Coe - Basic Electrconics

1 | a g e 8 A S l C L L L C 1 8 C n l C S l 1 l 8 \ N 0
8ASlC LLLC18CnlCS
CPA1L8 1
SAlL1? 8LCAu1lCn
LLLC18lC SPCCk
Lvery operaLor or MalnLalner ln Lhe elecLrlcal lndusLry musL be fully aware of Lhe
dangers assoclaLed wlLh elecLrlc shock.
LlecLrlc shock may be due Lo
(1) ConLacL wlLh parLs normally allve.
(2) ConLacL wlLh parLs whlch are normally dead buL have proved llve (1hls applles Lo Lhe
ouLer caslng of elecLrlcal machlnes and apparaLus.)
vlcLlms of elecLrlc shock lose consclousness and ofLen shows no slgn of llfe.(1here ls
no breaLhlng . 1he hearL ceases Lo pump blood).
lf Lhe shock was noL been severe Lhe vlcLlm wlll remaln unconsclous for a few
seconds and recover wlLhouL any ald. 1hls wlll noL happen, however ln severe cases, and
Lhen Lhe vlcLlm musL be glven lmmedlaLe energeLlc and skllled ald. Any delay may resulL ln
Lhe loss of human llfe. ln many cases lL ls dlfflculL Lo deLermlne Lhe acLual sLaLe of a person
who has experlenced elecLrlc shock. Cnly a physlclan can say wheLher furLher efforLs are
useless and LhaL Lhe vlcLlm ls dead. ConsequenLly rule ls glve resusclLaLlon LreaLmenL
(arLlflclal resplraLlon) aL once and conLlnues unLll recovery. ln some cases up Lo several hours
may be requlred for recovery.
ln mosL cases Lhe elecLrlc currenL ln elecLrlc shock passes Lhrough Lhe breaLhlng
cenLre and causes Lhls cenLre Lo sLop sendlng ouL lmpulses Lo breaLhlng muscles, as a resulL
breaLhlng sLops. 1hls ls why arLlflclal resplraLlon musL be applled Lo Lhe paLlenL as a
subsLlLuLe for naLural resplraLlon.
ll8S1 Alu 1C vlC1lMS Cl LLLC18lC SPCCk
1he vlcLlm musL be lmmedlaLely freed from Lhe conLacL wlLh currenL and glve flrsL
ald.
88LAklnC 1PL CCn1AC1
SwlLch off Lhe parL of equlpmenLs wlLh whlch Lhe vlcLlm ls ln conLacL. lf Lhls should
cause Lhe vlcLlm Lo fall from a helghL, prevenL Lhe fall or cushlon Lhe lmpacL.


lf Lhe equlpmenL cannoL be swlLched off aL once, break Lhe vlcLlm's conLacL wlLh Lhe
llve conducLor or parL.
ln case of low volLage, use a dry sLlck, dry board, dry drop or oLher nonconducLor .
never use meLal.
1he vlcLlm may also be broken away from Lhe llve parLs by pulllng aL hls cloLhlng, lf lL
ls dry and does noL flL LlghLly Lo hls body. uo noL Louch meLal ob[ecLs and any exposed parL
of vlcLlm's body. ull by hls legs only lf your own hands are adequaLely proLecLed.
lor lnsulaLlon from earLh or from Lhe vlcLlm's body, Lhe rescuer should puL on
rubber booLs or sLand on a dry board or any oLher dry and non conducLlng maLerlal. uL on
rubber gloves or wrap Lhe hands ln rubberlzed or dry fabrlc. When Lhe currenL flows Lo Lhe
earLh Lhrough Lhe vlcLlm's body, conLacL may be broken by llfLlng Lhe vlcLlm off ground,
whlle Laklng Lhe precauLlons llsLed above.
Where necessary Lhe llve conducLor musL be cuL (where several conducLors are
lnvolved, Lhey may be cuL one by one) wlLh an axe havlng dry wooden handle or wlLh an
lnsulaLed cuLLlng Lool, wlLh Lhe rescuer rellably lnsulaLed form earLh. Where hlgh volLage ls
lnvolved, shorL clrculL Lhe llne wlres lf conLacL wlLh llve conducLors cannoL be broken
prompLly by any oLher meLhod.
ll8S1 CA8L Cl A SPCCk vlC1lM
(a) lf Lhe vlcLlm ls consclous buL has been unconsclous or ln conLacL wlLh a llve parL for a
long Llme, musL be allowed Lo have compleLe resL and musL be waLched closely for
Lwo or Lhree hours whlle waLchlng for Lhe docLor Lo arrlve. Where physlclan cannoL
be called prompLly, Lhe vlcLlm musL be Laken Lo Lhe hosplLal.
(b) lf Lhe vlcLlm ls unconsclous buL ls breaLhlng, lay hlm level on a sofL paddlng, unbuckle
hls belL and unbuLLon hls cloLh and allow fresh alr Lo reach hlm. uL a coLLon pad
soaked Ammonla waLer Lo hls nose, sprlnkle hls face wlLh waLer, rub hls body wlLh
cloLh and cover hlm wlLh a blankeL for warmLh. Send for docLor aL once
(c) lf Lhe vlcLlm ls breaLhlng lnLermlLLenLly as lf dylng apply arLlflclal resplraLlon.
SAlL1? 8LCAu1lCnS WPlLL WC8klnC Cn A WC8k 8LnCP
1he followlng safeLy precauLlons are Lo be kepL ln mlnd whlle worklng on a work
bench.
1. AL Lhe Llme of worklng wlLh elecLrlclLy always use wooden chalrs and Lables. A sLool
wlll be beLLer Lhan Lhe chalr.


2. Always use rubber sheeLs under Lhe chalr and Lhe Lable.
3. uo noL allow anybody Lo come around you, when you are worklng wlLh elecLrlclLy.
4. uo noL leave any wlre or [olnL naked. lL should be covered wlLh dry cloLh or lnsulaLlon
Lape.
3. uo noL wear loose or weL cloLhes when you are worklng aL any machlnes or
elecLrlclLy.
6. uo noL Louch any naked elecLrlc wlre unless you are sure LhaL Lhere ls no currenL
flowlng Lhrough lL.
7. uo noL dlsconnecL Lhe wlres by pulllng.
8. Always puL Lhe swlLch aL poslLlve phase.
9. Always use rubber sole shoes ln Lhe workshop.
10. 1he handles of all Lhe Lools should be covered wlLh proper lnsulaLlon.
11. Always use your own separaLe swlLch board durlng Lhe worklng perlod provldlng a
fuse wlre of lower value Lhan LhaL ln Lhe maln swlLch.
12. Always remember LhaL proper earLhlng ls a musL for safeLy.
13. Anywhere ln any condlLlon do noL Louch boLh Lhe phase and Lhe neuLral wlres aL Lhe
same Llme.
14. When Lhere ls a flre ln elecLrlc wlre, dry sand should be used Lo brlng lL under conLrol.
13. Cnly a sulLable Lool should be used for a parLlcular purpose.
SLClAL SAlL1? 8uLLS lC8 LLLC18CnlCS
ln addlLlon here are speclal rules for worklng wlLh elecLronlcs.
1. Always check clrculL carefully accordlng Lo Lhe wlrlng dlagram
8efore Lurnlng on Lhe power double-check clrculL wlrlng Lo be sure you have
noL made mlsLakes.
2. Avold worklng on llve clrculLs
AlLhough some LesLs musL be made wlLh power ln Lhe clrculLs dlsconnecL Lhe
power from clrculL before changlng any componenLs or Louchlng any wlres.
3. 8e sure LhaL safeLy devlces and fuses are used properly
4. 8ead lnsLrucLlon manuals and repalr manuals carefully.
3. 8e careful when handllng hoL solderlng lrons.
6. Some componenLs sLore a charge
CapaclLors and Lelevlslon plcLure Lubes can sLore hlgh volLage elecLrlc charges
even afLer Lhe clrculL power ls off. 8e very careful when worklng wlLh Lhem.
7. 8eware of weL areas


never work on elecLrlcal clrculL near waLer, waLer provldes a dlrecL paLh for
Lhe currenL Lo go Lhrough you Lo ground.
8. lollow Lhe one hand rule"
When you musL work on a llve clrculL, use one hand Lo do Lhe work and keep
Lhe oLher one ln your pockeL. 1hls way, Lhere ls less danger of currenL flndlng a paLh
Lhrough your head or chesL reglon.
9. lnspecL elecLrlcal equlpmenL for defecL.
uo noL use equlpmenLs wlLh frayed wlres, loose connecLlons and damaged
cases. 8epalr such problems before uslng Lhe equlpmenL.
10. Assume all clrculLs are llve and dangerous
8efore reachlng lnLo an elecLrlcal clrculL make Lhe proper LesL Lo ensure LhaL lL
ls safe Lo do so. 8epalrlng a meLer may cosL few rupees buL you cannoL be replaced aL
any cosL.

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S | a g e 8 A S l C L L L C 1 8 C n l C S l 1 l 8 \ N 0

CPA1L8 2
8ASlC LLLC18lCl1?

1PL S18uC1u8L Cl MA11L8
lor proper undersLandlng of elecLronlcs, lL ls essenLlal Lo know naLure of maLLer and
Lhe varlous sLaLes ln whlch lL exlsLs.
MaLLer ls deflned as anyLhlng whlch occuples space and has mass. MaLLer exlsLs ln
Lhree sLaLes namely solld, llquld and gas.
LLLMLn1, CCMCunuS, MCLLCuLLS Anu A1CMS
(a) LLLMLn1
MaLLer whlch cannoL be decomposed (broken lnLo a number of oLher subsLances) by
any chemlcal or physlcal meLhod are called elemenLs.

Lg: - Cold, Sllver, lron, Sodlum

(b) CCMCunuS
1he subsLance formed by Lhe comblnaLlon of Lwo or more elemenLs ls called
compounds.

(c) MCLLCuLLS
1he smallesL parLlcle of a compound whlch reLalns all Lhe properLles of LhaL
compound
ls called a molecule

(d) A1CM
lL ls Lhe smallesL parLlcle of an elemenL LhaL can Lake parL ln chemlcal reacLlon. 1he
aLom of Pydrogen and Cxygen comblne Lo form waLer by chemlcal means.

A1CMIC S1kUC1UkL

Accordlng Lo aLomlc Lheory of maLLer, an aLom conslsLs of Lhe followlng:-
(1) nucleus

lL ls slLuaLed ln Lhe cenLre of Lhe aLom and conLalns Lwo ma[or parLlcles,
namely proLons and neuLrons. roLon has poslLlve charge. neuLron has no charge buL
as heavy as proLon. 1he roLons and neuLrons are very closely held LogeLher wlLh
sLrong nuclear forces . 1helr sum number glves Lhe aLomlc mass number (A) of Lhe
nucleus.


(2) LlecLrons

1hese are exLremely small parLlcles whlch revolve around Lhe heavy nucleus
ln dlfferenL clrcular or elllpLlcal orblLs (or shells). 1hey carry negaLlve charge and has
negllglble mass. 1he mass of an elecLron ls approxlmaLely 71840 LhaL of a proLon (or
neuLron). 1he elecLrons are held ln Lhe parenL aLom because of Lhe force of
aLLracLlon beLween negaLlve charge of lLs own and poslLlve charge of Lhe nucleus.
SLrucLural arrangemenL ls shown below and ls known as 8ohr-8uLherford model
whlch resembles a mlnlaLure Solar sysLem-A heavy poslLlvely charged nucleus ln Lhe
place of sun aL Lhe cenLre and Lhe elecLrons acLlng llke revolvlng planeLs.

1he poslLlve charge of a proLon ls numerlcally equal Lo Lhe negaLlve charge of an
elecLron. 1haL ls an aLom ls elecLrlcally neuLral because lL conslsLs of as many proLons as
elecLrons. 1he number of proLons ln Lhe nucleus of an aLom glves Lhe aLomlc number (z). 1he
LoLal number of proLons and neuLrons glves Lhe aLomlc mass number (A). 1he aLomlc welghL
ls Lhe acLual welghL of an aLom (LhaL ls of elecLrons and nucleus )and numerlcally dlffers
sllghLly from Lhe aLomlc mass number.


1he slmplesL aLom ls LhaL of hydrogen. lL conslsLs of one elecLron and one
proLon as shown ln flgure (a). lLs 'z' =1 and A=1. lL has no neuLron. ln flgure (b) ls
shown Lhe Carbon aLom whlch conslsLs of '6' elecLrons and nucleus conLalnlng 6
proLons and 6 neuLrons. lLs Z= 6 and A=12 . Slmllarly ln flgure (c) and flgure (d) are
shown aLoms of slllcon and germanlum. lor Sl, Z= 14 and A= 28 so LhaL Lhe number of
elecLrons ls 14. Slmllarly for Cermanlum Z= 32 and A= 72 and lL conslsLs of 32
elecLrons and 40 neuLrons.

1he maxlmum number of elecLrons LhaL can occupy ln an orblL can be
calculaLed by Lhe formula 2n
2
, where 'n' ls Lhe number of orblL.
1herefore flrsL orblL k can conslsLs of a maxlmum number of 2 x 1
2
= 2 elecLrons and
Lhe second orblL 'L' conslsLs of 2 x 2
2
= 2 x 4 =8 elecLrons and so on.

1he appllcaLlon of Lhls rule ls sub[ecL Lo Lhe condlLlon LhaL
(1) Maxlmum number of elecLrons ln any shell wlll noL exceed 32.
(2) Maxlmum number of elecLrons ln Lhe ouLermosL shell wlll noL exceed 8.
(3) 1he lasL buL one shell wlll noL have more Lhan 18 elecLrons.

vALLnCL LLLC18CnS
1hese elecLrons whlch revolve ln Lhe ouLermosL orblL of an aLom are called valance
elecLrons. 1hls ouLermosL orblL ls called valence orblL or valence shell. 1he maxlmum
number of valence elecLrons ls 8. Slnce far away from Lhe nucleus, valence elecLrons
have leasL blndlng energy. ConsequenLly very llLLle energy ls requlred Lo free from
Lhelr parenL aLom and make Lhem conducL elecLrlc currenL.

vALLnCL Cl An A1CM

lL ls glven by Lhe number of elecLrons ln Lhe lncompleLe ouLermosL shell or orblL. lor
example, copper and hydrogen have a valence of one and are called monovalenL. As seen
from flgure 'C' and 'u' Cermanlum and slllcon have a valence of 4 and are called LeLravalenL
elemenLs. valence of an aLom also lndlcaLes how easlly lL can lose or galn an elecLron from
oLher aLom. lL ls found LhaL an aLom whlch has only small number of elecLrons ln Lhe valence
shell compared lLs permlLLed number wlll lose Lhese elecLrons qulLe easlly. 1hese elecLrons ln
Lhe valence shell whlch are loosely aLLached Lo Lhe nucleus are known as free e|ectrons.
Pence elemenL made of Lhese aLoms wlll be classlfled as good conducLors of elecLrlclLy.

Lxamples are - copper (2,8,18,1) and Sllver (2,8,18,18,1). Cn Lhe oLher hand, an aLom whlch
has almosL lLs full complemenL of elecLrons ln Lhe valence shell wlll easlly galn elecLrons Lo
compleLe Lhese shell . Lxamples are hydrogen (2,6), lluorlne(2,7) Chlorlne(2,8,7). Cbvlously
Lhese elemenLs have no spare elecLrons for conducLlon. Pence Lhey are called lnsulaLors.
lCnS

An aLom whlch has elLher a surplus or deflclL of elecLrons beyond lLs naLural
conflguraLlon ls known as an lon and Lhe aLom ls sald Lo be lonlzed.


LlecLrons lose by a neuLral aLom, makes Lhe aLom lonlzed poslLlvely. ln Lhe same way
an addlLlon of an elecLron makes Lhe aLom negaLlvely. Slnce lLs makes more negaLlve charges
Lhan Lhe poslLlve charges.

1he process by whlch a neuLral aLom becomes lonlzed ls called |on|zat|on.

CCnuuC1C8S, lnSuLA1C8S Anu SLMlCCnuuC1C8S

(1) CCnuuC1C8S

A conducLor ls a maLerlal whlch allows elecLrlc currenL Lo pass Lhrough lL very freely
l.e.
a conducLor ls a maLerlal of havlng a large number of free elecLrons whlch consLlLuLes
elecLrlc currenL. ln conducLors Lhe number of valence elecLrons ls less Lhan 4.

(2) lnSuLA1C8S

An lnsulaLor ls a maLerlal whlch does noL allow elecLrlc currenL Lo pass Lhrough lL l.e.
an
lnsulaLor ls a maLerlal havlng few free elecLrons and ln whlch elecLrons are LlghLly bound Lo
Lhe nucleus ls called lnsulaLors.

Lg:- Class, mlca, lasLlc eLc.
lnsulaLors are useful where lL ls necessary Lo prevenL currenL flow.

(3) SLMlCCnuuC1C8S

1hese are Lhe maLerlals whlch allow elecLrlc currenL Lo pass Lhrough lL parLlally l.e. lL
ConducLs less Lhan conducLors buL more Lhan lnsulaLors. lLs valence shell conLalns 4
elecLrons.

Lg:- Carbon, Cermanlum and Slllcon

Cermanlum and slllcon are exLenslvely used for maklng LranslsLors and oLher
semlconducLor maLerlal. 1herefore Lhese maLerlals have greaL lmporLance ln elecLronlc
lndusLry.
LLLC18lC Cu88Ln1


Look aL Lhe flgure, a plece of copper wlre ls negaLlvely charged on one end and
poslLlvely charged on Lhe oLher end. 1he free elecLron of Lhe flrsL aLom repelled from Lhe
negaLlve charglng source and wlll [ump Lo Lhe second aLom. (8emember LhaL Lhe llke charges
repel and unllke charges aLLracL). 1he second aLom wlll Lhen become very unsLable and wlll
Lry Lo balance lLself by glvlng up one of Lhe Lwo elecLrons, now lL has ln lLs ouLermosL shell. ln
facL,
Lhose Lwo elecLrons whlch share Lhls space meanL for only one wlll repel each oLher and Lhey
wlll have less aLLracLlon Lo Lhe nucleus Lhan normal. 1hese forces are small, buL Lhey wlll be
enough Lo push one of Lhe Lwo elecLrons away from Lhe second aLom on Lo Lhe Lhlrd. A
chaln reacLlon wlll occur and energy wlll be LransmlLLed and flnally an elecLron from Lhe
lasL aLom wlll be forced ouL Lo Lhe poslLlve charge aL Lhe oLher end.

ln reallLy movemenL of one elecLron would noL be useful. lncrease Lhe poslLlve and
negaLlve charge sources and many elecLrons wlll be forced Lo move aL Lhe same Llme .1hls
elecLron flow ls currenL".

LlecLrlc currenL ls free elecLrons belng knocked from one aLom Lo Lhe nexL, flowlng
from negaLlve Lo poslLlve l.e. currenL ls Lhe flow raLe of elecLrons.

S1A1lC CPA8CLS

SomeLlmes elecLrons are sLored up and noL movlng. When elecLrons are sLored, Lhere
ls no currenL buL Lhere ls a charge. 1he unlL of charge ls coulomb. Coulomb ls abouL 6.28
qulnLllllon elecLrons l.e. 6.28 x 10
18
elecLrons.

MLASu8LMLn1 Cl Cu88Ln1

1he maln dlfference beLween a sLaLlc charge and currenL ls LhaL Lhe elecLrons musL
be movlng for Lhere Lo be currenL. lf one coulomb of elecLrons where Lo pass by a cerLaln
polnL ln one second, Lhen we can say LhaL 1 Ampere of currenL was flowlng ln Lhls clrculL l.e.
Ampere ls Lhe unlL of currenL. lL ls denoLed by Lhe leLLer 'A'. Cne Ampere of currenL flowlng
means Lhere are 6.28 x 10
18
elecLrons passlng a glven polnL ln every second. 1he dlfference
beLween an ampere and a coulomb ls polnLed ouL ln flgure shown below.


(a) lrom flgure (A) ,6.28 x 10
18
sLored elecLrons l.e. a sLaLlc charge of one coulomb
(b) lf Lhese elecLrons flow Lhrough Lhe reslsLor ln one second LhaL would be one ampere
of currenL. lf lL Lakes Lwo seconds Lhe currenL wlll be 0.3A.
1he symbol whlch ls used Lo deslgnaLe currenL ls 'l'. lnLenslLy ls Lhe Lerm from
Whlch Lhe leLLer 'l' was Laken.

Cne ampere ls falrly a large amounL of currenL, so smaller unlLs are ofLen used for
measurlng currenL. Smaller unlLs are mllll ampere (mA) and Mlcro ampere(A).

1 mA = 71000 A or 710
3
A or 10
-3

A
1 A = 71000000 A or 710
6
A or 10
-6

A
lL ls lmporLanL Lo noLe LhaL some clrculLs requlre more currenL for proper operaLlon
Lhan oLhers do.

lor Lg:- A 100W 230v bulb requlres a llLLle less Lhan half ampere of currenL (abouL
434 mA ) . A colour 1.v recelver needs only a llLLle more (0.03A) . A LranslsLorlzed radlo may
need as llLLle as 13mA (0.013A).

vCL1ACL Wl1PCu1 Cu88Ln1

When a source of volLage ls noL connecLed Lo a clrculL, Lhere ls no currenL flow. 8uL
Lhe volLage ls exlsLlng. 1hls means volLage can exlsL wlLhouL elecLrons belng ln moLlon l.e. we
can have volLage wlLh no currenL buL we cannoL have currenL wlLh no volLage.

ulllL8Ln1 1?LS Cl Cu88Ln1

8aLLery operaLed equlpmenLs use dlrecL currenL (uC). ulrecL currenL means Lhe
elecLrons always Lravel ln one dlrecLlon. 1hey move from Lhe negaLlve of Lhe source Lo Lhe
poslLlve Lermlnal. Some oLher devlces can work wlLh Lhe elecLron movlng elLher way
(forward and backward). When elecLrlc currenL causes Lo go back and forLh Lhey are called
AC (AlLernaLlng currenL). 1he alLernaLlng currenL whlch ls avallable ln our home changes lLs
dlrecLlon flfLy Llmes every second. llgure lllusLraLes an alLernaLlng currenL. AC generaLors
and alLernaLors are needed Lo produce Lhese alLernaLlng currenL.


1he arrow lndlcaLes Lhe dlrecLlon of elecLron flow ln Lhe flrsL cycle and oLher one
show Lhe second half cycle. lL does noL maLLer Lo Lhe lamp ln whlch dlrecLlon Lhe currenL
flows as long as enough elecLrons move Lhrough lL elLher way ,lL wlll llghL up.

vCL1ACL

ln a useful clrculL, source creaLes an elecLrlcal pressure whlch pushes elecLrons
Lhrough Lhe clrculL. 1hls elecLrlcal pressure ls known as volLage. volLage musL be greaL
enough Lo push Lhe elecLrons all Lhe way round Lhe clrculL.

Some clrculLs and devlces requlre more volLage Lo work properly Lhan oLher devlces.
lor example, A large moLor from a washlng machlne wlll noL work wlLh a flash llghL baLLery.

lf we connecL a 6 volL bulb Lo Lhe 12v baLLery, Lhe pressure from Lhe baLLery wlll be
so greaL LhaL lL wlll force Loo many elecLrons Lhrough Lhe bulb and burn lL ouL qulckly.
Always check Lo see how much volLage a clrculL ls applled Lo operaLe on before we connecL
lL.
C1PL8 nAMLS Cl vCL1ACL
Several names have been used for elecLrlcal pressure such as volLage, oLenLlal
dlfference (.u),drop and elecLromoLlve force (LMl).
1he Lerm poLenLlal dlfference lndlcaLes Lhe sLored up force for laLer use as ln a
baLLery. A 12 volL auLomoblle baLLery sLores 12 volLs of poLenLlal wheLher we are uslng lL or
noL.

C1Ln1lAL ulllL8LnCL (.u)
lL may be deflned as dlfference of poLenLlal beLween any Lwo polnLs ln an elecLrlcal
clrculL and Lo cause Lhe flow of elecLrons beLween Lhem. ln oLher words, Lhe elecLrlcal force
measured beLween Lhe Lermlnals of an elecLrlc source. 1he unlL ls volL.
LLLC18CMC1lvL lC8CL (LMl)
lL ls anoLher name of volLage and ls deflned as LhrusL ln Lhe elecLrlcal clrculL Lo cause
Lhe flow of elecLrons ln Lhe clrculL. 1hls Lerm ls referred Lo Lhe source whlch generaLes AC or
uC ln Lerms of volL.


lor e.g.:- 1he emf of a cell or a dynamo.

lL should be noLed LhaL Lhe emf ls always greaLer Lhan .u slnce emf ls Lhe volLage
produced wlLhouL conslderlng any volLage drop ln Lhe clrculL.

LMl = .u + lnLernal volLage drop
.u = LMl - lnLernal volLage urop
1he leLLer 'L' or 'v' ls used Lo deslgnaLe volLage.

vCL1ACL u8C
lf some of Lhe volLage produced by a source ls used by load, we can say LhaL a volLage drop
has occurred.

Lach lamp ln Lhe clrculL drop [uses] 2 volLs.

LA8CL8 Anu SMALLL8 unl1S

1Mv = 1000000 v
1kv = 1000 v
1mv = 71000 v
1 v = 710
6
v


LLLC18lC Cl8Cul1S
lree elecLrons do noL flow [usL anywhere. 1o make Lhe energy useful, Lhese
elecLrons flow Lhrough clrculLs. ClrculLs are made of conducLors and elecLronlc parLs usually
called componenLs. ClrculLs prevenL wasLlng of energy. useful clrculLs have four maln parLs.
(1) A source of currenL.
(2) A paLh for currenL Lo flow
(3) Loads
(4) ConLrol devlces.
1. SCu8CL Cl Cu88Ln1
1he source of currenL ls Lhe flrsL of Lhe clrculL. 1here musL be a source from whlch Lhe
elecLrons can come. llgure shows a baLLery connecLed Lo a llghL bulb uslng wlres. 1he
baLLery ls Lhe source ln Lhls very slmple clrculL.

1hls source has Lwo [obs.
(1) lL musL supply exLra free elecLrons Lo Lhls clrculL Lo seL-up an elecLron flow.
(2) lL musL pump Lhose elecLrons wlLh enough force Lo push Lhem around Lhe whole
clrculL. l.e. lL musL have enough volLage.

2. A1P lC8 Cu88Ln1
1he conducLor connecLed Lhe componenLs and Lhe source. 1hey are Lhe paLh for Lhe
currenL. AnyLhlng wlLh free elecLrons LhaL ls connecLed beLween negaLlve and poslLlve
charges can permlL elecLron flow. lf Lhese condlLlons are meL, we have a conducLor ln Lhe
clrculL. ln useful clrculLs conducLors could be wlres or oLher meLal parLs.


3. LCAu
ClrculLs have aL leasL one devlce whlch uses Lhe energy. 1hls ls called Lhe load. A load
could be a llghL bulb, moLor, radlo, heaLer or any number of oLher devlces.
8eslsLance ls anoLher word some Llmes used for Lhe load.
Look aL Lhe clrculL ln Lhe above flgure. 1he baLLery ls Lhe source, Lhe wlre ls Lhe
conducLor and Lhe llghL bulb ls Lhe load or reslsLance. Some clrculLs have several loads.
4.CCn18CL uLvlCL
1he fourLh parL of a pracLlcal clrculL ls Lhe conLrol devlces. lL conLrols Lhe elecLron flow
from source Lo load. MosL useful clrculL have aL leasL one conLrol devlce. A slmple swlLch ls a
conLrol devlce.
CCMLL1L Anu lnCCMLL1L Cl8Cul1
lf we have a paLh for elecLrons Lo flow ouL of Lhe negaLlve Lermlnal Lo Lhe poslLlve
Lermlnal we have a compleLe clrculL or closed clrculL.
lf Lhe elecLrons cannoL go all Lhe way from Lhe negaLlve Lermlnal Lhrough Lhe clrculL and
back Lo poslLlve Lermlnal, we have an lncompleLe clrculL.
llgure (a) shows a compleLe whlle flgure (b) shows an lncompleLe clrculL.

A broken or loose connecLlon ls an open clrculL. An open clrculL ls an lncompleLe clrculL.
So Lhe devlce wlll noL operaLe.
AnoLher Lype of clrculL whlch ls noL useful and also dangerous ls a shorL clrculL. A shorL
clrculL ls shown below.

1S | a g e 8 A S l C L L L C 1 8 C n l C S l 1 l 8 \ N 0

ln Lhls case, Lhere ls a shorLcuL for Lhe elecLrons Lo Lravel from Lhe negaLlve pole Lo Lhe
poslLlve pole wlLhouL golng Lhrough Lhe load. 1hls ls a compleLe clrculL because Lhe currenL
flows buL Lhe shorL make Lhe clrculL useless. 1he devlce wlll noL work.
lL ls lmporLanL Lo noLe LhaL shorL clrculL ls very dangerous. lL wlll may burn wlres and
sLarL a flre. 1he fuses wlll blow and source may be compleLely used up lmmedlaLely.
luses and safeLy devlces such as clrculL breakers open Lhe clrculL lf a shorL occurs. 1hls
sLops Lhe hlgh currenL flow, so no damage ls done.
ul8LC1lCn Cl Cu88Ln1 lLCW

1he dlrecLlon of elecLron flow ls from Lhe negaLlve slde of Lhe baLLery Lhrough Lhe
load reslsLance and back Lo Lhe poslLlve Lermlnal of Lhe baLLery.
CCnvLn1lCnAL Cu88Ln1 lLCW
1he dlrecLlon of Lhe movlng poslLlve charges opposlLe Lo elecLron flow ls consldered Lhe
convenLlonal currenL. ConvenLlonal currenL ls a moLlon of poslLlve charges from a poslLlve
Lo negaLlve poLenLlal.


WC8k,CWL8 Anu LnL8C?

When a body moves a dlsLance wlLh a force Lhen lL ls sald LhaL Lhe work ls done. 1he work
done ls expressed as Lhe producL of force and dlsLance
l.e. work done = lorce x dlsLance
= l xd
1he raLe of dolng work ls known as power. 1hus power ls glven by
ower = Work done per unlL Llme

. lxd
. . = -------
L
Where l = lorce, d = dlsLance L = Llme

1he LoLal capaclLy of dolng work ls known as energy and ls glven by

Lnergy = ower x Llme
LLLC18lCAL LnL8C?

When elecLrons move from negaLlve end Lo Lhe poslLlve end of a conducLor, Lhe capaclLy
of dolng work, ln a glven Llme ls called energy. lL ls expressed ln [oules. 1he elecLrlcal power
ls Lhe raLe of dolng work by Lhe flow of elecLrons (currenL) agalnsL Lhe elecLrlcal pressure
(volLage). 1he power ls expressed by Lhe relaLlon

ower = volLage x currenL
lL ls expressed ln watts and ls deflned as Lhe amounL of power consumed ln flowlng one
ampere of currenL wlLh one volL applled across Lermlnal. Cne [oule of elecLrlcal energy ls
equlvalenL Lo Lhe power consumpLlon of1 waLL for one second.

1hus 1 !oule = 1 waLL x 1 second
= 1 waLLsecond
1 WaLL = 1 !oule /Second
Some Llmes elecLrlcal energy ls measured ln Lerms of waLL-hour (Wh) or kllowaLL-hours
(kWh)

1 WaLL-hour = 1 waLL x 1 hour
= 1 waLL x 3600 sec.
= 3600 !oule
lor pracLlcal purpose Lhe energy ls measured ln 'kWh', whlch ls 1000W for 1 hour.
Lxample (1)

10 x 40 waLLs elecLrlc lamps [olned ln parallel and connecLed Lo 220v malns are kepL llghLed
for 100 hours. CalculaLe Lhe number of unlL consumed?


Slnce 10 bulbs of 100 waLLs each are connecLed ln parallel, Lhey wlll consume 10 x 40 =
400 WaLLs

Lnergy consumed durlng 100 hours

400 x 100 = 40000 WaLLs

40000
= ---------
1000

= 40 kWh = 40 unlLs
(2) ln a college hosLel Lhere are 200 boarders each uslng an elecLrlc lamp of 40 WaLLs 3
hours a day . llnd amounL of Lhe energy blll for a monLh of 30 days, when 1 kWh
energy cosLs 40 alsa?

ower consumpLlon of one Lamp = 40 W
ower consumed of 200 bulbs aL 3 hours ln a day = 40 x 3 x 200 = 40000W
ower consumed ln a monLh = 40000x 30 =1200000W

1200000
Lnergy consumpLlon ln kWh = ------------ = 1200 kWh
1000
1oLal cosL of elecLrlc bulb aL 40 palsa per unlL = 1200 x 40 = 48000 alsa
= 8s. 480
___________________


CPA1L8 3

8LSlS1AnCL

1he properLy of a subsLance due Lo whlch lL opposes Lhe flow of elecLrlc currenL
Lhrough lL ls called lLs reslsLance. MeLals, aclds and salL soluLlons offer very llLLle reslsLance Lo
Lhe flow of elecLrlc currenL Lhrough Lhem l.e. Lhey are good conducLors of elecLrlclLy. 1hls ls
due Lo Lhe avallablllLy of a large number of free elecLrons ln Lhelr aLoms. normally such
elecLrons move randomly buL assume a dlrecLed moLlon when a .u ls applled across Lwo
ends of Lhe conducLor. 1hese elecLrons whlle passlng Lhrough Lhe aLoms or molecules of Lhe
subsLance colllde wlLh oLher aLoms and elecLrons Lhereby experlenclng hlndrance Lo Lhelr
movemenL.

lnsulaLors offer much a greaLer dlfflculLy Lo Lhe passage of elecLrons Lhrough Lhem.
Pence Lhey have exLremely hlgh reslsLance. 1he unlL of reslsLance ls ohm (U).
1U :- A conducLor ls sald Lo have a reslsLance of 1 U lf lL allows 1 ampere of currenL flow
Lhrough lL when 1 volL ls applled across lLs Lermlnals .
1v :- lf 1 ampere of currenL flowlng Lhrough a reslsLance of 1 U , Lhere wlll be a poLenLlal
dlfference of 1 v across LhaL reslsLance.
1A :- lf Lhere ls a poLenLlal dlfference of 1 v and reslsLance offered ls 1 U Lhen Lhe flow of
currenL ls equal Lo 1 Ampere.

SMALLL8 Anu LA8CL8 unl1S Cl 8LSlS1AnCL

lAC1C8S CCvL8nlnC 8LSlS1AnCL

1he reslsLance of a maLerlal depends upon Lhe followlng facLors.
1. LengLh
2. Area of cross secLlon.
3. naLure of maLerlal.
4. 1emperaLure.

1 MU = 1000000 U = 1 x 10
6
U
1kU =1000U = 1 x 10
3
U
1mU =
1000
1
U = 1 x 10
-3
U
1U =
1000000
1
U = 1 x 10
-6
U


1. LLnC1P

1he longer Lhe conducLor, Lhe hlgher Lhe reslsLance. 1hus doubllng Lhe lengLh of a
conducLor doubles Lhe reslsLance. l.e. Lhe reslsLance of a conducLor ls dlrecLly proporLlonal
Lo lLs lengLh.
2. C8CSS SLC1lCnAL A8LA

1he larger Lhe cross secLlonal area of a conducLor, Lhe smaller Lhe reslsLance. l.e. Lhe
reslsLance ls lnversely proporLlonal Lo Lhe cross secLlonal area.
3. nA1u8L Cl MA1L8lAL

1he reslsLance depends on Lhe klnd of maLerlal used ln Lhe conducLor.
4. 1LML8A1u8L

1he reslsLances of mosL conducLors lncrease wlLh LemperaLure, buL some speclal
maLerlals do Lhe opposlLe.
8LSlS1AnCL LAW

AL a consLanL LemperaLure Lhe reslsLance of a glven maLerlal ls dlrecLly proporLlonal
Lo lLs lengLh ( ) and lnversely proporLlonal Lo lLs area of cross secLlon (A)

8 l
8
A
1

8
A
l
8 =
A
l

Where ( rho) ls a consLanL whlch depends on Lhe naLure of maLerlal and ls known as
speclflc reslsLance or reslsLlvlLy of LhaL maLerlal.

SLClllC 8LSlS1AnCL (8LSlS1lvl1?)
Speclflc reslsLance of a maLerlal ls Lhe reslsLance of a plece of LhaL maLerlal havlng
unlL lengLh and unlL cross secLlonal area.

lLs unlL ls ohm meLer (Um) or Chm CenLlmeLer ( Ucm )

CCnuuC1AnCL Anu CCnuuC1lvl1?
ConducLance ls Lhe properLy of a conducLor whlch readlly allows Lhe flow of currenL. lL ls
Lhe reclprocal of reslsLance and Lhe unlL ls mho ( )


1herefore lf a conducLor has a reslsLance of 23 U Lhen lLs conducLance ls 723 .

LllLC1 Cl 1LML8A1u8L Cn 8LSlS1AnCL
When LemperaLure rlses
(1) 1he reslsLance of meLalllc conducLor ls lncreased by comparaLlvely large amounL.
(2) 8eslsLance of lnsulaLors ls decreased.
(3) 8eslsLance offered by seml-conducLors ls decreased and Lhelr elecLrlcal behavlor
sLarLs approachlng LhaL of good conducLors.
CSl1lvL Anu nLCA1lvL 1LML8A1u8L CCLlllClLn1 Cl 8LSlS1AnCL
lf Lhe reslsLance of a maLerlal lncreases wlLh LemperaLure rlse Lhen Lhe maLerlal ls
sald Lo posses poslLlve LemperaLure coefflclenL of reslsLance (1C).
L.g. MeLalllc conducLors
1he maLerlals whlch decrease ln reslsLance wlLh rlse ln LemperaLure ls sald Lo posses
negaLlve LemperaLure coefflclenL of reslsLance (n1C)
L.g. lnsulaLors and semlconducLors.
CPM'S LAW

ln all elecLrlcal clrculLs Lhere exlsLs a relaLlonshlp beLween volLage, currenL and
reslsLance. 1hls relaLlonshlp was flrsL dlscovered by George S|mon Chm. 1hls relaLlonshlp ls
called Chm's Law.

Chm's law sLaLes LhaL at ttnstant temoerature. the turrent IItwne thrtueh a
ttndutttr s drettI+ ortotrttnaI tt the ottentaI dIIerente hetween ts ends and
nverseI+ ortotrttnaI tt ts resstante*.

