Properties of Fluids

Chris Race January 27, 2005

Contents
1 Introductory Notes 1.1 Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Pressure in a uid . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Dening pressure . . . . . . . 1.2.2 Pressure variation with depth 1.2.3 Pascals Law . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Ideal gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 2 2 3 3 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 7 7 7 8 9 10 10 11 11 12 12 12 13 15 15 15 18 20

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2 Surface Tension 2.1 Intermolecular forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Two types of intermolecular force . . . . . . 2.1.2 The shape of intermolecular forces . . . . 2.1.3 Cohesive intermolecular forces . . . . . . . 2.1.4 Understanding phase transitions . . . . . . 2.2 Surface tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Understanding the origin of surface tension 2.2.2 Quantifying surface tension . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Surface energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 A demonstration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Surface Energy Discussion . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Angle of contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Competing cohesive and adhesive forces . . 2.4.2 Dening angle of contact . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.3 Some examples of angle of contact . . . . . 2.5 Liquid Surfaces and pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.1 Pressure dierence across a liquid surface . 2.5.2 Excess pressure inside a liquid drop . . . . 2.5.3 Excess pressure inside a bubble . . . . . . . 2.5.4 Capillary action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.5 Capillary rise - derivation using forces . . . 2.5.6 Capillary rise - derivation using pressures . 3 Viscosity and Fluid Flow

Chapter 1

Introductory Notes
Before we begin the core topics for this course, we will review some physics that is needed to understand surface tension. Some of you will already be familiar with some or all of the material in this introductory chapter.

1.1

Density

Density is a property of a substance and is a measure of how heavy that substance is. It is dened as mass per unit volume:

m V

The SI unit of density is the kilogram per cubic metre, 1 kg/m3 (also written 1 kgm3 ). You may also encounter the term Specic Gravity 1 . This is the density of a substance relative to that of water: Specic Gravity = Density of substance Density of water

1.2
1.2.1

Pressure in a uid
Dening pressure

When a uid is a rest it exerts a force perpendicular to any surface in contact with it. If we imagine a surface within the uid, that surface must experience an equal force on both sides otherwise it would accelerate and the uid would not be at rest. We dene pressure in terms of the force F acting on such an imaginary surface of area A:
1 This is not a good term. The ratio has nothing to do with gravity and the term Relative Density would be better.

1.2. PRESSURE IN A FLUID

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTORY NOTES

P =

F A

P
Pressure is therefore measured in units of newtons per square metre (1 N/m2 or 1 Nm2 also called a pascal (Pa).

1.2.2

Pressure variation with depth

If the weight of a uid can be neglected then the pressure in the uid is the same throughout. Often this is not the case and things are more complicated. We will develop an expression for how pressure varies with depth in a uid. We consider a small element of uid (see gure 1.1) with a top surface area of A and a thickness of y. We call the pressure at the top of the uid element P1 . The pressure at the bottom of the element must be a bit higher to balance the weight of the uid element so we call this pressure P1 + P . Now we use the fact that the element of uid is in equilibrium:

P + P
Figure 1.1: Pressure variation across a uid element

Downward force = Upward force Weight of element = Force of pressure Ay g = [(P + P ) (P )] A Ay g = P A yg = P And so, rearranging: P = g y The above result tells us how pressure varies with depth. If we assume that the pressure at the surface of a liquid is P0 and consider a point at a depth h (so y = h in this case) then we can calculate the pressure P at this depth: P P = P0 + P = P0 + gy = P0 + gh This expression for pressure at a depth h in a liquid of density will be used later in the course.

1.2.3

Pascals Law

The expression for the variation of pressure with depth also shows us that if we increase the pressure at the liquid surface (we increase P0 ), then the pressure at all points in the liquid increases by the same amount. This is called Pascals Law and is written: See www.explanatorium.org 3 KIST: Engineering Physics

1.3. IDEAL GASES

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTORY NOTES

Pascals Law Pressure applied to an enclosed uid is transmitted undiminished to every portion of the uid and the walls of the containing vessel. Pressure applied to an enclosed uid is transmitted undiminished to every portion of the uid and the walls of the containing vessel.

1.3

Ideal gases

For the purposes of this course we do not need to review the detailed derivation of the ideal gas equation, but we will state a few important expressions for the behaviour of an ideal gas. First, the ideal gas equation relates the pressure P , volume V , temperature T and number of molecules n of an ideal gas: P V = nRT, where R is the Ideal Gas Constant (R = 8.3145 Jmol1 K1 ). There are two important laws that are derived from the above equation in special circumstances. They are: 1. Boyles Law: P V = Constant At constant temperature and number of molecules. 2. Charles Law: P = Constant T At constant volume and number of molecules.

