hierarchy?

Ans

Maslows Need Hierarchy has following terms: Physiological: Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs Safety: Includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm Social: Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship Esteem: Includes internal esteem factors, such as, self-respect, autonomy, and achievement; and external esteem factors, such as, status, recognition, and attention Self-actualization: The drive to become what one is capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving ones potential, and self-fulfillment

Maslow separated the five needs into higher and lower orders. Physiological and safety needs are described as lower-order. Social, esteem, and self-actualization are classified as higher-order needs. Higher-order needs are

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satisfied internally, whereas, Lower-order needs are predominantly satisfied, externally. In the HR policy of VARK-LEARNING, the aspects taken care off as per Maslows Need Hierarchy are as follows: (a) Cash rewards for staff members Esteem need is fulfilled (b) Promoting culture of employee referral system Social need is fulfilled (c) Recognising good performances Esteem need is fulfilled

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Name Manish Verma Roll No 521034791 Local Centre Code 01561 (Surat)

ASSIGNMENT SET 2 MB0038 Management Process and Organization Behaviour

Q1 Ans

Write a note on classical era for evolution of Organisational behavior. The Classical Era of evolution of Organisational behavior: The classical era, which covers the period between 1900 to mid 1930s, during which the first general theories of management began to evolve and the main contributors during this era were Frederick Taylor, Henri Fayol, Max Weber, Mary parker Follet and Chester Barnard. Frederick Taylors main emphasis was on finding one best way of doing each job. He stressed on selecting the right people for the job, train them to do it precisely in one best way. He favored wage plans to motivate the workers. His scientific principles of management stressed the following principles: 1. Shift all responsibility for the organization of work from the worker to the manager; managers should do all the thinking relating to the planning and design of work, leaving the workers with the task of implementation. 2. Use scientific methods to determine the most efficient way of doing work; assign the workers task accordingly, specifying the precise way in which the work is to be done. 3. Select the best person to perform the job thus designed. 4. Train the worker to do the work efficiently. 5. Monitor worker performances to ensure that appropriate work procedures are followed and that appropriate results are achieved. Taylor was one of the first to attempt to systematically analyze human behavior at work. He insisted the use of time-and-motion study as a means of standardizing work activities. His scientific approach called for detailed

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observation and measurement of even the most routine work, to find the optimum mode of performance. The results were dramatic, with productivity increasing significantly. With passing time, new organizational functions like personnel and quality control were created. Of course, in breaking down each task to its smallest unit to find what Taylor called the one best way to do each job, the effect was to remove human variability. Hence he lay the ground for the mass production techniques that dominated management thinking in the first half of the twentieth century. Henri Fayol, a mining engineer and manager by profession, defined the nature and working patterns of the twentieth-century organization in his book, General and Industrial Management, published in 1916. In it, he laid down what he called 14 principles of management. This theory is also called the Administrative Theory. The principles of the theory are: 1. Division of work: tasks should be divided up with employees specializing in a limited set of tasks so that expertise is developed and productivity increased. 2. Authority and responsibility: authority is the right to give orders and entails enforcing them with rewards and penalties; authority should be matched with corresponding responsibility. 3. Discipline: this is essential for the smooth running of business and is dependent on good leadership, clear and fair arguments, and the judicious application of penalties. 4. Unity of command: for any action whatsoever, an employee should receive orders from one superior only; otherwise authority, discipline, order, and stability are threatened. 5. Unity of direction: a group of activities concerned with a single objective should be co-coordinated by a single plan under one head. 6. Subordination of individual interest to general interest: individual or group goals must not be allowed to override those of the business. 7. Remuneration of personnel: this may be achieved by various methods but it should be fair, encourage effort, and not lead to overpayment. 8. Centralization: the extent to which orders should be issued only from the top of the organization is a problem which should take into account its characteristics, such as size and the capabilities of the personnel.