Accordlng Lo Chm's law

l
L

l.e. I =
R
1
x L

l.e. l =
R
E

Where

R
1
ls a consLanL of proporLlonallLy whlch depends upon Lhe slze, lengLh and
maLerlal of Lhe wlre.

'8' ls called Lhe reslsLance of Lhe conducLor.

21 | a g e 8 A S l C L L L C 1 8 C n l C S

lrom Lhe above equaLlon

Where 'v' ls Lhe poLenLlal
volLs ,'l' ls ln ampere, Lhen Lhe unlL of 8 ls ln Chms.

Some
llmlL currenL flow. We can use Lhem Lo drop volLage. 1hese componenLs are called reslsLors.

1?LS Cl 8LSlS1C8S

8eslsLors are malnly of Lwo Lypes and can be elLher of fl

(1) Wl8L WCunu 8LSlS1C8S
(2) CA88Cn 8LSlS1C8S
(a)
(b)
(3) ML1AL llLM 8LSlS1C8
1.Wl8L WCunu 8LSlS1C8S

1hey are consLrucLed from a
a ceramlc core. 1he lengLh of Lhe
Lhe unlL. 1he enLlre assembly ls covered

Such resls
hundred waLLs and reslsLance value from 1
varlable.

Wlre wound reslsLors are used where

a g e 8 A S l C L L L C 1 8 C n l C S

Where 'v' ls Lhe poLenLlal
Some componenLs are made [usL Lo cause reslsLance ln elecLrlc clrculL. 1helr [ob ls Lo
1?LS Cl 8LSlS1C8S
Wl8L WCunu 8LSlS1C8S
CA88Cn 8LSlS1C8S
(a) CA88Cn CCMCSl1lCn 1?L
(b) CA88Cn llLM 1?L
ML1AL llLM 8LSlS1C8

Such reslsLors are generally avallable

(1) Large power dlsslpaLlon

Where 'v' ls Lhe poLenLlal dlfference, 'l'
componenLs are made [usL Lo cause reslsLance ln elecLrlc clrculL. 1helr [ob ls Lo
1?LS Cl 8LSlS1C8S
CA88Cn 8LSlS1C8S
CA88Cn CCMCSl1lCn 1?L
CA88Cn llLM 1?L
ML1AL llLM 8LSlS1C8

Lors are generally avallable
Large power dlsslpaLlon
v ( or L)
8
dlfference, 'l' ls Lhe currenL and '8' ls Lhe reslsLance. lf 'v' ls ln
8LSlS1C8S
CA88Cn CCMCSl1lCn 1?L
1hey are consLrucLed from a long flne wlre (usually nlckel
a ceramlc core. 1he lengLh of Lhe wlre used and lLs reslsLlvlLy deLermlnes Lhe reslsLance of
Lhe unlL. 1he enLlre assembly ls covered wlLh a ceramlc maLerlal
Lors are generally avallable
hundred waLLs and reslsLance value from 1 U Lo 100kU. 1hese can be of elLher flxed or
Large power dlsslpaLlon needed
= l x 8
=
I
J

ls Lhe currenL and '8' ls Lhe reslsLance. lf 'v' ls ln
8LSlS1C8S
long flne wlre (usually nlckel
and lLs reslsLlvlLy deLermlnes Lhe reslsLance of
wlLh a ceramlc maLerlal
Lors are generally avallable ln power raLl
U Lo 100kU. 1hese can be of elLher flxed or
needed

8eslsLors are malnly of Lwo Lypes and can be elLher of flxed or varlable value.
long flne wlre (usually nlckel-Chromlum wlre) wound on
wlLh a ceramlc maLerlal.
ln power raLlng from one waL
a g e 8 A S l C L L L C 1 8 C n l C S l 1 l 8 \ N 0
xed or varlable value.

Chromlum wlre) wound on
ng from one waLL Lo several
l 1 l 8 \ N 0
xed or varlable value.
L Lo several



(2) reclse and sLable reslsLance values are requlred for meLer shunLs and
mulLlpllers.

(2)(a) CA88Cn CCMCSl1lCn 8LSlS1C8S

1hey are made of flnely dlvlded carbon mlxed wlLh a powdered lnsulaLlng maLerlal ln sulLable
proporLlon. CfLen, Lhe reslsLance elemenL ls a slmple rod of pressed carbon granules whlch ls usually
enclosed ln a plasLlc case for lnsulaLlon and mechanlcal sLrengLh. 1he Lwo ends of Lhe carbon
reslsLance elemenL are [olned Lo meLal cap wlLh leads of Llnned wlre for solderlng lLs connecLlons lnLo
clrculL.
Such reslsLors are avallable ln power raLlngs of
8
1
,
4
1
,
2
1
, 1,2 waLLs and ln reslsLance values
ranglng from 1 U Lo 20MU. Where power dlsslpaLlon ls 2 WaLL or less such reslsLors are preferred,
because Lhey are smaller and cosLless.
(b) CA88Cn llLM 8LSlS1C8S

1hey conslsLs of hlgh grade ceramlc rod or core (called subsLraLe) on whlch ls
deposlLed a Lhln reslsLlve fllm of carbon. 1hey are cheaper Lhan composlLlon reslsLors.
(3) ML1AL llLM 8LSlS1C8S

1hese Lypes of reslsLors have a conducLlve coaLlng of nlckel-Chromlum meLal on a glass
subsLraLe. 1he advanLage ls LhaL more exacL reslsLance value. 8eslsLors wlLh Lolerance value below
3 and values 1 U Lo 100MU are avallable.

CWL8 8A1lnC

1he power raLlng of a reslsLor ls glven by Lhe maxlmum waLLage lL can dlsslpaLe wlLhouL
excesslve heaL. Slnce lL ls currenL whlch produces heaL, power raLlng also glves some
lndlcaLlon of Lhe maxlmum currenL a reslsLor can safely carry. lf Lhe currenL exceeds lLs value
more heaL wlll be produced Lhan can be carrled safely and Lhe reslsLor wlll burn ouL.

1he physlcal slze of a reslsLor ls no lndlcaLlon of lLs reslsLance, buL lL glves some
lndlcaLlon of lLs waLLage raLlng. lor a glven value of reslsLance, greaLer Lhe physlcal slze,
hlgher Lhe power raLlng. Also hlgher waLLage reslsLors can operaLe aL hlgh LemperaLure. A
hlgher power raLlng allows a hlgher volLage raLlng. 1hls raLlng glves Lhe hlghesL volLage LhaL
may be applled across Lhe reslsLor wlLhouL lnLernal arclng.

ower dlsslpaLlon ln a reslsLor can be calculaLed , lf we know Lhe volLage across lL and
currenL Lhrough lL.


l.e. = v x l

or = l x 8 x l Q v = l8

l.e. = l
2
8

Agaln = v x
R
J
Q l =
R
J

l.e =
R
J
2

1he safe currenL LhaL Lhe reslsLor can carry wlLhouL damage, can be calculaLed from
above equaLlons.

l
2
=
R
P
l =
R
P

1he safe volLage across Lhe reslsLor can be also be calculaLed.

v
2
= 8 v = PR
1CLL8AnCL vALuL

8y Lolerance ls meanL Lhe posslble varlaLlon from Lhe nomlnal or marked reslsLance
value of a reslsLor. lL means LhaL acLual reslsLance of a reslsLor may be greaLer or lesser Lhan
lLs lndlcaLed value. All reslsLors are manufacLured and sold wlLh a speclfled Lolerance.

lor eg: A 1000 U reslsLor wlLh a Lolerance of 10 wlll have an acLual reslsLance anywhere
beLween 900U and 1100 U. l.e. 100 U ,more or less Lhan Lhe raLed value.
Carabon composlLlon reslsLors have Lolerance of 5 , 10 and 20 . Whereas
Ceneral purpose wlre wound reslsLors usually have 5 .

CCLCu8 CCuL lC8 8LSlS1C8S

1he Carbon reslsLors have dlfferenL colour code by whlch one can know Lhe value of
parLlcular reslsLors. 1he colour code for Lhe reslsLor ls LabulaLed below.
l. N0 t0l0I8 t00l t0l0I8 VlIl hIl1lF\lNb lt108 10ll8Ntl
1 8LACk 0 10
0
=1 -
2 88CWn 1 10
1
=10 -
3 8Lu 2 10
2
= 100 2
4 C8AnCL 3 10
3
= 1000 -
3 ?LLLCW 4 10
4
= 10000 -
6 C8LLn 3 10
3
= 100000 -
7 8LuL 6 10
6
= 1000000 -
8 vlCLL1 7 10
7
= 10000000 -
9 C8L? 8 10
8
= 100000000 -


uL1L8MlnA1lCn Cl vALuLS l8CM CCLCu8 CCuL

SLarLlng from lefL Lo rlghL, colour bands (llg a) are lnLerpreLed as follows :-

1. 1he flrsL band close Lo Lhe edge lndlcaLes Lhe flrsL dlglL ln Lhe numerlcal value of Lhe
reslsLance.

2. Lhe second band glves Lhe second dlglL.
3. Lhe Lhlrd band ls declmal mulLlpller l.e. lL glves Lhe number of zeros afLer Lhe Lwo
dlglLs. lL ls lmporLanL Lo noLe LhaL lf Lhe Lhlrd band ls black, lL means 00 0I 00 I0l0I
I0 Ih0 lllII I0 0ljlII". 1he resulLlng number ls Lhe reslsLance ln ohms.
4. Lhe fourLh band glves reslsLance Lolerance . lf Lhere ls no fourLh band, Lolerance ls
undersLood Lo be 20.

1he reslsLance value of Lhe carbon-composlLlon reslsLor shows ln flgure( b) ls
47,000U 10 . lL means LhaL lLs value ls 47,000U4,700U l.e. lL can lle anywhere
beLween 42300 U and 31,700 U.

8LSlS1C8S unuL8 1Ln CPM

10 WPl1L 9 10
9
= 1000000000 -
11 CCLuLn - 10
-1
= 0.1 3
12 SlLvL8 - 10
-2
= 0.01 10
13 nC CCLCu8 - - 20


ln Lhls case , Lhe Lhlrd band ls elLher gold or sllver whlch serves as ftoctloool mulLlpller. lf
Lhlrd band ls gold, mulLlply Lhe flrsL Lwo dlglLs by 0.1. lf lL ls sllver, Lhen mulLlply by 0.01.
Powever, fourLh band , as before , glves Lolerance.

As seen from flg., Lhe value of reslsLor ls 6.9 10 ohm.
8C8LLM
Clve Lhe colour codlng for Lhe followlng reslsLance values ?
1. 1MU wlLh 10
2. 8200 U wlLh 3 Lolerance
3. 68U wlLh 20 Lolerance
AnSWL8

SL.
nC
vALuL Cl
8LSlS1C8S
l

u
l
C
l
1

l
l

u
l
C
l
1

M
u
L
1
l
L
l
L
8

1
C
L
L
8
A
n
C
L

CCLCu8 8AnuS
l

C
C
L
C
u
8

l
l

C
C
L
C
u
8

l
l
l

C
C
L
C
u
8

l
v

C
C
L
C
u
8

1 1MU 1 0 10
3
10 88CWn 8LACk C8LLn SlLvL8
2 8200 U 8 2 10
2
3 C8L? 8Lu 8Lu CCLu
3 68U 6 8 10
0
20 8LuL C8L? 8LACk
nC
CCLCu8

(2) WrlLe Lhe colour code for Lhe followlng values of reslsLance?
(1) 2.2U 10
(2) 3.6MU 3
(3) 3.9kU 3
(4) 470U 10
SL.
nC
vALuL Cl
8LSlS1C8S
l

u
l
C
l
1

l
l

u
l
C
l
1

M
u
L
1
l
L
l
L
8

1
C
L
L
8
A
n
C
L

CCLCu8 8AnuS
l

C
C
L
C
u
8

l
l

C
C
L
C
u
8

l
l
l

C
C
L
C
u
8

l
v

C
C
L
C
u
8

1 2.2U 2 2 10
-1
10 8Lu 8Lu CCLu SlLvL8
2 3.6M U 3 6 10
3
3 C8LLn 8LuL C8LLn CCLu
3 3.9kU 3 9 10
2
3 C8AnCL WPl1L 8Lu CCLu
4 470U 4 7 10
1
10 ?LLLCW vlCLL1 88CWn SlLvL8


vA8lA8LL 8LSlS1C8S

(b)

1here are Lhe reslsLors whose reslsLance can be changed beLween zero and a cerLaln
maxlmum value. 1hey can be wlre-wound or carbon Lype. As shown ln llg. , Lhe slldlng arm
has been aLLached Lo a shafL whlch can be roLaLed ln almosL a compleLe clrcle. As Lhe shafL
roLaLes, Lhe polnL of conLacL of Lhe slldlng arm on Lhe clrcular carbon-composlLlon reslsLance
elemenL changes Lhus changlng Lhe reslsLance beLween arm Lermlnal 8 and Lermlnals of Lhe
sLaLlonary reslsLance AC. ln flg (a) , as we move Lhe slldlng am, Lhe reslsLance beLween 8 and
A lncreases whereas LhaL beLween 8 and C decreases. ln flg. (b) , wlLh Lhe roLaLlon of Lhe
arm, reslsLance beLween 8 and C lncreases whereas LhaL beLween 8 and A decreases.

Carbon varlable reslsLors of power raLlngs
2
1
W Lo 2W and reslsLances of 1kU Lo 3MU
are commonly avallable.

C1Ln1lCML1L8S Anu 8PLCS1A1S

1hese are varlable reslsLors elLher of carbon or wlre-wound Lype ofLen used for
conLrolllng volLage and currenL ln a clrculL.

(a)C1Ln1lCML1L8S

1hey generally have carbon composlLlon reslsLance elemenL and are connecLed
across a volLage source. 1hey have Lhree Lermlnals, Lhe cenLre one belng connecLed Lo Lhe
varlable arm whlch ls used for varylng volLage dlvlslon ln Lhe clrculL as shown ln llg. 8y
movlng Lhe varlable arm 8 over Lhe flxed reslsLance 8 beLween polnLs A and C, any parL of
Lhe lnpuL volLage can be Lapped off. Slnce ln llg. , 8 happens Lo be aL Lhe mlddle value of 8,
ouLpuL volLage ls half Lhe lnpuL volLage.


MosL varlable
volume or Lone. When used as a volume conLrol, lL plcks off a volLage beLween zero and Lhe
full avallable volLage as shown ln flgure.
volLage (slgnal) can be plcked up beLween maxlmum slgnal value aL polnL A and
value aL C

(b) 8PLCS1A1S

1he
Lermlnals and ls connecLed ln serles wlLh a clrculL for ad[usLlng Lhe amounL of currenL flo
Lhrough lL. 8heosLaLs are commonly used Lo conLrol relaLlvely hlgh currenLs such as Lhose
found ln moLor and lamp loads. llgure shows how a rheosLaL can be connecLed lnLo a lamp
clrculL for conLrolllng lLs currenL.

1hough slmllar ln consLrucLlon Lo poLenLlomeLers, Lhey are usually larger ln slze
because Lhey possess much hlgher power raLlng.

A glven poLenLlomeLer can be used as a rheosLaL. Cne meLhod ls Lo use Lwo ends
only ,leavlng
unused Lermlnal Lo Lhe cenLre Lermlnal as shown ln flgure (b).

MosL varlable
or Lone. When used as a volume conLrol, lL plcks off a volLage beLween zero and Lhe
value aL C

8PLCS1A1S
1he reslsLance elemenL of rheosLaL

only ,leavlng Lhe Lhlrd end unconnecLed as ln flg(a). 1he oLher meLhod ls Lo wlre Lhe Lhlrd
MosL varlable reslsLors

reslsLance elemenL of rheosLaL
Lhe Lhlrd end unconnecLed as ln flg(a). 1he oLher meLhod ls Lo wlre Lhe Lhlrd
used ln radlos are poLenLlomeLers meanL for conLrolllng
full avallable volLage as shown ln flgure. 8y movlng 8 up and down, any deslred amounL of
reslsLance elemenL of rheosLaL ls made of hlgh
clrculL for conLrolllng lLs currenL. As seen, only reslsLance 8C ls conn

radlos are poLenLlomeLers meanL for conLrolllng
8y movlng 8 up and down, any deslred amounL of

ls made of hlgh
, only reslsLance 8C ls conn


ls made of hlgh-reslsLance wlre. lL has Lwo
, only reslsLance 8C ls conn


reslsLance wlre. lL has Lwo
, only reslsLance 8C ls connecLed lnLo Lhe clrculL.
l 1 l 8 \ N 0
volLage (slgnal) can be plcked up beLween maxlmum slgnal value aL polnL A and zero slgnal
reslsLance wlre. lL has Lwo
Lermlnals and ls connecLed ln serles wlLh a clrculL for ad[usLlng Lhe amounL of currenL flowlng
ecLed lnLo Lhe clrculL.

zero slgnal
wlng


AC1lvL Anu ASSlvL uLvlCLS

1he devlces can be classlfled lnLo Lwo
1he passlve devlces are Lhose devlces whlch do noL generaLe Lhelr own volLages.
CapaclLors,

AcLlve devlces are Lhose devlces whlch have Lhe capabl
volLages.
Lg: CrysLal, 1ranslsLors, lL1, u!1 eLc.

8LSlS1C8S ln SL8lLS

When componenLs ln a clrculL are connecLed end Lo end as shown ln flgure, so LhaL
all Lhe clrculL currenL passes Lhrough each, Lh
8
2
and 8
3
currenL flow. Pence currenL

uue Lo Lhls currenL flow, volLage drop v
respecLlvely


CapaclLors, lnducLors and
volLages.
8LSlS1C8S ln SL8lLS
3
are ln serles wlLh each oLher and Lhe baLLery. 1he resulL ls only one paLh for
currenL flow. Pence currenL

respecLlvely.

1he sum of Lhree volLage drops equal Lo Lhe applled volLage.

lnducLors and Lransformers are Lhe passlve devlces.
CCM8lnA1lCn Cl 8LSlS1C8S
8LSlS1C8S ln SL8lLS
currenL flow. Pence currenL 'l'ls


Lransformers are Lhe passlve devlces.
same ln all Lhe Lhree reslsLors.

1
, v
2
v
1
= l8
v
2
=
v
3
=
1he devlces can be classlfled lnLo Lwo caLegorles l.e. asslve and AcLlve devlces.
all Lhe clrculL currenL passes Lhrough each, Lhey form a serles clrculL. 1he Lhree reslsLors 8

2
and v
3
develops
= l8
1

l8
2

l8
3

caLegorles l.e. asslve and AcLlve devlces.
AcLlve devlces are Lhose devlces whlch have Lhe capablllLy of generaLlng Lhelr own
ey form a serles clrculL. 1he Lhree reslsLors 8

develops across 8

llLy of generaLlng Lhelr own

across 8
1
,8
2
and 8
l 1 l 8 \ N 0
1he passlve devlces are Lhose devlces whlch do noL generaLe Lhelr own volLages. 8eslsLors,
llLy of generaLlng Lhelr own
1
,
and 8
3

,


v = v
1 +
v
2+
v
3

CPA8AC1L8lS1lCS Cl SL8lLS Cl8Cul1

(1) 1oLal reslsLance equal Lo Lhe sum of all serles reslsLors

lrom llgure 1 , 8 = 8
1 +
8
2+
8
3

CurrenL Lhrough all Lhe reslsLors ls same.

1he value of clrculL currenL

l =
ce sis Total
tage AppliedJol
tan Re

l.e. l =
R
J

(3) 1he sum of lndlvldual l8 drops equals Lo Lhe applled volLage

lrom flg v = v
1 +
v
2+
v
3

8C8LLM
(1) lrom Lhe flgure compuLe,
(a) ClrculL reslsLance
(b) ClrculL currenL
(c) .u beLween 'A' and 'L'
(d) oLenLlal of polnL 'L'
(e) ower supplled by Lhe baLLery

AnSWL8

(1) ClrculL reslsLance 8 = 8
1
+8
2
+8
3

= 2 +3 +1 = 6U
(2) ClrculL CurrenL , l =
R
J
=
6
12
=2 A
(3) 8
AL
= 2+3 =3U

.u beLween A & L, v
AL
= l x 8
AL

= 2 x 3 = 10v
(4) oLenLlal of olnL L ,

l.e v
L
= 2 x 1 = +2 v -above ground
(3) ower supplled by Lhe baLLery

A8ALLLL Cl8Cul1

ln a parallel
volLage source as shown ln flgure.

Pere Lwo reslsLors 8
connecLlons are also called shunL connecLlons. ln parallel clrculLs
opetote
totoeJ off wltboot
LAWS Cl A8ALLLL Cl8Cul1

(1) volLage across each branch ls same
(2)
1
R
where 8 ls Lhe LoLal reslsLance of Lhe clrculL.
(3) Lach branch currenL ls glven by
(4) 1he sum of branch currenL ls equal Lo Lhe

SLClAL CASL Cl

lf all Lhe reslsLance of a parallel clrculL ls equal, Lhen comblned reslsLance ls equal Lo
Lhe value of one branch reslsLor dlvlded by Lhe number of branches.

ln flgure (a) Lhree equal 60
Lermlnals A and 8. 1he equlvalenL reslsLance of Lhe clrculL ls equal Lo
flgure (b). lf Lhere where 4 reslsLors Lhen '8' would have been
ln facL we addlng more
clear LhaL each reslsLor provldes and addlLlonal currenL paLh and Lhus lncreases Lhe LoLal
currenL.


A8ALLLL Cl8Cul1
ln a parallel clrculL Lwo or more reslsLors connecLed slde by slde across Lhe slngle

opetote loJepeoJeotly of eocb otbet. neoce ooy
off wltboot
volLage across each branch ls same
2 1
1 1 1
R R R
+ =
Lach branch currenL ls glven by
1he sum of branch currenL ls equal Lo Lhe

SLClAL CASL Cl LCuAL 8LSlS1AnCL

ln facL we addlng more


clrculL Lwo or more reslsLors connecLed slde by slde across Lhe slngle

1
and 8
loJepeoJeotly of eocb otbet. neoce ooy
off wltboot offectloq otbet btoocb looJs.
3
1
R
+ ,

LCuAL 8LSlS1AnCL

ln facL we addlng more branch reslsLors
= v x l = 2 x 12 = 24W
and 8
2
are ln parallel wlLh each oLher and Lhe baLLery. arallel
q otbet btoocb looJs.
R
J

l.e l = l
1

LCuAL 8LSlS1AnCLS ln ALL 88AnCPLS
ln flgure (a) Lhree equal 60 U reslsLors are connecLed l
branch reslsLors
= v x l = 2 x 12 = 24W

1he sum of branch currenL ls equal Lo Lhe LoLal currenL supplled by Lhe baLLery.
+ l
2
+ l
3
ln ALL 88AnCPLS
U reslsLors are connecLed l
branch reslsLors, Lhe LoLal reslsLance keeps on decreaslng. lL ls
= v x l = 2 x 12 = 24W

connecLlons are also called shunL connecLlons. ln parallel clrculLs Jlffeteot btoocb looJs
loJepeoJeotly of eocb otbet. neoce ooy looJ coo be JlscoooecteJ ot
LoLal currenL supplled by Lhe baLLery.
ln ALL 88AnCPLS
U reslsLors are connecLed ln parallel across
4
60
= 13
, Lhe LoLal reslsLance keeps on decreaslng. lL ls
Jlffeteot btoocb looJs
be JlscoooecteJ ot

n parallel across
3
60
= 20U as shown ln
= 13U.
l 1 l 8 \ N 0
be JlscoooecteJ ot

U as shown ln

be JlscoooecteJ ot
U as shown ln


SLClAL CASL Cl

1he comblned reslsLance of Lwo unequal reslsLance

8C8LLM

A 12 v baLLery of negllglble lnLernal reslsLance ls connecLed across a parallel
comblnaLlon of 4k
(1) Comblned clrculL reslsLance
(2) CurrenL supplled by Lhe baLLery
(4) ower develo

(1) Comblned clrculL reslsLance,

(2) CurrenL supplled by Lhe baLLery, l =

SLClAL CASL Cl An? 1WC 8LSlS1C8S


8C8LLM
comblnaLlon of 4kU,6kU and 12kU reslsLors as shown ln flgure . CompuLe
Comblned clrculL reslsLance
CurrenL supplled by Lhe baLLery
ower supplled by Lhe baLLery
ower develo

Comblned clrculL reslsLance,

CurrenL supplled by Lhe baLLery, l =
An? 1WC 8LSlS1C8S

U,6kU and 12kU reslsLors as shown ln flgure . CompuLe
ower developed by each reslsLor.


l.e


An? 1WC 8LSlS1C8S

1
1 1
R R
=
l.e =
1
1
R
R

1
R
R
R =
ped by each reslsLor.
1
1 1
R R
=
=
4
1
+
=
3 +
=
12
6
l.e
R
1
=
12
6
8 =
6
12
=
R
J
=
ower supplled by Lhe baLLery = v x l = 12 x 6 x 10
2
1
R
+
2 1
2
R R
R +

2
2 1
R
R R
+


3 2
1 1
R R
+ +
12
1
6
1
+ +
12
1 2 + +

12
6

12
6

=2kU
=
2000
12
= 0.006A
= v x l = 12 x 6 x 10
1he comblned reslsLance of Lwo unequal reslsLances connecLed ln parallel ls glven by

0.006A = 6 mA
= v x l = 12 x 6 x 10
-3
= 72 x 10
onnecLed ln parallel ls glven by
6 mA
= 72 x 10
-3
= 0.072 W
l 1 l 8 \ N 0
0.072 W =72mW

72mW

(4) ower developed
(3) ower developed
(6) ower developed
SL8lLS -
Serles
currenL and volLages wlLh
because Lhey generally use only one volLage source. ln such clrculLs, some reslsLors are
connecLed ln parallel and Lhen Lhls parallel co
reslsLors a
AnAL?SlnC SL8lLS A8ALLLL Cl8Cul1
ln mosL of Lhe slLuaLlon
serles clrculL. 1hls can be done b
equlvalenL slngl

llrsL sLep ls Lo flnd equlvalenL reslsLance of 82 and 83 whlch ls

1he clrculL becomes as shown ln flgure (b). Second sLep ls Lo flnd Lhe LoLal reslsLance by
addlLlon

1hus Lhlrd

ower developed
ower developed
ower developed
- A8ALLLL Cl8Cul1
Serles-parallel clrculLs are used where lL ls necessary Lo
currenL and volLages wlLh
reslsLors as shown ln flgure(a)
ln mosL of Lhe slLuaLlon
les clrculL. 1hls can be done b
equlvalenL slngle reslsLance as shown ln flgure(c)


1hus Lhlrd sLep ls Lo calculaLe LoLal currenL supplled by Lhe baLLery by uslng Chm's Law.

ower developed ln 4k, l.e
A8ALLLL Cl8Cul1
parallel clrculLs are used where lL ls necessary Lo
currenL and volLages wlLh slngle power supply. LlecLronlc clrculLs are usually of Lhls Lype,
s shown ln flgure(a)
ln mosL of Lhe slLuaLlons
les clrculL. 1hls can be done b
e reslsLance as shown ln flgure(c)


Lo calculaLe LoLal currenL supplled by Lhe baLLery by uslng Chm's Law.
1hen l =
, l.e
1
=
4
, l.e
2
=
6
12
, l.e
3
=
12

slngle power supply. LlecLronlc clrculLs are usually of Lhls Lype,
s lL ls helpful Lo reduce Lhe glven clrculL Lo an
les clrculL. 1hls can be done by flrsL handllng Lhe
= 82 //83

2
R
R
R =
8
1
= 3+2+1 =8
1hen l =
R
J
=
3
2
10 4
12
x
=
4
144
x
3
2
10 6
12
x
=
10 6
144
x
3
2
10 12
12
x
=
12
144
x
connecLed ln parallel and Lhen Lhls parallel comblnaLlon ls connecLed ln serles wlLh oLher
helpful Lo reduce Lhe glven clrculL Lo an
y flrsL handllng Lhe parallel parL and Lhen reduclng lL Lo an
82 //83.
3
3 2
R
R R
+
=
6 3
6 3
+
x
= 3+2+1 =8 U
=
8
12
=
2
3
= 1.3A
3
10
144
x
=
1000
36
3
10
144
x
=
1000
24

3
10
144
x
= 12 x 10
parallel clrculLs are used where lL ls necessary Lo provlde varlous amounL
mblnaLlon ls connecLed ln serles wlLh oLher
helpful Lo reduce Lhe glven clrculL Lo an
parallel parL and Lhen reduclng lL Lo an
6
6
=
9
18
= 2U.
1.3A
= 0.036W =
=0.024W =24mW
= 12 x 10
-3
=0.012W=
provlde varlous amounL

helpful Lo reduce Lhe glven clrculL Lo an equlvalenL
.
l 1 l 8 \ N 0
= 36mW

24mW

=0.012W=12mW

provlde varlous amounLs of
equlvalenL

of

1he branch

volLage across 8

8C8LLM

lor Lhe clrculL shown ln flgure , compuLe
(1) 8eslsLance of Lhe enLlre clrculL
(2) CurrenL ln each reslsLor
(3) volLage drop across each reslsLor

llrsL , leL us slmpllfy parallel clrculL Cu
8
8
8

(1) 1oLal reslsLance of Lhe clrculL, 8= 20 + 3 + 3 =
(2) 1oLal clrculL currenL

Slmllarly l
CurrenL Lhrough 3k

1he branch currenLs l
1

volLage across 8
1
, v
8
2
, v
8
3
, v
8
4 ,

8C8LLM
8eslsLance of Lhe enLlre clrculL
CurrenL ln each reslsLor
volLage drop across each reslsLor

8
Cu
=
2
8
= 4k
8
8Cu
= 6+4 =10k
8
8L
=
2
10
= 3k
8 =8
A8
+ 8

1oLal reslsLance of Lhe clrculL, 8= 20 + 3 + 3 =
1oLal clrculL currenL

l
1
= l
Slmllarly l
3
= l
CurrenL Lhrough 3k
and l
2
and varlous volLage drops can be found as under
l
1
= l x
l
2
= l- l
, v
1
= l x 8
, v
2
= l
1
x 8
, v
3
= l
2
x8
v
4
= l x 8
CurrenL ln each reslsLor
= 4k
= 6+4 =10k
= 3k
+ 8
8L
+8
LC
= 20 + 3 + 3 = 30k

1oLal clrculL currenL l =
Slnce 8
= l
2
=
2
5 . 0
= 0.23mA
= l
4
=
2
25 . 0
= 0.123mA
CurrenL Lhrough 3k reslsLor = l = 0.3mA
= l x
3 2
3
R R
R
+
= 1.3 x
l
1
= 1.3 -1 = 0.3A . l.e.
= l x 8
1
= 1.3 x 3
x 8
2
= 3x1
x8
3
= 6 x 0.3 = 3v
= l x 8
4
= 1.3 x 1 = 1.3v

= 20 + 3 + 3 = 30k
l =
K 30
15
=
Slnce 8
8CL
= 8
8lL

= 0.23mA
= 0.123mA
reslsLor = l = 0.3mA
= 1.3 x
6 3
6
+
= 1.3 x
1 = 0.3A . l.e. 300mA
= 1.3 x 3 = 7.3 v
= 3x1 = 3v
= 6 x 0.3 = 3v
= 1.3 x 1 = 1.3v
= 20 + 3 + 3 = 30k

1oLal reslsLance of Lhe clrculL, 8= 20 + 3 + 3 = 30 k
3
10 30
15
x
= 0.3mA

reslsLor = l = 0.3mA
= 1.3 x
9
6
= 1A
300mA
30 kU
0.3mA
= 1A

l 1 l 8 \ N 0

(9) v
A8

(10) v

(11) v

(12) v

(13) v

kl8CPPCll'S

We come across many clrculLs ln whlch varlous componenLs are nelLher ln serles
parallel or
ln lLs dlfferenL branches. AnoLher
parallel clrculL
klrchhoff's laws whlch are Lwo ln number.

(1) kl8CPPCll'S Cu88Ln1 LAW
(2) kl8CPPCll'S vCL1ACL LAW

kl8CPPCll'S Cu88Ln1 LAW

IT STATES THAT IX AXY
BF IIRREXTS HEETIXB AT A PBIXT IS LERB.

lL slmply means LhaL Lhe LoLal currenL leavlng a [uncLlon ls equal Lo Lhe LoLal currenL
enLerlng LhaL [uncLlon.

Conslder
meeLlng aL [uncLlon 'A' of Lhe neLwork. 1he followlng slgn convenLlon should be adopLed for
deLermlnlng Lhe algebralc sum of dlfferenL currenLs.

All currenLs enLerlng Lhe [uncLlon would be Laken as poslLlve and Lhose leavlng woul
be Laken as negaLlve. 1herefore l
negaLlve.

uslng kCL,

A8
= 20 x 0.3 =
(10) v
8C
= 6 x 0.23 =
(11) v
Cu
= 8 x 0.123
v
8lL
= 10 x 0.23
v
LC
=

3 x 0.3
kl8CPPCll'S LAWS
parallel or ln serles-parallel. Cne example ls a clrculL wlLh Lwo or more baLLerles connecLed
parallel clrculLs are lnappllcable. Such clrculLs
kl8CPPCll'S vCL1ACL LAW

Conslder Lhe case of flve conducLors shown ln flgure.
negaLlve.
uslng kCL,

Cr

=10v
=1.3v
8 x 0.123 = 1v ( or =4 x 0.23 = 1v)
10 x 0.23= 2.3v ( Same as v
3 x 0.3= 2.3v
LAWS
parallel. Cne example ls a clrculL wlLh Lwo or more baLLerles connecLed
are lnappllcable. Such clrculLs
Lhe case of flve conducLors shown ln flgure.
l
1
+l
4
+(
Cr l
1
-l
2
-l
3

( or =4 x 0.23 = 1v)
( Same as v
8CL
)
ln lLs dlfferenL branches. AnoLher ls a unbalanced brldge clrculL
are lnappllcable. Such clrculLs
IT STATES THAT IX AXY XETWBRR BF IBXBIITBRS, THE ALBEBRAII SIH
1
and l
4
would be Laken as poslLlve and l
+(-l
2
)+(-l
3
)+(-l
3
3
+l
4
-l
3

I
( or =4 x 0.23 = 1v)
ls a unbalanced brldge clrculL
are lnappllcable. Such clrculLs can be
XETWBRR BF IBXBIITBRS, THE ALBEBRAII SIH
3
) = 0
= 0
= 0
ls a unbalanced brldge clrculL. P
can be easlly solved wlLh Lhe help of

0
0
- aL a [uncLlon
. Pere rules of serles and
easlly solved wlLh Lhe help of
Lhe case of flve conducLors shown ln flgure. 1hey carry currenL
2
,l
3
aL a [uncLlon
l 1 l 8 \ N 0
We come across many clrculLs ln whlch varlous componenLs are nelLher ln serles or ln
ere rules of serles and
1hey carry currenLs and
3
,l
3
would be

or ln
ere rules of serles and
and
All currenLs enLerlng Lhe [uncLlon would be Laken as poslLlve and Lhose leavlng would
would be

3S | a g e 8 A S l C L L L C 1 8 C n l C S

Also, Lransposlng

kl8CPPCll'S

IT STATES THAT THE ALBEBRAII SIH BF ALL IR BRBPS AXB EHF'S IX AXY
ILBSEB LBBP BR HESH BF A XETWBRR IS LERB.

Whlle applylng Lhe above Lwo laws for clrculL calculaL
unless proper algebralc slgn

uL1L8MlnA1lCn Cl ALCL88AlC SlCn

A rlse or lncrease ln volLage would be consldered
fall or decrease

8A11L8? LMl

Whlle golng round Lhe loop lf we go from Lhe negaLlve Lermlnal of a baLLery Lo lLs
poslLlve Lermlnal, Lhere ls a rlse ln poLenLlal. Pence Lhls emf should be glven a
on Lhe oLher hand we go from lLs poslLlve Lermlnal Lo lLs negaLlve Lermlnal Lhere ls a fall ln
oslLlve poLenLlal hence Lhls baLLery emf should be glven a negaLlve slgn.

l8 u8C Cn 8LSlS1C8S

lf we go Lhrough a reslsLor ln Lhe same dlre
decrease ln poLenLlal hence Lhls l8 drop should be Laken negaLlve. Powever, lf we go around
Lhe loop ln a dlrecLlon opposlLe Lo LhaL of Lhe currenL Lhere ls a ralse ln volLage. Pence Lhls l8
drop should be Laken

lL ls clear LhaL algebralc slgn of l8 drop across a reslsLor depends on Lhe dlrecLlon of
currenL Lhrough LhaL reslsLor.

, Lransposlng Lhe negaLlve Lerm


unless proper algebralc slgn
decrease ln volLage would be
8A11L8? LMl
l8 u8C Cn 8LSlS1C8S
drop should be Laken

Lhe negaLlve Lerm

lncomlng currenL = CuLgolng currenLs
Cr
vCL1ACL LAW


unless proper algebralc slgns are glven boLh Lo l8 drop
ln volLage would be
l8 u8C Cn 8LSlS1C8S
drop should be Laken as poslLlve.

Lhe negaLlve Lerms Lo Lhe rlghL hand slde
l
1
+l
4
l
lo


+
are glven boLh Lo l8 drop
ln volLage would be consldered as
as poslLlve.
Lhe rlghL hand slde

= l
2+
= l
oot

= 0
are glven boLh Lo l8 drops
consldered as ncga|itc
lf we go Lhrough a reslsLor ln Lhe same dlrecLlon as lLs currenL Lhen Lhere ls a fall or

Lhe rlghL hand slde, we geL
+
l
3+
l
3

Whlle applylng Lhe above Lwo laws for clrculL calculaLlons, plenLy of err
and baLLery LMl
A rlse or lncrease ln volLage would be consldered pcsi|itc and glven a
ncga|itcand hence glven
cLlon as lLs currenL Lhen Lhere ls a fall or

we geL
, plenLy of err
and baLLery LMls.
and glven a +ve slgn
and hence glven negaLlve slgn.
poslLlve Lermlnal, Lhere ls a rlse ln poLenLlal. Pence Lhls emf should be glven a poslLlve slgn. lf

l 1 l 8 \ N 0
, plenLy of errors can occur
+ve slgn and a
negaLlve slgn.
poslLlve slgn. lf

ors can occur
and a

poslLlve slgn. lf


Conslder Lhe closed loop ' A8CuA' of flgure sLarLlng from polnL 'A' lf we go around
Lhls mesh ln clockwlse dlrecLlon Lhen dlfferenL LMls and l8 drops wlll have followlng values
and slgns.

l
1
8
1
ls negaLlve (fall ln poLenLlal)
l
2
8
2
ls poslLlve (ralse ln poLenLlal)
L
2
l
3
8
3
L
1
ls poslLlve (ralse ln poLenLlal)
l
4
8
4
Pence accordlng Lo kvL

-l
1
8
1
-l
2
8
2
-L
2
-l
3
8
3
+L
1
-l
4
8
4
= 0
-l
1
8
1
+l
2
8
2
-l
3
8
3
-l
4
8
4
= L
2
-L
1

l
1
8
1
-l
2
82+l
3
8
3
+l
4
8
4
= L1-L2
----------------------------------------


When Lwo or more meLal plaLes are separaLed by an lnsulaLor or dlelecLrlc medlum
capable of sLorlng elecLrlclLy, Lhen Lhe
sLored energy can be released when requlred.

llgure shows a slmple capaclLor connecLed Lo a baLLery.