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Chapter 2

Surface Tension
2.1
2.1.1

Intermolecular forces
Two types of intermolecular force

We begin our investigation of uid properties by considering a simple model for the structure of matter. We can view matter as being made up of many discrete pieces which we call molecules. These molecules of matter interact with one another via attractive forces (intermolecular forces). We can divide these forces into two types: Cohesive forces acting between molecules of the same type Adhesive forces acting between molecules of dierent types For example, later we will discuss the forces acting on water in a glass vessel. In this case the forces acting within the water (between water molecules and other water molecules) are the cohesive forces and the forces acting between the water and the vessel where they touch (between water molecules and molecules of the glass vessel) are called adhesive forces.
V r

Minimum potential = zero force and equilibrium separation

F
Repulsive

Point of inection in potential = maximum attractive force

2.1.2

The shape of intermolecular forces

Figure 2.1 shows a graphical representation of a typical intermolecular force. The bottom graph shows how the force F on a molecule varies with its separation r from a second molecule (illustrated at the origin). The force illustrated is attractive (shown above the r axis) for most separations. At large separations the force is very weak. As the molecules come closer together the attractive force becomes stronger. At very small separations the force drops to zero and then becomes a repulsive force. It is the repulsive part of the intermolecular force that prevents molecules and matter from collapsing in onto one another. It is as if the molecules behave as hard spheres that attract one another, but can only get so close together. The change from attractive to repulsive force also gives an equilibrium separation for pairs of molecules, i.e. a separation for which the force between the molecules is zero. This equilibrium separation (in solids and liquids

Attractive

Figure 2.1: The general form of intermolecular forces

2.1. INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

CHAPTER 2. SURFACE TENSION

where molecules are tightly bound together) is often about 109 m. We introduce two useful terms: Molecular range is the maximum distance over which the intermolecular forces act. Sphere of inuence is an imaginary spherical volume around a molecule with a radius equal to the molecular range. Other molecules will only be attracted if they lie within the sphere of inuence. The top graph shows the same intermolecular force illustrated as a potential V . The force F and potential V are related by F = dV /dr. So the size of the force between the two molecules at a separation r is equal to the slope of the potential V at that separation. We can observe this relationship in two special cases: 1. The equilibrium separation, where the force is zero corresponds to the minimum in the potential V . At this minimum the slope of the potential graph (dV /dr) is also zero. 2. The maximum attractive force corresponds to the point where the slope of the potential graph is maximum (a point of inection).

2.1.3

Cohesive intermolecular forces

The cohesive forces between molecules have dierent strengths in different substances. The strength of these forces acting at a microscopic scale determines many of the observable properties of materials. At a given temperature (room temperature, for example) substances with the weakest forces of intermolecular attraction would be gaseous. Substances with higher cohesive forces would be liquid and those with the highest cohesive attraction would be solid. We can even identify the hardest solid materials (e.g. steel or diamond) as being those with the very strongest cohesive forces, whilst softer solid materials (e.g. gold) are generally those with weaker cohesive forces.

2.1.4

Understanding phase transitions

We can also begin to understand phase transitions (changes in the state of matter from solid to liquid to gas or changes between dierent types of solid) by thinking about cohesive forces. When we boil a liquid we change it from a liquid to a gas. In a liquid, the molecules are quite densely packed, held close together by the cohesive forces. In a gas, the molecules are much more widely separated. To separate the molecules and change our substance from a liquid to a gas we have to supply energy - enough energy to overcome the cohesive forces (and break apart the liquid). If a liquid has stronger cohesive forces then we need to supply more energy to separate the molecules and this will lead to a higher boiling point.

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2.2. SURFACE TENSION

CHAPTER 2. SURFACE TENSION

2.2

Surface tension

In many commonly occurring situations we can observe that the surface of a liquid appears to have special properties. The ability of some insects to walk on water (see the pond skater in Figure 2.2) and the accumulation of dense dirt particles on the surface of a glass of water suggest that water has a surface layer with the strength to support some light objects. In the picture of the pond skater we can see small depressions in the liquid surface around its feet - it looks as if the insect is standing on a stretchy surface.

