EXPERIMENT B6

Aim:
To draw I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias.
Apparatus:
One p-n junction, a battery 6V, rheostat of resistance 20 ohms or 30 ohms to be used in
potential divider arrangement, as resistance of 10 ohms, a DC milliammeter (0 to 30mA and
least count 0.5mA), a DC voltmeter (0 to 3V range and least count 0.05V), a microammeter
and a DC voltmeter 0 to 12V), connecting wires etc.
Theory:
Characteristics of diode:
Graphical relationship between the volatage applied across a diode and the current through
the diode is called characteristics of diode. The graph plotted with current as ordinate and
potential applied across it ends as abscissa shows the characteristics of the diode.
Forward biasing:
A p-n junction diode gets forward biased when its p side is connected to the positive terminal
of the supply voltage and n to the negative terminal. Initially for voltages up to 0.4 V, there is
not much rise in current due to the opposition by barrier potential. Beyond this, the current
starts rising in a p-n junction.
Knee Voltage:
The forward voltage when the current starts rising, i.e., is termed as the knee voltage. It is
represented as I
k
. It is about 0.7 V for silicon.
Reverse biasing :
A p-n junction is reverse biased when the p side of the junction is connected to the negative
terminal of supply voltage and n side terminal is connected to positive terminal of battery.
Reverse Saturation Current:
As the applied voltage is increased in the reverse bias, starting from zero value, the current
increases, but soon becomes constant.This current is very small(a few microamperes). It is
called the reverse saturation current.

Observations:
1. Specifications of the diode used:
(i) Diode No.
(ii) Maximum current or current rating = .. mA
(iii) Maximum potential or break down voltage = .. V
2. For Forward Biasing:
(i) Range of the milliammeter= .. mA to mA
(ii)Least count of the milliammeter = .. mA
(iii) Range of the voltmeter= .. V to . V
(iv) Least count of voltmeter= .. V
3. For Reverse Biasing:
(i) Range of the microammeter= .. A to A
(ii)Least count of the microammeter = .. A
(iii) Range of the voltmeter= .. V to V
(iv) Least count of voltmeter= .. V

(Zero error, if any, in the voltmeter and ammeters should be adjusted to nil by using a screw
driver.In case the adjustment by screw driver is not possible, then record the zero errors also.)
4. Zero Errors:
(i)Zero error of miliammeter = .. mA
(ii)Zero error of the voltmeter = .. V
(iii) Zero error of microammeter = . A

5. Variation of I with V
S.no. p-n forward biased p-n reverse biased
Voltmeter
Reading
V
f
(volt)
Ammeter
Reading
I
f
(mA)
Voltmeter
Reading
V
f
(volt)
Ammeter Reading
I
f
(A)
1.

2.

3.

.

. .

. .

. .

11. .

12. .


Graph:
Using the above data for each set, plot the graph of the values of forward current (I
f
) against
the corresponding values of the forward bias (V
f
) and values of I
f
vs V
f.
The knee voltage
in forward biasing and reverse breakdown voltage in reverse biasing are easily conceivable.
RESULT
1. The char act er i st i c of p-n j unct i on i n f orw ar d bi asi ng and r ever se bi asi ng ar e show n i n t he gr aph.
2. The knee vol t age V
k
f or t he gi ven di ode i s V.
3. The r ever se br eakdow n vol t age f or t he gi ven di ode i s V.
4. The r ever se cur r ent f or t he gi ven di ode i s . A

Precautions:
1) Vol t met er and mi l li ammet er of appr opr i at e l east count s and r anges shoul d be sel ect ed.
2) The poi nt er shoul d ei t her be adj ust ed t o r eal zer o w hen no cur r ent i s passi ng or zer o er r or of
t he i nst r ument shoul d be t aken i nt o account .
3) The var i at i on of V shoul d be done i n st eps of 0.1V.
4) The bat t er y conn ect i ons of p-n j unct i on di ode shoul d be checked and i n f or w ar d bi asi ng i t
shoul d be ensur ed t hat p i s connect ed t o posi t i ve and n t o t he negat i ve of t he bat t er y.
5) Never cr oss t he l i mi t s speci f i ed by t he manuf act ur er or t he di ode w i ll get damaged.
6) In r ever se bi asi ng, mil li ammet er shoul d be r epl aced by mi cr oammet er of r ange 500 and
vol t met er shoul d be changed t o 15 vol t r ange.
7) In r ever se bi asi ng, t he pol ar i t i es of mi cr oammet er and vol t met er shoul d be r ever sed such
t hat t hei r posi t i ve t er mi nal s ar e connect ed t o posi t i ve t er mi nal of bat t er y.
8) Once t he r ever se br eakdow n show n by sudden r i de of r ever se cur r ent i s r eached, t he
r ever se pot ent i al shoul d not be i ncr eased f ur t her .
Sources of error:
1. The gr aduat i ons i n vol t met er and ammet er s may not b e accur at e.


EXPERIMENT B7

Aim: To draw the characteristic curve of a Zener Diode and to determine its reverse
breakdown voltage.

Apparatus: p-n junction diode/ Zener diode apparatus, leads.