Cn presslng Lhe swlLch 'S' Lhere ls a momenLary flow of elecLrons, whlch sLops when
plaLe 'A' reaches Lhe poLenLlal of Lhe poslLlve Lermlnal of Lhe baLLery and plaLe '8' Lo LhaL of
Lhe negaLlve Lermlnal.
energy. lL has been found LhaL Lhe dlelecLrlc medlum beLween Lhe plaLe 'S'
due Lo 'u'. 1hls sLraln lncreases as Lhe u across Lhe plaLes of capaclLor lncreases.
1herefore Lhe energy

1he maxlmum volLage or u whlch a dlelecLrlc medlum can wlLhsLand wlLhouL any
rupLure or breakdown ls called lLs dlelecLrlc sLrengLh.

1he dlelecLrlc medlum usually used ls Mlca, Ceramlc, alr eLc.
CPA8ClnC Cl A CAACl1C8

1he charglng process Lakes ln a very shorL lnLerval of Llme. When lL ls compleLed 'A'
has a charge of '+C' unl
charged. 8aLLery ls only a source Lo supply Lhe charge Lo Lhe plaLes.

ulSCPA8ClnC Cl A CAACl1C8

When Lhe Lwo plaLes of a capaclLor ls connecLed LogeLher by a wlre, a flow of
elecLrons
neuLrallze
plaLe '8'. 1hen Lhe capaclLor ls sald Lo be dlscharged.


e 'A' reaches Lhe poLenLlal of Lhe poslLlve Lermlnal of Lhe baLLery and plaLe '8' Lo LhaL of
Lhe negaLlve Lermlnal.
1herefore Lhe energy
has a charge of '+C' unl
s Lakes place f
neuLrallze each oLher. So no elecLrlc charge c

Lhe negaLlve Lermlnal. 1he capaclLor sLores elecLrlc energy ln Lhe form of elecLrosLaLlc
1herefore Lhe energy and lncreases wlLh Lhe
has a charge of '+C' unlLs and plaLe '8' a charge lf '
place from '8' Lo 'A' for a very shorL perlod of Llme.
h oLher. So no elecLrlc charge c
CPA1L8 4
CAACl1C8S
capable of sLorlng elecLrlclLy, Lhen Lhe consLrucLlon ls known as CapaclLor or Condenser. 1he
1he capaclLor sLores elecLrlc energy ln Lhe form of elecLrosLaLlc
and lncreases wlLh Lhe
Ls and plaLe '8' a charge lf '

8' Lo 'A' for a very shorL perlod of Llme.
h oLher. So no elecLrlc charge c
CPA1L8 4
CAACl1C8S
consLrucLlon ls known as CapaclLor or Condenser. 1he
and lncreases wlLh Lhe sLores lncrease ln '.u'.
Ls and plaLe '8' a charge lf '-C' unlLs and Lhe capaclLor ls sald Lo be
h oLher. So no elecLrlc charge can now be deLecLed elLher

CAACl1C8S

lncrease ln '.u'.
C' unlLs and Lhe capaclLor ls sald Lo be
an now be deLecLed elLher

energy. lL has been found LhaL Lhe dlelecLrlc medlum beLween Lhe plaLe 'S' ls under sLraln
lncrease ln '.u'.
8' Lo 'A' for a very shorL perlod of Llme. 1he charge '+C' and '
an now be deLecLed elLher ln plaLe
l 1 l 8 \ N 0
ls under sLraln
charge '+C' and '-
plaLe 'A' or on

ls under sLraln
-C'
on


CAACl1AnCL Cl A CAACl1C8

CapaclLance or capaclLy of a capaclLor ls lLs ablllLy Lo sLore elecLrlclLy.
lL has been observed LhaL quanLlLy of charge (C) ls dlrecLly proporLlonal Lo Lhe
applled .u or volLs.

MaLhemaLlcally
C v
l.e. C = Cv
Where 'C' ls Lhe consLanL of proporLlonallLy and ls consLanL for a glven capaclLor and
known as Lhe capaclLance of Lhe capaclLor .

C =

When C ls ln Coulombs and v ls ln volLs Lhen C ls ln farad denoLed by 'l'.

lf C = 1 coulombs, v = 1 v, Lhen C= 1 larad
Pence 1 farad ls deflned as Lhe capaclLance of a capaclLor whlch requlres a charge lf 1
coulombs Lo esLabllsh a .u of 1 v beLween plaLes.

1hls unlL farad ls Loo blg for pracLlcal purpose . So smaller unlLs are used. 1hey are
mlcrofarad (l), nano larad (nl) and lco farad(pl)

1 l =
6
10
1
l = 10
-6
l
1 nl =
9
10
1
l = 10
-9
l
1 l =
12
10
1
l =10
-12
l
L8Ml11lvl1? C8 ulLLLC18lC CCnS1An1

lL ls deflned as Lhe ablllLy of a dlelecLrlc medlum Lo pass elecLrlc flux Lhrough lL. lL
should be noLed LhaL elecLrlc llnes of force exlsLs ln an elecLrosLaLlc fleld beLween Lwo
charges as ln Lhe case of magneLlc fleld. 1hese llnes of force follow Lhe same rule as Lhe
magneLlc llnes of force. 1he LoLal number of llnes of force ls called elecLrlc flux.

ln case of capaclLor lLs capaclLy depends upon Lhe dlelecLrlc used. lf a capaclLor wlLh
alr as dlelecLrlc has a capaclLy of 10l, subsLlLuLlng mlca ln Lhe place of alr as dlelecLrlc, Lhe
capaclLy of capaclLor ls found Lo 40 l l.e. capaclLy has been lncreased 4 Llmes . So we can say
LhaL Lhe relaLlve permlLLlvlLy (
r
) or dlelecLrlc consLanL of mlca ls '4'.

1herefore relaLlve permlLLlvlLy or dlelecLrlc consLanL of a capaclLor may be deflned as
Lhe raLlo of capaclLance wlLh some dlelecLrlc medlum Lo Lhe capaclLance of a capaclLor wlLh
alr as dlelecLrlc.


CapaclLance of a capaclLor wlLh some dlelecLrlc

r
= ---------------------------------------------------------------
CapaclLance of a capaclLor wlLh alr as dlelecLrlc

1he permlLLlvlLy of vacuum or free space whlch ls a consLanL denoLed by '
0
'
lL ls equal Lo 8.83 x 10
-12
l/M.

lAC1C8S CCn18CLLlnC CAACl1AnCL

1he capaclLance of a capaclLor depends upon followlng facLors.
(1) LA1L A8LA :- CapaclLance of a capaclLor lncreases dlrecLly wlLh lncrease of plaLe
area (A)
(2) LA1L SLA8A1lCn: - As laLe separaLlon (d) decreases capaclLance lncreases and vlce
-versa. Slnce plaLe separaLlon equals Lhe Lhlckness of Lhe dlelecLrlc used, we may say
LhaL Lhlnner Lhe dlelecLrlc slab, greaLer Lhe capaclLance and vlce-versa.
(3) 1?L Cl ulLLLC18lC : - lL depends upon Lhe dlelecLrlc consLanL of Lhe dlelecLrlc
medlum used. Plgher Lhe value of dlelecLrlc consLanL greaLer Lhe value of capaclLor.

CapaclLance of a capaclLor , C =
d
A
r

0

Where
0
= lree space consLanL

r
= 8elaLlve permlLLlvlLy
A = Surface area of plaLes
d = ulsLance beLween plaLes.
8C8LLM

llnd Lhe charge on 0.3 ld capaclLor when a .u of 300v ls applled Lo lL. WhaL .u
should be applled Lo Lhls condenser LhaL lL ls charged Lo 30 mlcro coulombs?
C = Cv
value of capaclLor = 0.3 ld
Applled volLage = 300v
Charge on Lhe capaclLor , C = Cv
= 0.3 x 10
-6
x 300
= 130 x 10
-6
Coulombs
l.e 130Mlcro coloumbs
Applled volLage v =
C
Q

=
Fd
C
5 . 0
50
=100v


SomeLlmes lL may become necessary Lo connecL Lhe capaclLance ln serles or parallel ln
order Lo decrease or lncrease Lhe value of Lhe LoLal
CAACl1C8S ln SL8lLS

CapaclLors are sald Lo be connecLed ln serles when negaLlve Lermlnal of Lhe one ls connecLed
Lo Lhe poslLlve Lermlnal of Lhe oLher so LhaL Lhey form a chaln of capaclLors.

llgure shows Lhree capaclLors of capaclLy C
volLage source
equlllbrlum condlLlon, Lhe charge ln each capaclLors ls same lrrespecLlve of lLs capaclLance. LeL LoLal
capaclLance be 'C'.

l.e .u beLween each capaclLor ls dlfferenL and sum of Lhese volLages equals Lo Lhe
applled volLage.

lL should
Lhlckness of Lhe dlelecLrlc. Pence comblned capaclLance ls less Lhan Lhe smallesL lndlvldual
value.

1oLal CapaclLance ls glven by

CapaclLors connecLed ln serles provlde a hlgher volLage breakdown raLlng . lor e.g.
comblned volLage raLlng of Lhree equal 200v capaclLors becomes 600v when connec
serles.


CAACl1C8S ln SL8lLS
volLage source 'v'. LeL 'v
capaclLance be 'C'.

We have v = v
applled volLage.
lL should be noLed LhaL connecLlng capaclLors ln serles ls equlvalenL Lo lncreaslng Lhe


CCM8lnA1lCn Cl CACl1C8S
CAACl1C8S ln SL8lLS
LeL 'v
1
', 'v
2
' and 'v
capaclLance be 'C'.

We have v = v
1
+v
be noLed LhaL connecLlng capaclLors ln serles ls equlvalenL Lo lncreaslng Lhe

v =
' and 'v
3
' be Lhe volLage drop across C
+v
2
+v
3

1
1 1
C C
+ =
v = 100v.
order Lo decrease or lncrease Lhe value of Lhe LoLal capaclLance.
1
,C
2
and C
3 2
1 1
C C
+ + .
capaclLance.
and C
3
are connecLed ln serles
1
,C2

are connecLed ln serles
2, and C
3
respecLlvely.

l 1 l 8 \ N 0
are connecLed ln serles across Lhe
respecLlvely. under
comblned volLage raLlng of Lhree equal 200v capaclLors becomes 600v when connecLlng ln

Lhe
under

Llng ln

1WC CAACl1C8S ln SL8lLS

When 8,2 and 16ld are connecLed





1
C

C
1
l.e. C =

C =
1
1
C
C
v
1
= v x
v
2
= v x
When 8,2 and 16ld are connecLed ln serles, flnd ouL Lhe LoLal capaclLance ?

2
1
8
1 1
+ + =
C
=
8
1
16 +
=
16
11

C
1
=
16
11

l.e. C =
11
16
= 1.43ld
2
2 1
C
C C
+

= v x
2 1
2
C C
C
+

= v x
2 1
1
C C
C
+

ln serles, flnd ouL Lhe LoLal capaclLance ?
16
1

16
16
12
1
16 + +
1.43ld

16
1
16


l 1 l 8 \ N 0

CAACl1C8S ln A8ALLLL

1he capaclLors are sald Lo be connecLed ln parallel when negaLlve Lermlnal of all are
connecLed by one conducLor
same across each capaclLor as shown ln flgure.

1hree

ConnecLlng capaclLors ln parallel ls equlvalenL Lo addlng Lhelr plaLe areas. Pence
comblned (LoLal) capaclLance equals Lhe sum of lndlvldual capaclLance.

LeL 'C' be Lhe LoLal capaclLance

1hen

under Lqulllbrlum condlLlon Lhe charge Laken by each capaclLor ls dlrecLly
proporLlonal Lo lLs capaclLance. 1herefore charge across each capaclLor ls dlfferenL. LeL C
and C
3
be charges aLLalned by capaclLor C
supplled by Lhe baLLery.

1WC CAACl1C8S ln A8ALLLL

Conslder Lhe case when only Lwo unequal capaclLors are connecLed ln parallel as
shown ln flgure.
(1) Slnce 'v' ls sane across boLh capaclLors.

(2)

connecLed by one conducLor

1hree capaclLors C

1hen


shown ln flgure.
Slnce 'v' ls sane across boLh capaclLors.

connecLed by one conducLor and poslLlve Lermlnal by anoLher so LhaL applled volLage 'v' ls
capaclLors C
1
, C
2
, and


v =
C
1
C
2

Q
Q
C
1

and poslLlve Lermlnal by anoLher so LhaL applled volLage 'v' ls
and C
3
are connecLed ln parallel Lo
C = C
1
,C
1hen C =

v =
1
1
C
Q
=
C
Q
2
= C
2
C
1

2
1
2
1
C
C
Q
Q
=
=
1
C
Q
+

are connecLed ln parallel Lo
C = C
1
+C
2
+C3
,C
2
and C
3
respecLlvely and 'C' ls Lhe LoL
1hen C = C
1
+ C
2
+ C
3
2
2
C
Q

2
1
C
C
+


are connecLed ln parallel Lo a supply volLage 'v'.

3

a supply volLage 'v'.
l 1 l 8 \ N 0
a supply volLage 'v'.
1
, C
respecLlvely and 'C' ls Lhe LoLal charge

, C
2

al charge


8C8LLM

10,20 and 3 ld are connecLed ln parallel. llnd ouL Lhe LoLal capaclLance?

1oLal capaclLance C =

1?LS Cl CAACl1C8S

All capaclLors used ln elecLronlcs clrculLs may be dlvlded lnLo Lwo general classes
(a) llxLu CAACl1C8S
(b) vA8lA8LL CAACl1C8S
llxed capaclLors may be furLher classlfled lnLo
capaclLors.

llxLu CAACl1C8S

(1) nCn LLLC18CL?1lC 1?

polarlLy requlremenL l.e. Lhey can be connecLed ln elLher dlrecLlon ln a clrculL.

AL8 CAACl1C8S


8C8LLM


1?LS Cl CAACl1C8S
llxLu CAACl1C8S
vA8lA8LL CAACl1C8S
capaclLors.
llxLu CAACl1C8S
nCn LLLC18CL?1lC 1?
lL lncludes paper, Mlca and ceramlc capaclLors. Such capaclLors have no
olarlLy requlremenL l.e. Lhey can be connecLed ln elLher dlrecLlon ln a clrculL.
CAACl1C8S

C
2



1?LS Cl CAACl1C8S
llxLu CAACl1C8S
vA8lA8LL CAACl1C8S
nCn LLLC18CL?1lC 1?L

=
1
C
Q
+

1oLal capaclLance C = C
1
+C
= 10+20+3 =
L

2
2
C
C
+


+C
2
+C3
= 10+20+3 = 33ld.
llxed capaclLors may be furLher classlfled lnLo LlecLrolyLlc

.
LlecLrolyLlc and

and non elecLrolyLlc

l 1 l 8 \ N 0
All capaclLors used ln elecLronlcs clrculLs may be dlvlded lnLo Lwo general classes.
non elecLrolyLlc


ln Lhls Lype of capaclLors Lhln Llssue paper or waxed paper ls used as dlelecLrlc. 1he
conducLlng plaLes are Lhln 1ln or Alumlnlum foll. 1he foll LogeLher wlLh several layers of
waxed or olly paper ls rolled lnLo Lhe form of a cyllnder as shown ln flgure. 1he leads are
connecLed Lo Lhese folls and ls used as Lhe Lermlnals of Lhe capaclLor. 1he whole assembly
ls Lhen enclosed ln a paper Lube or encased ln Lhe plasLlc capsule.

1he slze of Lhe capaclLor depends upon Lhe worklng volLage. Plgher Lhe worklng
volLage hlgher wlll be Lhe capaclLor slze.

aper capaclLors have a capaclLance range of 0.001 Lo 2l and worklng volLage
raLlngs as hlgh as 2000v. aper capaclLors have large physlcal slze as compared Lo Lhelr
capaclLance and also become lnefflclenL as Lhe frequency of applled AC' volLage exceeds a
few MPz . 1hese facLs prevenL Lhelr use ln mosL lM 1v clrculLs excepL ln low frequency
porLlons of Lhe clrculL l.e ln audlo sLages.

1hese days such foll consLrucLlon capaclLors use Lhln plasLlc fllm lnsLead of paper as
Lhe dlelecLrlc medlum. 1wo mosL commonly used plasLlc fllm have Lrade names-1eflon and
mylar .Such capaclLors have

(1) Plgh lnsulaLlon reslsLance
(2) Longer shelf llfe wlLhouL break down--- as compared Lo paper capaclLors.

MlCA CAACl1C8S

Mlca capaclLors are made by sLacklng alLernaLe recLangle of Mlca meLal folls. 1he
meLal folls are dlvlded lnLo Lwo separaLe elecLrlcal groups by connecLlng alLernaLe pleces
LogeLher as shown ln flgure.

Leads are connecLed Lo Lhese groups and ls used as Lhe Lermlnals. 1he assembly ls
encased ln a plasLlc capsule or 8akellLe case.

Mlca capaclLors are comparaLlvely expenslve and are used only when small
capaclLance aL hlgh efflclencles or hlgh volLage raLlng are needed. Such capaclLance have
same capaclLance value (30 Lo 300 l) yeL hlgh worklng volLage (300v and above).


Cnce such capaclLors are used exLenslvely ln radlo clrculLs. 8uL of-laLe Lhey have been
Superseded by ceramlc capaclLors because of excellenL properLles of ceramlc and Lhelr
economy.

CL8AMlC CACl1C8S

Such capaclLors have dlsc shape or hollow Lubular shape dlelecLrlc made of ceramlc
maLerlal such as 1lLanlum dloxlde and barlum LlLanaLe. 1hln coaLlngs of sllver compound are
deposlLed on boLh sldes of Lhe dlelecLrlc dlsc whlch acLs capaclLor plaLes. Leads are aLLached
each slde of Lhe dlsc and Lhe whole unlL ls encased ln a molsLure proof coaLlng as shown ln
flgure.

8ecause of very hlgh values of dlelecLrlc consLanL of ceramlc (
r
=

1200). ulsc Lype
capaclLor have very large capaclLance compared Lhelr slze. 1he range of capaclLance ls 3pf Lo
2ld.

ln Lhe case of Lubular ceramlc capaclLor, Lhe hollow ceramlc Lube acLs as a sllver
coaLlng on Lhe lnslde and ouLslde surfaces. 1he capaclLance range varles from 1pf Lo 300 pf
wlLh worklng volLage raLlng exceedlng 10kv. Ceramlc capaclLors have many advanLage as
compared Lo Mlca and aper capaclLors.

1hese capaclLors
(1) are economlcal
(2) have very small slze buL large capaclLance hence Lhey occupy less space
(3) have very hlgh worklng volLage raLlng.
(4) SulLable for hlgh frequency appllcaLlon.

LLLC18CL?1lC CAACl1C8S
1he elecLrolyLlc capaclLors have many Llmes Lhe capaclLance of a paper capaclLor of
Lhe same volume and ls less expenslve Lo consLrucL.


llgure shows Lhe skeLch of a elecLrolyLlc capaclLor.

1he capaclLors conslsLs of Lwo sheeLs of Alumlnlum foll separaLed by an absorbenL
gauze saLuraLed wlLh Lhe elecLrolyLe of Ammonlum boraLe. A Lhln fllm of Alumlnlum oxlde ls
formed on Lhe surface of poslLlve foll by an elecLro chemlcal process. 1he oxlde fllm acLs
dlelecLrlc. 1he gauze saLuraLed wlLh elecLrolyLe ls kepL ln conLacL wlLh Lhe dlelecLrlc. lL acLs as
negaLlve laLe. Cn Lhe Lop of Lhe Lhln alumlnlum foll ls placed wlLh whlch serves as a conLacL
Lo Lhe elecLrolyLe and form Lhe negaLlve Lermlnal. 1he enLlre assembly ls rolled up and sealed
ln an lnsulaLlng conLalner.

Some Llmes elecLrolyLlc capaclLors are made wlLh Lwo or Lhree capaclLors ln a slngle
conLalner havlng a common negaLlve Lermlnal. 1he ouLslde meLal cyllnder acLs as common
negaLlve Lermlnal.

8ecause of exLremely Lhln fllm elecLrolyLlc capaclLors posses very large capaclLance
ranglng from 1ld Lo 1000 ld- ln very compacL slzes.
Slnce Lhey use an elecLrolyLe as Lhe negaLlve plaLe elecLrolyLlc capaclLors are
classlfled as polarlzed capaclLors . l.e Lhey musL be connecLed ln Lhe clrculL accordlng Lo Lhe
'+' and '-' marklng on Lhe case. lf Lhls ls noL done Lhe capaclLor may become shorL clrculLed
or geL over heaLed due Lo excesslve leakage currenL Lhrough Lhe dlelecLrlc. Moreover
reversed polarlLy resulLs ln gas formaLlon whlch may cause Lhe capaclLors Lo explode.

1he Lwo dlsadvanLages of elecLrolyLlc capaclLors are LhaL Lhey

(1) olarlLy senslLlve
(2) 1o have less leakage reslsLance , because Lhe oxlde fllm ls noL a perfecL lnsulaLor . ln
oLher words Lhey have hlgh leakage currenL whlch become Lroublesome.

now a days ln elecLrolyLlc capaclLors Alumlnlum ls belng replaced by '1anLalum'. lL has
long llfe and low 'uC' leakage. AnoLher Lype of elecLrolyLlc capaclLors (AC capaclLors or non
polarlzed elecLrolyLlc capaclLors) whlch have no polarlLy resLrlcLlons are used ln 'AC' supply ,
malnly for sLarLlng low volLage slngle phase moLors. ln Lhls Lype of capaclLors boLh Lhe plaLes
have oxlde fllm on Lhelr surfaces.

vA8lA8LL CAACl1C8S

A varlable capaclLor ls one whose capaclLance can be varled usually by roLaLlng a
shafL. lL conslsLs of Lwo seLs of meLal plaLes separaLed from each oLher by alr. Cne seLs of
plaLes ls sLaLlonary and ls called sLaLor. lL ls lnsulaLed from Lhe frame of Lhe capaclLor upon
whlch lL ls mounLed. 1he oLher seLs of plaLes ls connecLed Lo Lhe shafL and can be roLaLed.


1hls ls why lL ls called Lhe roLar. 8y roLaLlng Lhe roLar by Lhe help of sulLable knob, roLar plaLe
can be made Lo move ln or ouL of Lhe sLaLor plaLe. CapaclLance ls maxlmum when roLar
plaLes are fully 'ln' and mlnlmum when 'ouL'.

When Lwo or more such capaclLors are operaLed by a slngle shafL lL ls known as a
'ganged' capaclLor. llgure shows a '2' gang capaclLor. 1haL ls one havlng '2' separaLe
varlable capaclLors ln one unlL roLaLed by a slngle conLrol. Commerclal recelver and Lhose
used by shorL wave llsLeners ofLen have a varlable capaclLor wlLh 3 ganges.

Alr dlelecLrlc varlable capaclLor occuples more space. 1herefore porLable and pockeL
slze LranslsLor recelvers use small solld dlelecLrlc gang capaclLors lnsLead of alr capaclLors.
1he dlelecLrlc ls used ln solld dlelecLrlc Lype gang capaclLors are 'vC' or polyLhene.

SLMlvA8lA8LL CAACl1C8S

ln Lhls Lype one plaLe ls flxed , Lhe oLher can be made far or near wlLh Lhe help of a
screw. 1here ls a Lhln mlca sheeL ln beLween Lhe Lwo plaLes. lf Lhe plaLes are nearer Lhe
dlsLance ls less and capaclLy ls more and lf Lhe plaLes are far Lhe capaclLy ls less. 1hey are
known as Lrlmmers havlng low value from 2 Lo 22 pf or 3 Lo 33pf.


All seml varlable capaclLors are used for Lhe purpose of flne ad[usLmenL on Lhe LoLal
capaclLance of Lhe devlce.

18Cu8LLS ln CAACl1C8S

1wo common problems wlLh capaclLors are (1) Cpen (2) ShorL. ln elLher case of Lhe
capaclLor ls useless because lL cannoL sLore energy. A shorL clrculL clrculLed capaclLor has
zero reslsLance. l.e lL show conLlnulLy . A leaky capaclLor has a reslsLance some whaL lower
Lhan lLs normal value.

CAACl1C8S CCnnLC1Lu AC8CSS An AC SCu8CL

Suppose a capaclLor ls connecLed across an AC volLage supply. As shown ln flgure, lL
ls found LhaL Lhe capaclLor ls charged flrsL ln one dlrecLlon durlng Lhe poslLlve half cycle of
Lhe applled volLage. llgure (a) and Lhe ln Lhe opposlLe dlrecLlon durlng Lhe negaLlve half
cycle.

llg (a) llg (b)
Slnce lL ls an alLernaLlng volLage, Lhe capaclLor keep geLLlng charged and dlscharged
conLlnuously. lf Lhe lamp ls lncluded ln Lhe clrculL lL wlll conLlnue Lo glow. 1he reason ls as
follows.

uurlng Lhe poslLlve half cycle of Lhe applled volLage, charglng currenL flows from
plaLe 'n' Lo 'M' Lhrough Lhe exLernal clrculL conLalnlng Lhe lamp. lL cannoL flow Lhrough Lhe
dlelecLrlc. uurlng Lhe negaLlve half cycle currenL dlrecLlon ls reversed buL lL agaln Lhrough
Lhe lamp Lhereby keeplng lL allghL. lL hardly makes any dlfference Lo Lhe lamp wheLher
currenL Lhrough lL passes from lefL Lo rlghL or rlghL Lo lefL. lL wlll be appreclaLed LhaL no
currenL wheLher AC or uC can pass Lhrough a capaclLor.

CAACl1lvL 8LAC1AnCL

A good capaclLance compleLely block Lhe passage of dlrecL currenL Lhrough lL.
Powever lL allows alLernaLlng currenL Lo pass Lhrough lL ln Lhe sense dlscussed above. ln facL
whaL l acLually does ls LhaL lL allows currenL Lo flow Lhrough Lhe exLernal clrculL, flrsL ln one
dlrecLlon Lhen ln Lhe opposlLe dlrecLlon aL a frequency equal Lo Lhe frequency of Lhe applled
volLage, even Lhen lL offers opposlLlon Lo Lhe flow of Lhls alLernaLlng currenL. 1hls
opposlLlon ls called capaclLlve reacLance (x
C
) and ls glven by


lLs unlL ls Chm.
CapaclLlve reacLance varles lnversely as Lhe frequency of Lhe applled AC volLage .
Plgher Lhe frequency lesser Lhe reacLance and vle-versa.

lor uC volLage f=0

Pence
=

1haL ls why a capaclLor blocks dlrecL currenL and volLage.

vCL1ACL 8A1lnC Cl CAACl1C8S
volLage raLlng of a capaclLor ls glven by Lhe maxlmum poLenLlal dlfference LhaL can be
applled across lLs plaLes wlLhouL puncLurlng lLs dlelecLrlc . Such raLlngs are glven for LemperaLure
up Lo 60
0
C. Plgher LemperaLure resulLs ln lower volLage raLlngs. lor general purpose aper ,Mlca
and Ceramlc capaclLors wlLh volLage raLlngs are 200 Lo 300vuC . Ceramlc capaclLors wlLh volLage
raLlng 1 Lo 12kv are also avallable. LlecLrolyLlc capaclLors up Lo 430 vuC raLlngs are avallable.
volLage across a capaclLor should noL be allowed Lo exceed lLs raLlng. Powever a capaclLor wlLh a
hlgher volLage raLlngs can be used ln a low volLage clrculL.
lor e.g. :- A 200v 0.03 ld capaclLor can be replaced by a 400v 0.03ld capaclLor buL noL vlce-
versa.
_________________________

S0 | a g e 8 A S l C L L L C 1 8 C n l C S l 1 l 8 \ N 0

CPA1L8 3
AC lunuAMLn1ALS
ln18CuuC1lCn
1he source whlch produces dlrecL currenL (uC) has Lermlnals of flxed polarlLy l.e.
wholes poles do noL change Lhelr polarlLy wlLh Llme. Pence , Lhey provlde a currenL whose
dlrecLlon flow does noL change wlLh Llme. Powever, Lhls dlrecL currenL may be sLeady
(consLanL ln value as shown ln flg a) or flucLuaLlng (pulsaLlng as shown ln flg b) or may be
lnLerrupLed lnLo shorL pulses as shown ln llg. c. Maln polnL ls LhaL lLs dlrecLlon of flow
remalns Lhe same l.e. from Lhe poslLlve Lermlnal of Lhe volLage source Lo lLs negaLlve
Lermlnal. Lxamples of such volLage sources are : elecLrlc cell, baLLery and d.c generaLors eLc.

AlLernaLlng currenL (a.c) ls produced by a volLage source whose Lermlnal polarlLy
keeps alLernaLlng (or reverslng) wlLh Llme. WhaL was Lhe poslLlve Lermlnal aL one lnsLanL
(llg d) becomes negaLlve Lermlnal some Llme laLer and whaL was negaLlve Lermlnal aL one
lnsLanL (llg e) becomes poslLlve Lermlnal aL some oLher lnsLanL.

(d) (e)


As a resulL of consLanLly-reverslng polarlLy of volLage source, Lhe dlrecLlon of currenL
flow ln Lhe clrculL also keeps reverslng as shown ln flgures (d & e). ln addlLlon Lo reverslng
lLs dlrecLlon, currenL keeps changlng ln value wlLh Llme---from zero Lo maxlmum ln one
dlrecLlon and back Lo zero and Lhen from zero Lo maxlmum ln Lhe opposlLe dlrecLlon and
agaln back Lo zero. lL ls obvlous LhaL an alLernaLlng volLage source wlll cause an alLernaLlng
currenL.
1he mosL common source of alLernaLlng volLage ls Lhe alLernaLor or a.c. generaLor.
1?LS Cl AL1L8nA1lnC WAvLlC8MS
1he alLernaLlng volLages and currenLs can have dlfferenL waveforms or wave-shapes
as shown ln flg. 1hese waveforms are obLalned by ploLLlng Lhe lnsLanLaneous values of
volLage or currenL as ordlnaLe agalnsL Llme as absclssa.

llg(a) shows a slne wave because lL ls obLalned by ploLLlng a slne funcLlon. llg (b)
deplcLs a Lrlangular waveform whereas llg (c) shows a square waveform and llg (d)
lllusLraLes a complex waveform. AnoLher polnL worLh noLlng ls LhaL alLernaLlng quanLlLles
may or may noL be symmettlcol l.e. Lhelr poslLlve and negaLlve halves may or may noL be
ldenLlcal. All Lhe waveforms shown ln llg represenL dlfferenL Lypes of alLernaLlng volLages
whlch are symmeLrlcal.
Slnce slnusoldal a.c. l.e an a.c. havlng slne waveform ls mosL lmporLanL , we wlll
dlscuss lL ln some deLall. 8uL lL should be noLed LhaL a waveform may be slnusoldal buL noL
symmeLrlcal and vlce versa. llg (a) above shows a waveform whlch ls boLh slnusoldal and
symmeLrlcal. Powever, Lhe wave form shown ln llg below are slnusoldal buL


nonsymmeLrlcal. ln Lhe flrsL flgure, negaLlve half ls dlfferenL from Lhe poslLlve half and ln Lhe
second flg. Lhe negaLlve half has been compleLely suppressed. Such an a.c. ls called half-
wave recLlfled a.c.
SCML uLllnl1lCn
1. C?CLL
Cne compleLe seL of poslLlve and negaLlve values of an alLernaLlng quanLlLy ls known
as a cycle.

A cycle ls also someLlmes speclfled ln Lerms of angular measure. ln LhaL case, cone
compleLe cycle ls sald Lo spread over 360
0
or 2 radlans.
2. 1lML L8lCu
lL ls Lhe Llme Laken by Lhe alLernaLlng volLage or currenL Lo compleLe one cycle. lor
example, an alLernaLlng currenL maklng 30 cycles/second has a Llme perlod of 1 =
50
1
second
= 0.02 second
3. l8LCuLnC?
1he number of cycles/second made by an alLernaLlng volLage or currenL ls called lLs
frequency. lLs unlL ls cycles/second or herLz (Pz)
4. AMLl1uuL
1he maxlmum value, poslLlve or negaLlve, of an alLernaLlng quanLlLy ls known as lLs
ampllLude.
CPA8AC1L8lS1lCS Cl A SlnL WAvL
A slnusoldal a.c waveform has followlng characLerlsLlcs:
1. lLs one cycle spreads over 360
0
or 2 radlans.
2. lLs polarlLy reverses every half cycle.
3. lL has maxlmum poslLlve value aL 90
0
and maxlmum negaLlve value aL 270
0
.
4. lL has zero values aL 0
0
and 180
0


ulllL8Ln1 vALuLS Cl SlnuSCluAL vCL1ACL Anu Cu88Ln1
1. lnS1An1AnLCuS vALuL
lL ls Lhe value of Lhe currenL LhaL exlsLs aL any lnsLanL of Llme measured from some
reference polnL. lL can have any value beLween plus maxlmum value +lm and negaLlve
maxlmum value -lm and ls denoLed by l. ln facL, Lhe enLlre slne wave ls made up of
lnsLanLaneous values as shown ln llg. MaLhemaLlcally, lL ls glven by
l= lm sln

llg .1
2. LAk vALuL C8 MAxlMuM vALuL
lL ls Lhe hlghesL value reached by Lhe currenL ln one cycle.
lor example, currenL shown ln flgure (1) has a peak or maxlmum value of 1A.
Moreover, poslLlve peak value ls equal Lo Lhe negaLlve peak value. lL ls seen LhaL durlng
poslLlve half cycle, Lhls value occurs aL = 90
0
or L =
4
T
second where 1 ls Lhe Llme perlod of
Lhe wave. Slmllarly, negaLlve peak value occurs aL =270
0
or L =
4
3T
second.
3. LAk 1C LAk vALuL
lL ls Lhe sum of Lhe poslLlve peak and negaLlve peak values. usually wrlLLen as p-p
value.
1he p-p value of Lhe wave shown ln llg. (1) ls 1+1 =2A. lL ls obvlous LhaL Lhe poslLlve
and negaLlve peak values cannoL occur aL Lhe same Llme and may noL have Lhe same value ln
all waveforms.
4. 8CC1 MLAnS SCuA8L (8MS) vALuL
lL ls also called Lhe effecLlve value. lL ls Lhe value of Lhe currenL aL = 43
0
whlch
equals 0.707 lm or 70.7 percenL of Lhe maxlmum value.


lor example, Lhe 8MS value of Lhe slnusoldal alLernaLlng currenL shown ln llg(2)

llg. (2)
ls =0.707 x 10 =7.07A. lL ls called effecLlve value because an a.c currenL of peak value 10A ls
as effecLlve ln produclng elecLrlc power as a d.c currenL of 7.07A.
lL ls called rooL-mean-square value for Lhe followlng reasons:
Suppose we Lake a large number of lnsLanLaneous values of Lhe currenL wave shown
ln llg.(1) and square each one of Lhem. lurLher, suppose LhaL we add Lhese squared values
and dlvlde Lhls LoLal by Lhe number of values Laken, Lhereby geLLlng Lhe mean value. lf we
Lake Lhe square rooL of Lhls mean value, we geL rooL-mean -square value. ln Lhe presenL
case , lL wlll come ouL Lo be 7.07A (llg 2).
ln general, 8MS value =
2
ue Maximumval

l =
2
Im
----- for slne waves only.
lL should be clearly undersLood LhaL whenever value of an ac volLage or currenL ls
sLaLed, lL always refers Lo lLs rms value unless sLaLed oLherwlse. usually, ac volLmeLers and
ammeLers are callbraLed Lo read rms values.
lL ls seen from above LhaL
lm = 2 x l
= 1.414 x l = 1.414 x rms value
Also, p-p value = 2 x eak value
= 2 x 1.414 x rms value
3. AvL8ACL vALuL
lL ls Lhe arlLhmeLlcal average of all lnsLanLaneous values ln one half-cycle of Lhe wave.
lor symmeLrlcal slne waves (llke LhaL shown ln llg 2),one half cycle ls Laken

SS | a g e 8 A S l C L L L C 1 8 C n l C S l 1 l 8 \ N 0

because for full one cycle, Lhe average would be zero. Powever, for non-symmeLrlcal waves ,
lL ls esseotlol to toke tbe ovetoqe voloe ovet ooe foll cycle.
lf we Lake Lhe average of all lnsLanLaneous values, say, ln poslLlve half cycle of Lhe
wave shown ln llg-2, Lhe value comes ouL Lo be 6.37A l.e 63.7 percenL of Lhe maxlmum
value.

l
av
= 0.637 x max value
8LLA1lCn 8L1WLLn l8LCuLnC? Anu 1lML L8lCu

f
T
1
=
Where, 1 = 1lme perlod ln seconds
f = frequency ln Pz.
AuvAn1ACLS Cl AC CvL8 uC
1. ConsLrucLlon of alLernaLor ls much slmpler Lhan uC generaLors
2. AC can be sLepped up or sLepped down wlLh Lhe use of Lransformer
3. AC can be generaLed aL hlgher volLages up Lo 11kv and can be sLepped up Lo 220kv.
Cn Lhe oLher hand uC ls generaLed up Lo 630v only and lL cannoL be sLep-up by
slmple meLhod.
4. AC can be converLed easlly lnLo uC by uslng a recLlfler.
3. AC can be send Lo a greaL dlsLance economlcally by sendlng AC ower aL hlgh volLage
llne. 1herefore, losses are much reduced.
6. AC lnducLlon moLors are cheap and are used for general purposes. 1helr malnLenance
cosL ls less as compared Lo uC moLors.
PASL Cl An AC
1he fracLlon of a cycle or Llme-perlod LhaL has elapsed slnce an ac currenL (or volLage)
lasL passed a glven reference polnL (usually Lhe sLarLlng polnL) ls called lLs phase.

llg. 3


lL may be expressed ln
1. Llme measured ln seconds or
2. fracLlon of a Llme-perlod or
3. angle expressed elLher ln radlans or degrees.
lor example, phase of Lhe alLernaLlng currenL aL polnL A (llg.3) ls
1.
6
radlan or 30
0
or
2.
12
1
Lh of a cycle or
12
T
second or
3.
600
1
50 12
1
=
second
Slmllarly, phase aL polnL 8 ls
2
radlan or 90
0
or
4
T
or
200
1
second
hase aL polnL L ls 2 radlans or zero because ac currenL ls exacLly ln Lhe same condlLlon
as lL was aL Lhe sLarLlng polnL 0.
PASL ulllL8LnCL
ln pracLlce, Lhe phase dlfference beLween Lwo alLernaLlng quanLlLles ls more
lmporLanL Lhan Lhelr absoluLe phases. ln flgure 9-11, Lhe phase dlfference beLween Lwo 30
Pz currenL waves ls 60
0
whereas LhaL ln llg. 9-12 ls 90
0
. llg.9-13 shows Lhe case when phase
dlfference ls 0
0
l.e. when Lwo ac slne waves A and b are ln phase or ln sLep wlLh each oLher.
llg.9-14 lllusLraLes Lhe case when phase dlfference ls 180
0
. Pere, maxlma of one wave fall on
Lhe mlnlma of Lhe oLher.


lL has been sLaLed above LhaL phase dlfference beLween Lwo slne waves A and 8 of
llg 9-11 ls 60
0
. Powever, Lhls sLaLemenL does noL glve any lndlcaLlon as Lo whlch currenL
reaches lLs maxlmum value flrsL. 1hls deflclency ls supplled by Lhe Lerm 'lag, or 'lead'.
A leadlng quanLlLy ls one whlch reaches lLs maxlmum (or zero) value earller as
compared Lo Lhe oLher quanLlLy. Slmllarly, a lagglng quanLlLy ls one whlch reaches lLs
maxlmum (or zero) value laLer Lhan oLher quanLlLy.
lor example, ln llg. 9-11, 8 lags behlnd A by 60
0
or whlch ls Lhe same Lhlng, A leads 8
by 60
0
. Slmllarly, ln llg. 9-14, 8 lags A by 180
0
or radlans whereas Lhey are ln sLep or ln
unlson or ln phase wlLh each oLher ln llg 19-13.
___________________


CPA1L8 6
lnuuC1C8S Anu 18AnSlC8ML8S
CurrenL flowlng Lhrough a conducLor produces magneLlc fleld ln Lhe form of
concenLrlc clrcle ln Lhe plane rlghL angle Lo Lhe conducLor.