Figure 2.2: A pond skater

Molecules in the bulk of the liquid feel an equal force in all directions

2.2.1

Understanding the origin of surface tension

1. Molecule within liquid bulk : A molecule within the bulk liquid is completely surrounded by other molecules. The intermolecular forces felt by this molecule are the same in all directions. We can also say that all of the bonds on the molecule are attached to its neighbours (all of the arms are linked). 2. Molecule at liquid surface: A surface molecule is only partially surrounded by other liquid molecules so the force it feels is uneven and tends to pull the surface molecule downwards towards the bulk of the liquid; the molecule feels a net downward force 1 . We can also think about the bonds that the molecule can form with its neighbours. With no molecules above to bond to the surface molecules bond together more strongly. It is this uneven distribution of intermolecular forces between the surface molecules that forms a surface layer with surface tension.

Bulk molecules form bonds in all directions

=attached bonds

Figure 2.3: A molecule in the liquid bulk

Stronger bonds across surface create a surface tension

2.2.2

Quantifying surface tension

Now that we have identied the phenomenon of surface tension and considered a physical explanation for it, it is time to produce a quantitative denition. We will create a dening formula that we can use to solve real numerical problems. Think about a piece of a liquid surface (see gure 2.5) and imagine a small cut of length l in it. The surface tension will produce a force on the edges of the cut. We label this force F . The force will act perpendicular to the line and along
1 Do not confuse this downward force with the eect of gravity! In this discussion we are ignoring the force of the earths gravitational eld on the molecule (equal to mmol g and negligible compared to the intermolecular forces) and the downward force is an extra force caused by the total eect of the intermolecular forces between our molecule and its neighbours.

Molecule feels a net downward force

Figure 2.4: A molecule at the liquid surface

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We can understand the liquid properties that we identied above by using our knowledge of intermolecular forces. Each liquid molecule can be viewed as having a eld of attraction around it as shown in gures 2.3 and 2.4 to the right. This eld can also be viewed as a number of bonds (or arms) with which it can attach itself to the bonds of other molecules. We now consider how a molecule is attracted and attached to other molecules when it is at dierent points in the liquid:

Surface

2.3. SURFACE ENERGY

CHAPTER 2. SURFACE TENSION

the surface and be evenly distributed along the length, l. The surface tension, which we label T , can now be dened as the force acting per unit length2 :
Element of surface l

Line in surface, length l

It is important to remember that this force always exists in the surface and acts equally in all directions tangential to the surface; we imagined a cut in the surface to make it easier to visualize the action of the surface tension force. We can make a comparison with a stretched piece of elastic. The elastic will have a force of tension running all along its length, but if you were to hold the elastic at two points close together in the middle (one point in each hand) you would not feel the tension. If someone was to now cut the string between your hands you would have to apply a force against the tension to keep the new ends of the elastic in the same place. Cutting reveals the tension that is in the elastic. A formal denition of surface tension is below: Surface tension is dened as the force acting per unit length of the line drawn on the surface of the liquid, the direction of the force being at right angles to this line and tangential to the surface of the liquid. Make sure you understand this denition and all the terms used. In particular, make sure you understand what is meant by tangential. For example, in the case of a at surface the tangent lies within (along) the surface and in the case of a spherical surface the tangent is at right angles to the radius of the sphere.

Figure 2.5: Denition of surface tension

2.3

Surface energy

We have now developed the idea of surface tension as a property of liquid surfaces. In our explanation of the origin of surface tension we considered how the action of many intermolecular forces on the small scale adds together to create a force that we can observe in everyday situations; the attraction of molecules of a liquid for one another (which we cannot observe directly) creates surface tension (which gives rise to phenomena that we can see). Now we think about the same properties again, but this time we consider the energy involved. Earlier we realised that whereas a molecule in the bulk of the liquid feels an equal force in all directions (because it is completely surrounded by other molecules), a molecule at the surface would feel a downward force. Now think about what happens if we move a
2

In many texts, surface tension is denoted by .

