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Chapter
Scientific Measurements
Uncertainty in Measurements
A measurement is a number with a unit attached.
It is not possible to make exact measurements, and all measurements have uncertainty. We will generally use metric system units. These include:
the meter, m, for length measurements the gram, g, for mass measurements the liter, L, for volume measurements
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Length Measurements
Lets measure the length of a candy cane.
Ruler A has 1 cm divisions, so we can estimate the length to 0.1 cm. The length is 4.2 0.1 cm. Ruler B has 0.1 cm divisions, so we can estimate the length to 0.05 cm. The length is 4.25 0.05 cm.
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Uncertainty in Length
Ruler A: 4.2 0.1 cm; Ruler B: 4.25 0.05 cm.
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Mass Measurements
The mass of an object is a measure of the amount of matter it possesses. Mass is measured with a balance and is not affected by gravity. Mass and weight are not interchangeable.
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Volume Measurements
Volume is the amount of space occupied by a solid, liquid, or gas. There are several instruments for measuring volume, including: graduated cylinder syringe buret pipet volumetric flask
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Significant Digits
Each number in a properly recorded measurement is a significant digit (or significant figure). The significant digits express the uncertainty in the measurement. When you count significant digits, start counting with the first non-zero number.
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Therefore, 50 cm, 500 cm, and 5000 cm all have one significant digit.
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Exact Numbers
When we count something, it is an exact number. Significant digit rules do not apply to exact numbers. An example of an exact number: there are 3 coins on this slide.
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Rounding Examples
A calculator displays 12.846239 and 3 significant digits are justified. The first nonsignificant digit is a 4, so we drop all nonsignificant digits and get 12.8 as the answer. A calculator displays 12.856239 and 3 significant digits are justified.
The first nonsignificant digit is a 5, so the last significant digit is increased by one to 9, all the nonsignificant digits are dropped, and we get 12.9 as the answer.
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g g g g
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Exponential Numbers
Exponents are used to indicate that a number has been multiplied by itself. Exponents are written using a superscript; thus, (2)(2)(2) = 23. The number 3 is an exponent and indicates that the number 2 is multiplied by itself 3 times. It is read 2 to the third power or 2 cubed. (2)(2)(2) = 23 = 8
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Powers of Ten
A power of 10 is a number that results when 10 is raised to an exponential power. The power can be positive (number greater than 1) or negative (number less than 1).
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Scientific Notation
Numbers in science are often very large or very small. To avoid confusion, we use scientific notation. Scientific notation utilizes the significant digits in a measurement followed by a power of ten. The significant digits are expressed as a number between 1 and 10.
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Another Example
The typical length between two carbon atoms in a molecule of benzene is 0.000000140 m. What is the length expressed in scientific notation? Place the decimal after the 1, followed by the other significant digits. Count the number of places the decimal has moved to the right (7). Add the power of 10 to complete the scientific notation.
1.40 10-7 m
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Scientific Calculators
A scientific calculator has an exponent key (often EXP or EE) for expressing powers of 10. If your calculator reads 7.45 E-17, the proper way to write the answer in scientific notation is 7.45 10-17. To enter the number in your calculator, type 7.45, then press the exponent button (EXP or EE), and type in the exponent (17 followed by the +/ key).
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Unit Equations
A unit equation is a simple statement of two equivalent quantities. For example:
1 hour = 60 minutes 1 minute = 60 seconds
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Unit Factors
A unit conversion factor, or unit factor, is a ratio of two equivalent quantities. For the unit equation 1 hour = 60 minutes, we can write two unit factors:
1 hour 60 minutes or 60 minutes 1 hour
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Step 3: We apply a unit factor (1 year = 365 days) and round to two significant figures.
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1 km 26.2 mi 42 km 0.62 mi
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Calculating Percentages
Sterling silver contains silver and copper. If a sterling silver chain contains 18.5 g of silver and 1.5 g of copper, what is the percent of silver in sterling silver?
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Chapter Summary
A measurement is a number with an attached unit.
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If a number does not have a decimal point, all nonzero numbers and all zeros between nonzero numbers are significant.
If a number has a decimal place, significant digits start with the first nonzero number and all digits to the right are also significant.
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