MagneLlc fleld of sLralghL conducLor

1he sLrengLh of a magneLlc fleld ls dlrecLly proporLlonal Lo Lhe sLrengLh of currenL
flowlng Lhrough Lhe conducLor and lnversely proporLlonal Lo Lhe dlsLance wlLh Lhe wlre.
1he fluxfleld around a currenL carrylng wlre ls qulLe small, buL Lhe fleld may be
sLrengLhened by looplng Lhe wlre lnLo Lhe shape of a coll.

MagneLlc fleld of a conducLor loop magneLlc fleld of a coll

lrom Lhe flgure lL ls clear LhaL each loop of a coll has a small amounL of magneLlc
force when currenL flows Lhrough lL. 1hese small flux flelds ald Lo each oLher Lo make a
larger more powerful fleld around Lhe whole coll.
ln Lhe above sald example Lhe core maLerlal ls alr. 1o produce weak magneLlc fleld
alr would be a posslble cholce for Lhe core. lron cores are used Lo creaLe sLronger magneLlc
flelds. 1hls ls because Lhe lron core Lransfers Lhe flux fleld beLLer Lhan Lhe alr core.
Self lnducLance:- ln case of uC Lhe magneLlc fleld produced ls sLeady ln naLure. 8uL lf Lhe
currenL ls varylng (l.e A.C) an alLernaLlng magneLlc fleld ls produced. 1he alLernaLlng
*1be eotlte qtoop of moqoetlc lloes of fotce ls colleJ flox


magneLlc fleld has Lhe ablllLy Lo lnduce an LMl ln Lhe same coll. 1he ab|||ty of a conductor
(or co||) to |nduce vo|tage |n |tse|f, when current changes |n |t |s ca||ed as se|f |nductance (or)
s|mp|y |nductance. A coll lnLroduced ln a clrculL Lo have lnducLance ls called as |nductor. ulfferenL
Lypes of lnducLors are shown ln flg. 1he unlL of lnducLance ls Penry".

MuLual lnducLance
When Lwo lnducLors L
1
and L
2
are placed slde by slde close Lo each oLher shown ln
flg. a or llg. b, alLhough Lhe Lwo colls are noL elecLrlcally connecLed, Lhe colls are sald Lo be
magneLlcally lnLer-coupled.
1he changlng currenL l
1
ln coll L
1
,,noL only selflnduces an emf (v
1
) ln L
1
,buL also
causes a volLage (v
2
) Lo be lnduced ln L
2
. 1haL ls, a changlng currenL ln one coll wlll lnduce an
emf ln oLher nearby coll. 1hls effecL ls known as mutua| |nduct|on.

1he Lwo colls L
1
and L
2
of llg1, are sald Lo have a muLual lnducLance (M) , ln addlLlon
Lo Lhelr own self lnducances(L).
MuLual lnducLance ,llke self-lnducLance, ls also measured ln unlLs of Penry.


18AnSlC8ML8S
A Lransformer ls a sLaLlc (or sLaLlonary) devlce whlch ls used Lo Lransfer elecLrlcal
energy from one clrculL Lo Lhe oLher. lL works on Lhe prlnclple of muLual lnducLance. Slnce
Lhere ls no muLual lnducLance ln u.C clrculLs, Lherefore a Lransformer cannoL work on u.C
and Lhus lL can work only on A.C. A Lransformer does noL change frequency.

llg.( l) llg.(ll)
ConsLrucLlonally,Lransformers may be elLher lsolaLlon Lransformers (wlLh elecLrlcally-
lnsulaLed prlmary and secondary wlndlngs) or auLoLransformers (wlLh elecLrlcally -connecLed
prlmary and secondary wlndlngs).1he Lwo are shown ln llg.(l)and(ll) respecLlvely.
1he Lwo -wlndlng lsolaLlon Lransformer may be furLher subdlvlded lnLo
(l) Core Lype Lransformer ------- ln whlch Lhe wlndlngs surround a conslderable
parL of Lhe core (llg.A)
(ll) Shell Lype Lransformer-------- ln whlch Lhe core surrounds a conslderable parL
of Lhe wlndlngs (llg. 8)

llg. A llg. 8


As seen , core-Lype Lransformer ls made up of a package of Lhln recLangular slllcon
sLeel lamlnaLlons. Lach lamlnaLlon ls coaLed wlLh an lnsulaLlng varnlsh and Lhe LoLal core
pressed LogeLher. 1he prlmary and secondary wlndlngs are placed on each slde of Lhe
common core.(see flgureA).
1he shell Lype consLrucLlon also conslsLs of slmllar lamlnaLlons. 1he Lwo wlndlngs are
wound ln layers and flL over Lhe cenLre secLlon of Lhe core as shown ln llg.8
luncLlonally, Lhe Lransformers used ln elecLronlc clrculLs can be classlfled accordlng
Lo Lhe frequency range over whlch Lhey operaLe such as

1. Audlo lrequency (Al) 1ransformers
1hey are deslgned Lo operaLe over Lhe audlo frequency (Al) range of 20Pz Lo
20kPz, have lamlnaLed core and are usually smaller Lhan power Lransformers. 1hey are
prlmarlly used for lmpedance maLchlng and, ln some cases, for volLage ampllflcaLlon. 1wo
such Lyplcal Lransformers are shown ln flgure. Such Lransformers are usually deslgnaLed
accordlng Lo Lhelr appllcaLlons as lnpuL or ouLpuL Lransformer eLc.

2. 8adlo lrequency (8l) 1ransformers
1hey are deslgned Lo operaLe aL hlgh frequencles (above audlo range) and are
referred Lo elLher as lnLermedlaLe frequency (ll) Lransformers or radlo frequency
Lransformers. 1hey may have alr core or ferrlLe core (mosLly ad[usLable) . MosL of Lhe 8l
Lransforms have elLher one or boLh of Lhe wlndlngs Luned l.e. ln con[uncLlon wlLh capaclLor ,
Lhey form a resonanL clrculL whlch works besL aL one parLlcular frequency.

3. ower 1ransformer
usually, Lhey have lamlnaLed core and have one prlmary wlndlng buL several


secondary wlndlngs lnsulaLed from each oLher. 1hey are commonly used ln Lhe power supply
of elecLronlc equlpmenL and provlde varlous a.c volLages necessary for Lhe producLlon of dc
volLages.

1ransformer Worklng
Conslder Lhe core-Lype Lransformer shown ln llg. lL conslsLs of Lwo hlghly lnducLlve
colls whlch are elecLrlcally separaLe buL magneLlcally llnked Lhrough an lron core of low
relucLance* .1he Lwo colls possess hlgh muLual lnducLance. lf one coll ls connecLed Lo a
source of alLernaLlng volLage, an alLernaLlng flux ls seL up ln Lhe lamlnaLed core mosL of
whlch ls llnked wlLh Lhe oLher coll. Pence , muLually-lnduced volLage ls produced ln Lhe
second coll. lf Lhe second coll clrculL ls closed, a currenL

flows ln lL and so elecLrlc energy ls Lransferred (enLlrely magneLlcally) from Lhe flrsL coll Lo
Lhe second coll. 1he flrsL coll ln whlch elecLrlc energy ls fed ls called primory wlndlng and
Lhe oLher from whlch energy ls drawn ouL ls called secondory wlndlng. WheLher secondary
volLage v
2
ls more or less Lhan prlmary volLage v
1
depends on Lhe Lurn raLlo of Lhe
Lransformer. lL ls found LhaL

1
2
1
2
N
N
J
J
=

*lt tepteseots tbe opposltloo wblcb o cote offets to tbe ptoJoctloo of flox tbtooqb lt.


lf n
2
>n
1
, Lhen v
2
>v
1
and Lhe Lransformer ls called step-up transformer slnce lL sLeps up
Lhe lnpuL prlmary volLage. lf n
2
<n
1
, Lhen v
2
<v
1
and Lhe Lransformer ls called step-down
transformer.
volLage LransformaLlon raLlo(k) of a Lransformer ls glven by
1
2
J
J
.

k =
1
2
J
J
=
1
2
N
N

Cr v
2
= kv
1

As seen, volLage LransformaLlon raLlo equals Lhe Lurn raLlo.
Assumlng ln an ldeal Lransformer ( a Lransformer wlLhouL any losses. 1hough lL ls noL
posslble buL we may assume so),
lnpuL ower = CuLpuL ower

v
1
l
1
= v
2
l
2

K J
J
I
I 1
2
1
1
2
= =

K
I
I
1
2
=
lL ls obvlous from Lhe above LhaL a Lransformer whlch ls sLep-up for volLage ls sLep-
down for currenL. lf volLage ls lncreased flve Llmes, currenL becomes one-flfLh because
ouLpuL power has Lo equal Lhe lnpuL power (ln ldeal case). lL means LhaL currenL raLlo ls
reclprocal of volLage raLlo.
AuLo 1ransformer
lL ls a Lransformer wlLh one wlndlng only, parL of lL belng common Lo boLh prlmary
and secondary. Pere, prlmary and secondary are noL elecLrlcally lsolaLed form each oLher as
ls Lhe case ln a 2-wlndlng Lransformer. Powever, lLs Lheory and operaLlon are slmllar Lo LhaL
of a 2-wlndlng Lransformer. 8ecause of one wlndlng, lL ls compacL, efflclenL and cheaper.


(c)
llg.(a) shows a sLep-up auLoLransformer whereas llg. (b) shows a sLep-down Lype.
As wlLh oLher Lransformers, Lhls sLep-up or sLep -down raLlo depends on Lhe Lurn raLlo
beLween Lhe prlmary and secondary.

Such a Lransformer ls also used as an ad[usLable Lransformer for boLh sLepplng up or
sLepplng down Lhe lnpuL volLage.(llg.c)
_________________


CPA1L8 7
MLASu8lnC lnS18uMLn1S
uC vCL1ACL Anu Cu88Ln1 MLASu8lnC lnS18uMLn1 MCvLMLn1S
(MC 1?L ML1L8S)
1o work wlLh elecLrlclLy and Lo servlce elecLrlcal appllances, requlres maklng accuraLe
measuremenLs. 1o make elecLrlcal measuremenL Lhe mosL popular lnsLrumenLs used are
called MeLers. MeLer ls a Lool used Lo measure Lhe baslc elecLrlcal quanLlLles such as currenL,
poLenLlal dlfference (volL) and reslsLance. 8lghL selecLlon and proper use of meLers can only
glve accuraLe readlngs.
All meLers have one Lhlng ln common. 1hey conLaln an lnLernal sLandard Lo whlch all
measured values are compared. ln Lhls respecL, an elecLrlcal meLer ls much llke a mechanlcal
balance LhaL compared an unknown mass Lo a sLandard mass.
MeLers dlscussed ln Lhls lesson make use of elecLrlc currenL/volLage Lo produce a
magneLlc force, lL Lhen compares Lhls force Lo a counLer force exerLed by a sprlng. 1he
resulLanL of Lhese forces drlves a polnLer whlch lndlcaLed Lhe value of Lhe elecLrlc
volLage/currenL applled Lo Lhe meLer on a graduaLed scale found on Lhe dlal of Lhe meLer.
1PL u'A8SCnvAL MCvLMLn1
All meLers wlll have some form of lndlcaLlng devlce. 1hose LhaL have a olnLer or
needle LhaL moves across a flxed scale are based on a mechanlsm called u'Arsonval
movemenL. 1hls ls named afLer lLs lnvenLor u'Arsonval ueprez. 1he prlnclple of u'Arsonval
movemenL ls slmllar Lo a moLor, ln LhaL lL makes use of Lhe force a magneLlc fleld exerLs ln a
currenL carrylng conducLor. 1he prlnclple of Lhls movemenL ls slmllar Lo LhaL of a permanenL
magneL Lype elecLrlc moLor.
All u'Arsonval meLer movemenLs requlre currenL and a magneLlc fleld Lo cause
movemenL of Lhe lndlcaLor. Some meLers have permanenL magneLs LhaL work wlLh currenL
Lo move Lhe polnLer. Such Lypes are referred Lo as permanent magnet mov|ng co|| type
(MMC) meters. 1he oLher Lype has no permanenL magneLs, lnsLead Lhey have currenL
carrylng colls Lo produce Lhe magneLlc flelds. 1hese are referred Lo as Mov|ng Iron type (MI)
meters.
u'Arsonaval meLer movemenLs conslsL of a permanenL magneL and a movlng coll, also called
permanenL magneL movlng coll galvanomeLer abbrevlaLed MMC. 1he Lerm galvanomeLer


refers Lo a senslLlve currenL -deLecLlng devlce. llg. 1 shows Lhe essenLlal parLs of such
galvanomeLer.

ln llg.1,Lhe coll ls mounLed on a shafL whlch roLaLes beLween Lhe [ewel bearlngs (noL
shown ln llg) . 1he sofL sLeel core reduces Lhe LoLal alr gap beLween Lhe magneLlc poles of a
permanenL magneL. 1he coll ls poslLloned Lo Lurn agalnsL preclsely made upper and lower
conLrol sprlngs. 1he sprlngs also serve as conducLor Lo carry currenL Lo and from Lhe coll. A
llghL welghL polnLer/lndlcaLor aLLached Lo Lhe coll lndlcaLes how far Lhe coll has roLaLed. 1he
poslLlon of Lhe lndlcaLor on Lhe scale Lells Lhe amounL of currenL flowlng Lhrough Lhe coll.
r|nc|p|e of operat|on of a MMC type meter movement
When no currenL flows Lhrough Lhe coll, Lhe conLrol sprlngs Lenslon hold Lhe coll ln a
poslLlon beLween Lhe pole faces as shown ln llg 2a (1.3). 1hls poslLlon ls deflned as Zero
poslLlon".
When Lhe coll carrles currenL (whose value ls Lo be measured), Lhe force from Lhe
magneLlc fleld due Lo permanenL magneL exerLs Lorque on Lhe currenL carrylng coll and
make lL roLaLe (llke Lhe moLor prlnclple). 1he lndlcaLor moves clock-wlse ln Lhe dlrecLlon and
Lhe sprlngs conLrols/reslsL Lhls moLlon. llg 2b shows Lhe lnsLrumenL when some amounL of
currenL ls flowlng Lhrough Lhe coll. 1he magneLlc fleld exerLs a Loque on Lhe moveable coll
maklng lL roLaLe. 1he lndlcaLor Lhen comes Lo a resL aL a nonzero value on Lhe scale where
Lhe Lorque produced by Lhe currenL and Lhe opposlLlon force of Lhe sprlng becomes equal.


8ecause of Lhe permanenL magneL, Lhe sLrengLh of Lhe magneLlc fleld around Lhe coll
ls consLanL. 1herefore, Lhe deflecLlng force ls dlrecLly proporLlonal Lo Lhe currenL Lhrough Lhe
moveable coll. 1hese condlLlons make lL posslble Lo callbraLe Lhe scale of Lhe lnsLrumenL Lo
read Lhe measuremenL value dlrecLly.
1o allow Lhe movlng coll Lo deflecL wlLh bare mlnlmum frlcLlon, Lhe shafL of Lhe
movlng coll ls Lapered Lo a polnL aL boLh ends. 1he sharp ends resL ln a hlghly pollshed [ewel
bearlng as shown ln llg 3. 1he Lapered ends hold Lhe shafL preclsely ln poslLlon Lo malnLaln
Lhe lnsLrumenL's accuracy. 1he bearlng (usually Sapphlre) reduces wear. ln addlLlon, Lhe
small area of conLacL keeps Lhe Lorque caused by frlcLlon very low, so LhaL Lhe meLer
responds rapldly Lo any changes ln currenL.

Damp|ng |n Mov|ng co|| type meters
uamplng means Lo conLrol Lhe swlng of Lhe coll so LhaL Lhe polnLer comes Lo resL
qulckly aL lLs flnal poslLlon. WlLhouL damplng, Lhe polnLer aLLached Lo Lhe coll swlngs back
and forLh before comlng Lo resL. ln such case, lL ls necessary Lo walL Llll Lhe swlnglng sLops Lo
Lake Lhe accuraLe meLer readlng.


ln permanenL magneL movlng coll meLers, Lhe movable coll ls wound on an
alumlnlum frame as shown ln llg 3 above. . 1hls frame, ln addlLlon Lo supporLlng Lhe coll
wlndlng, Lhe bobbln also performs Lhe lmporLanL funcLlon of damplng Lhe lnsLrumenL.
uamplng ls achleved elecLrlcally Lhrough Lhe coll frame whlch acLs as a shorL clrculLed
conducLor Lurn. When Lhe coll roLaLes ln Lhe magneLlc fleld ln response Lo Lhe currenL
Lhrough lL, Lhe frame cuLs Lhe magneLlc llnes of force esLabllshed by Lhe permanenL magneL.
1hls lnduces a currenL ln Lhe frame. 1hls lnduced currenL produces a magneLlc fleld wlll be ln
a dlrecLlon opposlLe Lo Lhe cause of Lhls and hence produces a braklng acLlon Lo Lhe moLlon
of Lhe frame on whlch Lhe coll ls wound. 1hls braklng effecL ls proporLlonal Lo Lhe raLe aL
whlch Lhe bobbln moves Lhrough Lhe fleld. 1he braklng effecL ls more lf Lhe coll roLaLes
rapldly and less lf Lhe coll roLaLes slowly. 1he same damplng Lakes place when Lhe meLer ls
de-energlzed and hence Lhe polnLer reLurns Lo zero smooLhly.
Some MMC meLers manufacLurers adopL dlfferenL damplng schemes such as
connecLlng a reslsLor across Lhe meLer Lermlnals. Powever, mosL commonly used damplng
meLhod ln MMC ls Lhe eddy currenL meLhod dlscussed ln above paragraphs.
MCvlnC l8Cn 1?L vCL1ACL Anu Cu88Ln1 MLSu8lnC lnS18uMLn1
MCvLMLn1S
Mov|ng Iron (MI) type meters
1he mosL commonly used meLer for measurlng AC values ls Lhe Mov|ng Iron meLers.
Powever, u'Arsonval meLer movemenL ls also used buL wlLh some recLlflers for
measuremenL of AC values. 1hls ls because, u'Arsonval meLer movemenL ls baslcally for
measuremenL of uC values and hence Lhe AC values Lo be measured are converLed Lo uC
before lL ls applled Lo u'Arsonval meLer movemenL.
unllke Lhe u'Arsonval lnsLrumenLs whlch have permanenL magneLs, Lhe movlng-lron
lnsLrumenL depends on Lhe lnduced magneLlsm for lLs operaLlon. ln Lhls, Lhe magneLlc
aLLracLlon or Lhe repulslon beLween Lwo lron wanes, one flxed and oLher movable, deflecLs a
polnLer /lndlcaLors.
Movlng lron lnsLrumenLs can be Lherefore be classlfled as ,
ALLracLlon Lype
8epulslon Lype


8oLh Lhe above Lypes essenLlally measure Lhe Lrue 8MS value of Lhe currenL passlng
Lhrough Lhe coll. Pence movlng lron meLers can measure uC currenL also equally well. Slnce
Ml lnsLrumenLs can be used for measurlng boLh AC and uC.
1hese lnsLrumenLs are referred Lo as AC/uC meLers. Powever movlng lron
lnsLrumenLs should be used preferably for AC measuremenL because for uC, Lhe permanenL
magneLlsm causes sllghLly dlfferenL readlng for reversed uC polarlLy.
r|nc|p|e of operat|on of attract|on type meter

llg 1 shows Lhe prlnclple of aLLracLlon Lype meLer. As shown ln llg1, Lhe movlng lron
sysLem conslsLs of a coll LhaL aLLracLs sofL lron plece. lL ls pulled lnLo Lhe sLronger magneLlc
fleld lnslde Lhe coll once a currenL Lo be measured ls applled. 1he polnLer deflecLlon ls
conLrolled by a sprlng.
lnsLrumenL wlLh Lhls prlnclple ls rarely used because due Lo lLs consLrucLlon, lL ls qulLe
senslLlve Lo ouLer vlbraLlons and acceleraLlon whlch resLrlcL lLs senslLlvlLy.
r|nc|p|e of operat|on of repu|s|on type meter

As shown ln llg 2, when Lwo pleces of sofL lron are mounLed close Lo each oLher
lnslde a coll and lf a currenL ls passed Lhrough Lhe coll, Lhe fleld produced magneLlzes boLh
pleces.


1hls causes norLh poles on Lhelr one ends and SouLh ole on Lhelr oLher ends. As llke
poles are ad[acenL Lo one anoLher, a repulslon of plece 1 from plece 2 Lakes place. ln order Lo
enable a movemenL, plece-1 ls mounLed on a shafL and plece-2 ls rlgldly flxed Lo Lhe coll. 8y
Lhls arrangemenL, Lhe movable plece mounLed on Lhe shafL geLs repelled and hence moves
proporLlonal Lo Lhe applled currenL Lhrough Lhe coll. A splral sprlng ls provlded Lo conLrol Lhe
Lorque.
ract|ca| Mov|ng Iron |nstruments of repu|s|on type
1wo slmple arrangemenL of movlng lron Lype meLer of repulslon Lype are shown ln
llg 3 and llg4.

ln Lhe arrangemenL shown aL llg3, Lhe vanes are placed lnslde Lhe magneLlc coll. uue
Lo repulslve force, Lhe vanes cannoL move sLralghL away from each oLher. ln order Lo
separaLe, one vane musL move sldeways roLaLlng Lhe shafL and Lhe polnLer.
ln Lhe arrangemenL shown aL llg 4, Lhe coll Lhrough whlch Lhe measurlng currenL
flows ls flxed on Lhe lnsLrumenL frame. 1he flxed and Lhe movable wanes are as shown ln llg
4. 1he magneLlzed moveable vane ls Lhe movlng member and ls aLLached Lo Lhe shafL. 1hls
wane carrles Lhe lndlcaLor , as shown ln Lhe llg 4.
When Lhe currenL flows ln Lhe coll boLh lron vanes becomes magneLlzed. 1helr Lwo
norLh poles are locaLed aL one end and Lhelr Lwo souLh poles are aL Lhe oLher end. 1he norLh
poles are shown ln llg 4. 8ecause llke poles repel, Lhe moveable vane whlch ls plvoLed makes
a roLaLlonal movemenL agalnsL Lhe sprlngs.


1he vanes ln movlng lron lnsLrumenLs can be of dlfferenL shapes. Cne vane may be
recLangular and Lhe oLher Lapered by deslgn. 1hls dlfference ln shape permlLs relaLlvely
evenly spaced graduaLlons on Lhe scale.
lL ls lmporLanL Lo noLe LhaL ln repulslon Lype movlng lron meLers Lhe repulslon ls
always ln Lhe same dlrecLlon regardless of Lhe dlrecLlon of currenL ln Lhe coll. Pence Lhe
movlng lron meLer operaLes equally well on elLher uC or AC clrculLs.
1he movlng lron meLers are slmple ln consLrucLlon and Lhey are relaLlvely
lnexpenslve. Movlng lron meLers conducL no currenL Lhrough Lhe movlng elemenL. lor Lhese
reasons, Lhe lnsLrumenLs are wldely used for measurlng currenL and poLenLlal dlfference ln
hlgh power AC clrculLs .1hese meLers are deslgned Lo a full scale accuracy of 0.3.
1he magneLlc clrculL of a movlng lron meLer has very hlgh relucLance. lor Lhls reason,
Lhls klnd of meLers requlre much more power Lo produce full-scale deflecLlon Lhan a
u'Arsonval meLer of Lhe same range. Pence Movlng lron meLers are noL sulLable for hlgh
reslsLance, low power clrculLs.
Damp|ng |n Mov|ng Iron meters
1he mosL popular and commonly used meLhod of damplng ln Movlng lron meLers ls
Lhe mechanlcal damplng or Alr damplng. 1hls ls based on Lhe alr reslsLance agalnsL a movlng
vane. 1he vane ls generally made of alumlnlum . 1hls vane ls aLLached Lo Lhe shafL whlch
carrles Lhe polnLer. As Lhe shafL roLaLes due Lo repulslve force, Lhe wave sweeps Lhrough Lhe
alr ln a chamber. 1hls Lakes Lhe energy ouL of Lhe movlng sysLem and resulLs ln reLardlng
moLlon. llg 3 shows Lhe blade Lype of alr damper used n Ml lnsLrumenLs.

MuL1lML1L8
A mulLlmeLer ls an elecLronlc lnsLrumenL whlch can measure reslsLances, currenLs
volLages. lL ls an lndlspensable lnsLrumenL and can be used for measurlng d.c as well as a.c
volLages and currenLs. MulLlmeLer ls Lhe mosL lnexpenslve equlpmenL and can make varlous
elecLrlcal measuremenLs wlLh reasonable accuracy.


Construct|on
A mulLlmeLer conslsLs of an ordlnary plvoLed Lype of movlng coll galvanomeLer. 1hls
galvanomeLer conslsLs of a coll plvoLed on [eweled bearlngs beLween Lhe poles of a
permanenL magneL. 1he lndlcaLlng needle ls fasLened Lo Lhe coll. When elecLrlc currenL ls
passed Lhrough Lhe coll, mechanlcal force acLs and Lhe polnLer moves over Lhe scale.
Iunct|ons
A mulLlmeLer can measure volLages, currenLs and reslsLances. 1o achleve Lhls
ob[ecLlve, proper clrculLs are lncorporaLed wlLh Lhe galvanomeLer. 1he galvanomeLer ln a
mulLlmeLer ls always of left zeto type l.e normally lLs needle resLs ln exLreme lefL poslLlon as
compared Lo cenLre zero poslLlon of ordlnary galvanomeLers.
(|) Mu|t|meter as vo|tmeter
When a hlgh reslsLance ls connecLed ln serles wlLh a galvanomeLer, lL becomes a
volLmeLer. llg (l) shows a hlgh reslsLance 8 connecLed ln serles wlLh Lhe galvanomeLer of
reslsLance C. lf lg ls Lhe foll scole Jeflectloo cotteot , Lhen Lhe galvanomeLer becomes a
volLmeLer of range 0-----v volLs. 1he requlred value of serles reslsLance 8 ls glven by ,
v= lg8+lgC
Cr
Ig
J
= 8+C
Cr 8 =
Ig
J
- C

lor maxlmum accuracy, a mulLlmeLer ls always provlded wlLh a number of volLage
ranges. 1hls ls achleved by provldlng a number of hlgh reslsLances ln Lhe mulLlmeLer as
shown ln flgure (ll). Lach reslsLance corresponds Lo one volLage range. WlLh Lhe help of
selecLor swlLch S, we can puL any reslsLance (8
1
,8
2
and 8
3
) ln serles wlLh Lhe galvanomeLer.
When d.c volLages are Lo be measured, Lhe mulLlmeLer swlLch ls Lurned on Lo d.c. poslLlon.


1hls puLs Lhe clrculL shown ln flg (ll) ln acLlon. 8y Lhrowlng Lhe range selecLlon swlLch S Lo a
sulLable poslLlon, Lhe glven d.c volLage can be measured.
1he mulLlmeLer can also measure a.c volLages. 1o permlL lL Lo perform Lhls funcLlon,
a full-wave recLlfler ls used as shown ln llg. (lll). 1he recLlfler converLs a.c. lnLo d.c. for
appllcaLlon Lo Lhe galvanomeLer. 1he deslred a.c. volLage range can be selecaLed Lby Lhe
swlLch S. When a.c volLage ls Lo be measured, Lhe mulLlmeLer swlLch ls Lhrown Lo a.c
poslLlon. 1hls puLs Lhe clrculL shown ln flg (lll) ln acLlon. 8y Lhrowlng Lhe range selecLor
swlLch S Lo a sulLable poslLlon, Lhe glven a.c volLage can be measured. lL may be menLloned
here LhaL a.c volLage scale ls callbraLed ln r.m.s values. 1herefore Lhe meLer wlll glve Lhe
r.m.s value of Lhe a.c volLage under measuremenL.

llg.lll
(||) Mu|t|meter as ammeter
When low reslsLance ls connecLed ln parallel wlLh a galvanomeLer, lL becomes an
ammeLer. llg. (lv) shows a low reslsLance S (generally called sboot) connecLed ln parallel wlLh
Lhe galvanomeLer of reslsLance C. lf lg ls Lhe full scale deflecLlon currenL, Lhen Lhe
galvanomeLer becomes an ammeLer of range 0----l amperes. 1he requlred value of shunL
reslsLance S ls glven by
lsS = lgC
Cr
S
G
Ig
Is
=

Cr
1 1 + = +
S
G
Ig
Is

Cr
S
S G
Ig
Ig Is +
=
+

Cr
S
S G
Ig
I +
=


ln pracLlce, a number of low reslsLances are connecLed ln parallel wlLh Lhe
galvanomeLer Lo provlde a number of currenL ranges as shown ln llg (v). WlLh Lhe help of
range selecLor swlLch S, any shunL can be puL ln parallel wlLh Lhe galvanomeLer. When d.c
currenL ls Lo be measured , Lhe mulLlmeLer swlLch ls Lurned on Lo d.c poslLlon. 1hls puLs Lhe
clrculL shown (v) ln acLlon. 8y Lhrowlng Lhe range selecLor swlLch S Lo a sulLable poslLlon, Lhe
deslred d.c currenL can be measured.

llg.lv llg. v
1he mulLlmeLer can also be used Lo measure alLernaLlng currenL. lor Lhls purpose, a
full-wave recLlfler ls used as shown ln llg. (vl). 1he recLlfler converLs a.c lnLo d.c. for

llg.(vl)
appllcaLlon Lo Lhe galvanomeLer. 1he deslred currenL range can be selecLed by swlLch S. 8y
Lhrowlng Lhe range selecLor swlLch S Lo a sulLable poslLlon, Lhe glven a.c currenL can be
measured. Agaln, Lhe a.c currenL scale ls callbraLed ln r.m.s values so LhaL Lhe lnsLrumenL wlll
glve r.m.s value of alLernaLlng currenL under measuremenL.
(|||)Mu|t|meter as ohmmeter
llg.(vll) shows Lhe clrculL of ohmmeLer. 1he mulLlmeLer employs Lhe lnLernal baLLery.
A flxed reslsLance 8 and a varlable reslsLance r are connecLed ln serles wlLh Lhe baLLery and
galvanomeLer. 1he flxed reslsLance 8 llmlLs Lhe currenL wlLhln Lhe range deslred and varlable


reslsLance r ls for zero ad[usLmenL readlng. 1he reslsLance Lo be measured ls connecLed
beLween Lermlnals A and 8. 1he currenL flowlng Lhrough Lhe clrculL wlll depend upon Lhe
value of reslsLor connecLed across Lhe Lermlnals. 1he ohmmeLer scale ls callbraLed ln Lerms
of ohms. 1he ohmmeLer ls generally made mulLlrange lnsLrumenL by uslng dlfferenL values of
8 as shown ln flg (vlll).

llg. vll llg. vlll
1o use ohmmeLer, Lermlnals A and 8 are shorLed and reslsLance r ls ad[usLed Lo glve
full scale deflecLlon of Lhe galvanomeLer. under Lhls condlLlon, Lhe reslsLance under
measuremenL ls zero. 8ecause Lhe needle deflecLs Lo full scale, Lhe ohmmeLer scale musL
Lhen lndlcaLe foll scole Jeflectloo os zeto obms. 1hen probes A and 8 are connecLed across
Lhe reslsLance Lo be measured. lf Lhe reslsLance Lo be measured ls hlgh, lower currenL flows
Lhrough Lhe clrculL and Lhe meLer wlll lndlcaLe lower readlng. lL may be menLloned here LhaL
each Llme Lhe ohmmeLer ls used, lL ls flrsL shorLed across A8 and r ls ad[usLed Lo zero Lhe
meLer. 1hls callbraLes Lhe meLer and accommodaLes any decrease ln Lhe Lermlnal volLage of
Lhe baLLery wlLh age.
ALlCA1lCn Cl 1PL ML1L8
A mulLlmeLer ls an exLremely lmporLanL elecLronlc lnsLrumenL and ls exLenslvely used
for carrylng ouL varlous LesLs and measuremenLs ln elecLronlc clrculLs. lL ls used
(l) lor checklng Lhe clrculL conLlnulLy. When Lhe mulLlmeLer ls employed as conLlnulLy
Checklng devlce, Lhe ohmmeLer scale ls uLlllzed and Lhe equlpmenL Lo be checked ls shuL off
or dlsconnecLed from Lhe power malns.
(ll) lor measurlng uC volLs, uC currenLs ln varlous clrculLs.
(lll) lor measurlng AC volLs, AC currenLs ln varlous clrculLs
(lv) lor ascerLalnlng wheLher or noL open or shorL clrculL exlsLs ln Lhe clrculL under sLudy.


SLnSl1lvl1? Cl MuL1lML1L8
1be teslstooce offeteJ pet volt of foll scole Jeflectloo by tbe moltlmetet ls koowo os
mu/timeter sensitivity.
MulLlmeLer senslLlvlLy lndlcaLes Lhe lnLernal reslsLance of Lhe mulLlmeLer. lor
example , lf Lhe LoLal reslsLance of Lhe meLer ls 3000 D and Lhe meLer ls Lo read 3v full scale,
Lhen lnLernal reslsLance of Lhe meLer ls 1000D per v l.e. meLer senslLlvlLy ls 1000D per v .
Conversely , lf Lhe meLer senslLlvlLy ls 400D per v whlch reads from 0 Lo 100v,Lhen meLer
reslsLance ls 40,000D. lf Lhe meLer ls Lo read v volLs and lg ls Lhe full scale deflecLlon currenL,
Lhen
MeLer reslsLance =
Ig
J

MeLer senslLlvlLy = 8eslsLance per volL full scale deflecLlon
=
J
Ig
J

=
Ig
1
.
SenslLlvlLy ls Lhe mosL lmporLanL characLerlsLlc of a mulLlmeLer. lf Lhe senslLlvlLy of a
mulLlmeLer ls hlgh, lL means LhaL lL has hlgh lnLernal reslsLance. When such a meLer ls
connecLed ln Lhe clrculL Lo read volLage , lL wlll draw a very small currenL. ConsequenLly,
Lhere wlll be no change ln Lhe clrculL currenL due Lo Lhe lnLroducLlon of Lhe meLer. Pence, lL
wlll measure Lhe volLage correcLly. Cn Lhe oLher hand , lf Lhe senslLlvlLy of mulLlmeLer ls low,
lL would cause serlous error ln volLage measuremenL. 1he senslLlvlLy of mulLlmeLers avallable
ln Lhe markeL range from 3kD per volL Lo 20kD per volL.
ML8l1S Anu uLML8l1S Cl MuL1lML1L8
AlLhough mulLlmeLer ls wldely used for manufacLurlng and servlclng of elecLronlcs
equlpmenL, lL has lLs own merlLs and demerlLs.
Merits
(l) lL ls slngle meLer LhaL performs several measurlng funcLlons.
(ll) lL has small slze and ls easlly porLable.
(lll) lL can make measuremenLs wlLh reasonable accuracy.


uemerits
(l) lL cannoL make preclse and accuraLe measuremenLs due Lo Lhe loadlng effecL.
(ll) 1echnlcal sklll ls requlred Lo handle lL.
Lxample 1.
A mulLlmeLer has full scale deflecLlon currenL of 1mA. ueLermlne lLs senslLlvlLy.
So|ut|on
lull scale deflecLlon currenL,
lg = 1mA = 10
-3
A

MulLlmeLer senslLlvlLy =
Ig
1
=
3
10
1
= 1000D per volL

Lxample 2.
A mulLlmeLer has a senslLlvlLy of 1000D per volL and reads 30v full scale. lf Lhe meLer
ls Lo be used Lo measure Lhe volLage across 30000D reslsLor, wlll lL read correcLly ?
So|ut|on
MeLer senslLlvlLy = 1000D per volL
lull scale volLs = 30v

MeLer reslsLance = 30 x 1000 = 30,000D

When Lhe meLer ls used Lo measure Lhe volLage across Lhe reslsLance as shown ln
flgure, Lhe LoLal reslsLance of Lhe clrculL ls a parallel comblnaLlon of Lwo 30,000 D reslsLors.
1herefore, Lhe clrculL reslsLance would be reduced Lo 23000D and double Lhe amounL of
currenL would be drawn Lhan would oLherwlse be Lhe case.