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T =

F l

Surface tension

2.3. SURFACE ENERGY

CHAPTER 2. SURFACE TENSION

molecule from the bulk of the liquid to the surface. Initially there is no net force on the molecule (because the equal forces in all directions cancel each other out), but as we get near to the surface the molecule begins to feel a downward force. Now as we move the molecule to its nal position at the surface we must do work against this downward force3 . This suggests that molecules in the surface of the liquid have a higher energy than the molecules in the bulk; we have to do work against a force to get them there4 . This extra energy of molecules at the surface of a liquid means that we can associate a surface energy with an area of liquid surface. Before we consider a formal denition of surface energy we should note that we are dealing with an energy per unit area of a liquid surface in the same way that surface tension is a force per unit length within the liquid surface. Surface energy and surface tension are both ways of modelling and understanding the same eects and both have the same underlying physical cause (the action of cohesive intermolecular forces). We can understand all the phenomena we meet using just one of the concepts and we often choose to focus on surface tension because it easier to understand 5 .

2.3.1

A demonstration

This discussion is a simplication; The surface molecules are in equilibrium and so feel no net force. When we talk about a net downward force we refer to the situation of the surface molecules before they undergo rearrangement into the surface lm. The simplication is (probably) acceptable because it highlights the underlying cause of the surface tension and surface energy phenomena, namely that the surface molecules are in an asymmetrical environment dierent from that of the bulk molecules. 4 Again, we are ignoring the eects of gravity. The downward force is not the gravitational force due to the mass of the molecule and the extra energy of the molecule at the surface is not gravitational potential energy (mmol gh). 5 This is often the case. Many concepts are easiest to understand in terms of forces. For example, we can all feel the force when we stretch a sheet of rubber (a balloon, for example), but we cannot feel the increase in (elastic potential) energy in the rubber.

Figure 2.6: A demonstration of surface tension and surface energy

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Fslider

To help us understand surface tension and surface energy we consider an experiment. We use the apparatus shown in gure 2.6: a U-shaped wire frame with a moveable slider that completes a rectangle. We form a lm of soap solution in the gap and note that the lm exerts a force Fslider on the slider. We can calculate the size of this force from the denition of surface tension, but we must remember that the lm consists of two surfaces, one on the top of the lm and one on the bottom (We might be tempted to view the lm as a single layer because it looks so thin to the naked eye, but remember that it is actually many thousands of molecules thick and has a top and a bottom!). The force on the slider due to each surface is simply the force per unit length (which is the surface tension, as dened) multiplied by the length of the slider. So in total, for both surfaces we have: Fslider = 2T l

Frame Slider

Film Surface Tension= T x

2.4. ANGLE OF CONTACT

CHAPTER 2. SURFACE TENSION

We could use the above method to determine the surface tension of the soap lm, by using a spring balance to measure the force needed to keep the slider from being drawn inwards by the lm.

2.3.2

Surface Energy Discussion

We can also consider the above demonstration in terms of surface energy. We imagine moving the slider a small distance x (shown enlarged in the diagram). We do work against the force of surface tension, W (force.distance moved): W = Fslider x So using the above expression for the force, Fslider = 2T l we have, W = 2T lx Note that as we move the slider we do not stretch the soap lm6 - we create more surface and this involves the movement of molecules from the bulk of the liquid to the surface. The work we do against the force of surface tension is the eect on a human scale of the total of the work done against intermolecular forces on a molecular scale. We note that in moving the slider we have created an amount of extra surface7 2lx and this extra surface has a corresponding surface energy Esurf ace : Esurf ace = 2lx Where is the surface energy per unit area and is a property of the liquid. By noting that the energy associated with the extra surface created, Esurf ace is equal to the work done against the surface tension, W , we can write: 2lx = 2Tf ilm lx And by dividing both sides of the equation by 2lx we arrive at: =T And we see that T , the surface tension, is also a measure of surface energy. You can check that energy per unit area and force per unit length are dimensionally equivalent.

2.4

Angle of contact

Where a liquid surface meets another material surface, for example the wall of a vessel in which it is contained, the liquid surface and the material surface will make a particular angle. This angle varies depending on the combination of liquid and second material. We can
The situation is not like stretching a balloon. The factor of 2 appears again because we are creating extra surface on the top and the bottom of the lm.
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2.4. ANGLE OF CONTACT

CHAPTER 2. SURFACE TENSION

Adhesive force Liquid surface

Resultant force

Figure 2.7: Intermolecular forces determine the angle of contact

2. Adhesive forces dominate cohesive forces: Now our liquid molecule is more strongly attracted to the container than to the other liquid molecules. The liquid is drawn up against the container wall resulting in an upward curving of the liquid surface.

Angle of contact, , is dened as the angle which the tangent to the liquid surface at the point of contact makes with the solid surface inside the liquid.