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9. Scalar chain (line of authority): communications should normally flow up and down the line of authority running from the top to the bottom of the organization, but sideways communication between those of equivalent rank in different departments can be desirable so long as superiors are kept informed. 10. Order: both materials and personnel must always be in their proper place; people must be suited to their posts so there must be careful organization of work and selection of personnel. 11. Equity: personnel must be treated with kindness and justice. 12. Stability of tenure of personnel: rapid turnover of personnel should be avoided because of the time required for the development of expertise. 13. Initiative: all employees should be encouraged to exercise initiative within limits imposed by the requirements of authority and discipline. 14. Esprit de corps: efforts must be made to promote harmony within the organization and prevent dissension and divisiveness. The management functions, that Fayol stated, consisted of planning, organizing, commanding, co-coordinating and controlling. Many practicing managers, even today, list these functions as the core of their activities. Fayol was also one of the first people to characterize a commercial organizations activities into its basic components. He suggested that organizations could be sub-divided into six main areas of activity: 1. Technical 2. Commercial 3. Financial 4. Security 5. Accounting 6. Management. In defining the core principles governing how organizations worked and the contribution of management to that process, Fayol laid down a blueprint that has shaped organization thinking for almost a century.

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Max Weber developed a theory based on authority relations and was the pioneer in looking at management and OB from a structural viewpoint. His theory is also known as bureaucratic theory in management. He described ideal types of organization and called it a bureaucracy. This was a system marked by division of labor, a clearly defined hierarchy, detailed rules and regulations and impersonal relationships. He wanted this ideal types construct to be taken as a basis for creating organizations in real world. The detailed features of Webers ideal bureaucratic structure are a follows: 1. Jurisdictional areas are clearly specified, activities are distributed as official duties (unlike traditional form where duties delegated by leader and changed at any time). 2. Organization follows hierarchical principle subordinates follow orders or superiors, but have right of appeal (in contrast to more diffuse structure in traditional authority). 3. Intention, abstract rules govern decisions and actions. Rules are stable, exhaustive, and can be learned. Decisions are recorded in permanent files (in traditional forms few explicit rules or written records). 4. Means of production or administration belong to office. Personal property separated from office property. 5. Officials are selected on basis of technical qualifications, appointed not elected, and compensated by salary. 6. Employment by the organization is a career. The official is a full-time employee and looks forward to a life-long career. After a trial period they get tenure of position and are protected from arbitrary dismissal. Q2 Ans What is groupthink. Explain. Groupthink According to Irving Janis(1972) , groupthink is "a deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment resulting from in-group pressures". Thus, the overemphasis on consensus and agreement leads members to be unwilling to evaluate group members ideas critically. This hinders decision-making and becomes an obstacle to group productivity. Certain conditions favour the development of groupthink. (i) The first condition is high cohesiveness. Cohesive groups tend to avoid conflicts and to demand conformity.

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(ii) The second is other antecedents including directive leadership, high stress, insulation of the group and lack of methodical procedures for developing and evaluating alternatives. A group suffering from groupthink displays recognizable symptoms. Symptoms of Groupthink and how to Prevent It Illusions of invulnerability: Group members feel they are above criticism. This symptom leads to excessive optimism and risk taking. Illusions of group morality: Group members feel they are moral in their actions and therefore above reproach. This symptom leads the group to ignore the ethical implications of their decisions. Illusions of unanimity: Group members believe there is unanimous agreement on the decisions. Silence is misconstrued as consent. Rationalization: Group members concoct explanations for their decisions to make them appear rational and correct. The results are that other alternatives are not considered, and there is an unwillingness to reconsider the groups assumptions. Stereotyping the enemy: Competitors are stereotyped as evil or stupid. This leads the group to underestimate its opposition. Self-censorship: Members do not express their doubts or concerns about the course of action. This prevents critical analysis of the decisions. Peer pressure: Any members who express doubts or concerns are pressured by other group members, who question their loyalty. Mind guards: Some members take it upon themselves to protect the group from negative feedback. Group members are thus shielded from information that might lead them to question their action.