Meter wi// qive hiqh/y incorrect reodinq.

commeots. 1hls exomple shows Lhe llmlLaLlon of mulLlmeLer. 1he mulLlmeLer wlll read
correcLly only lf lLs reslsLance ls very hlgh as compared Lo Lhe reslsLance across whlch volLage
ls Lo be measured. As a rule, Lhe reslsLance of Lhe mulLlmeLer should beaL leasL 100 Llmes Lhe
reslsLance across whlch volLage ls Lo be measured.
_______________


CPA1L8 8
SLMlCCnuuC1C8S
A semlconducLor ls a subsLance whlch has reslsLlvlLy (10
-4 Lo
0.3Dm) ln beLween
conducLors and lnsulaLors.
Lg. Cermanlum, Slllcon, Selenlum, carbon eLc.
SemlconducLors have some useful properLles and are belng exLenslvely used ln
elecLronlc clrculLs.
lor Lg. 1ranslsLors ls a semlconducLor devlce whlch replace bulky vacuum Lubes ln almosL all
appllcaLlons.
8CL81lLS Cl SLMlCCnuuC1C8
(1) 1he reslsLlvlLy of a semlconducLor ls less Lhan an lnsulaLor buL more Lhan conducLors.
(2) SemlconducLors have negaLlve LemperaLure coefflclenL l.e reslsLance of a
semlconducLor devlce decreases wlLh Lhe lncrease ln LemperaLure and vlce-versa.
lor Lg. Cermanlum ls already an lnsulaLor aL low LemperaLure, buL lL becomes a good
conducLor aL Lhe hlgh LemperaLure.
(3) When a sulLable meLalllc lmpurlLy (Arsenlc, Calllum eLc) ls added Lo a semlconducLor,
lLs currenL conducLlng properLles change appreclably.
8CnuS ln SLMlCCnuuC1C8S
1he aLoms of every elemenL are held LogeLher by Lhe bondlng acLlon of valence
elecLrons. 1hls bondlng due Lo Lhe facL LhaL lL ls Lhe Lendency of each aLom Lo compleLe lLs
lasL orblL by acqulrlng elghL elecLrons ln lL. Powever ln mosL of Lhe subsLances, Lhe lasL orblL
ls lncompleLe. l.e Lhe lasL orblL does noL have elghL elecLrons. 1hls makes Lhe aLom acLlve Lo
enLer lnLo bargaln wlLh oLher aLoms Lo acqulre elghL elecLrons ln Lhe lasL orblL. 1o do so Lhe
aLom may loss, galn or share valence elecLrons wlLh oLher aLoms. ln semlconducLors bonds
are formed by sharlng of valence elecLrons. Such bonds are called co-valenL bonds. ln Lhe
formaLlon of co-valenL bond each aLom conLrlbuLes equal number of valence elecLrons and
Lhe conLrlbuLed elecLrons are shared by Lhe aLom engaged ln Lhe formaLlon of Lhe bond.


llgure shows Lhe co-valenL bonds among a Slllcon aLom. A Slllcon aLom has four
valence elecLrons. lL ls Lhe Lendency of each aLom Lo have elghL elecLrons ln Lhe lasL orblL. 1o
do so, each Slllcon aLom poslLlon lLself beLween four oLher Slllcon aLoms as shown flgure.
Lach nelghborlng aLom shares one valence elecLron wlLh Lhe cenLral aLom. ln Lhls buslness
of sharlng Lhe cenLral aLom compleLes lLs lasL orblL by havlng elghL elecLrons. ln Lhls way Lhe
cenLral aLom seLs-up covalenL bond.
The following points may be noted regarding the covalent bond
(1) CovalenL bonds are formed by sharlng of valence elecLrons.
(2) ln Lhe formaLlon of co-valenL bond each valence elecLron of an aLom forms dlrecL
bond wlLh Lhe valence elecLron of an ad[acenL aLom. ln oLher words valence elecLrons
are assoclaLed wlLh parLlcular aLom. lor Lhls reason valence elecLrons ln a
semlconducLor are noL free.
C8?S1ALS
A subsLance ln whlch Lhe aLoms or molecules are arranged ln an orderly paLLern ls
known as crysLal. All semlconducLors have crysLalllne sLrucLure. lor example referrlng Lo Lhe
flgure showlng Lhe co-valenL bond among Lhe Slllcon aLom. lL clear LhaL each aLom ls
surrounded by nelghborlng aLom ln a repeLlLlve manner. 1herefore a plece of Slllcon ls
generally called Slllcon crysLal.
CCMMCnL? uSLu SLMlCCnuuC1C8S
1here are many semlconducLors avallable, buL very few of Lhem have a pracLlcal
appllcaLlon elecLronlcs. 1he Loo mosL frequenLly used maLerlals are German|um and S|||con.
LllLC1 Cl 1LML8A1u8L Cn SLMlCCnuuC1C8S
1he LlecLrlcal conducLlvlLy of a semlconducLor changes appreclably wlLh LemperaLure
varlaLlon.


(1) A1 A8SCLu1L ZL8C:-
AL absoluLe zero LemperaLure all elecLrons are LlghLly held by Lhe semlconducLor
aLom . 1he lnner orblL elecLrons are bound whereas Lhe valence elecLrons are engaged ln co-
valenL bondlng. AL Lhls LemperaLure, Lhe co-valenL bonds are very sLrong and Lhere are no
free elecLrons. 1herefore Lhe semlconducLor crysLal behaves as a perfecL lnsulaLor.
(2) A8CvL A8SCLu1L ZL8C
When LemperaLure rlses, some of Lhe co-valenL bonds ln Lhe semlconducLor break
due Lo Lhe Lhermal energy supplled Lo lL. 1he breaklng of bonds seLs Lhose elecLrons free
whlch are engaged ln Lhe formaLlon of Lhese bonds. 1he resulL ls LhaL a few free elecLrons
exlsL ln Lhe semlconducLor. 1hese free elecLrons can consLlLuLe a Llny elecLrlc currenL lf
poLenLlal dlfference ls applled across Lhe semlconducLor crysLal. lL should be aL room
LemperaLure, currenL Lhrough a semlconducLor ls Loo small Lo be any pracLlcal value.
PCLL Cu88Ln1
AL room LemperaLure, some of Lhe co-valenL bonds ln pure semlconducLor break,
seLLlng up free elecLrons. under Lhe lnfluence of elecLrlc fleld, Lhese free elecLrons consLlLuLe
elecLrlc currenL. AL Lhe same Llme anoLher currenL-Lhe hole currenL-also flows ln Lhe
semlconducLor. When a co-valenL bond ls broken due Lo Lhermal energy, Lhe removal of one
elecLron leaves a vacancy l.e a mlsslng elecLron ln Lhe covalenL bond. 1hls mlsslng elecLron ls
called a hole whlch acLs as a poslLlve charge. lor one elecLron seL free, one hole ls creaLed.
1herefore, Lhermal energy creaLes hole-elecLron palrs, Lhere belng as many holes as Lhe free
elecLrons. 1he currenL conducLlon by holes can be explalned as follows.
.
1he hole shows a mlsslng elecLron. Suppose Lhe valence elecLron aL L (see flg) has
become free elecLron due Lo Lhermal energy. 1hls creaLes a hole ln Lhe covalenL bond aL L.
1he hole ls a sLrong cenLre of aLLracLlon for Lhe elecLron. A valence elecLron (say aL M ) from
nearby co-valenL bond comes Lo flll ln Lhe hole aL L. 1hls resulLs ln Lhe creaLlon of hole aL M.


AnoLher valence elecLron (say aL n) ln Lurn may leave lLs bond Lo flll Lhe hole aL M, Lhus
creaLlng a hole aL n. 1hus Lhe hole havlng a poslLlve charge has moved from L Lo n. l.e.
Lowards Lhe negaLlve Lermlnal of supply. 1hls consLlLuLes hole currenL. lL may be noLed LhaL
hole currenL ls due Lo Lhe movemenL of valence elecLron from one co-valenL bond Lo
anoLher.
ln18lnSlC SLMlCCnuuC1C8
A semlconducLor ln an exLremely pure form ls known as lnLrlnslc semlconducLor. ln
an lnLrlnslc semlconducLor even aL room LemperaLure, hole -elecLron palrs are creaLed.
When Lhe elecLrlc fleld ls applled across an lnLrlnslc semlconducLor, Lhe currenL conducLlon
Lake-place by Lwo process namely by free elecLrons and holes as shown ln flg.

1he free elecLrons are produced due Lo Lhe breaklng up of co-valenL bonds by
Lhermal energy. AL Lhe same Llme holes are creaLed ln Lhe co-valenL bond under Lhe
lnfluence of elecLrlc fleld. ConducLlon Lhrough Lhe semlconducLor ls by boLh free elecLrons
and Lhe holes. 1herefore LoLal currenL lnslde Lhe semlconducLor ls Lhe sum of free elecLrons
and holes.
lL may be noLed LhaL currenL ln Lhe exLernal wlres ls fully elecLronlc(l.e by
elecLrons).1here ls no hole currenL ln Lhe exLernal wlres. lL ls because when Lhe poslLlvely
charged holes moves Lowards Lhe negaLlve supply and reach Lhe negaLlve Lermlnal '8' ,
elecLrons enLer ln Lhe semlconducLor crysLal near Lhe Lermlnal and comblne wlLh holes Lhus
cancelllng Lhem. AL Lhe same Llme loosely held elecLrons near Lhe poslLlve Lermlnal are
aLLracLed away from Lhelr aLoms lnLo Lhe poslLlve Lermlnal. 1hls creaLes new holes near Lhe
poslLlve Lermlnal whlch agaln drlfL Lowards Lhe negaLlve Lermlnal.


Lx18lnSlC SLMlCCnuuC1C8
1he lnLrlnslc semlconducLor has llLLle currenL conducLlon capablllLy aL room
LemperaLure. 1o be useful ln elecLronlc devlces, Lhe pure semlconducLor musL be alLered so
as Lo slgnlflcanLly lncrease lLs conducLlng properLles. 1hls ls achleved by addlng a small
amounL of sulLable lmpurlLy Lo a semlconducLor. lL ls Lhen called lmpurlLy or exLrlnslc
semlconducLor. 1he process of addlng lmpurlLy ln Lhe semlconducLor ls known as dop|ng.
1he purpose of addlng lmpurlLy ls Lo lncrease elLher number of free elecLrons or
holes ln Lhe semlconducLor crysLal. lf a penLavalenL (havlng 3 valence elecLrons) ls added Lo
Lhe semlconducLor, a large number of free elecLrons are produced ln Lhe semlconducLor. Cn
Lhe oLher hand addlLlon of Lrl-valenL lmpurlLy (havlng Lhree elecLrons) creaLes a large
number of holes ln Lhe semlconducLor. uependlng upon Lhe Lype of lmpurlLy added exLrlnslc
semlconducLors are classlfled lnLo
(1) n-Lype semlconducLor
(2) -Lype semlconducLor
n-1?L SLMlCCnuuC1C8
When a small amounL of penLavalenL lmpurlLy ls added Lo pure semlconducLor. lL ls
known as n-Lype semlconducLor.
1he addlLlon of penLavalenL lmpurlLy provldes a large number of free elecLrons ln Lhe
semlconducLor crysLal. 1yplcal example of penLavalenL lmpurlLy are Arsenlc(AL. no. 33) and
AnLlmony (AL.no. 31) . Such lmpurlLles whlch produce n-Lype semlconducLor are known as
donor lmpurlLles because Lhey donaLe or provlde free elecLrons Lo Lhe semlconducLor
crysLal.

1o explaln Lhe formaLlon of n-Lype semlconducLor, conslder a pure germanlum
crysLal. We know LhaL germanlum aLom has four valence elecLrons. When a small amounL of


penLavalenL lmpurlLy llke arsenlc ls added Lo germanlum crysLal, a large number of free
elecLrons become avallable ln Lhe crysLal. 1he reason ls slmple. Arsenlc ls penLavalenL l.e. lLs
aLom has flve valence elecLrons. An Arsenlc aLom flLs ln Lhe germanlum crysLal ln such a way
LhaL lLs four valence elecLrons form covalenL bonds wlLh four germanlum aLoms. 1he flfLh
valence elecLron of arsenlc aLom flnds no place ln co-valenL bonds and ls Lhus free as shown
ln flg. 1herefore, for each arsenlc aLom added, one free elecLron wlll be avallable ln Lhe
germanlum crysLal. 1hough each arsenlc aLom provldes one free elecLron, yeL an exLremely
small amounL of arsenlc lmpurlLy provldes enough aLoms Lo supply mllllons of free elecLrons.
1hermal energy of room LemperaLure sLlll generaLe a few hole- elecLron palrs . however Lhe
number of free elecLrons provlded by Lhe penLavalenL lmpurlLy far exceeds Lhe number of
holes. lL ls due Lo Lhls predomlnance of elecLrons over holes LhaL lL ls called n-Lype
semlconducLor (n- sLands for negaLlve).
n-1?L CCnuuC1lvl1?

1he currenL conducLlon ln an n-Lype semlconducLor ls predomlnanLly by free
elecLrons l.e negaLlve charges and ls called n-Lype or elecLron Lype conducLlvlLy. 1o
undersLand n- Lype conducLlvlLy refer flg. shown above. When .u ls applled across Lhe n-
Lype semlconducLor Lhe free elecLrons (donaLed by lmpurlLy) ln Lhe crysLal dlrecLed Lowards
Lhe negaLlve Lermlnal, consLlLuLlng elecLrlc currenL. As Lhe currenL flow Lhrough Lhe crysLal ls
by free elecLrons whlch are carrlers of negaLlve charge, Lherefore Lhls Lype of conducLlvlLy ls
called negaLlve or n- Lype conducLlvlLy. lL may be noLed LhaL conducLlon ls [usL as ln ordlnary
meLal llke copper.


-1?L SLMlCCnuuC1C8
When a small amounL of LrlvalenL lmpurlLy ls added Lo a pure semlconducLor lL ls
called -Lype semlconducLor.
1he addlLlon of LrlvalenL lmpurlLy provldes a large number of holes ln Lhe
semlconducLor. 1yplcal examples of LrlvalenL lmpurlLles are Calllum (ALomlc number 31) and
lndlum (ALomlc number 49) . Such lmpurlLles whlch produce -Lype semlconducLor are
known as accepLor lmpurlLles because Lhe holes creaLed can accepL Lhe elecLrons.

1o explaln Lhe formaLlon of a -Lype semlconducLor, conslder a pure Cermanlum
crysLal. When a small amounL of LrlvalenL lmpurlLy llke Calllum ls added Lo Cermanlum
crysLal, Lhere exlsL a large number of holes ln Lhe crysLal. lL ls because Calllum ls LrlvalenL l.e
lLs aLom has Lhree valence elecLrons. Lach aLom of Calllum flLs lnLo Lhe Cermanlum crysLal
buL now only Lhree co-valenL bonds can be formed. lL ls because Lhree valence elecLrons of
Calllum aLom can form only Lhree slngle covalenL bonds wlLh Lhree Cermanlum aLoms as
shown ln flgure. ln Lhe fourLh co-valenL bond only Cermanlum aLom conLrlbuLes one valence
elecLron whlle Calllum has no valence elecLron Lo conLrlbuLe as all lLs Lhree valence elecLrons
are already engaged ln Lhe co-valenL bonds wlLh nelghborlng Cermanlum aLom.
ln oLher words fourLh bond ls ln compleLe. 1hus creaLes a hole. 1herefore , for each Calllum
added one hole ls creaLed. A small amounL of Calllum provldes mllllons of holes. Powever
Lhere are a few free elecLrons due Lo Lhermal energy assoclaLed wlLh room LemperaLure. 8uL
Lhe holes far ouLnumber Lhese free elecLrons. lL ls due Lo Lhe predomlnance of holes over
free elecLrons. 1haL lL ls called -Lype semlconducLor (-sLands for poslLlve).
-1?L CCnuuC1lvl1?
1he currenL conducLlon ln -Lype semlconducLor ls predomlnanLly by holes LhaL ls
poslLlve charges and ls called -Lype or hole Lype conducLlvlLy.


.
When .u ls applled Lo Lhe -Lype semlconducLor, Lhe holes (donaLed by Lhe
lmpurlLy) are shlfLed from one co-valenL bond Lo anoLher. As Lhe holes are poslLlvely
charged, Lherefore Lhey are dlrecLed Lowards Lhe negaLlve Lermlnal, consLlLuLlng whaL ls
known as hole currenL. lL may be noLed LhaL ln -Lype conducLlvlLy Lhe valence elecLrons
move from one co-valenL bond Lo anoLher unllke Lhe n-Lype where currenL conducLlon ls by
free elecLrons.
CPA8CL Cn n-1?L Anu -1?L SLMlCCnuuC1C8
ln n-Lype semlconducLor currenL conducLlon ls due Lo excess of elecLrons whereas ln
-Lype semlconducLor conducLlon ls by holes. 8uL lL ls wrong ln Lhlnklng LhaL Lhe n-Lype
maLerlal has a neL negaLlve charge and -Lype a neL poslLlve charge. lL ls Lrue LhaL n-Lype
semlconducLor has excess of elecLrons buL Lhese exLra elecLrons were supplled by Lhe aLom
of donor lmpurlLy and each aLom of donor lmpurlLy ls elecLrlcally neuLral. When Lhe lmpurlLy
aLom ls added Lhe Lerm 'excess elecLrons' refers Lo an excess wlLh regard Lo Lhe number of
elecLrons needed Lo flll Lhe co-valenL bond ln Lhe semlconducLor crysLal. 1he exLra elecLrons
are free elecLrons and lncrease Lhe conducLlvlLy of Lhe semlconducLor. 1he slLuaLlon wlLh
regard Lo -Lype semlconducLor ls also slmllar. lL follows, Lherefore LhaL n-Lype as well as -
Lype semlconducLor ls elecLrlcally neuLral.
MA!C8l1? Anu MlnC8l1? CA88lL8S
uue Lo Lhe effecL of lmpurlLy n-Lype maLerlal has a large number of free elecLrons
whereas -Lype maLerlal has a large number of holes. Powever lL may be remembered LhaL
even aL room LemperaLure some of Lhe co-valenL bonds broken. 1hus release equal number
of free elecLrons and holes. An n-Lype maLerlal has lLs own elecLron-hole palrs buL ln
addlLlon has a much larger quanLlLy of free elecLrons due Lo Lhe effecL of lmpurlLy. 1hese
lmpurlLy caused free elecLrons are noL assoclaLed wlLh holes. ConsequenLly an n-Lype
maLerlal has large number of free elecLrons and a small number of holes as shown ln flg (1).


1he free elecLrons ln Lhls case are consldered as ma[orlLy carrlers slnce Lhe ma[orlLy porLlon
of currenL ln n-Lype maLerlal ls by Lhe flow of free elecLrons and Lhe holes are mlnorlLy
carrlers.
Slmllarly ln a -Lype maLerlal holes ouLnumber free elecLrons as shown ln flgure (2).
1herefore holes are Lhe ma[orlLy carrlers and free elecLrons are mlnorlLy carrlers.
-n !unC1lCn
When a -Lype semlconducLor ls sulLably [olned Lo n-Lype semlconducLor , Lhe
conLacL surface ls called n [uncLlon. Leads Laklng from -Lype maLerlal ls called Anode and
from n-Lype maLerlal ls called caLhode. Slnce lL has Lwo leads of elecLrodes lL ls called a
d|ode. MosL semlconducLor devlces conLaln one or more n [uncLlons. 1he n [uncLlon ls of
greaL lmporLance because lL ls ln effecL Lhe conLrol elemenL for semlconducLor devlces.

lL should be noLed LhaL a useful n [uncLlon cannoL be produced by connecLlng -Lype
maLerlal Lo n- Lype maLerlal by weldlng eLc, because Lhls would glve rlse Lo dlsconLlnulLles
across crysLal sLrucLure. ManufacLure of n [uncLlon ls done by speclal Lechnlques such as
alloylng, dlffuslon eLc.
uurlng Lhe formaLlon of n [uncLlon followlng Lwo phenomena Lake place.
(1) A Lhln depleLlon layer or reglon ls seLup on boLh sldes of Lhe [uncLlon and ls so called
because lL ls depleLed of free charge carrlers.
(2) A [uncLlon or barrler poLenLlal v
8
ls developed across Lhe [uncLlon whose value l
abouL 0.3v for Cermanlum and 0.7v for slllcon


When a n [uncLlon ls packed as a semlconducLor devlce lL ls called a N [unct|on
D|ode.
lC8MA1lCn Cl 8A88lL8 C1Ln1lAL Anu uLLL1lCn LA?L8
Suppose a n [uncLlon has [usL been formed. lL should be remembered LhaL n-Lype
maLerlal has a hlgh concenLraLlon of free elecLrons whlle -Lype maLerlal has a hlgh
concenLraLlon of holes. 1herefore aL Lhe [uncLlon, Lhere ls a Lendency for Lhe free elecLrons
Lo dlffuse over Lo Lhe -slde and holes Lo Lhe n-slde and LermlnaLe Lhelr exlsLence by
recomblnaLlon as shown ln flg.(a) . 1hls process ls called d|ffus|on.

llg.a
Lach free elecLron movlng across Lhe [uncLlon from n- slde Lo -slde leaves behlnd lLs
parenL aLom ln an lonlzed sLaLe. 1he aLom becomes a poslLlve lon. Lach elecLron crosslng Lhe
[uncLlon makes Lhe accepLor aLom ln Lhe -slde ln an lonlzed sLaLe by fllllng ln Lhe holes. 1hus
Lhe aLom becomes a negaLlve lon. 1hese lons so produced are flxed ln Lhelr poslLlon ln Lhe
crysLal ln Lhe and n reglons. 1hey form parallel rows of opposlLe charges faclng each oLher
as shown ln flgure (b).

llg.(b)

1he comblnaLlon of free and moblle holes and elecLrons Lake place ln a narrow reglon
aL Lhe [uncLlon called dep|et|on |ayer. lL ls so called because Lhls reglon ls depleLed of free


and moblle charge carrlers Lhough lL does conLaln flxed or lmmoblle poslLlve and negaLlve
lons.
uepleLlon layer of a n [uncLlon dlode has no free charge carrlers buL only flxed rows
of opposlLely charged lons on lLs Lwo sldes. 8ecause of Lhe charge separaLlon an elecLrlcal
poLenLlal v
8
ls esLabllshed across Lhe [uncLlon even when Lhe [uncLlon ls noL connecLed Lo
Lhe exLernal source of emf flg.(b). lL ls known as Iunct|on or 8arr|er otent|a|. lL sLops
furLher flow of charge carrlers cross Lhe [uncLlon. lL ls because poslLlve charge on n-slde
repels holes Lo cross from -Lype Lo n-Lype and negaLlve on -slde repels free elecLrons Lo
enLer from n-Lype Lo -Lype. 1hus a barrler ls seLup agalnsL furLher movemenL of charge
carrlers due Lo Lhe .u developed ln Lhe [uncLlon. 1haL ls why lL ls called poLenLlal barrler.
AL room LemperaLure v
8
ls abouL 0.3 v for Cermanlum and 0.7v for Slllcon.
AL?lnC vCL1ACL AC8CSS n !unC1lCn ulCuL
1he poLenLlal dlfference across a n !uncLlon can be applled ln Lwo ways, namely
forward blaslng and reverse blaslng.
lC8WA8u 8lASlnC
When exLernal volLage applled Lo Lhe [uncLlon ls ln such a dlrecLlon LhaL lL cancels Lhe
poLenLlal barrler Lhus permlLLlng currenL flow, lL ls called forward blaslng.
1o apply forward blas, connecL poslLlve Lermlnal of Lhe baLLery Lo Lhe Lype and
negaLlve Lermlnal Lo Lhe n-Lype as shown ln flgure.

1he applled forward poLenLlal esLabllshes an elecLrlc fleld whlch acL agalnsL Lhe fleld
due Lo Lhe poLenLlal barrler as explalned below.


As soon as baLLery connecLlon ls made, holes are repelled by poslLlve baLLery Lermlnal
and elecLrons are repelled by Lhe negaLlve baLLery Lermlnal wlLh Lhe resulL LhaL boLh Lhe
elecLrons and Lhe holes are drlven Lowards Lhe [uncLlon. 1he movemenL of ma[orlLy carrlers
Lowards Lhe [uncLlon consLlLuLes a large currenL flow (lorward currenL) Lhrough Lhe
semlconducLor by overcomlng Lhe barrler poLenLlal. As poLenLlal barrler ls very small (0.3v
or 0.7v) Lherefore a small forward volLage ls sufflclenL Lo compleLely ellmlnaLe Lhe barrler.
Cnce Lhe poLenLlal barrler ls ellmlnaLed by Lhe forward volLage, [uncLlon reslsLance becomes
almosL zero and a low reslsLance paLh ls esLabllshed for Lhe enLlre clrculL.

8LvL8SL 8lASlnC
When a exLernal volLage applled across a [uncLlon ls ln such a dlrecLlon LhaL Lhe
poLenLlal barrler ls lncreased, lL ls called reverse blaslng.
1o apply reverse blas connecL negaLlve Lermlnal of Lhe baLLery Lo -Lype and oslLlve
Lermlnal Lo Lhen-Lype as shown ln flgure.

1he applled reverse volLage esLabllshes an elecLrlc fleld whlch acLs ln Lhe same
dlrecLlon as Lhe fleld due Lo poLenLlal barrler as explalned below.
As soon as Lhe baLLery connecLlon ls made, holes are aLLracLed by Lhe negaLlve
baLLery Lermlnal and elecLrons are aLLracLed by Lhe poslLlve baLLery Lermlnal wlLh Lhe resulL
LhaL boLh Lhe elecLrons and holes are moved away from Lhe [uncLlon and away from each
oLher. Slnce Lhere ls no elecLron hole comblnaLlon, no currenL flow and Lhe [uncLlon offer
hlgh reslsLance.
AnoLher way of looklng aL Lhe above process ls LhaL, ln Lhls case Lhe applled volLage
lncreases Lhe barrler poLenLlal Lhereby blocklng Lhe flow of ma[orlLy carrlers. lL may be noLed


LhaL under reverse blased condlLlon wldLh of depleLlon layer ls lncreased because, ma[orlLy
charge carrlers are pulled away from Lhe [uncLlon.
Cu88Ln1 lLCW ln A lC8WA8u 8lASLu n !unC1lCn

llgure shows a forward blased n [uncLlon . under Lhe lnfluence of forward volLage,
Lhe free elecLrons ln n-Lype move Lowards Lhe [uncLlon, leavlng behlnd poslLlvely charged
aLoms. Powever more elecLrons arrlve from Lhe negaLlve baLLery Lermlnal and enLer Lhe 'n'
reglon Lo Lake up Lhelr places. As Lhe free elecLrons reach Lhe [uncLlon, Lhey become
valence elecLrons. As valence elecLron, Lhey move Lhrough Lhe holes ln Lhe -reglon. 1he
valence elecLrons move Lowards lefL ln Lhe -reglon whlch ls equlvalenL Lo Lhe holes movlng
Lo rlghL. When Lhe valence elecLrons reach Lhe lefL end of Lhe crysLal, Lhey flow lnLo Lhe
poslLlve Lermlnal of Lhe baLLery.
1he mechanlsm of currenL flow ln a forward blased n [uncLlon can be summed up as under.
(l) 1he free elecLrons from Lhe negaLlve Lermlnal conLlnue Lo pour lnLo Lhe n-reglon
whlle Lhe free elecLrons ln Lhe n-reglon move Lowards Lhe [uncLlon.

(ll) 1he elecLrons Lravel Lhrough Lhe n-reglon as free-elecLrons l.e currenL ln n -reglon ls
by free elecLrons.

(lll) When Lhese elecLrons reach Lhe [uncLlon, Lhey comblne wlLh holes and become
valence elecLrons.

(lv) 1he elecLrons Lravel Lhrough -reglon as valence elecLrons l.e currenL ln Lhe -reglon
ls by holes.

(v) When Lhese valence elecLrons reach Lhe lefL end of Lhe crysLal Lhey flow lnLo Lhe
poslLlve Lermlnal of Lhe baLLery.
________________
*Note tbot oeqotlve tetmlool of bottety ls coooecteJ to N-type . lt tepels tbe ftee electtoos lo N-type towotJs tbe jooctloo
)A bole lo tbe co-voleot booJ . wbeo o ftee electtoo combloes wltb o bole, lt becomes o voleoce electtoo.


lL ls concluded LhaL ln 'n' Lype reglon, currenL ls carrled by free elecLrons whereas ln
'' Lype reglon, lL ls carrled by holes. Powever ln Lhe exLernal connecLlng wlres Lhe currenL ls
carrled by elecLrons.
vCL1-AML8L CPA8AC1L8lS1lCS Cl n !unC1lCn ulCuL
volL-Ampere characLerlsLlc of a n [uncLlon (also called a crysLal or semlconducLor
dlode) ls Lhe curve beLween volLage across Lhe [uncLlon and Lhe clrculL currenL. usually
volLage ls Laken along x-axls and currenL along ?-axls. llgure shows Lhe clrculL arrangemenL
for deLermlnlng Lhe v-l characLerlsLlc of a n [uncLlon dlode. 1he characLerlsLlc can be
sLudled under Lwo heads namely, forward blas and reverse blas.

(1) lC8WA8u 8lAS

WlLh forward blas Lo Lhe n [uncLlon Lhe poLenLlal barrler ls reduced. AL some
forward volLage (0.7v for Sl and 0.3v for Ce) Lhe poLenLlal barrler ls alLogeLher ellmlnaLed
and Lhe currenL sLarLs flowlng ln Lhe clrculL. lrom now onwards Lhe currenL lncreases wlLh
Lhe lncrease ln forward volLage. 1hus a rlslng curve ls obLalned wlLh forward blas as shown ln
flgure. lrom Lhe forward characLerlsLlc lL ls seen LhaL aL flrsL Lhe currenL lncreases very
slowly. lL ls because Lhe exLernal applled volLage ls used up ln overcomlng Lhe poLenLlal
barrler. Powever, once Lhe exLernal volLage exceeds Lhe poLenLlal barrler volLage, Lhe n


[uncLlon behaves llke an ordlnary conducLor. 1herefore Lhe currenL rlses very sharply wlLh
lncreaslng exLernal volLage.
(2) 8LvL8SL 8lAS

WlLh reverse blas Lhe n [uncLlon poLenLlal barrler aL Lhe [uncLlon ls lncreased.
1herefore Lhe [uncLlon reslsLance becomes very hlgh and pracLlcally no currenL flows
Lhrough Lhe clrculL. Powever ln pracLlce a very small currenL (of Lhe order of A) flows ln
Lhe clrculL wlLh reverse blas as shown ln reverse characLerlsLlc. 1hls ls called reverse currenL
or leakage currenL and ls due Lo mlnorlLy carrlers. lL may be recalled LhaL Lhere are a few free
elecLrons ln -Lype maLerlal and a few holes ln n- Lype maLerlal due Lo Lhermal energy.
1hese undeslrable free elecLrons ln -Lype and holes ln n-Lype are called mlnorlLy carrlers. As
shown ln flgure, Lo Lhese mlnorlLy carrlers, applled reverse blas appears as forward blas.
1herefore a small currenL flows ln Lhe reverse dlrecLlon.
lf reverse volLage ls lncreased Lhe klneLlc energy of elecLrons (mlnorlLy carrlers) may
become hlgh enough Lo knock ouL elecLrons from Lhe semlconducLor aLom. AL Lhls sLage
break-down of Lhe [uncLlon occurs characLerlzed by a sudden rlse of reverse currenL and a
sudden fall of Lhe reslsLance of Lhe barrler reglon. 1hls may desLroy Lhe [uncLlon
permanenLly.
!unC1lCn 88LAkuCWn
lf Lhe reverse blas applled Lo a n [uncLlon ls lncreased, a polnL ls reached when Lhe
[uncLlon breakdown and reverse currenL rlses sharply Lo a value llmlLed only by Lhe exLernal
reslsLance connecLed ln serles wlLh Lhe [uncLlon. 1hls crlLlcal value of volLage ls known as
8reak down volLage.


1he breakdown volLage depends on Lhe wldLh of Lhe depleLlon reglon whlch ln Lurn
depends on Lhe doplng level. 1he followlng Lwo mechanlsms are responslble for break down
under lncreaslng reverse volLage.
(1) ZLnL8 88LAk uCWn
1hls form of breakdown occurs ln Lhe [uncLlon whlch belng heavlly doped has
narrow depleLlon layer. 1he break-down volLage seLs up a very sLrong elecLrlc fleld across
Lhls narrow layer. 1hls fleld ls sLrong enough Lo break or rupLurlng Lhe co-valenL bonds
Lhereby generaLlng elecLron-hole palrs. Lven a small furLher lncrease ln reverse volLage ls
capable of produclng large number of currenL carrlers. 1haL ls why Lhe [uncLlon has very low
reslsLance ln Lhe break-down reglon.

(2) AvALAnCPL 88LAk uCWn
1hls form of break-down occurs ln Lhe [uncLlons whlch belng llghLly doped has wlde
depleLlon layer where Lhe elecLrlc fleld ls noL sLrong enough Lo produce zener break-down.
lnsLead, Lhe mlnorlLy carrlers (acceleraLed by Lhe fleld) colllde wlLh Lhe semlconducLor aLoms
ln Lhe depleLlon reglon. upon colllslon wlLh valence elecLrons, covalenL bonds are broken
and elecLron-hole palrs are generaLed. 1hese newly-generaLed charge carrlers are also
acceleraLed by Lhe elecLrlc fleld resulLlng ln more colllslons and hence furLher producLlon of
charge carrlers. 1hls leads Lo an avalanche (or flood) of charge carrlers and, consequenLly, Lo
a very low reverse reslsLance. 1he Lwo breakdown phenomena are shown ln llg.
knLL vCL1ACL(Cu1-ln vCL1ACL)
lL ls Lhe forward volLage aL whlch Lhe currenL Lhrough Lhe [uncLlon sLarLs Lo lncrease
rapldly.


When a dlode ls forward blased lL conducLs currenL very slowly unLll we overcome
Lhe poLenLlal barrler. lor n [uncLlon poLenLlal barrler ls 0.7v whereas lL ls 0.3v for
Cermanlum [uncLlon. lL ls clear from Lhe flg. LhaL knee volLage for slllcon dlode ls 0.7v and
0.3v for Cermanlum dlode.

Cnce Lhe applled forward volLage exceeds Lhe knee volLage, Lhe currenL sLarLs
lncreaslng rapldly. lL may be added ln order Lo geL useful currenL Lhrough a n [uncLlon
dlode, Lhe applled volLage musL be more Lhan Lhe knee volLage or CuL-ln volLage.
LlMl1A1lCnS ln 1PL CL8A1lnC CCnul1lCnS Cl n !unC1lCn ulCuL
Lvery n dlode has llmlLlng values of maxlmum forward currenL, eak lnverse volLage
and maxlmum power raLlng eLc. 1he n [uncLlon dlode wlll glve saLlsfacLory performance
lf lL ls operaLed wlLh Lhese llmlLlng values. Powever Lhese values are exceeded , Lhe n
[uncLlon dlode may desLroy by excesslve heaL.
LAk INVLkSL VCL1AGL (IV)
lL ls Lhe maxlmum reverse volLage LhaL can be applled across Lhe n [uncLlon wlLhouL
damage Lo Lhe [uncLlon. lf Lhe reverse volLage across Lhe [uncLlon exceeds lLs lv, Lhe
[uncLlon may be desLroyed due Lo excesslve heaL. 1he peak lnverse volLage has greaLer
lmporLance ln recLlfler servlce. A n [uncLlon l.e a crysLal dlode ls used as a recLlfler Lo
change alLernaLlng currenL lnLo dlrecL currenL. ln such appllcaLlons care should be Laken LhaL
reverse volLage across Lhe dlode durlng negaLlve half cycle of AC does noL exceed Lhe lv of
Lhe dlode.
MAkIMUM ICkWAkD CUkkLN1
lL ls Lhe hlghesL lnsLanLaneous forward currenL LhaL a n [uncLlon can conducL
wlLhouL damage Lo Lhe [uncLlon. ManufacLures daLa sheeL usually speclfles Lhls raLlng. lf Lhe
forward currenL ln a n [uncLlon ls more Lhan Lhls raLlng, Lhe [uncLlon wlll be desLroyed due
Lo overheaLlng.


MAkIMUM CWLk kA1ING
lL ls Lhe maxlmum power LhaL can be dlsslpaLed aL Lhe [uncLlon wlLhouL damaglng lL.
1he power dlsslpaLed aL Lhe [uncLlon ls equal Lo Lhe producL of [uncLlon currenL and Lhe
volLage across Lhe [uncLlon. 1hls ls a very lmporLanL conslderaLlon and ls lnvarlably speclfled
by Lhe manufacLurers ln Lhe daLa sheeL.
luLAL ulCuL
An ldeal dlode ls one whlch behaves as a perfecL conducLor when forward blased and
as a perfecL lnsulaLor when reverse blased. lL means LhaL forward reslsLance 8
l
of Lhe dlode
ls zero and poLenLlal barrler ls consldered as negllglble. Agaln lL should have lnflnlLe reverse
reslsLance. lL may be menLloned here LhaL alLhough ldeal dlode ls never found ln pracLlce,
yeL dlode clrculL analysls ls made on Lhls baslc. 1herefore whlle dlscusslng dlode clrculL, Lhe
dlode wlll be assume ldeal unless and unLll sLaLed oLher ways.
8LAL ulCuL
ln case of real dlode forward reslsLance ls a few ohm and reverse reslsLance of Lhe
dlode ls noL lnflnlLlve because for any value of reverse blas Lhere does exlsL a small leakage
currenL. lL may be emphaslzed here LhaL reverse reslsLance ls very large compared Lo Lhe
forward reslsLance. ln Cermanlum dlode Lhe raLlo of reverse Lo forward reslsLance ls 40kD :
1D, whlle for Slllcon Lhls raLlo ls 1MD: 1D.
lA88lCA1lCn Cl ulCuL
1he manufacLure of n [uncLlon dlode can be done ln a number of ways. 1hree
process are explalned below.
(1) olnL ConLacL !uncLlon
(2) Alloy !uncLlon
(3) ulffused !uncLlon

(1) CIN1 CCN1AC1 IUNC1ICN
lL conslsLs of an n-Lype Ce or Sl wafer ,one face of whlch ls soldered Lo a meLal base
by radlo frequency heaLlng (8l heaLlng) as shown ln flg.(b). 1he oLher face has a hosphor
8ronze or 1ungsLen sprlng, called a CaL's whlsker, pressed agalnsL lL. 1he n [uncLlon ls
formed by passlng a large currenL for a second or Lwo Lhrough Lhe wlre whlle Lhe crysLal face
wlLh wlre polnL ls kepL poslLlve.