Figure 2.8: Denition of angle of contact

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We have discussed the angle of contact between a liquid and a surface and we have developed a physical explanation for the dierent curvatures that we observe. Now we can consider a formal denition of the angle of contact (see gure 2.8 for an illustration):

2.4.2

Dening angle of contact

1. Cohesive forces dominate adhesive forces: In this situation the surface of the liquid will curve down away from the container wall. To understand why, consider a liquid molecule at the surface of the liquid and next to container the container wall. It feels cohesive forces of attraction to the other molecules of the liquid and adhesive forces of attraction to the molecules of the container. Because the liquid molecule is more strongly attracted to the other liquid molecules, it is drawn down into the liquid, away from the container wall. In other words, the liquid molecules tend to move away from the container wall resulting in a downward curve in the liquid surface.

To understand the idea of angle of contact we think about a quantity of liquid in a container. So far we have been considering the behaviour of liquids on their own. Now that we are dealing with an interaction between a liquid and another material, we need to consider adhesive intermolecular forces in more detail. Earlier we dened cohesive intermolecular forces as the forces of attraction between molecules of the same material (between molecules of our liquid, in this case) and adhesive intermolecular forces as the forces of attraction between molecules of dierent materials (between molecules of our liquid and molecules of the container). In general, it is unlikely that the adhesive and cohesive intermolecular forces will balance each other; liquid molecules will either be attracted more strongly to each other than to the container or the other way around. Let us think about these two possibilities in turn (see gure 2.7):

2.4.1

Competing cohesive and adhesive forces

readily observe one example of water in a glass container where we note that the water surface, whilst it is at in the middle, curves upwards where it meets the container. Before we consider a formal denition of the angle of contact we will think about a physical explanation of how dierent angles of contact might arise.

Cohesive force

Container wall

2.5. LIQUID SURFACES AND PRESSURE

CHAPTER 2. SURFACE TENSION

2.4.3

Some examples of angle of contact

Glass

Paran

2.5
2.5.1

Liquid surfaces and pressure dierences

Pressure dierence across a liquid surface

Figure 2.9: Examples of angle of contact

Figure 2.10: Pressure dierence across a liquid surface

It is important to use measurements close to the surface because we are interested only in the pressure dierence caused by the curved surface. As we move xliquid downwards into the liquid we will get a further change in pressure because of the weight of the liquid above, in accordance with Pascals law, P = gh (see introductory notes). 9 If a body A exerts a force on another body B, then body B exerts a force on body A that is equal in magnitude and in the opposite direction.

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Xliquid, Pliquid

FST

Xair , Pair

In the last section we talked about the curvature of liquid surfaces that results from a dierence between the strengths of the cohesive and adhesive intermolecular forces. We will now investigate the pressure dierence that arises across a curved liquid surface because of the non-perpendicular angle of contact and the surface tension. First of all let us introduce a physical situation for consideration. We imagine a quantity of liquid placed in a narrow container (gure 2.10). The surface of the liquid will form a particular shape, with an angle of contact at the container wall characteristic of the combination of the particular liquid and the material of the container. We consider two test points, xair and xliquid , at which we imagine measuring the pressure. These points are on either side of the liquid surface and very close to the surface, and we call the two pressure measurements Pair and Pliquid 8 . Before considering a curved surface we note that if the liquid surface is at (contact angle equal to 90 ) there will be no pressure dierence and Pliquid = Pair (Think about this until you see that there is nothing to cause a pressure dierence in this case). The simplest curved surface to understand is that of a downward curvature of the liquid surface at the container wall. Examine the gure and notice that the force of the surface tension at the wall, FST , has a vertical component. This force is exerted by the liquid surface on the container and in accordance with the Newtons Third Law9 we expect the container to exert a force on the liquid surface of equal magnitude and in the opposite direction. This force is labelled Freaction in the gure. It is a reaction force and we note that it has a downward component; the container wall is pulling downward on the surface of the liquid (just as the surface pulls upward on the

Freaction

An interesting physical phenomenon where angle of contact is important is wetting. We consider a water droplet rst on a glass surface and then on a surface coated with paran wax. The angle of contact for water and glass is less than 90 (acute) and the water is said to wet the glass. The angle of contact for water and paran is greater than 90 (obtuse) and the water forms beads sitting on the surface (see gure 2.9). An obtuse angle of contact between water and a particular material is often associated with that material being what we call waterproof.