Guidelines for Preventing Groupthink Ask each group member to assume the role of a critical evaluator by actively voicing objections or doubts. Have the leader avoid stating his or her position on the issue prior to the group decision. Create several groups that work on the decision simultaneously. Bring in outside experts to evaluate the group process. Appoint a devils advocate to question the groups course of action consistently. Evaluate the competition carefully, posing as many different motivations and intentions as possible. Once consensus is reached, encourage the group to rethink its position by re-examining the alternatives.

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Q3 Ans

Explain the process of negotiation. Negotiation is a process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree upon the exchange rate for them (Robbins, 2008). Negotiation Situations According to Lewicki and Litterer: (i) There is a conflict of interest between two or more parties, that is, what one wants is not necessarily, what the other one wants. (ii) Either there is no fixed or established set of rules or procedures for resolving. The conflict, or the parties, prefer to work outside of a set of rules and procedures to invent their own solution to the conflict. The parties, at least for the moment prefer to search for agreement rather than to fight openly, to have one side capitulate, to break off contact permanently or to take their dispute to a higher authority for resolution There are two general approaches to negotiation: distributive bargaining and integrative bargaining. Distributive bargaining When engaged in distributive bargaining, ones tactics focus on trying to get ones opponent to agree to ones specific target point or to get as close to it as possible. Hard distributive negotiation takes place when each party holds out to get its own way. The hard approach may lead to a winlose outcome in which one party dominates and gains. Soft distributive negotiation, takes place when one party is willing to make concessions to the other to get things over with. A soft approach leads to accommodation in which one party gives in to the other, or to compromise in which each party gives up something of value in order to reach agreement. Integrative bargaining This strategy is adopted to create a win-win solution. Integrative bargaining builds long-term relationships and facilitates collaborative work. Following conditions are necessary for this type of negotiation to succeed (Robbins, 2003):

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Parties who are open with information and candid about their concerns A sensitivity by both parties to the others needs The ability to trust one another A willingness by both parties to maintain flexibility Third-Party Negotiations When individuals and groups reach a stalemate and are unable to resolve their differences through direct negotiations, especially when a conflict is emotionally charged, they may turn to a third party to help them find a solution. The third party may be a manager, a well-respected colleague or someone whose formal role is to resolve conflicts. 1. Mediator: A mediator is neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning and persuasion, suggesting alternatives, etc. A mediators role involves exerting high control over the process but not the outcome. A mediator interviews the parties separately, and then tries to help them reach a solution by bringing those together or ferrying messages back and forth during labour-management negotiations. 2. Arbitrator: An arbitrator is a third party with the authority to dictate an agreement. An arbitrators role involves exerting low control over the process and high, control over the outcome. The arbitrator allows each party to present facts or arguments and then decides on the outcome and may even enforce it. Arbitration can be voluntary or compulsory. 3. Consultant: A consultant is a skilled and impartial third party who attempts to facilitate problem solving through communication and analysis, aided by his or her knowledge of conflict management. This approach has a longer term focus to build new and positive perception and attitude between the conflicting parties. 4. Inquisitor: The role of an inquisitor involves high control over both the process and the outcome of conflict resolution. An inquisitor asks questions, directs the way evidence is presented, calls for additional evidence and referees arguments, then decides the outcome of the dispute and enforces his or her decision. 5. Avoider, delegator or impetus provider: A category of roles that involve exerting little control over the process and the outcome. They are:

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a) Avoider: tries to ignore the conflict and minimize its significance. b) The delegator: asks another person to help in the negotiation. c) Impetus provider: delegates the conflict to the parties along with a threat that if they fail to resolve it, the manager will dictate a solution they are sure to dislike. The Negotiation Process A model of the negotiation process is as follows: Steps in Negotiation We can identify four basic steps in the negotiation process. They are: 1. Preparation: Preparation for negotiations should begin long before the formal negotiation begins. Each party gathers information about the other side its history, likely behaviour, previous interactions and previous agreements reached by the parties. Each party polls its members to determine their wishes, expectations, and preferences regarding a new agreement. 2. Evaluation of Alternatives: The two sides attempt to identify the bargaining range (i.e., the range in which both parties would find an agreement acceptable). The bargainers determine the alternatives acceptable to them and also identify their best alternative if a negotiated settlement is not reached. Identifying a set of alternatives, including the best one, helps individuals determine whether to continue the negotiation or seek another course of action. Both the parties Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement (BATNA) needs to be determined. BATNA determines the lowest value acceptable to you for a negotiated agreement for both the parties. 3. Identifying Interests: Negotiators act to satisfy their own interests, which may include substantive, relationship, personal or organizational ones. The person or group must assess the other partys interests and then decide how to respond to those interests in their offers. Effective negotiations call for satisfying interests by identifying and exploring a range of possible positions on specific issues. 4. Making Trade-offs and Creating Joint Gains: Bargainers use trade-offs to satisfy their own and others interests. Either position would

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meet the interests of maintaining a certain standard of living. One way to assess tradeoffs is Begin by identifying the best and worst possible outcomes. Next, specify what impact trade-offs will have on these outcomes. Finally, consider whether the changed outcomes will better meet the parties interest. Negotiators need to overcome the idea that a fixed pie of outcomes exists, avoid non-rational escalation of conflict, pay attention to others cognitions and avoid devaluating the others concessions while overvaluing their own. Issues in Negotiation Some of the most important issues have been discussed below. 1. The role of personality traits in negotiation Overall assessments of the personality-negotiation relationship finds that personality traits have no significant direct effect on either the bargaining process or negotiation outcomes (Wall & Blum, 1991). 2. Gender differences in negotiations Men and women do not negotiate differently. A popular stereotype is that women are more cooperative, pleasant, and relationship-oriented in negotiations than are men. The evidence does not support this. The belief that women are nicer is probably due to confusing gender and the lack of power typically held by women. (Stuhlmacher & Walters, 1999). 3. Cultural differences in negotiations Negotiating styles clearly vary across national cultures (Adler, 2002). The cultural context of the negotiation significantly influences the amount and type of preparation for bargaining, the emphasis on task versus interpersonal relationships, the tactics used, etc. Q4 The environmental stressors have a great impact on work performance and adjustment of individual in an organisation. Discuss the different categories of environmental stressors. Environmental Stressors Environmental and internal conditions that lie beyond an individuals control are called environmental stressors. Such stressors can have a considerable impact on work performance and adjustment. We can organize environmental stressors into the following categories:

Ans

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1. Task Demands: Task demands are factors related to a persons job. They include the design of the individuals job, working conditions, and the physical work layout. Changes and lack of control are two of the most stressful demands people face at work. Change leads to uncertainty, a lack of predictability in a persons daily tasks and activities and may be caused by job insecurity related to difficult economic times. Technology and technological innovation also create change and uncertainty for many employees, requiring adjustments in training, education and skill development. Lack of control is a second major source of stress, especially in work environments that are difficult and psychologically demanding. The lack of control may be caused by inability to influence the timing of tasks and activities, to select tools or methods for accomplishing the work, to make decisions that influence work outcomes, or to exercise direct action to affect the work outcomes. 2. Role Demands: The social-psychological demands of the work environment may be every bit as stressful as task demands at work. Role demands relate to pressures placed on a person as a function of the particular role he or she plays in the organization. Role conflicts create expectations that may be hard to reconcile or satisfy. Role conflict results from inconsistent or incompatible expectations communicated to a person. The conflict may be an inter-role, intrarole or person-role conflict. a. Inter-role Conflict: is caused by conflicting expectations related to two separate roles, such as employee and parent. For example, the employee with a major sales presentation on Monday and a sick child at home is likely to experience inter-role conflict, b. Intra-role Conflict: is caused by conflicting expectations related to a single role, such as employee. For example, the manager who presses employees for both very fast work and high-quality work may be viewed at some point as creating a conflict for employees. c. Person-role Conflict: Ethics violations are likely to cause person-role conflicts. Employees expected to behave in ways that violate personal values, beliefs or principles experience conflict. The second major cause of role stress is role ambiguity. Role ambiguity is created when role expectations are not clearly understood and the employee is not sure what he or she is to do. Role ambiguity is the confusion a person experiences related to the expectations of others. Role ambiguity may be caused by not understanding what is expected, not knowing how to do it, or not knowing the result of failure to do it.