.
1he heaL so produced drlves away some of elecLrons from Lhe aLom ln Lhe small
reglon around Lhe polnL of conLacL Lhereby leavlng holes behlnd. 1hls small reglon of Lhe n-
Lype maLerlal ls consequenLly converLed lnLo -Lype maLerlal as shown ln flgure (a) .
(2) ALLC IUNC1ICN
1he alloy process produces [uncLlon dlodes LhaL have hlgh lv and currenL raLlng.

ln Lhls process a Llny doL or pelleL of lndlum or any oLher -Lype lmpurlLy ls placed on
Lhe surface of an n-Lype slllcon wafer and Lhe Lwo are heaLed well above Lhe melLlng
LemperaLure of lndlum (abouL 130
0
C ) as shown ln flgure (a). ConsequenLly lndlum melLs and
dlssolves some of Lhe Slllcon. 1he LemperaLure ls Lhen lowered and slllcon refreezes Lo form
a slngle crysLal havlng a -n [uncLlon a shown ln llg. (b).
(3) DIIIUSLD IUNC1ICN
1he dlffuslon process employs elLher solld or gaseous dlffuslon. 1hls process Lakes
more Llme Lhan alloy process buL ls relaLlvely cheaper and more accuraLely conLrollable. ln
Lhls process parLlcles from an area of hlgh concenLraLlon drlfL L surround reglon of lesser
concenLraLlon.
(a) SCLlu ullluSlCn


1he solld dlffuslon process sLarLs wlLh Lhe palnLlng of a -Lype lmpurlLy on an n-1ype
subsLraLe and heaLlng Lhe Lwo unLll Lhe lmpurlLy dlffuses a shorL dlsLance lnLo Lhe subsLraLe
Lo form a '' -Lype layer.
(b) CASLCuS ullluSlCn
ln Lhe gaseous dlffuslon process an n-Lype maLerlal ls heaLed ln a chamber
conLalnlng hlgh concenLraLlon of an accepLor lmpurlLy ln vapor form. Some of Lhe accepLor
aLoms are dlffused (or absorbed) lnLo Lhe n Lype subsLraLe Lo form Lhe n-Lype layer Lhus
creaLlng a n [uncLlon. 8y exposlng only parL of Lhe n-Lype maLerlal durlng Lhe dlffuslon
process (Lhe remalnder belng covered by a Lhln coaLlng of SlC
2
), Lhe slze of Lhe -reglon can
be conLrolled. llnally meLal conLacLs are elecLroplaLed on Lhe surface of each reglon for
connecLlng leads.

1he dlffuslon Lechnlque enables slmulLaneous fabrlcaLlon of many hundreds of
dlodes on one small dlsc of a semlconducLor maLerlal. 1haL ls why lL ls Lhe mosL frequenLly
used Lechnlque noL only for manufacLure of semlconducLor dlodes buL also for Lhe
producLlon LranslsLors and lnLegraLe clrculLs.
ALlCA1lCn Cl ulCuLS
1he maln appllcaLlon of semlconducLor dlodes ln modern elecLronlc lndusLry as under
(1) As power or recLlfler dlode :- 1hey converL AC lnLo uC for uC ower supplles of
elecLronlc clrculLs.
(2) As slgnal dlodes ln communlcaLlon clrculLs.
(3) As zener dlodes ln Lhe volLage sLablllzer clrculLs
(4) As varacLor dlode:- for uslng ln volLage conLrolled Lunlng clrculLs ln modern
1elevlslons.
(3) ln loglc clrculL of compuLers

_____________________


CPA1L8 9
8LC1lllL8S
ln18CuuC1lCn
1he elecLrlc power ls generaLed , LransmlLLed ln Lhe form of alLernaLlng
currenL. Powever for many appllcaLlons we requlre uC supply. lor example for Lhe
successful operaLlon of vacuum Lubes and semlconducLor devlces, uC supply ls
needed. 8aLLery can be used as a uC source. 8uL lL ls cosLly and requlre frequenL
replacemenL. 1herefore lL ls necessary Lo converL avallable A.C supply lnLo Lhe
requlred uC Supply. 1hls ls achleved by an elecLronlc devlce known as recLlfler .
1hough converslon of AC lnLo uC can be accompllshed by mechanlcal devlces
such as MoLor CeneraLor seLs, roLary converLor eLc. yeL recLlflers are mosLly used for
Lhls purpose due Lo Lhelr slmpllclLy, cheapness, efflclency, longer llfe and nolseless
operaLlon.
8LC1lllL8
An elecLronlc devlce whlch converLs alLernaLlng currenL lnLo dlrecL currenL ls
called a recLlfler.
We have already seen LhaL a n [uncLlon dlode conducLs currenL easlly when
forward blased and pracLlcally no currenL flows when lL ls reverse blased. uue Lo Lhls
unllaLeral conducLlon characLerlsLlcs of n [uncLlon dlode , lL can be used as a recLlfler
C8?S1AL ulCuL AS A 8LC1lllL8
llgure lllusLraLes Lhe recLlfylng acLlon of a crysLal dlode. 1he AC lnpuL
volLage Lo be recLlfled , Lhe dlode and load 8
L,
are connecLed ln serles . 1he uC ouLpuL
ls obLalned across Lhe load as explalned below.


uurlng Lhe poslLlve half cycle of AC ln puL volLage, Lhe end A become poslLlve
wlLh respecL Lo end 8. 1herefore Lhe dlode ls forward blased and conducLs currenL ln
Lhe clrculL. 1he resulL ls LhaL Lhe poslLlve half cycle of lnpuL volLage appears across 8
L

as shown. Powever durlng Lhe negaLlve half cycle of lnpuL AC volLage Lhe dlode
becomes reverse blased because Lhe end 'A' ls negaLlve wlLh respecL Lo end '8'.
1herefore, Lhe dlode does noL conducL and no volLage appears across load 8
L.
1he
resulL ls LhaL ouLpuL conslsLs of poslLlve half cycles of lnpuL AC volLage whlle Lhe
negaLlve half cycles are suppressed. ln Lhls way crysLal dlode has been able Lo
recLlflcaLlon l.e change AC lnLo uC. lL may be seen LhaL ouLpuL across 8
L
ls pulsaLlng
uC.

lL ls seen LhaL behavlor of dlode ls llke a swlLch. When Lhe dlode ls forward
blased, lL behaves llke a closed swlLch and connecLs AC supply Lo Lhe load 8
L.
Powever when Lhe dlode ls reverse blased lL behaves llke an open swlLch and
dlsconnecLs Lhe AC supply from load 8
L.
1hls swlLchlng acLlon of dlode permlLs only
Lhe poslLlve half cycles of lnpuL AC volLage Lo appear across 8
L .
C8?S1AL ulCuL 8LC1lllL8S
1he followlng Lwo clrculLs can be used for Lhe converslon of AC lnLo uC.
1. PALl WAvL 8LC1lllL8
2. luLL WAvL 8LC1lllL8
PALl WAvL 8LC1lllL8

ln Palf Wave recLlflcaLlon, Lhe recLlfler conducLs currenL only durlng Lhe
poslLlve half cycles of lnpuL A C volLage. 1he negaLlve half cycles of AC supply are
suppressed l.e. durlng negaLlve half cycles no currenL ls conducLed and hence no
volLage appears across Lhe load. 1herefore currenL always flows ln one dlrecLlon (l.e.
uC) Lhrough Lhe load afLer every half cycle.


llgure shows Lhe clrculL where a slngle crysLal dlode acLs as a half wave
recLlfler. 1he AC supply Lo be recLlfled ls applled ln serles wlLh Lhe dlode and load
reslsLance 8
L
. Cenerally AC supply ls glven Lhrough a Lransformer. 1he use of
Lransformer permlLs Lwo advanLages. llrsLly lL allows use Lo sLep up or sLep-down Lhe
AC lnpuL volLage as Lhe slLuaLlon demands. Secondly Lhe Lransformer lsolaLes Lhe
recLlfler clrculL from power llne and Lhus reduces Lhe rlsk of elecLrlc shock.
CL8A1lCn
1he AC volLage across Lhe secondary wlndlng A8 changes polarlLles afLer every
half cycle. uurlng Lhe poslLlve half cycle of lnpuL AC volLage , end A becomes poslLlve
wlLh respecL Lo end 8. 1hls makes dlode forward blased and hence lL conducLs
currenL. uurlng Lhe negaLlve half cycle end A ls negaLlve wlLh respecL Lo end '8'.
under Lhls condlLlon, Lhe dlode ls reverse blased and lL conducLs no currenL.
1herefore ,currenL flows Lhrough Lhe dlode durlng Lhe poslLlve half cycle of lnpuL AC
volLage only, lL ls blocked durlng Lhe negaLlve half cycles. ln Lhls way currenL flows
Lhrough Lhe load 8
L
always ln Lhe same dlrecLlon. Pence uC ouLpuL ls obLalned across
8
L.
1he ouLpuL across Lhe load ls pulsaLlng uC. 1hese pulsaLlon ln Lhe ouLpuL are
furLher smooLhened wlLh Lhe help of fllLer clrculL.
ulSAuvAn1ACLS
(1) 1he pulsaLlng currenL ln Lhe load conLalns alLernaLlng componenL, whose baslc
frequency ls equal Lo Lhe supply frequency. 1herefore an elaboraLe fllLerlng ls
requlred Lo produce sLeady dlrecL currenL.
(2) 1he AC supply dellvers power only half Lhe Llme, Lherefore Lhe ouLpuL ls low.


LlllClLnC? Cl PALl WAvL 8LC1lllL8
1he raLlo of uC power ouLpuL Lo Lhe applled AC lnpuL power ls known as
recLlfler efflclency.

uC power ouLpuL
8ecLlfler Lfflclency (q) = -----------------------
lnpuL AC power

1he efflclency of a half-wave recLlfler ls found abouL 40.6 . 1hls shows LhaL ln
half wave recLlflcaLlon, a maxlmum of 40.6 of AC ower ls converLed lnLo uC
ower.

luLLWAvL 8LC1lllL8

ln full wave recLlflcaLlon currenL flows Lhrough Lhe load ln Lhe same dlrecLlon
for boLh half cycles of lnpuL AC volLage. 1hls can be achleved wlLh Lwo dlodes worklng
alLernaLlvely. lor Lhe poslLlve half cycle of lnpuL volLage one dlode supplles currenL Lo
Lhe load and for Lhe negaLlve half cycle Lhe oLher dlode does so. CurrenL belng always
ln Lhe same dlrecLlon Lhrough Lhe load. 1herefore a full wave recLlfler uLlllzes boLh
half cycles of lnpuL AC volLage Lo produce uC ouLpuL. 1he followlng Lwo clrculLs are
commonly used for full wave recLlflcaLlon.

(1)CLn18L-1A luLLWAvL 8LC1lllL8
(2)luLLWAvL 88luCL 8LC1lllL8.

CLn18L -1A luLLWAvL 8LC1lllL8

1he clrculL employs Lwo dlodes u
1
and u
2
as shown ln flgure. A cenLre Lapped
secondary wlndlng A8 ls used wlLh Lwo dlodes connecLed so LhaL each uses one half
cycle of lnpuL AC volLage. ln oLher words dlodes u
1
uLlllzes Lhe AC volLage appearlng
across Lhe upper half (CA ) of secondary wlndlng for recLlflcaLlon whlle dlode u
2
uses
Lhe lower half wlndlng.

CL8A1lCn


uurlng Lhe poslLlve half cycle of secondary volLage, Lhe end A of Lhe secondary
wlndlng becomes poslLlve and '8' negaLlve. 1hls makes Lhe dlode u
1
forward blased
and dlode u
2
does noL. 1he convenLlonal currenL flow ls Lhrough Lhe dlode u1 , load
reslsLor 8L and upper half of secondary wlndlng as shown by doLLed arrows.
uurlng Lhe negaLlve half cycle end A of Lhe secondary wlndlng becomes
negaLlve and end 8 poslLlve. 1herefore dlode u
2
conducLs, u
1
does noL. 1he
convenLlonal currenL flow ls Lhrough dlode u
2
,load 8
L
and lower half wlndlng as
shown by solld arrows. lL may be seen LhaL currenL ln Lhe load 8
L
ls ln Lhe same
dlrecLlon for boLh half cycles of lnpuL AC volLage. 1herefore uC ls obLalned across Lhe
load 8
L

LAk lnvL8SL vCL1ACL

Suppose v
m
ls Lhe maxlmum volLage across Lhe half secondary wlndlng .
llgure shows Lhe clrculL aL Lhe lnsLanL secondary volLage reaches lLs maxlmum value
ln Lhe poslLlve dlrecLlon. AL Lhls lnsLanL ,dlode u1 ls conducLlng whlle dlode u2 ls non
conducLlng . 1herefore whole of Lhe secondary volLage appears across Lhe non
conducLlng dlode u2 . ConsequenLly Lhe peak lnverse volLage ls Lwlce Lhe maxlmum
volLage across Lhe half secondary wlndlng.
l.e. lv = 2 v
m
ulSAuvAn1ACLS
(1) 1he uC ouLpuL ls small as each dlode uLlllzes only half of Lhe Lransformer secondary
volLage.
(2) 1he dlodes used musL have hlgh peak lnverse volLage.

ll. luLLWAvL 88luCL 8LC1lllL8

1he need for a cenLre-Lapped power Lransformer ls ellmlnaLed ln Lhe brldge
recLlfler. lL conLalns four dlodes u
1
,u
2
,u
3
and u
4
connecLed Lo from brldge as shown
ln flgure. 1he AC supply Lo be recLlfled ls applled Lo Lhe dlagonally opposlLe end of Lhe
brldge Lhrough Lhe Lransformer. 8eLween oLher Lwo ends of Lhe brldge, Lhe load
reslsLance 8
L
ls connecLed.


CL8A1lCn

uurlng Lhe poslLlve half cycle of secondary volLage Lhe end of Lhe secondary
wlndlng becomes poslLlve and end C ls negaLlve. 1hls makes dlodes u
1
and u
3
are
forward blased whlle dlodes u3 and u4 reverse blased. 1herefore only dlodes u
1
and
u
3
conducL. 1hese Lwo dlodes wlll be ln serles Lhrough Lhe load 8
L
as shown ln flgure
(1). 1he convenLlonal currenL flow ls shown by doLLed arrows. lL may be seen LhaL
currenL flows from A Lo 8 Lhrough Lhe load 8
L
.
uurlng Lhe negaLlve half cycle of Secondary volLage end becomes negaLlve
and end C poslLlve. 1hls makes dlodes u
2
and u
4
forward blased whereas dlodes u
1

and u
3
are reverse blased. 1herefore only dlodes u
2
and u
4
conducL. 1hese Lwo
dlodes wlll be ln serles Lhrough Lhe load 8L as shown ln flgure (2) . 1he convenLlonal
currenL flows ls shown by solld arrows . lL may be seen LhaL agaln currenL flows from
A Lo 8 Lhrough Lhe load 8
L
. l.e. ln Lhe same dlrecLlon as per Lhe poslLlve half cycle.
1herefore 'uC' ouL puL ls obLalned across load 8
L
.
LAk lnvL8SL vCL1ACL

8eferrlng Lo flg (1) when end ls poslLlve, u
1
conducLs whereas dlode u2 does
noL conducL. 8y sLudylng Lhe clrculL u
1
,u
2
C, lL ls seen LhaL whole of Lhe secondary
volLage ls applled ln Lhe reverse dlrecLlon across u2. Pence lv of each dlode ls equal
Lo Lhe maxlmum secondary volLage.
AuvAn1ACLS
(1) 1he need for cenLre-Lapped Lransformer ls ellmlnaLed.
(2) 1he ouLpuL ls Lwlce LhaL of Lhe cenLre-Lapped Lransformer clrculL for Lhe same
secondary volLage.
(3) 1he lv ls one half of Lhe cenLre-Lapped clrculL.
ulSAuvAn1ACLS
(1) lL requlres 4 dlodes
(2) As durlng each half cycle of AC lnpuL, Lwo dlodes LhaL conducL are ln serles.
1herefore volLage drop ln Lhe lnLernal reslsLance of Lhe recLlfylng unlL wlll be Lwlce
as greaLer as ln Lhe cenLer-Lap clrculL. 1hls ls ob[ecLlonable when secondary volLage
ls small.


LlllClLnC? Cl A luLLWAvL 8LC1lllL8
lor full wave recLlflcaLlon efflclency ls glven by Lhe raLlo of uC ouLpuL power
Lo Lhe AC lnpuL power.

uC power ouLpuL
8ecLlfler Lfflclency (q) = -----------------------
lnpuL AC power

lL ls found LhaL a full wave recLlfler has maxlmum efflclency of 81.2 . 1hls ls
double Lhe efflclency due Lo half wave recLlfler. 1herefore a full wave recLlfler ls Lwlce
as effecLlve as a half wave recLlfler
nA1u8L Cl 8LC1lllL8 Cu1u1

lL ls seen LhaL Lhe ouLpuL of a recLlfler ls pulsaLlng uC as shown ln flgure.

ln facL, lf such a waveform ls carefully analyzed, lL wlll be found LhaL lL
conLalns a uC componenL and an AC componenL. 1he AC componenL ls responslble
for Lhe pulsaLlon( l.e. varlaLlon ln Lhe ouLpuL volLage)ln Lhe wave. lL should be noLed
LhaL a pulsaLlng uC volLage can have an AC componenL, even lf Lhe volLage never
becomes negaLlve. 1herefore lL ls clear LhaL any wave whlch varles ln a regular
manner has an AC componenL.
8lLL lAC1C8
1he ouLpuL of a recLlfler conslsLs of a uC componenL and an AC componenL
(also known as rlpple). 1he A.C componenL ls undeslrable and accounLs for Lhe
pulsaLlons ln Lhe recLlfler ouLpuL. 1he effecLlveness of a recLlfler depends upon Lhe
magnlLude of AC componenL ln Lhe ouLpuL. 1he smaller Lhls componenL Lhe more
effecLlve ls Lhe recLlfler.
1he raLlo of 8MS value of AC componenL Lo Lhe uC componenL ln Lhe recLlfler
ouLpuL ls known as rlpple facLor.

8MS value of AC componenL
8lpple facLor = ----------------------------------------
value of uC componenLs

1herefore rlpple facLor ls very lmporLanL ln decldlng Lhe effecLlveness of a
recLlfler. 1he smaller Lhe rlpple facLor, Lhe lesser Lhe effecLlve AC componenL and
hence more effecLlve ls Lhe recLlfler.

lL ls found LhaL Lhe rlpple facLor of a half-wave recLlfler ls 1.21. lL ls clear LhaL
AC componenL exceeds Lhe uC componenL ln Lhe ouLpuL of a half wave recLlfler. 1hls
resulLs ln greaLer pulsaLlon ln Lhe ouLpuL. 1herefore half wave recLlfler ls lneffecLlve
for converslon of AC lnLo uC.


ln case of full wave recLlfler lL ls found LhaL Lhe rlpple facLor ls 0.48. 1hls
shows LhaL ln Lhe ouLpuL of a full wave recLlfler Lhe uC componenL ls more Lhan Lhe
AC componenL. ConsequenLly Lhe pulsaLlon ln Lhe ouLpuL wlll be less Lhan ln half
wave recLlfler. lor Lhls reason, full wave recLlflcaLlon ls exLenslvely used for
converslon of AC lnLo uC.
Sl.
no.
arLlculars
Palf
wave
CenLre-
Lap
8rldge
Lype
1
number of
dlodes
1 2 4
2
1ransformer
necessary
no ?es no
3
Maxlmum
Lfflclency
40.6 81.2 81.2
4 8lpple facLor 1.21 0.48 0.48
3 CuLpuL frequency l
ln
2 l
ln
l
ln

6
eak lnverse
volLage
v
m
2v
m
v
m

llL1L8 Cl8Cul1S
Introduct|on :- AlLernaLlng currenL ls recLlfled Lo provlde a sLeady uC volLage slmllar Lo Lhe
ouLpuL of baLLery as shown ln flg. 1a. 8uL Lhe ouLpuL of recLlflers ls a pulsaLlng uC as ln llg
1b.

ulsaLlng uC volLages cannoL be used ln mosL of Lhe elecLronlc clrculLs. lor example a
buzzlng sound wlll be obLalned from a radlo lf Lhese pulsaLlons are noL removed ln Lhe
ouLpuL of Lhe recLlflers. 1he clrculLs used Lo fllLer off or reduce Lhe pulsaLlon ln Lhe uC
ouLpuL of recLlflers are known as smooLhlng clrculLs or popularly as 8lpple fllLers.
k|pp|e :- 1he small volLage flucLuaLlons ln Lhe ouLpuL of a fllLer llke Lhose shown ln flgure 1c
are called 8lpple.
I||ter c|rcu|t components:- lllLer clrculLs are normally comblnaLlons of capaclLors, lnducLors
and reslsLors.
1ypes of f||ter c|rcu|ts :- 1he dlfferenL fllLer clrculLs ln use are
(1) CapaclLor lnpuL fllLer (2) 8C fllLer (3) Serles lnducLor fllLer (4) Choke lnpuL LC fllLer (3) lllLer
(1) CAACl1C8 llL1L8


A capaclLor fllLer ls Lhe mosL slmplesL and cheapesL fllLer. Pere a large value capaclLor
C ls connecLed across Lhe load reslsLor 8
L
as shown ln llg,2a. 1he capaclLance offers a low
reacLance paLh Lo Lhe AC componenLs of currenL and offers very hlgh reslsLance Lo uC. So all
Lhe uC currenL passes Lhrough Lhe load.
Work|ng:-
When Lhe recLlfler ouLpuL volLage
ls lncreaslng Lhe capaclLor charges Lo Lhe
peak volLage vm. AfLer reachlng Lhe
poslLlve peak Lhe recLlfler ouLpuL volLage
Lrles Lo fall. Cbserve Lhe waveform ln llg.
2b. AL polnL '8' Lhe capaclLor has +vm
volLs across lL. Slnce Lhe source volLage
becomes sllghLly less Lhan vm, Lhe
capaclLor wlll Lry Lo send currenL back
Lhrough Lhe dlode, whlch reverse blases
Lhe dlode.
1he dlode dlsconnecLs Lhe source
from load. 1he capaclLor sLarLs Lo
dlscharge Lhrough Lhe load. 1hus Lhe
volLage across load wlll noL fall Lo zero.
1he capaclLor conLlnues Lo dlscharge unLll
Lhe source volLage becomes more Lhan
Lhe capaclLor volLage aL polnL C. 1he dlode
agaln sLarLs conducLlng and Lhe capaclLor
ls agaln charged Lo peak value vm. uurlng
Lhe charglng perlod for Lhe capaclLor Lhe
recLlfler supplles Lhe charglng currenL lc
Lhrough capaclLor as well as Lhe load
currenL l
L
. 1hus Lhe currenL ls malnLalned
Lhrough Lhe load always.


1he raLe aL whlch Lhe capaclLor dlscharges beLween polnLs 8 and C ln llg. 2b depends
upon Lhe Llme consLanL 8
L
C , longer Lhls Llme consLanL ls, Lhe sLeadler ls Lhe ouLpuL volLage.
(2) 8C llL1L8

A slmple 8C fllLer clrculL ls shown ln llg2c. lL conslsLs of a reslsLor 8
1
and capaclLor C
1

connecLed as shown. 1he reslsLor 8
1
helps Lhe fllLerlng provlded by Lhe capaclLor by
lengLhenlng Lhe dlscharge Llme of Lhe capaclLor.
(3) SL8lLS lnuuC1C8 llL1L8
1he flgure 2d shows a serles lnducLor fllLer clrculL. An lnducLor ls a devlce whlch has Lhe
fundamenLal properLy of opposlng any change ln currenL flowlng Lhrough lL. 1hls properLy ls
used ln Lhe serles lnducLor fllLer.
Work|ng
Whenever Lhe currenL Lhrough an lnducLor Lends Lo change, a back emf ls lnduced ln
Lhe lnducLor whlch prevenLs Lhe currenL from changlng lLs value. 1he operaLlon of a serles
lnducLor fllLer depends upon Lhe currenL Lhrough lL. 1herefore Lhls fllLer can be used
LogeLher wlLh a full wave recLlfler only, furLher an lncrease ln load currenL resulL ln reduced
rlpple.
LC llL1L8
A choke lnpuL fllLer conslsLs of an lnducLor L ln serles and a capaclLor C ln shunL wlLh
load as shown ln llgure 2e.
Work|ng
An LC fllLer comblnes Lhe feaLures of boLh Lhe serles lnducLor fllLer and shunL
capaclLor fllLer. 1he choke (lron -core lnducLor) allows Lhe uC componenL Lo pass Lhrough
easlly because lL offers no reslsLance Lo uC. Whlle Lhe capaclLor allows A C rlpples Lo pass
Lhrough buL blocks uC. As a resulL all Lhe uC currenL passes Lhrough Lhe load reslsLor 8
L
. 1he
ouLpuL wave form of a LC fllLer ls shown ln llgure 2f.
l-llL1L8(llL1L8) or CLC llL1L8
1hls clrculL ls shown ln llg. 2g. lL ls also called as a capaclLor lnpuL fllLer. 1hls clrculL
uses one lnducLor and Lwo elecLrolyLlc capaclLors. lL ls called capaclLor-lnpuL fllLer because C
1

ls Lhe flrsL fllLerlng componenL. lL ls also called l fllLer because Lhe clrculL looks llke (Creek
leLLer).


Work|ng
1he recLlfler ouLpuL flrsL goes Lo C
1
, whlch offers low reacLance Lo AC componenLs of
recLlfler ouLpuL whlle offers lnflnlLe reacLance Lo Lhe uC componenL. 1herefore capaclLor C
bypasses an appreclable amounL of AC componenL whlle Lhe uC componenL conLlnue lLs
[ourney Lo Lhe choke. 1he choke offers hlgh reacLance Lo Lhe AC componenLs buL lL offers
almosL zero reacLance Lo Lhe uC componenL. 1herefore lL allows Lhe uC componenL Lo flow
Lhrough lL whlle Lhe unbypassed AC componenL ls blocked. 1he fllLer capaclLor C
2
bypasses
Lhe AC componenL whlch Lhe choke has falled Lo block . 1herefore only uC componenL
appears across Lhe load.

_________________________


CPA1L8 10
SLClAL SLMlCCnuuC1C8 uLvlCLS
ZLnL8 ulCuL
A zener dlode ls llke an ordlnary dlode excepL LhaL lL ls heavlly doped. Slnce lL ls
heavlly doped depleLlon layer ls very Lhln . ConsequenLly Lhe break down of Lhe [uncLlon wlll
occur aL a lower reverse volLage called zener volLage vz. lL should be noLed LhaL zener dlode
ls always reverse blased and ls operaLed ln Lhe break down reglon.
1he vl characLerlsLlc curve and symbol of Lhe zener dlode ls shown below.
CaLhode

AooJe
1he forward characLerlsLlc ls slmply LhaL of an ordlnary forward blased [uncLlon
dlode. 8everse characLerlsLlc shows LhaL lL ls operaLed ln Lhe reverse blas condlLlon and
aLLaln a reverse volLage of vz, lLs breaks down. 1he zener break down occurs due Lo Lhe
breaklng of co-valenL bonds by Lhe sLrong elecLrlc fleld seL-up ln Lhe depleLlon reglon by Lhe
reverse volLage. lL produces an exLremely large number of elecLrons and holes whlch
consLlLuLe a reverse currenL called zener currenL lz, whose value ls llmlLed only by Lhe
exLernal reslsLance ln Lhe clrculL. lrom Lhe reverse characLerlsLlc lL ls clear LhaL afLer break
down of Lhe zener dode vz remalns consLanL even when lz lncreases conslderably.
lL should be noLed LhaL Lhe zener dlode ls noL lmmedlaLely burnL [usL because lL has
enLered Lhe break down reglon. As long as Lhe exLernal reslsLor connecLed Lo Lhe dlode llmlLs
Lhe dlode currenL Lo less Lhan burnL ouL value, Lhe dlode wlll noL burn ouL.
vCL1ACL S1A8lLlZA1lCn
A recLlfler wlLh an approprlaLe fllLer serves as a good source of uC ouLpuL. Powever
Lhe ma[or dlsadvanLage of such power supply ls LhaL Lhe ouLpuL volLage ls changes wlLh Lhe
varlaLlons ln Lhe lnpuL volLage or load. 1hus lf Lhe lnpuL volLage lncreases, Lhe uC ouLpuL
volLage of Lhe recLlfler also lncreases. Slmllarly lf load currenL lncreases Lhe ouLpuL volLage
falls due Lo Lhe volLage drop ln Lhe recLlfylng elemenL, fllLer, choke and Lransformer wlndlng


eLc. ln many elecLronlc appllcaLlon lL ls deslred LhaL Lhe ouLpuL volLage should remaln
consLanL regardless of Lhe varlaLlon ln Lhe lnpuL volLage or load. ln order Lo ensure Lhls
slmple vo|tage stab|||zer or regu|ator ls deslgned wlLh zener dlode.
ZLnL8 ulCuL AS vCL1ACL 8LCuLA1C8
A zener dlode can be used as a volLage regulaLor Lo provlde a consLanL volLage form a
source whose volLage may vary over sufflclenL range. 1hls clrculL arrangemenL ls shown ln
flgure (1) .

1he zener dlode of zener volLage vz ls reverse connecLed across Lhe load 8
L
ln whlch
consLanL ouLpuL ls deslred. 1he serles reslsLor 8 absorbs Lhe ouLpuL volLage flucLuaLlons so
as Lo malnLaln consLanL volLage across Lhe load. lL may be noLed LhaL Lhe zener wlll malnLaln
a consLanL volLage vz (l.e v
ouL
) across load as long as Lhe lnpuL volLage does noL fall below vz.
When Lhe clrculL ls properly deslgned Lhe load volLage v
ouL
remalns consLanL equal Lo
vz (even Lhough Lhe lnpuL volLage vln and load reslsLor 8
L
may vary over a wlde range).
lrom Lhe flgure lL wlll be seen LhaL Lhe LoLal currenL l passlng Lhrough 8 equals Lhe
sum of dlode currenL and load currenL.
l.e l = l
Z
+ l
L

under all condlLlons vz = v
Cu1

v
ln
= l
8
+ v
Z

= l
8 +
v
Cu1

Case 1:-
Suppose 8
L
ls kepL flxed buL supply volLage v
ln
ls lncreased sllghLly lL wlll lncrease l.
1hls lncreaslng l wlll be absorbed by Lhe zener dlode wlLhouL affecLlng l
L
. 1he lncrease ln v
ln

Wlll be dropped across 8 Lhereby keeplng v
ouL
consLanL. Conversely, lf supply volLage v
ln
falls
Lhe dlode Lakes a smaller currenL and volLage drop across 8 ls reduced, Lhus agaln keeplng
v
ouL
consLanL. Pence, when v
ln
changes, l and lk drop change ln such a way as Lo keep vouL
(=vz) consLanL.


Case 2:-
ln Lhls case, v
ln
ls flxed buL l
L
ls changed. When l
L
lncreases, dlode currenL l
Z
decreases
Lhereby keeplng l and hence l8 drop consLanL. ln Lhls way ,v
ouL
remalns unaffecLed.
Should l
L
decrease, l
Z
would lncrease ln order

Lo keep l and hence l8 drop consLanL.
Agaln v
ouL
would remaln unchanged because
v
ouL
= v
ln
- l8 = v
ln
- ( l
Z +
l
L
)8
lncldenLally, lL may be noLed LhaL

I I
J J
R
+
=
When dlode currenL reaches lLs maxlmum value , l
L
becomes zero .
ln LhaL case
) (maximum I
J J
R
:
t ou in

=
8C8LLM (1)
lor Lhe clrculL shown ln flgure flnd
(l) Lhe ouLpuL volLage
(ll) Lhe volLage drop across serles reslsLor
(lll) CurrenL Lhrough zener dlode

(1) CuL puL volLage v
ouL
= 30v
(2) volLage drop across reslsLor = v
ln
- v
ouL
= 120 v - 30 v = 70v.
(3) ClrculL currenL l =
3
10 5
70
x
= 14 mA.
(4) Load currenL l
L
=
L
:
R
J
=
3
10 10
50
x
= 3 mA.
(3) CurrenL flow Lhrough Lhe l
Z
= l - l
L
= 14 - 3 = 9 mA
Zener dlode

l.e. l
Z
= 9 mA.


8C8LLM (2)
A 7.2 v zener ls used ln Lhe clrculL as shown ln flgure and Lhe load currenL Lo vary
form 12 Lo 100mA . llnd Lhe value of serles reslsLance Lo malnLaln a volLage of 7.2 v across
Lhe load . 1he lnpuL volLage ls consLanL aL 12 v and mlnlmum zener currenL ls 10mA.

Clven LhaL
L
1
= 12 v
CupuL volLage = 7.2 v = vz
lnpuL volLage = 12 v
volLage drop across serles reslsLor = vln - vouL
= 12 - 7.2 = 4.8v
value of reslsLor 8 =
(max) (min)
2 1
L :
I I
E E
+
=
3
10 ) 100 10 (
2 . 7 12
x
=
3
10 110
8 . 4
x
= 43.6.
1unnLL ulCuL
lL ls a hlgh conducLlvlLy Lwo Lermlnal n [uncLlon dlode havlng doplng denslLy abouL
1000 Llmes hlgher as compared Lo an ordlnary [uncLlon dlode. 1hls very heavy doplng
produces followlng Lhree unusual effecL.
(1) llrsLly, lL reduces Lhe wldLh of Lhe depleLlon layer Lo an exLremely small value (abouL
0.00001mm)
(2) Secondly, lL reduces Lhe reverse breakdown volLage Lo a very small value
(approachlng zero) wlLh Lhe resulL LhaL Lhe dlode appears Lo be broken down for any
reverse volLage.
(3) 1hlrdly, lL produces a negaLlve reslsLance secLlon on Lhe v/l characLerlsLlc of Lhe
dlode.
lL ls called a Lunnel dlode because due Lo lLs exLremely Lhln depleLlon layer, elecLrons
are able Lo *Lunnel Lhrough Lhe poLenLlal barrler aL relaLlvely low forward blas volLage (less
Lhan 0.03v). Such dlodes are usually fabrlcaLed form germanlum, galllum-arsenlde (CaAs)
and galllum anLlmonlde (CaSb).
*The conduction mechanism in which charge carriers (possessing very little energy ) bore through a barrier directly with the speed of light.


1he vl characLerlsLlc and commonly used symbols are shown below.

As seen forward blas produces lmmedlaLe conducLlon l.e as soon as forward blas ls
applled, slgnlflcanL currenL ls produced. 1he currenL qulckly rlses Lo lLs peok voloe l
p
when
Lhe applled forward volLage reaches a value v
p
(olnL A). When forward volLage ls lncreased
furLher, dlode currenL sLarLs decreaslng Llll lL achleves lLs mlnlmum value called volley cotteot
l
v
correspondlng valley volLage v
v
(olnL 8). lor volLages greaLer Lhen vv, currenL sLarLs
lncreaslng agaln as ln any ordlnary [uncLlon dlode.
As seen from flg, beLween Lhe peak polnL A and valley polnL 8, currenL Jecteose wltb
locteose lo tbe opplleJ voltoqe. ln oLher words, Lunnel dlode possesses negaLlve reslsLance
ln Lhls reglon. 1hls properLy of Lunnel dlode ls mosLly used for maklng very hlgh frequency
osclllaLors.
AnoLher polnL Lo be noLed LhaL Lhls reslsLance lncreases from polnL A Lo 8 because as
volLage ls lncreased , currenL keeps decreaslng whlch means LhaL dlode negaLlve reslsLance
keeps lncreaslng.
ALlCA1lCnS
1. As an ulLra hlgh-speed swlLch due Lo Lunnellng mechanlsm whlch essenLlally Lakes
place aL Lhe sped of llghL. lL has swlLchlng Llme of Lhe order of nanoseconds or even
plcoseconds
2. As loglc memory sLorage devlce.
3. As mlcrowave osclllaLor aL a frequency of abouL 10CPz.
4. ln relaxaLlon osclllaLor clrculLs. l
L

AuvAn1ACLS Anu ulSAuvAn1ACLS
1. Low nolse
2. Plgh speed


3. Low power
1he dlsadvanLages are :-
(1) 1he volLage range over whlch lL can be operaLed properly ls 1 v or less.
(2) 8elng a low power devlce , lL can be easlly damaged by heaL and sLaLlc elecLrlclLy.
vA8AC1C8 ulCuL
varacLor dlode ls a semlconducLor volLage dependenL varlable capaclLor. lL ls also
known as varl-cap or volLa-cap or volLage varlable capaclLor (vvC) dlode. 8aslcally lL ls [usL a
reverse blased [uncLlon dlode whose depleLlon reglon acLs llke an lnsulaLor or as a dlelecLrlc
maLerlal essenLlal for maklng a capaclLor. 1he -1ype and n-1ype maLerlal on boLh sldes of
Lhe depleLlon reglon acLs as Lhe plaLes of Lhe capaclLor. 1he [uncLlon capaclLance LhaL Lhe
dlode possessed ls known as LranslLlon capaclLance. When reverse volLage decreases Lhe
depleLlon layer decrease Lhereby lncreaslng Lhe [uncLlon capaclLance. Pence we can change
Lhe dlode capaclLance by slmply changlng reverse blas. Slllcon dlode whlch are made for Lhls
varlable capaclLance effecL are called varacLors.

Ma[or appllcaLlons of varacLor dlode are ln Lunlng clrculLs. lL ls used ln elecLronlc
Luners of radlo recelvers and 1v recelvers. ls maln appllcaLlon ls ln hlgh frequency clrculLs
because lLs [uncLlon capaclLance ls pf range. lM modulaLors are also consLrucLed wlLh Lhls
dlode.
ln ulCuL
lL ls composed of Lhree secLlons. 1here are Lhe usual -and n-reglons buL sandwlched
beLween Lhem ls an lnLrlnslc layer or l-layer of pure slllcon.