2.5. LIQUID SURFACES AND PRESSURE

CHAPTER 2. SURFACE TENSION

container) and this pull acts to press on the liquid. We thus nd that Pliquid > Pair . For a liquid surface with an upward curvature at the wall the situation is reversed. The surface tension at the wall has a downward component, the reaction force acting on the liquid surface has an upward component and the surface pulls up on the liquid, reducing the liquid pressure. We nd Pliquid < Pair (Draw the diagram for this situation to help you understand). So far we have focussed on understanding how surface tension can cause a pressure dierence. We have not attempted to produce a formula for the pressure dierence (P = Pliquid Pair ), but we will return to this subject when we look at a particular consequence of the pressure dierence - capillary rise.

2.5.2

Excess pressure inside a liquid drop

Before we consider capillary rise, we will investigate some other examples of curved liquid surfaces where the mathematics is simpler. Our rst example is a liquid drop; a drop of water, for instance. First we need to realise that such a liquid drop will be spherical in shape (as long as we neglect other forces and the drop is not in contact with a surface). The surface of this liquid drop will have a surface tension and so the pressure inside the drop will be greater than the pressure outside. We can see this from our above discussions of the pressure dierence across curved surfaces, where we explained that the pressure on the inside of a curved surface is greater than that on the outside. Even though there is no container in this case and all we have is the eect of the liquid surface the result is the same. To help understand the increased pressure inside the liquid drop we can make an analogy with a balloon lled with air. The rubber of the balloon is stretched and so has a tension that acts like the surface tension in the droplet. The air inside the balloon is under pressure and we can look at this situation in two ways: 1. The stretched balloon skin squeezes the air inside. As the air is squeezed its volume decreases and its pressure increases10 . 2. The balloon is in equilibrium so the forces in the system must be balanced. The stretched rubber of the balloon creates an inward force so this must be balanced by an outward force. This can only be provided if the air inside the balloon is at a higher pressure so that it pushes outwards on the balloon surface. The pressure dierence between the inside and the outside of the droplet is called the excess pressure and now that we have seen how it arises we can attempt to quantify it.
Remember Boyles law: P V = constant at constant temperature. So as the volume decreases, the pressure must increase to maintain the constant.
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2.5. LIQUID SURFACES AND PRESSURE

CHAPTER 2. SURFACE TENSION

Imaginary surface

Surface tension forces at edge

1. Surface tension: The surface tension in the upper half of the droplet exerts an upward force on the surface. The force is exerted by the edge of the droplet surface. We have the denition of surface tension T = F/l and we can calculate the length of the edge: l = 2r. Hence the force on the imaginary surface from the top half of the droplet due to the surface tension is: FST = 2rT 2. Excess pressure: The excess pressure inside the droplet presses down on the imaginary surface. If the surface area of the imaginary surface is A then the size of this force is FP = P A. It is clear that A = r2 (a circle), so we have: FP = r2 P Remember that the condition for equilibrium is: FP = FST and so: r2 P = 2rT We divide through by r2 to get the nal result:

Figure 2.11: Excess pressure inside a liquid droplet

Excess pressure inside a liquid droplet P = 2T r

We can do this because we are interested only in the pressure dierence. The expression we derive for the excess pressure under these conditions will be valid when the pressure outside the droplet is non-zero. 12 We can do this without changing the physics. Our surface is imaginary, but we can see that if we chose a material such that the angle of contact between the droplet and the surface was 90 then each half of the droplet would not be disturbed. 13 This way of thinking about the problem might seem odd. In fact, what we are doing is replacing the bottom half of the droplet with the imaginary surface and looking for the equilibrium condition. The surface is a good substitute for the lower half of the droplet because the normal reaction force at the droplet surface replaces the surface tension in the lower half of the bubble (thanks to the 90 angle of contact) and the eect of the pressure is equivalent, because the surface is a surface of projection of the lower half of the droplet. You do not need to worry about these details for this course.