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3. Inter-personal Demands: are pressures created by other employees. Lack of social support from colleagues and poor interpersonal relationships can cause considerable stress, especially among employees with a high social need. Abrasive personalities, sexual harassment and the leadership style in the organization are interpersonal demands for people at work. a. The Abrasive Person: May be an able and talented employee, but one who creates emotional waves that others at work must accommodate. b. Sexual Harassment: The vast majority of sexual harassment is directed at women in the workplace, creating a stressful working environment for the person being harassed, as well as for others. c. Leadership Styles: Whether authoritarian or participative, create stress for different personality types. Employees who feel secure with firm, directive leadership may be anxious with an open, participative style. Those comfortable with participative leadership may feel restrained by a directive style. 4. Physical Demands: Non-work demands create stress for people, which carry over into the work environment or vice versa. Workers subject to family demands related to marriage, child rearing and parental care may create role conflicts or overloads that are difficult to manage. In addition to family demands, people have personal demands related to non-work organizational commitments such as religious and public service organizations. These demands become more or less stressful, depending on their compatibility with the persons work and family life and their capacity to provide alternative satisfactions for the person. Q5 Given below are certain instances observed by the summer trainee Ritu, while making an observational study at Global Green Consultants. An organisation dealing with recycling of plastic product waste etc. She makes the following observation about two key people in the organisation. 1. Mr Patnayak He is very friendly person and encourages his team members by giving those recommendations and appreciations. This helps HR to decide about giving a bonus or promotion to employees. 2. Mr Dutta He is an aggressive person. He frequently loses his temper. Ritu observes that he frequently punishes the non-performers and also give them warnings regarding suspension etc. Now explain what base of power does Mr Patnayak and Mr Dutta belong to. Explain the type of power they use often.

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Ans

Mr Duttas base of power is coercive power whereas Mr Patnayaks base of power is reward power. The type of power are explained as follows: 1. Coercive Power: The coercive power base is being dependent on fear. It is based on the application, or the threat of application, of physical sanctions such as the infliction of pain, the generation of frustration through restriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs. In an organization one can exercise power over another if they have the power to dismiss, suspend, demote another assuming that the job is valuable to the person on whom power is being unleashed. 2. Reward Power: The opposite of coercive power is reward power. Reward power is the extent to which a manager can use extrinsic and intrinsic rewards to control other people. Examples of such rewards include money, promotions, compliments, or enriched jobs. Although all managers have some access to rewards, success in accessing and utilizing rewards to achieve influence varies according to the skills of the manager. 3. Legitimate Power: The third base of position power is legitimate power, or formal authority. It stems from the extent to which a manager can use subordinates internalized values or beliefs that the boss has a right of command to control their behavior. For example, the boss may have the formal authority to approve or deny such employee requests as job transfers, equipment purchases, personal time off, or overtime work. Legitimate power represents a special kind of power a manager has because subordinates believe it is legitimate for a person occupying the managerial position to have the right to command. The lack of this is legitimacy will result in authority not being accepted by subordinates. Thus this type of power has the following elements: It represents the power a person receives as a result of his/her position in the formal hierarchy. Positions of authority include coercive and reward powers. Legitimate power, however, is not limited to the power to coerce and reward. It encompasses the acceptance of the authority of a position by members of an organization.