Theory:
On application of reverse bias to a diode, depletion layer widens and the bias increases the
barrier potential. As a result of this, there is no flow of current in the diode. As the reverse
bias increases to a certain value, the applied electric field pulls electrons directly out of their
bonds and an increased current flow occurs. The effect is called Zener effect and the reverse
voltage applied is called Zener voltage or breakdown voltage. The reverse current at the
Zener voltage is called Zener current. At breakdown voltage, the current suddenly increases
to a high value (maintaining the voltage constant). That is why Zener diodes are used in
voltage regulators. Zener diodes with breakdown voltage 2.7 V to a few hundred volts are
available.


Diagram:



R
0-100 V +
50 mA
-



OBSERVATIONS:

1. Range of voltmeter =. Volt
2. Range of ammeter = . mA
3. Least count of ammeter = mA
4. Least count of voltmeter = . Volt
5. Zero error of ammeter = .. mA
6. Zero error of voltmeter = .. volt

Table for breakdown voltage of Zener diode

Sr. No. Voltmeter Reading (volt) Ammeter Reading (mA)
1
2
3
.
.
.
.


Graph: plot a graph (in third quadrant) with voltage in the x-axis and current in the y-axis
after choosing a suitable scale. From the graph find the value of breakdown voltage, by
extending the portion of the curve which becomes vertical. The point where the extended line
intersects x-axis is the breakdown voltage.

Result:
The breakdown voltage for the givenzener diode is (-). Volt.

Precaution:
1) Vol t met er and mi l li ammet er of appr opr i at e l east count s and r anges shoul d be sel ect ed.
2) The poi nt er shoul d ei t her be adj ust ed t o r eal zer o w hen no cur r ent i s passi ng or zer o er r or of
t he i nst r ument shoul d be t aken i nt o account .
3) Pot ent i al di f f er ence acr oss t he di ode must be i ncr eased gr adual l y. Keep an eye on t he
ammet er and l et t he cur r ent not exceed t he speci f i ed l i mi t .

Sources of error:
1. The control for voltage selector may be loose, thereby giving inaccurate values.
2. The connections of the leads may have become loose during the experiment.
3. The selection of the voltage for the observation may not be done properly.

EXPERIMENT B8
AIM:
To study the characteristics of a common emitter p-n-p transistor and to find the values of
current and voltage gains.
APPARATUS:
One p-n-p transistor (Mullard OC 71 or Greaves 2 N 2904), a microammeter (0 to 100
microAmpere), a milliammeter (30 mA range), two dry batteries 12 V and 3 V, two rheostats
(1 k), a high resistance voltmeter with range ( 0 to 10 V), an AVO meter (0 to 10 V), one
resistance of 1 k and three variable resistors (10 k, 50 k and 500 k), two one-way
keys, connecting leads, and etcetera.

THEORY:
In most of the transistor circuits, out of the Common Base, Common Collector and Common
Emitter, the configuration generally used is common emitter. In such connections, the emitter
is common to both the input and the output. For ascertaining the common emitter
characteristics, the variables studied are:
(a) I
B s.
I
BL
kccping I
CL
constont. (i nput char act er i st i cs)
(b) I
c s.
I
CL
kccping I
B
constont. (out put char act er i st i cs)
(c) I
C s.
I
B
kccping I
C
constont. (t r ansf er char act er i st i cs)
Transistor is said to be a current device.
Input Characteristics:
Input characteristics show interdependence of the base current on the base potential for fixed
values of as shown in the figure.
The a.c. input resistance (r
i
) of the transistor in common emitter circuit is
r
i
=(
v
BE
I
B
)v
c
=constant
r
i
is only a few 100 ohms.
Output Characteristics:
These characteristics show the the dependence of I
c
on V
CE
when I
B
value is fixed as
shown in figure and is generally operated beyond the sharp change of slope. The a.c. output
resistance (r
o
) of transistor in common emitter circuit is
r
o
= (
vc
Ic
) I
B
= constant
The value of r
o
varies from a 1000 ohms to a few 10 kohms.
Transfer Characteristics:
These characteristics show the variation of I
c
with I
B
keeping V
c
value constant as shown
in fig and is almost a linear graph.
Direct Current Amplification --
The ratio of collector current I
C
to the base current I
B
corresponding to a point P on the
transfer characteristics is termed as direct current gain [.
Therefore,
Current gain--
=
CoIIccto cucnt ut gcn uIuc o] vc
Busc cucnt ut sumc uIuc

or, =
I
C
I
B

Alternating Current Amplification --
In transfer characteristics, a small change in base current I
B
at a given value of V
c

produces a large change I
C
in collector current, then,
A.C. Current gain, =
I
C
I
B
=
R
PR
as shown in fig = ..
(2)
Voltage Gain --
Corresponding to a small voltage change I

in the emitter base (i.e., input),

if the change in the output voltage at the collector is I
o
, then the ratio of I
o
to I

is
termed as voltage gain, i.e.,
A
v
=
v
c
v
i

But I

= r

I
B
onJ I
o
= r
o
I
C

A

i
.
I
c
I
B
=

i
[
Where r
i
is input resistance and r
o
is the output resistance of the transistor and [ is the
current gain,
A

i
.
I
c
I
B
= [

i

Observations:
1. Range of the Instruments used:
(i ) Microammeter = .. A
(i i ) M i l l i ammet er = .. mA
(i i i ) Vol t met er V
CE
= .. V
(i v) Vol t met er V
BE
= .. V
2. Least co unt of t he i nst r um ent s used:
(i ) Microammeter = .. A
(i i ) M i l l i ammet er = .. mA
(i ii ) Vol t met er V
CE
= .. V
(i v) Vol t met er V
BE
= .. V
3. Speci f i cat i ons of t he t r ansi st or used .