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We consider a spherical droplet of radius r. We assume that the pressure outside the droplet is zero11 and so pressure inside the droplet is simply the excess pressure due to the surface tension of the curved surface. We label this excess pressure P . To derive an expression for P we imagine inserting a surface into the droplet that cuts it in two without disturbing the geometry of the system 12 . We note that the forces acting on the imaginary surface due to one half of the droplet must balance each other13 . Let us consider the forces acting on the surface due to the top half of the droplet (see gure 2.11):

FST FP Forces acting on surface

P r

2.5. LIQUID SURFACES AND PRESSURE

CHAPTER 2. SURFACE TENSION

2.5.3

Excess pressure inside a bubble

Our second example is the excess pressure inside a bubble. In fact, the physics of this example is the same as for the droplet, except that the bubble skin has two surfaces - an inside and an outside. This means that the total force due to surface tension is doubled and FST = 2(2r) = 4r. You should think through the derivation to arrive at the result:

Excess pressure inside a bubble P = 4T r

2.5.4

Capillary action
Outer container Inner container or capillary tube Liquid

Liquid levels for large inner container

2.5.5

Capillary rise - derivation using forces

Liquid levels for capillary tube

Figure 2.12: Capillary action

Here we derive an expression for the height h of a liquid column in a capillary tube by looking at the forces acting. We begin by noting

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Capillary action is the eect whereby a liquid is drawn up into a thin tube by the action of the force of surface tension. It is extremely important in nature and is the method by which plants and trees draw water into their stems and branches against the force of gravity. Figure 2.12 contrasts the eect of capillary action with what we normally expect to see - water nding its own level. A visible eect of capillary action requires a tube of very small diameter, as we shall see when we consider the situation mathematically. First we will attempt to explain capillary action by considering the eect of the surface tension in an upward curving liquid surface in a tube. Examine gure 2.13 and note that the force of surface tension (acting on the container) has a downward component. Therefore, the reaction force of the container on the surface will have an upward component. It is this upward component of the reaction force (opposing the surface tension) that draws the liquid upwards in the tube. Note that with a downward curving surface, the argument is reversed and the level of the liquid will be lowered. Next we examine capillary action mathematically by investigating the rise of liquid in a capillary tube and how the height of the liquid column can be used to determine the surface tension of the liquid. We will use two dierent approaches in turn to derive our result. The rst is most straightforward and looks at balancing forces. The second is a more complicated derivation using pressure calculations, but it is a useful exercise and involves calculation of the excess pressure due to the liquid surface. The two approaches are equivalent, but you should study and understand both.

Schematic diagram of apparatus

2.5. LIQUID SURFACES AND PRESSURE

CHAPTER 2. SURFACE TENSION

that the forces due to the surface tension are responsible for supporting the weight of the column of liquid. As we discussed earlier, the reaction force (Freaction in the gure) of the capillary tube wall acting on the liquid surface has an upward vertical component. This vertical component is Freaction cos , where is the angle of contact. Freaction is equal and opposite to the force due to the surface tension in the liquid and we know that this force is T l, where T is the surface tension of the liquid and l = 2r is the length of the edge of the surface. Therefore, there is an upward force on the liquid surface which is equal to:
Fupward = Freaction cos Fupward = 2rT cos Now we need write the weight of the column Wcolumn of liquid as: Wcolumn = V g, where V is the volume of the column and is the density of the liquid. The height of the capillary rise is conventionally measured to the bottom of the curved surface, so to calculate the volume of the column we consider it as being made up of a cylinder of height h and radius r, plus an extra amount of liquid against the container walls (see gure 2.14): V = Vcylinder + Vextra The volume of the cylinder is simply: Vcylinder = r2 h. To calculate the extra piece of volume we assume that the liquid surface is hemispherical14 . We calculate the extra volume as the difference between a small extra cylinder of height r and a hemisphere of radius r: Vextra = Vsmallcylinder Vhemisphere 1 4 3 = r2 r r 2 3 2 = r3 r3 3 2 = 1 r3 3 1 3 Vextra = r . 3 So the total volume of the column of water is: V V
14

Freaction

Figure 2.13: Calculating capillary rise

r

Figure 2.14: Volume of liquid column

= Vcylinder + Vextra 1 = r2 h + r3 3

this is an approximation to make the derivation simpler. Typically the surface is not hemispherical because the angle of contact is greater than 0 .

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KIST: Engineering Physics

Vextra Vcylinder

PC

P0 PD

P0

PB

PA

PA PB h

2.5. LIQUID SURFACES AND PRESSURE

CHAPTER 2. SURFACE TENSION

and the weight of the column is: Wcolumn = V g = Wcolumn = r2 r 1 4 3 r g 2 3 1 r2 h + r3 g 3

We conclude our derivation by equating the upward force with the weight of the column: Wcolumn = Fupward 1 3 r2 h + r g = 2rT cos , 3 and by dividing both sides of the above equation by r we nd: 1 rh + r2 g = 2T cos . 3 Now we can write an expression for the capillary rise h in a capillary tube of radius r for a liquid with a surface tension of T and an angle of contact : Capillary rise h= 2T cos 1 r gr 3