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Q6

Fashion4Now is a famous and old magazine. The top management decides to start the e-edition of the magazine. They also decide to redefine the policies and culture of window to truth. To start implementing, this change, they frequently call the meetings of employees. They have also formed groups at different levels to clarify doubts and explain the perspective of change. Analyse the situation in the context of organisational change and elaborate why the top management is following the discussed practices and what approach is most evident in the context.

Ans

The Fashion4Now has decided to start e-edition of the magazine as it wants to remain upbeat with new technology. Technological changes are responsible for changing the nature of the job performed at all levels in an organization. When there is a change in technology in the organizations environment and other organizations adopt the new technology, the organization under focus becomes less cost-effective and its competitive position weakens. Therefore, it has to adopt new technology. When the organizations adopt a new technology, its work structures are affected and a new equilibrium has to be established. We have seen that technology has impact on organization structure, organizational processes, and behaviour of people. For example, computers and automation have made significant impact on organizational functioning. Due to rapid changes in the business scenario with increasing competition and global economy, the needs and demands are also changing among the customers, suppliers and other stakeholders. Organizations are, therefore, forced to change their operational methods to meet the demands of the stakeholders. Since every organization exports its outputs to the environment, an organization has to face competition in the market. There may be two types of forces which may affect the competitive position of an organization other organizations supplying the same products and, buyers who are buying the product. Any change in these forces may require suitable changes in the organization. For example, when Indian economy was liberalized (the process still continues), there were many foreign organizations which entered the Indian market. This forced many Indian organizations to re-align themselves with the new situation. The result is that there have been many cases of divesting the business and concentrating on the core business, acquiring core business, and developing competitive competence to face competitive threats. Similarly, there may be changes in buyers in terms of their needs, liking-disliking, and income disposal for a product. These changes force the organizations to bring those products which meet buyers requirements.

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The effort of Fashion4Now to involve employees in effecting organisational change is largely aimed to overcome peoples resistance to change. Unless this problem is overcome properly, the effect of the change may not be as functional as envisaged by the management. In many cases, even the impact of change may be dysfunctional if change is imposed upon the people by the use of formal authority. Therefore, the role of formal authority in implementing a change may not be effective all the times; it can make effectively by managing resistance effectively. Few methods are mentioned below, which describe the situation of organisational change in Fashion4Now:

1. Education and communication: Open communication and proper

education help employees to understand the significance of change and its requirement. For that, proper initiative should be taken to provide the information regarding the type, timing, implication, purpose and reason for change. People should be educated to become familiar with change, its process and working. 2. Employee participation and involvement: People generally get more committed towards the change, if they are directly involved in the change process. This way, they have the opportunity to clarify their doubts and understand the perspective and requirement of change for the organization. The management also gets the chance to identify the potential problems that may occur in the workplace and the chance to prevent it. The fundamental idea in this process is to encourage the person to say something about any aspect of the change. 3. Facilitation and support: Change agent can offer a range of supportive measures to reduce resistance. Empathetic and considerate listening can reduce employees fear and anxiety towards change. Counselling sessions to reduce stress, trauma, etc., can be an effective measure. The management can change the basic values of the people by training and psychological counseling. They must be taught new skills, helped to change attitudes, and indoctrinated in new relationships. Such educational process can be aided by training classes, meetings, and conferences. This helps in creating receptive environment in the organization. 4. Negotiation and agreement: Organizations which have a fair chance to face potential resistance from the union representatives, can defuse the resistance by involving them directly in the change process. They should be properly briefed about the need and value of change. However, this can be a costly proposition when there is more than one dominant union in the organization, as all the contending parties would fight for power and recognition.