8elng lnLrlnslc or undoped layer lL offers relaLlvely hlgh reslsLance. 1hls hlgh
reslsLance reglon glves lL Lwo advanLages as compared Lo an ordlnary -n dlode.


1he advanLages are:-
1. uecrease ln LranslLlon capaclLance C
1
because capaclLance ls lnversely proporLlonal
Lo Lhe separaLlon of and n reglons. lL allows Lhe dlode a fasLer response Llme.
Pence ln dlodes are used aL hlgh frequencles. (more Lhan 300 MPz)
2. osslblllLy of greaLer elecLrlc fleld beLween Lhe -and n-[uncLlons.
ulCuL 8LSlS1AnCL
When lL ls forward blased lL offers a varlable reslsLance. lor large uC currenL lL would
llke a shorL. When lL ls reverse blased lL looks llke an open l.e lL offers lnflnlLe reslsLance ln
Lhe reverse dlrecLlons.
ALlCA1lCn
1. As a swlLchlng dlode for slgnal frequency upLo CPz
2. As AM modulaLor of very hlgh frequency slgnal
LlCP1 LMl11lnC ulCuL (LLu)
LlghL emlLLlng dlode ls a n [uncLlon LhaL emlLs opLlcal radlaLlon generaLed by Lhe
recomblnaLlon of elecLrons and holes when Lhe [uncLlon ls forward blased.
ln a forward blased [uncLlon, elecLrons dlffuse from Lhe n-reglon Lo Lhe -reglon, and
holes dlffuse from Lhe -reglon Lo Lhe n-reglon. When Lhe elecLrons enLer Lhe -reglon, Lhey
become mlnorlLy carrlers ln LhaL reglon, and a number of such elecLrons wlll recomblne wlLh
Lhe holes (whlch are Lhe ma[orlLy carrlers) avallable Lhere. Slmllarly, a number of holes
dlffuslng lnLo Lhe n-reglon wlll recomblne wlLh Lhe elecLrons avallable ln LhaL reglon. 1he
recomblnaLlon of a ma[orlLy carrler and a mlnorlLy carrler causes a release of energy from
Lhe mlnorlLy carrler. 1he released energy can appear ln Lhe form of heaL or ln Lhe form of
phoLon. 8oLh Lypes of release of energy occur ln any semlconducLor maLerlal.8uL cerLaln
speclal maLerlals have a hlgh degree of probablllLy of radlaLlve release of (ln Lhe form of
phoLon) energy. !uncLlons made of such semlconducLor maLerlal acLs as llghL emlLLlng
dlodes. Calllum Arsenlde (CaAs),Calllum phosphlde (Ca) ,Calllum Arsenlde hosphlde
(CaAs) are Lhe examples of maLerlals used for Lhe consLrucLlon of LLus. ulfferenL dopes
cause Lhe LLu Lo emlL llghL of dlfferenL colours.
(1) CaAs - lnfrared radlaLlon (2) Ca - 8ed or Creen LlghL (3) CaAs - 8ed or ?ellow

llgure1a shows a Lyplcal LLu
consLrucLlon, llg 1b shows Lhe symbol
and 1c shows lLs general appearance.
1he advanLages of LLus over lncandescenL
bulbs are llsLed below
(1) LLus have no fllamenLs Lo heaL and
so requlre less currenL Lo glow.

LLus have no fllamenLs Lo heaL and


(2)
(3)
(4)
(3)
1he maln
cannoL wlLhsLand reverse
very small volLage.
necessary Lo assume LhaL reverse
never applled Lo an LLu.
ALlCA1lCn Cl LLu
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(3)
(2) LLus requlre only
supply(Lyplcally 1.2 Lo 2.3v)
(3) LLus lasL much longer
years
(4) 8ecause Lhere ls no fllamenL Lo
heaL up, LLus are always cool.
(3) LLus can be swlLch Cn and Cll aL
a much fasLer raLe compared wlLh
convenLlonal lamps.
1he maln dlsadvanLage
cannoL wlLhsLand reverse
very small volLage.
ALlCA1lCn Cl LLu
(1) ln seven segmenL, 16 segmenL and
doL-maLrlx . Such dlsplays are us
Lo lndlcaLe Alpha numerlc
characLers and symbols ln varlous
sysLems such as dlglLal clock,mlcro
wave oven, calculaLors eLc.
(2) lor lndlcaLlng power Cn or Cll
condlLlons and power level
lndlcaLors of sLereo ampllflers
(3) ln opLlcal swlLchlng appllcaLlons.
(4) lor solld sLaLe vldeo dlsplay whlch
are rapldly replaclng caLhode ray
Lubes(C81)
(3) ln burglar alarm . ln such
appllcaLlons l8 LLus are preferred.
LLus requlre only lower volLage
LLus lasL much longer
8ecause Lhere ls no fllamenL Lo
LLus can be swlLch Cn and Cll aL
convenLlonal lamps.
dlsadvanLage of LLu ls LhaL
cannoL wlLhsLand reverse blas
very small volLage. lor Lhls reason
ALlCA1lCn Cl LLu
ln seven segmenL, 16 segmenL and
maLrlx . Such dlsplays are us
lor lndlcaLlng power Cn or Cll
ln opLlcal swlLchlng appllcaLlons.
solld sLaLe vldeo dlsplay whlch
Lubes(C81)
ln burglar alarm . ln such
l 1 l 8 \ N 0
lower volLage
LLus lasL much longer-upLo several
8ecause Lhere ls no fllamenL Lo

of LLu ls LhaL lL
blas of even
lor Lhls reason lL ls
necessary Lo assume LhaL reverse blas ls
maLrlx . Such dlsplays are used
lor lndlcaLlng power Cn or Cll
ln opLlcal swlLchlng appllcaLlons.
ln burglar alarm . ln such
l 1 l 8 \ N 0
upLo several

ed



SLvLn SLCMLn1 ulSLA?
A seven-segmenL array of LLus ls shown ln llg. whlch can form Lhe dlglLs 0 Lo 9. Lach
segmenL conLalns a LLu whlch can be Lurned Cn or Cll Lo form Lhe deslred dlglL. lor
example ,when all segmenLs are Cn, Lhe dlglL formed ls 8. lf only Lhe cenLre ls Cll, we geL
zero dlglL.

l8 LLu : -
1hls LLus produce an opLlcal radlaLlon of wavelengLh of 883 nm (lnfrared). Calllum
arsenlde ls used for lLs consLrucLlon. 1hese lnfrared LLus are malnly used for burglar alarm
sysLems.
LlCulu C8?S1AL ulSLA?S (LCu)
lL ls also called an elecLrolumlnescenL dlsplay. 1he llquld crysLal dlsplay conslsLs of a
Lhln layer of normally LransparenL llquld crysLal maLerlal beLween Lwo elecLrodes. When an
elecLrlc fleld ls applled, Lhe maLerlal becomes LurbulenL, reflecLlng and scaLLerlng an
amblenL llghL. lL provldes a hlgh excellenL brlghLness under hlgh amblenL llghL condlLlons
and requlres only 30mW of power/segmenL. 1hls power ls much lower as compared Lo LhaL

of LLu. 1he requlred crysLal dlsplays are used ln waLches, pockeL calculaLors and porLable
lnsLrumenLs. 1he developmenL of llquld-crysLal dlsplays creaLed an alLernaLlve Lo bulky
plcLure Lubes and made posslble compacL, porLable Lelevlslons wlLh flaL screens.


LlCP1 uLLnuLn1 8LSlS1C8 (Lu8)
A llghL-dependenL reslsLor ls a semlconducLor devlce whose reslsLance varles wlLh Lhe
amounL of llghL energy lmparLed Lo lL. 8eslsLance of such a devlce ls very hlgh ( of Lhe order
of several kllo ohms or even mega ohms) when kepL ln darkness. 8eslsLance of Lhe same
devlce becomes very low (of Lhe order of a few ohms only) when kepL ln a well lllumlnaLed
area. As Lhe amounL of llghL lnLenslLy ls lncreased, Lhe reslsLance of Lhe devlce ls decreased.
8eslsLance of Lhls devlce ls dlrecLly proporLlonal Lo Lhe amounL of llghL falllng on lLs surface.
Lu8s are also known as phoLo reslsLors.
1he semlconducLor fllm deposlLed on an lnsulaLlng subsLance consLlLuLes a unlL whlch
ls placed ln elLher a meLalllc or a plasLlc case whose Lop surface ls covered wlLh glass. 1he
glass cover of Lhe compacL unlL allows llghL rays Lo reach Lhe semlconducLor coaLed surface
and accordlngly Lhe reslsLance changes. 1hey are usually made ln Lhe form of cadmlum
sulphlde dlscs provlded wlLh Lwo Llnned copper connecLlng leads.

LlghL dependenL reslsLors have a wlde range of appllcaLlons. AuLomaLlc sLreeL llghLlng, Cll
aL dark clrculL, burglar alarms eLc. are some of lLs lmporLanL appllcaLlons.
________________

ln18CuuC1lCn
When a Lhlrd doped elemenL ls added
[uncLlons are formed Lhe resulLlng devlce ls known as LranslsLor. 1ranslsLor ls capable of
achlevlng ampllflcaLlon of weak slgnals compared Lo or superlor Lo vacuum Lubes. vacuum
Lubes were blg ln slze, consumed mor
fraglle. Pence vacuum Lubes became obsoleLe as soon as LranslsLors came Lo markeL.
AdvanLages of LranslsLors over vacuum Lubes are llsLed below.
very small slze
LlghL ln welghL
Mlnlmum or no power loss ln Lhe form of heaL
Low operaLlng volLage
no heaLlng fllamenLs.
Mechanlcal sLrong
18AnSlS1C8
A LranslsLor conslsLs of Lwo n
Lype semlconducLor beLween a palr of opposlLe Lypes.
LranslsLors namely

ln18CuuC1lCn
very small slze
LlghL ln welghL
Mechanlcal sLrong
18AnSlS1C8
LranslsLors namely

very small slze
LlghL ln welghL
Mechanlcal sLrong
(1) NN 1rans|stor

CPA1L8
18AnSlS1C8S
Lubes were blg ln slze, consumed more power, generaLed loL of unwanLed heaL and were
A LranslsLor conslsLs of Lwo n [uncLlons formed
NN 1rans|stor
CPA1L8 11
18AnSlS1C8S
When a Lhlrd doped elemenL ls added ln a crysLal dlode ln such a way LhaL Lwo n
e power, generaLed loL of unwanLed heaL and were
[uncLlons formed
Lype semlconducLor beLween a palr of opposlLe Lypes. Accordlngly Lhere are Lwo Lypes of
(2) N 1rans|stor
18AnSlS1C8S
crysLal dlode ln such a way LhaL Lwo n

by sandwlchlng elLher
Accordlngly Lhere are Lwo Lypes of
2) N 1rans|stor

sandwlchlng elLher
2) N 1rans|stor
l 1 l 8 \ N 0
sandwlchlng elLher -Lype or n-
l 1 l 8 \ N 0


An nn LranslsLor ls composed of Lwo n-Lype semlconducLors separaLed by a
Lhln secLlon of -Lype as shown ln flgure (a). Powever a n LranslsLor ls formed by Lwo -
secLlons separaLed by a Lhln secLlon n-Lype as shown ln flgure (b). Symbols of nn and
n LranslsLors are also shown ln flg.(a) and flg.(b) respecLlvely. lL should be noLed LhaL
emlLLer ls shown by an arrow whlch lndlcaLes Lhe dlrecLlon of convenLlonal currenL flow
wlLh forward blas.
1hls Lype of LranslsLors are called 8|po|ar Iunct|on 1rans|stors (8I1) because lL uses
Lwo opposlLe polarlLy of doped semlconducLor l.e'n'Lype and ''Lype.
ln each Lype of LranslsLors Lhe followlng polnLs may be noLed
(1) 1here are Lwo n [uncLlons. 1herefore a LranslsLor may be consldered as a
comblnaLlon of Lwo dlodes connecLed back Lo back. 1he [uncLlon beLween emlLLer
and base may be called emlLLer-base dlode or Lm|tter d|ode. 1he secLlon beLween
base and collecLor may be called collecLor-base dlode or co||ector d|ode. CollecLor
dlode ls always reverse blased whereas Lhe emlLLer dlode ls always forward blased.
1he reslsLance of emlLLer dlode (forward blased) ls very small as compared Lo Lhe
collecLor dlode (reverse blased). 1herefore forward blased applled Lo Lhe emlLLer
dlode ls generally small whereas reverse blas on Lhe collecLor dlode ls much hlgher.
(2) 1he construction of tronsistors:-. 1he LranslsLor ls made up of Slllcon or germanlum
maLerlals by varlous meLhods llke po|nt contact, grown [unct|on, a||oy [unct|on
,d|ffus|on [unct|on and ep|tax|a| meLhods. 1here are Lhree Lermlnals Laken from
each Lype of semlconducLor. 1he Lermlnal Laken from one slde ls em|tter and Lhe
secLlon on Lhe opposlLe slde ls Lhe co||ector. 1he mlddle secLlon ls very Lhln layer and
ls called base. lL forms Lwo [uncLlons beLween Lhe emlLLer and collecLor. lL should be
undersLood LhaL Lhe base ls much Lhlnner Lhan Lhe emlLLer whlle collecLor ls wlder
Lhan boLh as shown ln flgure (l) and (ll) . Powever for Lhe sake of convenlence emlLLer
and collecLor ls shown Lo be equal slze.

llg.1 llg.(ll)


18AnSlS1C8 1L8MlnALS
LMl11L8
1he secLlon of one slde LhaL supplles charge carrlers (elecLrons or holes) ls called Lhe
emlLLer. lL ls heavlly doped so LhaL lL can ln[ecL a large number of charge carrler (elecLrons or
holes) lnLo Lhe base. 1he em|tter |s a|ways forward b|ased wlLh respecL Lo base so LhaL lL can
supply a large numbers of ma[orlLy carrlers.

ln flg (l) Lhe emlLLer (n-Lype) of nn LranslsLor has a forward blas and supplles free elecLrons
Lo lLs [uncLlon wlLh Lhe base. Slmllarly ln flgure (ll) Lhe emlLLer (-Lype ) of Lhe n LranslsLor
ls forward blased and supply hole charges Lo lLs [uncLlon wlLh Lhe base.
CCLLLC1C8
1he secLlon on Lhe oLher slde LhaL collecLs Lhe charges ls called Lhe collecLor. lL ls
moderaLely doped. 1he co||ector |s a|ways reverse b|ased. lLs funcLlon ls Lo remove charges
from lLs [uncLlon wlLh Lhe base. ln flg.(l) Lhe collecLor (n-Lype) of nn LranslsLor has reverse
blas and recelves elecLron. Slmllarly ln flg(ll) Lhe collecLor (-Lype) of n LranslsLor has
reverse blased and recelves hole charges.
8ASL
1he base ls llghLly doped and very Lhln. 1he base-emlLLer [uncLlon ls forward blased
allowlng low reslsLance for Lhe emlLLer clrculL. 1he base collecLor [uncLlon ls reverse blased
and provldes hlgh reslsLance ln Lhe collecLor clrculL.
18AnSlS1C8 AC1lCn
1he emlLLer-base [uncLlon of a LranslsLor ls forward blased whereas collecLor-base
[uncLlon ls reverse blased. lf emlLLer-base [uncLlon ls noL presenL Lhen pracLlcally no currenL
would flow ln Lhe collecLor clrculL because of reverse blas. Powever lf Lhe base-emlLLer
[uncLlon ls presenL, Lhen forward blas on lL cause Lhe emlLLer currenL Lo flow. lL ls seen LhaL
Lhls emlLLer currenL almosL enLlrely flows lnLo Lhe collecLor clrculL. CollecLor currenL
depends upon Lhe emlLLer currenL. lf Lhe emlLLer currenL ls zero Lhen collecLor currenL ls
nearly zero. Powever lf Lhe emlLLer currenL ls 1mA Lhen collecLor currenL ls also 1mA.


WC8klnC Cl nn 18AnSlS1C8

llgure shows Lhe nn LranslsLor wlLh forward blas Lo emlLLer base [uncLlon and
reverse blas Lo collecLor base [uncLlon. 1he forward blas caused Lhe elecLrons ln Lhe n-Lype
emlLLer Lo flow Lowards Lhe base. 1hls consLlLuLes Lhe emlLLer currenL l
L
. As Lhese elecLrons
flow Lhrough Lhe -Lype base, Lhey Lend Lo comblne wlLh holes. As Lhe base ls llghLly doped
and very Lhln, Lherefore, only a few elecLrons (les Lhan 3) comblne wlLh holes Lo consLlLuLe
base currenL l
8
. 1he remlnder (more Lhan 93) cross over lnLo Lhe collecLor reglon Lo
consLlLuLe collecLor currenL l
C
. ln Lhls way , almosL Lhe enLlre emlLLer currenL flows ln Lhe
collecLor clrculL. lL ls clear LhaL emlLLer currenL ls Lhe sum of collecLor and base currenLs.
l.e l
L
= l
8
+ l
C
WC8klnC Cl n 18AnSlS1C8

llgure shows Lhe baslc connecLlon of a n LranslsLor. 1he forward blas causes Lhe
holes ln Lhe -Lype emlLLer Lo flow Lowards Lhe base. 1hls consLlLuLes emlLLer currenL l
L
.
As Lhese holes cross ln n-Lype base, Lhen Lend Lo comblne wlLh elecLrons. As Lhe base ls
llghLly doped and very Lhln , Lherefore only a few holes (less Lhan3) comblne wlLh Lhe
elecLrons. 1he remlnder (more Lhan 93) cross over Lo Lhe collecLor reglon Lo consLlLuLe
collecLor currenL l
C
. ln Lhls way , almosL enLlre emlLLer currenL flows ln Lhe collecLor clrculL.


lL may be noLed LhaL currenL conducLlon wlLh ln Lhe n LranslsLor ls by holes. Powever ln
Lhe exLernal connecLlng wlres, Lhe currenL ls sLlll by elecLrons.
lMC81AnCL Cl 18AnSlS1C8 AC1lCn
1he lnpuL clrculL (l.e LmlLLer-8ase !uncLlon) has low reslsLance because of forward
blas whereas ouLpuL clrculL (l.e collecLor -8ase !uncLlon) has hlgh reslsLance due Lo reverse
blas. 1he lnpuL emlLLer currenL almosL enLlrely flows ln Lhe collecLor clrculL. 1herefore a
LranslsLor Lransfers Lhe lnpuL slgnal currenL from a low reslsLance clrculL Lo a hlgh reslsLance
clrculL. 1hls ls Lhe key facLor responslble for Lhe ampllfylng capablllLy of Lhe LranslsLor.
18AnSlS1C8 AS An AMLlllL8
A LranslsLor ralses Lhe sLrengLh of a weak slgnal and Lhus acLs as an ampllfler.

llgure shows a baslc clrculL of a LranslsLor ampllfler. 1he weak slgnal ls applled
beLween emlLLer-base [uncLlon and ouLpuL ls Laken across Lhe load 8
C
connecLed ln Lhe
collecLor clrculL. ln order Lo achleve falLhful ampllflcaLlon Lhe lnpuL clrculL should always
remaln forward blased. 1o do so a uC volLage v
8L
ls applled ln Lhe lnpuL clrculL ln addlLlon Lo
Lhe slgnal as shown. 1hls uC volLage ls known as blas volLage and lLs magnlLude ls such LhaL lL
always keeps Lhe lnpuL clrculL forward blased regardless of Lhe polarlLy of Lhe slgnal.
As lnpuL clrculL has low reslsLance, Lherefore a small change ln slgnal volLage causes
an appreclable change ln emlLLer currenL. 1hls causes almosL Lhe same change ln collecLor
currenL due Lo LranslsLor acLlon. 1he collecLor currenL flowlng Lhrough a hlgh load reslsLance
8
C
produces a large volLage across lL. 1hus a weak slgnal applled ln Lhe lnpuL clrculL appears
ln Lhe ampllfled form ln Lhe collecLor clrculL. lL ls ln Lhls way a LranslsLor acLs as an ampllfler.
lLLuS18A1lCn
Suppose collecLor load 8
C
=3kD. LeL us furLher assume LhaL a change of 0.1v ln slgnal
volLage produces a change of 1mA ln emlLLer currenL. 1herefore a change ln collecLor currenL
would also be approxlmaLely 1mA. 1hls collecLor currenL flowlng Lhrough collecLor load 8
C

would produce a volLage equal Lo 3kD x 1mA = 3v. 1hus a change of 0.1v ln Lhe slgnal


produces a change of 3v ln Lhe ouLpuL clrculL. ln oLher words, Lhe LranslsLor has been able Lo
ralse Lhe volLage level of Lhe slgnal from 0.1v Lo 3v.
18AnSlS1C8 CCnnLC1lCnS
When a LranslsLor ls used ln a clrculL, four Lermlnals are needed, Lwo for Lhe lnpuL
and Lwo for Lhe ouLpuL. 8uL ln a LranslsLor Lhere are only Lhree leads. So one of Lhe Lermlnals
(emlLLer, base or collecLor) ls Laken as common. 8ased on Lhe common lead we can make
Lhree Lypes of connecLlons wlLh a LranslsLor.
(1) Common 8ase ConnecLlon
(2) Common LmlLLer ConnecLlon
(3) Common collecLor connecLlon
Lach clrculL connecLlon has speclflc advanLages and dlsadvanLages. lL may be noLed
here LhaL regardless of clrculL connecLlon, Lhe emlLLer ls always blased ln Lhe forward
dlrecLlon whlle Lhe collecLor always has a reverse blas.
CCMMCN 8ASL CCNNLC1ICN

ln Lhls clrculL arrangemenL lnpuL ls applled beLween emlLLer and base and ouLpuL ls
Laken from collecLor and base. Pence base of Lhe LranslsLor ls common Lo boLh lnpuL and
ouLpuL clrculL and hence Lhe name common base connecLlon. ln flg. (l), a common base
connecLlon of nn LranslsLor clrculL ls shown whereas flgure (ll) shows Lhe common base
n LranslsLor clrculL.
Cu88Ln1 AMLlllCA1lCn lAC1C8 (d)
lL ls Lhe raLlo of ouLpuL currenL and lnpuL currenL. ln a common base connecLlon, Lhe
lnpuL currenL ls emlLLer currenL l
L
and ouLpuL currenL ls Lhe collecLor currenL l
C
.
1he raLlo of change ln collecLor currenL Lo Lhe change ln emlLLer currenL aL consLanL
collecLor base volLage v
C8
ls known as currenL ampllflcaLlon facLor .
l.e
I
I
= aL consLanL v
C8
.
lf only uC values are consldered Lhen

E
C
I
I
= aL consLanL v
C8
.

12S | a g e 8 A S l C L L L C 1 8 C n l C S
lL ls clear LhaL currenL ampllflcaLlon facLor ls less Lhan unlLy. 1hls value can be
lncreased (buL noL more Lhan unlLy) by decreaslng Lhe base currenL. 1hls ls achleved by
maklng Lhe base Lhln and doplng lL llghLly. racLlcal value of
from 0.9 to 0.99
Lx8LSSlCn lC8 CCLLLC1C8 Cu88Ln1
1he whole of Lhe emlLLer currenL does noL reach Lhe collecLor.
percenLage of lL, as a resulL of elecLron hole comblnaLlon occurrlng ln Lhe base area, glve
ralse Lo base currenL. Moreover, as Lhe collecLor base [uncLlon ls reverse blased, Lherefore
some leakage currenL flows due Lo mlnorlLy carrl
conslsLs of
(1) 1haL parL of emlLLer currenL whlch reaches Lhe collecLor Lermlnal l.e
(2) 1he leakage currenL l
1herefore LoLal collecLor currenL
lL ls clear LhaL lf l
sLlll flows ln Lhe collecLor clrculL. 1hls leakage currenL ls abbrevlaLed as l
base currenL wlLh emlLLer open. 1herefore

1he currenL l
8C8LLMS

0.9 to 0.99.
conslsLs of
1haL parL of emlLLer currenL whlch reaches Lhe collecLor Lermlnal l.e
1he leakage currenL l

1he currenL l
C8C
ls usually small and may be neglecLed ln LranslsLor clrculL
8C8LLMS
1he leakage currenL l
leokoqe
C
ls equal Lo zero (l.e emlLLer clrculL ls open) a small leakage currenL

leokoqe
. 1hls ls generally much smaller Lhan
1herefore LoLal collecLor currenL l
C
=
l
C
= dl
L
some leakage currenL flows due Lo mlnorlLy carrlers. lL follows LhaL LoLal collecLor currenL
= dl
L
+ l
leokoqe
L
+ l
C8C
maklng Lhe base Lhln and doplng lL llghLly. racLlcal value of d ln commerclal Lran
ers. lL follows LhaL LoLal collecLor currenL
leokoqe
.
ln commerclal Lran
1he whole of Lhe emlLLer currenL does noL reach Lhe collecLor. lL ls because a small
1haL parL of emlLLer currenL whlch reaches Lhe collecLor Lermlnal l.e dl
L

. 1hls ls generally much smaller Lhan dl
L

C8C
meanlng collecLor

calculaLlons
l 1 l 8 \ N 0
ln commerclal LranslsLor range
lL ls because a small

meanlng collecLor
calculaLlons
.
l 1 l 8 \ N 0
slsLor range
meanlng collecLor


CPA8AC1L8lS1lCS Cl CCMMCn 8ASL CCnnLC1lCn
1he compleLe elecLrlcal behavlor of a LranslsLor can be descrlbed by sLaLlng Lhe
relaLlonshlp of varlous currenLs and volLages.
dlsplayed graphlcally and Lhe curves Lhus obLalned are known as Lhe characLerlsLlcs of Lhe
LranslsLor. 1he mosL lmporLanL characLerlsLlcs of common base connecLlon are lnpuL
characLerlsLlc and ouLpuL characLerlsLlcs.
CharacLerlsLlcs of a common bas
clrculL shown ln flg.
MllllammeLers are lncluded ln serles wlLh Lhe emlLLer and collecLor clrculLs Lo
measure l
across C and 8 Lo measure v
Lhe collecLor and emlLLer uC supplles.
lnu1 CPA8AC1L8lS1lCS
lL ls Lhe curve beLween emlLLer currenL l
collecLor base

8AC1L8lS1lCS Cl CCMMCn 8ASL CCnnLC1lCn
clrculL shown ln flg.
measure l
L
and l
c
. Slmllarly volLmeLers are connecLed across L and 8 Lo measure v
collecLor base volLage v

Slmllarly volLmeLers are connecLed across L and 8 Lo measure v
C8
. 1wo poLenLlomeLers 8
volLage v
C8
. 1he meLhod deLermlnlng Lhe characLerlsLlc ls as follows.

CharacLerlsLlcs of a common base

relaLlonshlp of varlous currenLs and volLages. 1hese relaLlonshlps can be conven
e n LranslsLor can be deLermlned by Lhe LesL
1
and 8
L
and emlLLer base volLage

1hese relaLlonshlps can be conven
LranslsLor can be deLermlned by Lhe LesL
and 8
2
supply varlable volLages from
and emlLLer base volLage

1hese relaLlonshlps can be conven

and emlLLer base volLage v
8L
aL consLanL
l 1 l 8 \ N 0

1hese relaLlonshlps can be convenlenLly
L8
and
aL consLanL
l 1 l 8 \ N 0

lenLly


llrsL, volLage v
C8
ls ad[usLed Lo a sulLable value wlLh Lhe help of 8
2
. nexL , volLage v
8L

ls lncreased sLep by sLep and correspondlng value of l
L
are noLed from Lhe mllllammeLer
connecLed for Lhe purpose. When ploLLed, we geL Lhe lnpuL characLerlsLlc as shown ln flg. (ll),
one for Cermanlum and Lhe oLher for Slllcon. 8oLh curves are exacLly slmllar Lo Lhe forward
characLerlsLlc of a n dlode.

1he followlng polnLs may be noLed form Lhese characLerlsLlcs.
(l) LmlLLer currenL lL lncreases rapldly wlLh small lncrease ln emlLLer base volLage v
8L
. lL
means LhaL lnpuL reslsLance ls very small.
(ll) 1he emlLLer currenL ls almosL lndependenL of collecLor base volLage v
C8
. 1hls leads Lo
Lhe condlLlon LhaL emlLLer currenL (and hence collecLor currenL) ls almosL
lndependenL of collecLor volLage.
lnu1 8LSlS1AnCL
lL ls Lhe raLlo of change ln emlLLer base volLage (

J ) Lo Lhe resulLlng change ln
emlLLer currenL (
E
I ) aL consLanL collecLor base volLage.
l.e lnpuL reslsLance ,8
l
=
E
E
I
JB
aL consLanL v
C8
.
ln facL lnpuL reslsLance ls Lhe opposlLlon offered Lo Lhe slgnal currenL. As a very small
v
8L
ls sufflclenL Lo produce a large flow of emlLLer currenL l
L
, Lherefore lnpuL reslsLance ls
qulLe small of Lhe order of a few ohms.
Cu1u1 CPA8AC1L8lS1lCS
lL ls Lhe curve beLween collecLor currenL l
C
and collecLor base volLage v
C8
aL consLanL
emlLLer currenL l
L


llrsL, movable conLacL on 8
1
ln flgure ls changed Lo geL a sulLable value of v
8L
and
hence l
L
. Whlle keeplng l
L
consLanL aL Lhls value, v
C8
ls lncreased sLep by sLep from zero and
Lhe correspondlng collecLor currenL lC LhaL flows ls noLed.
nexL, v
C8
reduced back Lo zero, l
L
lncreased Lo a value a llLLle hlgher Lhan before and
Lhe whole procedure ls repeaLed. ln Lhls way whole famlly of curve ls obLalned. A Lyplcal
famlly ls shown ln flgure.

1he followlng polnLs are noLed from Lhe characLerlsLlcs.
(l) 1he collecLor currenL lc varles wlLh v
C8
only aL very low volLages (less Lhan 1v).
1he LranslsLor ls never operaLed ln Lhls reglon.
(ll) When Lhe value of v
C8
ralsed above 1-2v , Lhe collecLor currenL becomes
consLanL as lndlcaLed by sLralghL horlzonLal curves. lL means LhaL now l
C
ls
lndependenLs of v
C8
and depends upon l
C
only. 1hls ls conslsLenL wlLh Lhe Lheory
LhaL Lhe emlLLer currenL flows almosL enLlrely Lo Lhe collecLor Lermlnal. 1he
LranslsLor ls always operaLed ln Lhls reglon.
(lll) A very large change ln collecLor base volLage produces only a Llny change ln
collecLor currenL. 1hls means LhaL ouLpuL reslsLance ls very hlgh.
(lv) AnoLher lmporLanL feaLure of Lhe characLerlsLlc ls LhaL a small amounL of
collecLor currenL flows even when emlLLer currenL l
L
=0. lL ls due Lo collecLor
leakage currenL l
C8C
.
(v) AnoLher polnL worLh noLlng ls LhaL alLhough lc ls pracLlcally lndependenL of v
C8

over Lhe worklng range of Lhe LranslsLor yeL v
C8
ls permlLLed Lo lncrease beyond a
cerLaln value, lc evenLually lncreases rapldly due Lo avalanche breakdown.
Cu1u1 8LSlS1AnCL
lL ls Lhe raLlo of change ln collecLor base volLage (
CB
J ) Lo Lhe change ln collecLor
currenL (
C
I ) aL consLanL emlLLer currenL l
L
.


CuLpuL 8eslsLance 8
o
=
C
CB
I
J
aL consLanL l
L
.
1he ouLpuL reslsLance of common base clrculL ls very hlgh of Lhe order of several Lens of kllo
ohms.
CCMMCn LMl11L8 CCnnLC1lCn
ln Lhls clrculL arrangemenL lnpuL ls applled beLween base and emlLLer, ouLpuL ls
Laken from collecLor and emlLLer. Pere emlLLer of Lhe LranslsLor ls common Lo boLh lnpuL and
ouLpuL clrculL and hence Lhe name common emlLLer connecLlon. llg.(l) shows Common
LmlLLer nn LranslsLor and flg(ll) shows Common LmlLLer n LranslsLor clrculLs.

8ASL Cu88Ln1 AMLlllCA1lCn lAC1C8 ()
ln common emlLLer connecLlon lnpuL currenL ls l
8
and ouLpuL currenL ls lc.
1he raLlo of change ln collecLor currenL (
C
I ) Lo Lhe change ln base currenL (
B
I ) ls
known as 8ase current Amp||f|cat|on Iactor ().

B
C
I
I
=
lf uC values are consldered =
B
C
I
I

ln almosL any LranslsLor , less Lhan 3 of emlLLer currenL flows as Lhe base currenL .
1herefore, Lhe value of ls generally greaLer Lhan 20. usually lLs value ranges from 20 Lo
300. 1hls Lype of connecLlon ls frequenLly used as lL glves appreclable currenL galn as well as
volLage galn.
8LLA1lCn 8L1WLLn Anu o
A slmple relaLlon exlsLs beLween and o . 1hls can be derlved as follows :-


=
1
E
C
E
E
E
C
I
I
I
I
I
I

lL ls clear LhaL as o approaches unlLy, approaches lnflnlLy. ln oLher words Lhe
currenL galn ln common emlLLer connecLlon ls very hlgh. lL ls due Lo Lhls reason LhaL Lhls
clrculL arrangemenL ls used ln abouL 90 Lo 93 of all LranslsLor appllcaLlons.
Lx8LSSlCn lC8 CCLLL1C8 Cu88Ln1
We know LhaL =
B
C
I
I
l
C
= l
8

ln common emlLLer connecLlon, collecLor-emlLLer [uncLlon ls reverse blased when
l
8
= 0 (base clrculL ls open), Lhere ls a leakage currenL from collecLor Lo emlLLer.


lL ls called l
CLC
- meanlng collecLor-emlLLer currenL wlLh base open .
1herefore, LoLal collecLor currenL l
C
= l
8
+ l
CLC.

8C8LLMS

2. CalculaLe l
L
ln a LranslsLor for
whlch = 30 and l
8
= 20A
.
3. lor a LranslsLor , = 43 and volLage drop across 1kU whlch ls connecLed ln Lhe collecLor
clrculL ls 1 volL. llnd Lhe base currenL for common emlLLer connecLlon.
So|ut|on
llg. shows Lhe requlred common emlLLer connecLlon. 1he volLage drop across (=1kU)
ls 1volL.

=
K
J
I
C
1
1

now, =
B
C
I
I

l
8
=
C
I
=
45
1
= 0.022mA.


CPA8AC1L8lS1lC Cl CCMMCn LMl11L8 CCnnLC1lCn
1he lmporLanL characLerlsLlcs of Lhls clrculL arrangemenL are Lhe lnpuL characLerlsLlcs
and ouLpuL characLerlsLlcs.

lL ls Lhe curve beLween base currenL l
8
and 8ase -LmlLLer volLage v
8L
aL consLanL
collecLor emlLLer volLage v
CL
.

1he lnpuL characLerlsLlcs of a common emlLLer connecLlon can be deLermlned by Lhe
clrculL shown ln flgure. keeplng v
CL
consLanL (say aL 10 v), noLe Lhe base currenL l
8
for
varlous values of v
8L
. 1hen ploL Lhe readlng obLalned on Lhe graph, Laklng l
8
along ?- axls
and v
8L
along x-axls. 1hls glves Lhe lnpuL characLerlsLlcs aL v
CL
= 10v, as shown ln flg.(ll).
lollowlng a slmllar procedure a famlly of lnpuL characLerlsLlcs can be drawn.
1he followlng polnLs may be noLed from Lhe characLerlsLlcs
(l) 1he characLerlsLlc resembles LhaL of forward blased dlode curve. 1hls ls expecLed
slnce Lhe base emlLLer secLlon of a LranslsLor ls dlode and ls forward blased.
(ll) As compared Lo common base arrangemenL l
8
lncreases less rapldly wlLh v
8L
.
1herefore lnpuL reslsLance of a common emlLLer clrculL ls hlgher Lhan LhaL of a
common base clrculL.


lnu1 8LlS1AnCL
lL ls Lhe raLlo of change ln base emlLLer volLage (
BE
J ) Lo Lhe change ln base currenL
(
B
I ) aL consLanL v
CL
.
1he value of lnpuL reslsLance for a common emlLLer clrculL ls of Lhe order of a few
hundred ohms.
Cuu1 CPA8AC1L8lS1lC
lL ls Lhe curve beLween collecLor currenL l
C
and collecLor emlLLer volLage v
CL
aL
consLanL base currenL l
8
.
1he ouLpuL characLerlsLlcs of a common emlLLer clrculL can be drawn wlLh Lhe help of
clrculL shown ln flgure (l) . keeplng Lhe base currenL l
8
flxed aL some value say 3A, noLe Lhe
collecLor currenL l
C
for varlous values of v
CL
. 1hen ploL Lhe readlngs on a graph, Laklng l
C

along ?-axls and v
CL
along ?-axls. 1hls glves Lhe ouLpuL characLerlsLlcs aL l
8
= 3A as shown
ln flgure (a) . 1he LesL can be repeaLed for l
8
= 10A Lo obLaln Lhe new ouLpuL characLerlsLlcs
as shown ln flgure (b). lollowlng slmllar procedure of a famlly of ouLpuL characLerlsLlcs can
be drawn as shown ln flgure (c) .

1he followlng plnLs may be noLe from Lhe characLerlsLlcs.
(l) 1he collecLor currenL l
C
varles wlLh v
CL
for v
CL
beLween zero and 1v only. AfLer Lhls
collecLor currenL becomes almosL consLanL and lndependenL of v
CL
. 1hls value of v
CL

up Lo whlch collecLor currenL l
C
changes ls called Lhe knee volLage(v
knee
) . 1he
LranslsLors are operaLed ln Lhe reglon above knee volLage.
(ll) lor any value of v
CL
, above knee volLage Lhe collecLor currenL l
C
ls approxlmaLely
equal Lo x l
8
.
Cu1u1 8LSlS1AnCL
lL ls Lhe raLlo of change ln collecLor-emlLLer volLage (
CE
J ) Lo Lhe change ln collecLor
currenL (
C
I ) aL consLanL l
8
.
CuLpuL reslsLance, 8
C
=
IC
CE
J
aL consLanL l
8
.


CuLpuL reslsLance of a common emlLLer clrculL ls less Lhan LhaL of common base clrculL. lLs
value ls of Lhe order of 30kD.

CCMMCn CCLLLC1C8 CCnnLC1lCn

ln Lhls clrculL arrangemenL lnpuL ls applled beLween base and collecLor and ouLpuL
slgnal ls Laken ouL from emlLLer-collecLor clrculL. Pere collecLor of Lhe LranslsLor ls common
Lo boLh lnpuL and ouLpuL clrculL and hence Lhe name common-collecLor connecLlon. llgure
(l) shows common collecLor nn LranslsLor clrculL and flgure (ll) shows common collecLor
n clrculL.