Alternatively, we can rearrange the above to nd an expression for the surface tension T then, by looking up the angle of contact and density and measuring r and h we have a way of measuring surface tensions experimentally. The expression we need is: Surface tension T = 1 gr h+ r 2 cos 3

In many cases it is unnecessary to include the volume of the extra bit of liquid at the top of the column. If the tube is very narrow and the capillary rise is large then the correction is very small15 . For example, water in a glass capillary of radius 0.5mm will rise about 29mm. This means that the eect of the correction for the extra volume is only about 0.6%. Try working through the derivation for yourself, omitting the extra volume, to get the simpler results: h=
15

2T cos grh T = gr 2 cos

And, in any case, it is only valid for a contact angle close to zero.

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2.5. LIQUID SURFACES AND PRESSURE

CHAPTER 2. SURFACE TENSION

2.5.6

Capillary rise - derivation using pressures

We now take another look at capillary rise, this time thinking in terms of pressure dierences. The gure is marked with pressure variables at various points and we now consider how they are related. First, the pressure P0 is the external pressure in which the apparatus sits (under normal circumstances this will be normal atmospheric pressure). We note that this pressure varies only slightly with height around the apparatus and we will ignore the small dierences, hence the two points marked P0 . We note the following equalities: 1. PD = P0 : These two points are very close to one another on either side of the liquid surface. Because the surface is at in the large container, there is no pressure dierence across the surface. 2. PA = P0 : These two points are both outside the liquid and so are at the same pressure. 3. PC = PD : These two points are both inside the liquid and at the same height in the liquid. Hence the pressure is the same at both points. Now, because PD = P0 and PA = P0 we can see that PA = PD . We also know that PC = PD , so we can conclude that PA = PC . This might seem surprising at rst, because there is a column of liquid between the points A and C, so we now consider the pressure dierences in the capillary tube: 1. PC > PB : The pressure at the bottom of the column will be higher than the pressure at the top because of the eect of the weight of the liquid in the column. 2. PA > PB : The liquid surface at the top of the column is curved and so there will be a pressure dierence across it. Hence we have two pressure dierences in the tube. The rst is due to the curvature of the liquid surface: Psurf ace = PA PB The second is the pressure dierence due to the weight of the liquid column: Pcolumn = PC PB Both these pressure dierences are positive because of the way we have dened them. We have concluded that PA = PC so the eect of the liquid surface and the weight of the liquid column must cancel each other out. Hence we can write: Psurf ace Pcolumn = 0 Or: Psurf ace = Pcolumn See www.explanatorium.org 18 KIST: Engineering Physics

2.5. LIQUID SURFACES AND PRESSURE

CHAPTER 2. SURFACE TENSION

To proceed further we need an expression for the pressure dierence across a liquid surface. We can derive this expression using the same method that we used for the excess pressure in a liquid droplet, by equating the force due to the surface tension with the force of the pressure on the surface area. The only dierence in this case is that the surface tension is acting at an angle to the vertical direction of the pressure force. We thus need to consider only the vertical component of the surface tension force and we get the same expression for excess pressure that we had for the liquid droplet, except for a factor of cos :

Pressure dierence across a liquid surface P = 2T cos r

Try to work through the derivation for yourself, but do not worry if you do not understand the full detail of the derivation. However, you should see that the result is sensible by comparing it with the expression for excess pressure in a liquid drop and noting that the key dierence is that the force of surface tension now acts at an angle . So we have: 2T cos Psurf ace = r and now we need to calculate Pcolumn , the pressure dierence due to the weight of the liquid column. This is a simple derivation, because it is simply the weight of the liquid column Wcolumn , distributed over the cross-sectional area of the capillary tube, A: Wcolumn Pcolumn = A Vcolumn g Pcolumn = r2 We have already calculated the volume of the liquid column (Vcolumn = r2 h + 1 r3 ) so we have: 3 r2 1 Pcolumn = h + r g 3 Equating the two pressure dierences inside the tube gives us: Psurf ace = Pcolumn 2T cos 1 = h+ r g r 3 Rearranging the above to nd h gives us: 2T cos 1 h= r, gr 3 which is the same expression that we derived using a force-based argument. See www.explanatorium.org 19 KIST: Engineering Physics Pcolumn = r2 h + 1 r3 g 3

Chapter 3

Viscosity and Fluid Flow

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