Input Characteristics (I
B
vs. V
B
keeping V
CE
constant)
I
V
CE
=
4V
V
B
(V)
I
B
(A)

II
V
CE
=
6V
V
B
(V)

I
B
(A)


Output Characteristics (I
C
vs. V
CE
keeping I
BE
constant)
I
I
BE
= 40
A
V
C
(V)
I
C
(mA)

II
I
BE
= 60
A
V
C
(V)

I
C
(mA)

Note: Further add columns for I
BE
= 80 A and 100 A extending the table.


Transfer Characteristics (I
C
vs. I
B
keeping V
CE
constant)
I
V
CE
=
4V
I
B
(A)

I
C
(mA)
II
V
CE
=
8V
I
B
(A)
I
C
(mA)


1. Plot the graphs of the values of I
B
as ordinates against the corresponding values of V
B
as
abscissa and label with the constant collector voltage V
CE
. On the same graph sheet, plot
another curve for a different V
C
value. These are input characteristics.
2. Similarly on other graph paper, plot the values of I
C
vs. V
CE
for different values keeping
I
B
, constant and label each curve with the constant I
B
value. These are Output
Characteristics.
3. Similarly on other graph paper, curves showing the variation of I
C
vs. I
B
-I
C
as ordinates
and I
B
as abscissa, and label each curve with V
C
value kept constant. These curves show
transfer characteristics.
Calculations:
1. Fr om i npu t char act er i st i cs (in pu t r esi st ance r
i
)
Fr om t h e midpo int P on t he st r ai gh t (l i near ) por t i on of t he graph , cal cul at e t he val ue of
(V
B
/ I
B
) whi ch gi ves t h e val u e o f i npu t r esi st an ce,

r
i
=
R
RS
= .. ...(1)

2. Fr om o ut put char act er i st i cs (o ut pu t r esi st an ce r
o
)
Take a po int P on t he out pu t char act er i st i c gr aph b eyon d t h e kn ee poi nt . Cal cul at e t h e
val ue o f V
C
/ I
C
by r ead ing t h e val ues of V
CE
cor respon di ng t o B and A, and t hose of I
C
co r respo ndi ng t o A and P. V
C
/ I
C
gi ves t he out put r esi st an ce, r
o
o f t h e t r ansi st o r .
Thu s,

r
o
=
vc
Ic
=
BA
AP
= .. (2)
Take car e t hat I
C
i s i n mA, conver t i t t o A.

3. Fr o m t r an sf er ch ar act er i st i cs (cur r ent gain [)
Fr om a poi nt A on appr o xi mat el y lin ear r egi o n on t he graph, cal cul at e (I
C
/ I
B
) =
(QR/ PR) f or V
C
con st ant at -4 V. I
C
/ I
B
gi ves t he val ue of cu r r en t gai n [.
Thu s cur r ent gai n, =
I
c
I
B
= .. at I
C
= mA (3)
Do t he si mi l ar cal cul at i ons, vi z., (1), (2) and (3) f or t he second cur ve al so i n each of t he t hr ee
char act er i st i c gr aphs and r ecor d t hei r val ues.
For vol t age gai n, A
V
= [.

i
=
Subsi t ut e t he val ue of , r
o
and r
i
f r om (3), (2) and (1) and comput e t he val ue of vol t age gai n
(A
V
).
Result :
1. Char act er i st i cs of t he gi ven t r ansi st or OC 71 (p-n-p) are show n i n t he gr aphs.
2. Val ue of t he cur r ent gai n = . And
3. Val ue of t he volt age gai n A
V
i s f ound t o be = .

Precaut ions:

1. M easur i ng i nst r ument s f or t he measur emen t of cur r ent s and vol t ages must b e of appr opr i at e
l east count s and r anges.
2. Do not exceed t he r at i ngs f or t he cur r ent s pr ovi ded i n t he manual f or t he t r ansi st or used.
3. Connect i ons shoul d be done car ef ul l y keepi ng i n mi nd t he p-n-p or n-p-n t r ansi st or and biasi ng
shoul d be done accor di ng t o t he t r ansi st or used.
4. Bef or e sw i t chi ng t he cur r ent on i n t he base or col l ect or ci cui t , ensur e t hat t he r esi st or s R
1
and
R
2
pr ovi de zer o bi asi ng.
Sources of error:
1. The control for voltage selector may be loose, thereby giving inaccurate values.
2. The connections of the leads may have become loose during the experiment.
3. The selection of the voltage for the observation may not be done properly.