Cu88Ln1 AMLlllCA1lCn lAC1C8
ln common collecLor clrculL lnpuL currenL ls Lhe base currenL l
8
and ouLpuL currenL ls
Lhe emlLLer currenL l
L
. 1herefore, currenL ampllflcaLlon ln Lhls clrculL arrangemenL can be
deflned as under:-
1he raLlo of change ln emlLLer currenL (
E
B
I ) ls
known as currenL ampllflcaLlon facLor ln common collecLor arrangemenL.

B
E
I
I
=

1he clrculL provldes abouL Lhe same currenL aln as Lhe common emlLLer clrculL as
E
I
C
I . Powever lLs volLage galn ls always less Lhan 1.
ALlCA1lCnS
1he common collecLor clrculL has very hlgh lnpuL reslsLance (abouL 730kD) and very
low ouLpuL reslsLance (abouL 23D). uue Lo Lhls reason, Lhe volLage galn proved by Lhls ls
always less Lhan 1. 1herefore, Lhls clrculL arrangemenL ls seldom used for ampllflcaLlon.
Powever, due Lo relaLlvely hlgh lnpuL reslsLance and low ouLpuL reslsLance, Lhls clrculL
prlmarlly used for lmpedance maLchlng l.e for drlvlng a low lmpedance load from a hlgh
lmpedance source.


CCMA8lSCn Cl 18AnSlS1C8 CCnnLC1lCnS
SL.
NC.
CnAkAC1LkIS1ICS CCMMCN 8ASL CCMMCN LMI11Lk
CCMMCN
CCLLLC1Ck
1. lnpuL reslsLance
Low(abouL 100D) Low(abouL 730D) very Plgh ( abouL
730kD)
2. CuLpuL reslsLance
very Plgh (abouL
430kD)
Plgh (abouL 43kD) Low (abouL 30D)
3. volLage galn AbouL 130 AbouL 300 Less Lhan 1
4. AppllcaLlons
lor Plgh
frequency
appllcaLlons
lor audlo frequency
appllcaLlons
lor lmpedance
maLchlng.

CCMMCnL? uSLu 18AnSlS1C8 CCnnLC1lCn
CuL of Lhe Lhree LranslsLor connecLlons Lhe common emlLLer clrculL ls Lhe mosL
efflclenL. lL ls used ln abouL 90 Lo 93 of all Lhe LranslsLor appllcaLlons. 1he maln reasons for
Lhe wldespread use of Lhls clrculL arrangemenL are:-
(1) Plgh currenL galn:-
ln common emlLLer connecLlons l
C
= l
8
+ l
CLC.
As Lhe value of ls very large,
Lherefore, Lhe ouLpuL currenL l
C
ls much more Lhan Lhe lnpuL currenL l
8
. Pence Lhe currenL
galn ln common emlLLer arrangemenL ls very hlgh.
(2) Plgh volLage and power galn:-
uue Lo hlgh currenL galn Lhe common emlLLer clrculL has Lhe hlghesL volLage and
power galn of Lhree LranslsLor connecLlons. 1hls ls Lhe ma[or reason for uslng Lhe LranslsLor
ln Lhls clrculL arrangemenL.
(3) ModeraLe ouLpuL and lnpuL lmpedance raLlo:-
ln a common emlLLer clrculL, Lhe raLlo of ouLpuL lmpedance Lo lnpuL lmpedance ls
small. 1hls makes Lhls clrculL arrangemenL an ldeal one for coupllng beLween varlous
LranslsLor sLages. Powever, ln oLher connecLlons, Lhe raLlo of ouLpuL lmpedance Lo lnpuL
lmpedance ls very large and hence coupllng becomes hlghly lnefflclenL due Lo gross
mlsmaLchlng.


18AnSlS1C8 AS An AMLlllL8 ln CCMMCn LMl11L8 A88AnCLMLn1

llgure shows a common emlLLer nn LranslsLor ampllfler clrculL. noLe LhaL a baLLery
v
8L
(8ase -LmlLLer volLage) ls connecLed ln Lhe lnpuL ln addlLlon Lo Lhe slgnal volLage. 1hls
uC volLage ls known as blas volLage and lLs magnlLude ls such LhaL lL always keeps Lhe
emlLLer-base [uncLlon forward blased regardless of Lhe polarlLy of Lhe slgnal source.
CL8A1lCn
uurlng Lhe poslLlve half cycle of Lhe slgnal Lhe forward blas across Lhe emlLLer -base
[uncLlon ls lncreased. 1herefore more elecLrons flow from Lhe emlLLer Lo Lhe collecLor vla.
Lhe base . 1hls causes an lncrease ln collecLor currenL. 1he lncreased collecLor currenL
produces a greaLer volLage drop across Lhe collecLor load reslsLance 8
C
. Powever durlng Lhe
negaLlve half cycle of Lhe slgnal Lhe forward blas across emlLLer-base ls decreased. 1herefore
collecLor currenL decreases whlch resulLs ln Lhe decreased ouLpuL volLage (ln Lhe opposlLe
dlrecLlon). Pence, ampllfled ouLpuL ls obLalned across Lhe load.
AnAL?SlS Cl CCLLLC1C8 Cu88Ln1

When no slgnal ls applled Lhe lnpuL clrculL ls forward blased by Lhe baLLery v
8L
.
1herefore, a uC collecLor currenL l
C
flows ln Lhe collecLor clrculL. 1hls ls called zero slgnal
collecLor currenL. When Lhe slgnal volLage ls applled, Lhe forward blas on Lhe emlLLer-base
[uncLlon lncreases or decreases dependlng upon wheLher Lhe slgnal ls poslLlve or negaLlve.
uurlng Lhe poslLlve half cycle of Lhe slgnal Lhe forward blas on emlLLer-base [uncLlon ls


lncreased causlng LoLal collecLor currenL lC Lo lncrease. 8everse wlll happen for Lhe negaLlve
half cycle of Lhe slgnal.
llg. shows Lhe graph of LoLal collecLor currenL lC versus Llme. lrom Lhe graph lL ls
clear LhaL LoLal collecLor currenL conslsLs of Lwo componenLs, namely
(l) 1he uC collecLor currenL l
C
(zero slgnal collecLor currenL) due Lo blas baLLery v
88
.
1hls ls Lhe currenL LhaL flows ln Lhe collecLor ln Lhe absence of slgnal.
(ll) 1he AC collecLor currenL due Lo slgnal
1oLal collecLor currenL lC = l
C
+l
C

1he useful ouLpuL ls Lhe volLage drop across collecLor load 8
C
due Lo AC componenL
l
C
. 1he purpose of zero slgnal collecLor currenL (l
C
) Lo ensure LhaL Lhe emlLLer base [uncLlon ls
forward blased aL all Llmes.
18AnSlS1C8 LCAu LlnL AnAL?SlS
` ln Lhe LranslsLor clrculL arrangemenL, lL ls generally requlred Lo deLermlne Lhe
collecLor currenL for varlous collecLor emlLLer volLages. Cne of Lhe meLhods can be Lo ploL
Lhe ouLpuL characLerlsLlc and deLermlne Lhe collecLor currenL aL any deslred collecLor
emlLLer volLage. Powever a more convenlenL meLhod, known as Load llne meLhod can be
used Lo solve such problems.

uC LCAu LlnL
Conslder a common emlLLer nn LranslsLor clrculL as shown ln flg(l), where no slgnal
ls applled. 1herefore uC condlLlons prevall ln Lhe clrculL.
1he value of collecLor emlLLer volLage v
CL
aL any Llme ls glven by

v
CL
= v
CC
- l
C
8
C
---------------(1)
1o consLrucL a load llne (l.e SLralghL llne A8) as shown ln flg (ll) , we need Lwo end
polnLs l.e, cuL off and saLuraLlon polnLs of Lhe LranslsLor . Load llne ls a sLralghL llne [olnlng
Lhese Lwo polnLs as shown ln flgure. ln Lhe flgure 'A' ls Lhe saLuraLlon polnL and '8' ls Lhe cuL
off polnL. 1hese Lwo endpolnLs can be locaLed as under.


(l) When Lhe LranslsLor ls aL saLuraLlon :-
ln Lhls slLuaLlon LranslsLor conducLs heavlly and Lherefore volLage drop across
collecLor emlLLer [uncLlon ls zero. le v
CL
= 0. 8y applylng Lhe value of v
CL
ln eq.(1)
We geL
v
CL
= v
CC
- l
C
8
C
l.e 0 = v
CC
- l
C
8
C

l.e v
CC
= l
C
8
C

l
C
=
C
CC
R
J

1hus we geL flrsL end polnL 'A' of Lhe load llne. l.e I
C
=
C
CC
R
J
. lL ls marked on Lhe ?-axls.
When Lhe LranslsLor ls aL cuL-off :-
ln Lhls slLuaLlon LranslsLor does noL conducL any currenL, l.e l
C
= 0. Applylng Lhls value
of l
C
ln eq.(l), we geL
v
CL
= v
CC
- l
C
8
C
, v
CL
= v
CC
- 0 x 8
C
l.e V
CL
= V
CC
.
1hus we geL Lhe second end polnL '8' of Lhe llne l.e v
CL
= v
CC
. lL ls marked on x-axls. 8y
[olnlng Lhese Lwo end polnLs by a sLralghL llne, Load llne A8 ls consLrucLed.
A LranslsLor ls operaLed ln Lhe acLlve reglon lylng beLween saLuraLlon and cuL-off
polnL. Pence for any value of v
CL
lylng Lhls reglon correspondlng l
C
can be found easlly by Lhls
meLhod.
lMC81AnCL

1he currenL l
C
and v
CL
condlLlons ln Lhe LranslsLor clrculL are represenLed by some polnLs on
Lhe ouLpuL characLerlsLlcs. 1he same lnformaLlon can be obLalned from Lhe load llne. 1hus


when l
C
ls maxlmum
C
CC
R
J
Lhen v
CL
= 0 as shown ln flgure. lf l
C
= 0, Lhe v
CL
ls maxlmum and ls
equal Lo v
CC
. lor any oLher value of collecLor currenL, say CC , Lhe collecLor -emlLLer volLage
v
CL
= Cu. lL follows, LhaL load llnes glve a far more convenlenL and dlrecL soluLlon Lo Lhe
problem.
Lxample 1.
lor Lhe clrculL shown ln flgure draw Lhe uC load llne ?

lrom Lhe clrculL
v
CL
= v
CC
- l
C
8
C
(1) When l
C
= 0, v
CL
= v
CC
= 12.3 v. 1hls glves Lhe end polnL '8' ln x-axls.
(2) When v
CL
= 0, l
C
=
C
CC
R
J
=
2500
5 . 12 J
= 3 mA. 1hls glves Lhe end polnL 'A' ln ?-axls.
1herefore, Lhe load llne A8 ls consLrucLed as shown ln flg.(ll)
CL8A1lnC Cln1
1he zero slgnal values of l
C
and v
CL
ls known as operaLlng polnL.
lL ls called operaLlng polnL because Lhe varlaLlons of l
C
and v
CL
Lakes place abouL Lhls
polnL when slgnal ls applled. lL ls also called qulescenL polnL or -po|nt because lL ls Lhe
polnL on l
C
--- v
CL
characLerlsLlcs when Lhe LranslsLor ls sllenL, l.e ln Lhe absence of slgnal .
1he zero slgnal values of l
C
and v
CL
(CperaLlng polnL) are deLermlned by Lhe polnL
where uC load llne lnLersecLs Lhe proper base currenL curve as shown ln flg.


lrom Lhe flgure lL ls clear LhaL l
C
= Cu mA and vCL = CC volLs.
Lxample
1he clrculL dlagram shown ln flg(l) ,lf v
CC
= 12v and 8
C
=6kD. uraw Lhe uC load llne. WhaL wlll
be Lhe C-polnL lf zero slgnal base currenL ls 20A and = 30
.
lrom Lhe clrculL , v
CL
= v
CC
- l
C
8
C
(1) When l
C
= 0, v
CL
= v
CC
= 12 v. 1hls glves Lhe end polnL '8' ln x-axls.
(2) When v
CL
= 0 ,Lhen , l
C
=
C
CC
R
J
=
3
10 6
12
J
= 2mA. 1hls glves Lhe end polnL 'A' ln ?-axls.
=
B
C
I
I

l
C
= l
8
= 30 x 20 x 10
-3
= 1 mA.

Zero slgnal collecLor-emlLLer volLage, , v
CL
= v
CC
- l
C
8
C
= 12 - 1 x 10
-3
x 6 x 10
3
= 6v.
CperaLlng olnL ls 6V,1mA.
llg (ll) shows Lhe C-polnL , lLs co-ordlnaLes are l
C
= 1mA and v
CL
=6v.
8AC1lCAL WA? Cl u8AWlnC CCMMCn LMl11L8 Cl8Cul1
1he common emlLLer clrculL drawn so far can be shown ln anoLher convenlenL way .
llgure shows Lhe pracLlcal way of drawlng common emlLLer clrculL.

ln flg.(l) Lhe pracLlcal way of drawlng common emlLLer nn clrculL ls shown . Slmllarly flg (ll)
shows Lhe pracLlcal way of drawlng common emlLLer n clrculL.


Cu1u1 l8CM 18AnSlS1C8 AMLlllL8
1he ouLpuL from a LranslsLor ampllfler can be Laken ln Lwo ways as shown ln flg.

llrsL meLhod ls Lo Lake Lhe ouLpuL across Lhe collecLor load 8
C
.
1he second meLhod ls Lo Lake Lhe ouLpuL from Lermlnal 1 and 2. l.e. from collecLor and
emlLLer end of Lhe supply. CapaclLor C
C
ls Lhe coupllng capaclLor used Lo connecL Lhe ouLpuL
Lo Lhe oLher sLage. 1he capaclLor C
C
also blocks Lhe uC volLage from oLher sLages.
vCL1ACL CAln
lt ls tbe totlo of cbooqe lo ootpot voltoqe (
CE
J ) to tbe cbooqe lo lopot voltoqe
(
BE
J )
volLage galn =
BE
CE
J
J

Cu88Ln1 CAln
lL ls Lhe raLlo of change ln collecLor currenL (
C
B
I )
l.e. =
B
C
I
I

________________________


CPA1L8 12
18AnSlS1C8 8lASlnC
1he baslc funcLlon of a LranslsLor ls Lo do ampllflcaLlon. 1he weak slgnal ls glven Lo
Lhe base of Lhe LranslsLor and ampllfled ouLpuL ls obLalned ln Lhe collecLor clrculL. Cne
lmporLanL requlremenL durlng ampllflcaLlon ls LhaL only Lhe magnlLude of Lhe slgnal should
lncrease and Lhere should be no change ln slgnal shape. 1hls lncrease ln magnlLude of Lhe
slgnal wlLh ouL any change ln shape ls known as falLhful ampllflcaLlon.
1he Lheory of LranslsLor reveals LhaL lL wlll funcLlon properly lf lLs lnpuL clrculL (l.e
base-emlLLer [uncLlon) remalns forward blased and ouLpuL clrculL (CollecLor -base [uncLlon)
remalns reverse blased aL all Llmes. 1hls ls Lhe key facLor for achlevlng falLhful ampllflcaLlon.
1o ensure Lhls Lhe followlng Lhree baslc condlLlons musL be saLlsfled.
1. roper zero slgnal collecLor currenL.
2. Mlnlmum proper base-emlLLer volLage (v
CL
) aL any lnsLanL.
3. Mlnlmum roper CollecLor-emlLLer volLage (v
CL
) aL any lnsLanL.
1he condlLlon 1 and 2 ensure LhaL base-emlLLer [uncLlon shall remaln properly
forward blased durlng all parLs of Lhe slgnal. Cn Lhe oLher hand condlLlon 3 ensures LhaL
base-collecLor [uncLlon shall remaln properly reverse blased aL all Llmes.
1.8CL8 ZL8C SlCnAL CCLLLC1C8 Cu88Ln1

Conslder an nn LranslsLor clrculL shown ln flgure (1) . uurlng Lhe poslLlve half cycle of
slgnal, base ls poslLlve w.r.L emlLLer and hence base-emlLLer [uncLlon ls forward blased. 1hls
wlll cause a base currenL and much large collecLor currenL Lo flow ln Lhe clrculL. 1he resulL ls
LhaL poslLlve half cycle of Lhe slgnal ls ampllfled ln Lhe collecLor as shown. Powever durlng
Lhe negaLlve half cycle of Lhe slgnal base-emlLLer [uncLlon ls reverse blased and hence no
currenL flow ln Lhe clrculL. 1he resulL ls LhaL Lhere ls no ouLpuL due Lo Lhe negaLlve half cycle


of Lhe slgnal. 1hus we shall geL an ampllfled ouLpuL of Lhe slgnal wlLh lLs negaLlve half cycle
compleLely cuL-off, whlch ls unfalLhful ampllflcaLlon.
now lnLroduce a baLLery source v
88
ln Lhe base clrculL as shown ln flgure (ll) . 1he
magnlLude of Lhls volLage should be such LhaL lL keeps Lhe lnpuL clrculL forward blased even
durlng Lhe peak of negaLlve half cycle. When no slgnal ls applled, a uC currenL l
C
wlll flow ln
Lhe collecLor clrculL due Lo v
88
as shown. 1hls ls known as zero slgnal collecLor currenL l
C
.
uurlng Lhe poslLlve half cycle of Lhe slgnal lnpuL clrculL ls more forward blased and hence
collecLor currenL lncreases. Powever durlng Lhe negaLlve half cycle of Lhe slgnal Lhe lnpuL
clrculL ls less forward blased and collecLor currenL decreases. ln Lhls way , negaLlve half cycle
of Lhe slgnal also appears ln Lhe ouLpuL and hence falLhful ampllflcaLlon resulLs. lL follows,
Lherefore, LhaL for falLhful ampllflcaLlon, proper zero slgnal collecLor currenL musL flow.
1he value of zero slgnal collecLor currenL should be aL leasL equal Lo Lhe maxlmum collecLor
currenL due Lo slgnal alone.
Zero slgnal collecLor currenL max collecLor currenL due Lo slgnal alone.
lLLuS18A1lCn
Suppose a slgnal applled Lo Lhe base of a LranslsLor glves a peak collecLor currenL of
1mA. 1hen zero slgnal collecLor currenL musL be aL leasL equal Lo 1mA so LhaL even durlng
Lhe negaLlve half cycle of Lhe slgnal Lhere ls no cuL-off as shown ln flgure (l)

lf Lhe zero slgnal collecLor currenL ls less, say 0.3mA as shown ln flgure (ll) ,Lhen some
parL (shaded porLlon) of Lhe negaLlve half cycle of Lhe slgnal wlll be cuL-off ln Lhe ouLpuL.
2. 8CL8 MlnlMuM 8ASL LMl11L8 vCL1ACL
ln order Lo achleve falLhful ampllflcaLlon, Lhe base emlLLer volLage v
L8
should noL fall
below 0.3v for Ce LranslsLors and 0.7v for Sl LranslsLors aL any lnsLanL.


1he base currenL ls very small unLll lnpuL volLage overcome Lhe poLenLlal barrler aL Lhe
base emlLLer [uncLlon. 1he value of Lhls poLenLlal barrler ls 0.3v for Ce LranslsLors and 0.7 v
for Sl LranslsLors as shown ln flgure. Cnce Lhe poLenLlal barrler ls overcome Lhe base currenL
and hence collecLor currenL lncreases sharply. 1herefore , lf base-emlLLer volLage v
8L
falls
below Lhese values durlng any parL of Lhe slgnal LhaL parL wlll be less ampllfled due Lo small
collecLor currenL. 1hls wlll resulL ln unfalLhful ampllflcaLlon.
3. 8CL8 MlnlMuM v
CL
A1 An? lnS1An1
lor falLhful ampllflcaLlon Lhe collecLor emlLLer volLage v
CL
should noL fall below 0.3v
for Ce LranslsLors and 1v for Sl LranslsLors. 1hls ls called k
nLL
volLage.

When v
CL
ls Loo low Lhe collecLor-base [uncLlon ls noL properly reverse blased.
1herefore, Lhe collecLor cannoL aLLracL Lhe charge carrlers emlLLed by Lhe emlLLer and hence
a greaLer porLlon of Lhem goes Lo Lhe base . 1hls decreases Lhe collecLor currenL whlle base
currenL lncreases. Pence value of falls. 1herefore, lf v
CL
ls allowed Lo fall below v
knLL

durlng any parL of Lhe slgnal LhaL parL wlll be less ampllfled due Lo reduced . 1hls wlll resulL
ln unfalLhful ampllflcaLlon. Powever, when v
CL
ls greaLer Lhan v
knLL
Lhe collecLor-base
[uncLlon ls properly reverse blased and Lhe value of remalns consLanL resulLlng ln falLhful
ampllflcaLlon.
18AnSlS1C8 8lASlnC
1he proper flow of zero slgnal collecLor currenL and Lhe malnLenance of proper
collecLor-emlLLer volLage durlng Lhe passage of Lhe slgnal ls known as LranslsLor blaslng.


1he baslc purpose of LranslsLor blaslng ls Lo keep Lhe base emlLLer [uncLlon properly
forward blased and collecLor-base [uncLlon properly reverse blased durlng Lhe appllcaLlon of
slgnal. 1hls can be achleved wlLh a blas baLLery or assoclaLlng a clrculL wlLh Lhe LranslsLor.
1he second meLhod ls more efflclenL and ls frequenLly employed. 1hls clrculL whlch provldes
LranslsLor blaslng ls known as blaslng clrculL. lL may be noLed LhaL LranslsLor blaslng ls very
essenLlal for Lhe proper operaLlon of Lhe LranslsLor ln any clrculL.
lnPL8Ln1 vA8lA1lCnS Cl 18AnSlS1C8 A8AML1L8S
ln pracLlce, Lhe LranslsLor parameLers such as ,v
8L
are noL Lhe same for every
LranslsLor even of Lhe same Lype. 1o glve an example, 8C 147 ls a slllcon LranslsLor wlLh
varylng from 100 Lo 600 . l.e for one LranslsLor may be 100 and for he oLher lL may be 600,
alLhough boLh of Lhem are 8C 147. 1hls large varlaLlon ln parameLers ls a characLerlsLlc of
LranslsLors.
1he lnherenL varlaLlons of LranslsLor parameLer may change Lhe operaLlng polnL
resulLlng ln unfalLhful ampllflcaLlon. lL ls Lherefore, very lmporLanL LhaL blaslng neLwork
be so deslgned LhaL lL should be able Lo work all LranslsLors of one Lype whaLever may be Lhls
spread ln or v
8L
. ln oLher words, Lhe operaLlng polnL should be lndependenL of LranslsLor
parameLer varlaLlons.
S1A8lLlZA1lCn
1he collecLor currenL ln LranslsLor change rapldly when
(l) 1he LemperaLure changes
(ll) 1he LranslsLor ls replaced by anoLher of same Lype. 1hls ls due Lo Lhe lnherenL
varlaLlon of LranslsLor parameLers.
When Lhe LemperaLure changes or Lhe LranslsLor ls replaced, Lhe operaLlng polnL (zero
slgnal l
C
and v
CL
) also changes. Powever, for falLhful ampllflcaLlon, lL ls essenLlal LhaL
operaLlng polnL remalns flxed. 1hls necesslLaLes Lo make Lhe operaLlng polnL lndependenL
of Lhese varlaLlons. 1hls ls known as sLablllzaLlon.
1be ptocess of mokloq opetotloq polot loJepeoJeot of tempetotote cbooqes ot
votlotloo of ttooslstot potometets ls koowo os stoblllzotloo.
Cnce Lhe sLablllzaLlon ls done Lhe zero slgnal l
C
and v
CL
become lndependenL of
LemperaLure varlaLlons or replacemenL of LranslsLors. l.e CperaLlng polnL ls flxed. A good
blaslng clrculL always ensures Lhe sLablllzaLlon of operaLlng polnL.


nLLu lC8 S1A8lLlZA1lCn
SLablllzaLlon of Lhe operaLlng polnL ls necessary due Lo Lhe followlng reason.
1. 1emperaLure dependence of l
C

2. lndlvldual varlaLlons
3. 1hermal runway
1. 1LML8A1u8L uLLnuLnCL Cl l
C

1he collecLor leakage currenL ls greaLly lnfluenced (especlally ln Ce LranslsLors) by
LemperaLure changes. A ralse of 10
0
C doubles Lhe collecLor leakage currenL whlch may be as
hlgh as 0.2mA for low powered Ce LranslsLors. As blaslng condlLlons ln such LranslsLors are
generally so seL LhaL zero slgnal l
C
1mA. 1herefore, Lhe change ln l
C
cannoL be LoleraLed
(due Lo LemperaLure varlaLlon) . 1hls necesslLaLes sLablllzlng Lhe operaLlng polnL.
2. lnulvluuAL vA8lA1lCnS
1he value of and v
8L
are noL exacLly same for any Lwo LranslsLors even of Lhe same
Lype. lurLher v
L8
lLself decreases when LemperaLure lncreases . When a LranslsLor ls replaced
by anoLher of Lhe same Lype Lhese varlaLlons change Lhe operaLlng polnL. 1hls necesslLaLes
sLablllzlng Lhe operaLlng polnL.
3. 1PL8MAL 8unWA?
1he flow of collecLor currenL produces heaL wlLhln Lhe LranslsLor. 1hls ralses Lhe
LranslsLor LemperaLure and lf no sLablllzaLlon ls done, Lhe collecLor leakage currenL also
lncreases. 1he lncreased collecLor currenL furLher ralses Lhe LranslsLor LemperaLure. 1hls
ralse ln LemperaLure furLher lncreases Lhe collecLor leakage currenL. ln Lhls way ln a maLLer
of second Lhe collecLor currenL may become very large Lhus desLroylng Lhe LranslsLor.
1be self Jesttoctloo of o oostoblllzeJ ttooslstot ls koowo os tbetmol toowoy.
ln order Lo avold Lhe Lhermal runway and consequenL desLrucLlon of LranslsLor lL ls very
lmporLanL LhaL operaLlng polnL ls sLablllzed.
LSSLn1lALS Cl A 18AnSlS1C8 8lASlnC Cl8Cul1
1he blaslng neLwork assoclaLed wlLh Lhe LranslsLor should meeL Lhe followlng
requlremenL.
1. lL should ensure proper zero slgnal collecLor currenL.
2. lL should ensure Lhe v
CL
does noL fall below 0.3v for Ce LranslsLors and 1v for Sl
LranslsLors aL any lnsLanL.
3. lL should ensure Lhe sLablllzaLlon operaLlng polnL.


MLPCu Cl 18AnSlS1C8 8lASlnC
ln Lhe LranslsLor ampllfler clrculL drawn so far blaslng was done wlLh Lhe ald of baLLery
v
88
whlch was separaLe from Lhe baLLery v
CC
used ln Lhe ouLpuL clrculL. Powever ln Lhe
lnLeresL of slmpllclLy and economy lL ls deslrable LhaL Lhe LranslsLor clrculL should have a
slngle source of supply - Lhe one ln Lhe ouLpuL clrculL. (l.e v
CC
). 1he followlng are Lhe mosL
commonly meLhods used for obLalnlng LranslsLor blaslng from one source of supply(l.e. v
CC
).
1. 8ase reslsLor meLhod
2. 8laslng wlLh feed back reslsLor
3. volLage dlvlder blas
ln all Lhese meLhods Lhe same baslc prlnclple ls employed l.e requlred value of base
currenL (and hence l
C
) ls obLalned from v
CC
ln Lhe zero slgnal condlLlons. 1he value of
collecLor load 8
C
ls selecLed keeplng ln vlew LhaL v
CL
should noL fall below 0.3v for Ce
LranslsLors and 1v for Sl LranslsLors
1. 8ASL 8LSlS1C8 ML1PCu
ln Lhls meLhod a hlgh reslsLance 8
8
(Several 100kD) ls connecLed beLween Lhe base and
poslLlve end of Lhe supply for nn LranslsLor and beLween base and negaLlve end of supply
for n LranslsLors.

Pere Lhe requlred zero slgnal base currenL ls provlded by v
CC
and lL flows Lhrough 8
8
. lL
ls because base ls poslLlve wlLh respecL Lo emlLLer l.e base-emlLLer [uncLlon ls forward
blased. 1he requlred value of zero slgnal base currenL l
8
(and hence l
C
= l
8
) can be made Lo
flow by selecLlng Lhe proper value of base reslsLor 8
8
.
Cl8Cul1 AnAL?SlS
lL ls requlred Lo flnd Lhe value of 8
8
so LhaL requlred collecLor currenL flows ln Lhe zero
slgnal condlLlon. LeL l
C
be Lhe requlred zero slgnal collecLor currenL.


l
8
=
C
I

Conslderlng closed clrculL 'A8LnA' and applylng klrchhoff's volLage law, we geL
v
CC
= l
8
8
8
+v
8L

or l
8
8
8
= v
CC
- v
8L

8
8
=
B
BE CC
I
V - V
------------(l)
As v
CC
and l
8
are known and v
8L
can be seen from Lhe LranslsLor manual. 1herefore,
value of 8
8
can be readlly found from equ. (l)
Slnce v
8L
ls generally qulLe small as compared Lo v
CC
, lL can be neglecLed wlLh llLLle
error.

8
8
=

B
CC
I
V

lL may be noLed LhaL v
CC
ls a flxed known quanLlLy and l
8
ls chosen aL some sulLable
value hence 8
8
can always be found dlrecLly and for Lhls reason Lhls meLhod ls someLlmes
called flxed blas meLhod.
AuvAn1ACLS
(1) 1hls blaslng clrculL ls very slmple as only one reslsLor 8
8
ls requlred.
(2) 8laslng condlLlon can easlly seL and Lhe calculaLlons are slmple.
(3) 1here ls no load of Lhe slgnal source by Lhe blaslng clrculL slnce no reslsLor ls
employed across base-emlLLer [uncLlon.
ulSAuvAn1ACLS
(1) 1hls meLhod provldes poor sLablllzaLlon. lL ls because Lhere ls no means Lo sLop a self
lncrease ln collecLor currenL due Lo LemperaLure ralse and lndlvldual varlaLlons.
(2) 1here are sLrong chances of Lhermal runaway.
uue Lo Lhese dlsadvanLages Lhls meLhod of blaslng ls rarely employed.
8lASlnC Wl1P lLLu8ACk 8LSlS1C8


ln Lhls meLhod one end of 8
8
ls connecLed Lo Lhe base and Lhe oLher end Lo Lhe
collecLor as shown ln flgure. Pere Lhe requlred zero slgnal base currenL ls deLermlned noL by
v
CC
, buL by Lhe collecLor base volLage v
C8
. lL ls clear LhaL v
C8
forward blases Lhe base-emlLLer
[uncLlon and hence base currenL l
8
flows Lhrough 8
8
. 1hls causes zero slgnal collecLor
currenL Lo flow ln Lhe clrculL.
Cl8Cul1 AnAL?SlS
1he requlred value of 8
8
needed Lo glve Lhe zero slgnal currenL l
C
can be deLermlned as
follows . 8eferrlng Lo flgure.
v
CC
= *l
C
8
C
+l
8
8
8
+v
8L

Cr 8
8
=
B
C C BE CC
I
R I J J

=
B
C B BE CC
I
R I J J
(Q l
C
= l
8
)
AuvAn1ACLS
(l) lL ls a slmple meLhod as lL requlres only one reslsLance 8
8
.
(ll) 1hls clrculL provldes some sLablllzaLlon of Lhe operaLlng polnL as dlscussed
below :
Suppose LhaL Lhe LemperaLure lncreases. 1hls wlll lncrease collecLor leakage currenL
and hence Lhe LoLal collecLor currenL. 8uL as soon as Lhe collecLor currenL lncreases, v
CL

decreases due Lo greaLer drop across 8
C
. 1he resulL ls LhaL lesser volLage ls avallable across
8
8
. Pence, Lhe base currenL decreases. 1he smaller l
8
Lends Lo decrease Lhe collecLor currenL
Lo orlglnal value.
ulSAuvAn1ACLS
(l) 1hls clrculL does noL provlde good sLablllzaLlon. lL ls because operaLlng polnL
does change, alLhough Lo lesser exLenL, due Lo LemperaLure varlaLlons and oLher effecLs.
(ll) 1hls clrculL provldes a negaLlve feedback whlch reduces Lhe galn of Lhe
ampllfler as explalned below. uurlng Lhe poslLlve half-cycle of Lhe slgnal, Lhe collecLor
currenL lncreases. 1he lncreased collecLor currenL would resulL ln greaLer volLage drop across
8
C
. 1hls wlll reduce Lhe base currenL and hence collecLor currenL.
_________________________
*Actoolly voltoqe Jtop octoss k
c
= (l
8
-l
c
)k
c
.
nowevet, l
8
<<l
c
. 1betefote, os o teosoooble opptoxlmotloo, we coo soy tbot Jtop octoss k
c
= l
c
k
c

1S0 | a g e 8 A S l C L L L C 1 8 C n l C S l 1 l 8 \ N 0

vCL1ACL ulvluL8 8lAS ML1PCu
1hls ls Lhe mosL wldely used meLhod of provldlng blaslng and sLablllzaLlon Lo a
LranslsLor. ln Lhls meLhod, Lwo reslsLances 8
1
and 8
2
are connecLed across Lhe supply volLage
v
CC
(see flg) and provlde blaslng. 1he emlLLer reslsLance 8
L
provldes sLablllzaLlon. 1he
name 'volLage dlvlder' comes from Lhe volLage dlvlder formed by 8
1
and 8
2
. 1he volLage drop
across 8
2
forward blases Lhe base emlLLer [uncLlon. 1hls causes Lhe base currenL and hence
collecLor currenL flow ln Lhe zero slgnals condlLlons.

Cl8Cul1 AnAL?SlS
Suppose LhaL Lhe currenL flowlng Lhrough reslsLance 8
1
ls l
1
. As base currenL l
8
ls very
small, Lherefore, lL can be assumed wlLh reasonable accuracy LhaL currenL flowlng Lhrough 8
2

ls also l
1
.
(l) collectot cotteot l
c
.

2 1
1
R R
J
I
CC
+
=

volLage across 8
2
,
v
2
=
2
2 1
) ( R
R R
J
CC
+

Applylng klrchhoff's volLage law Lo Lhe base clrculL of llg above
v
2
= v
8L
+ v
L

or v
2
= v
8L
+ l
L
8
L
or l
L
=
E
BE
R
J J
2

Slnce l
L
l
C


E
BE
C
R
J J
I

=
2
---------------- (l)
lL ls clear from experlmenL (l) above LhaL l
C
does noL aL all depend upon . 1hough l
C

depends upon v
8L
buL ln pracLlce v
2
ls greaLer Lhan v
8L
(v
2
>>v
8L
) so LhaL l
C
ls pracLlcally
lndependenL of v
8L
. 1hus l
C
ln Lhe clrculL ls almosL lndependenL of LranslsLor parameLers and
hence good sLablllzaLlon ls ensured. lL ls due Lo Lhls reason LhaL poLenLlal dlvlder blas has
become unlversal meLhod for provldlng LranslsLor blaslng.
(2) collectot emlttet voltoqe v
ce
:
Applylng klrchhoff's volLage law Lo Lhe collecLor slde,
v
CC
= l
C
8
C
+v
CL
+l
L
8
L

= l
C
8
C
+v
CL
+l
C
8
L
(Ql
C
l
L
)
= l
C
(8
C
+8
L
) + v
CL

v
CL
= v
CC
- l
C
(8
C
+8
L
)
S1A8lLlZA1lCn
ln Lhls clrculL excellenL sLablllzaLlon ls provlded by 8
L
. Conslderlng Lhe equaLlon (1)
reveals Lhls facL

E
BE
C
R
J J
I

=
2

l
c
k

= v
2
- v
8

v
2
= l
c
k
- v
8

Suppose Lhe collecLor currenL l
C
lncreases due Lo rlse ln LemperaLure. 1hls wlll cause
Lhe volLage drop across emlLLer reslsLance 8
L
Lo lncrease. As volLage drop across 8
2
(l,e v
2
) ls
lndependenL of l
C

(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
2
2 1
2
R
R R
J
J
CC
Q . 1herefore, v
8L
decreases. 1hls ln Lurn causes l
8

Lends Lo resLore l
C
Lo Lhe orlglnal value.
__________________


CPA1L8 13
AMLlllL8S
ln18CuuC1lCn
When only one LranslsLor wlLh assoclaLed clrculL ls used for ampllfylng a weak slgnal,
Lhe clrculL ls known as a s|ng|e stage trans|stor amp||f|er.
A slngle sLage LranslsLor ampllfler has only one LranslsLor, blaslng clrculL and oLher
auxlllary componenLs. AlLhough a pracLlcal ampllfler conslsLs of a number of sLages, yeL such
a complex clrculL can be convenlenLly spllL-up lnLo separaLe slngle sLages. 8y analyzlng
carefully only a slngle sLage and uslng slngle sLage analysls repeaLedly we can effecLlvely
analyze Lhe complex clrculL.
PCW 18AnSlS1C8 AMLlllLS

llgure shows a slngle sLage LranslsLor ampllfler .When a weak AC slgnal ls glven Lo
base of LranslsLor, a small base currenL (whlch ls AC) sLarLs flowlng. uue Lo LranslsLor acLlon a
much larger ( Llmes Lhe base currenL) AC currenL flows Lhrough Lhe collecLor load 8
C
. As Lhe
value of 8
C
ls qulLe hlgh (usually 4-10kD) ,Lherefore a large volLage appears across 8
C
. 1hus
a weak slgnal applled ln Lhe base clrculL appeared ln Lhe ampllfled form ln Lhe collecLor
clrculL. lL ls ln Lhls way LhaL a LranslsLor acLs as an ampllfler.
1he acLlon of LranslsLor ampllfler can be explalned by referrlng Lo Lhe flgure. Suppose
a change of 0.1v ln slgnal volLage produces a change of 2mA ln Lhe collecLor clrculL.
Cbvlously a slgnal of only 0.1v applled Lo Lhe base wlll glve an ouLpuL volLage = 2mA x 3kD
=10v. 1hus a LranslsLor has been able Lo ralse Lhe volLage level of Lhe slgnal from 0.1v Lo
10v. volLage ampllflcaLlon or sLage galn ls 100.


8AC1lCAL Cl8Cul1 Cl A SlnCLL S1ACL 18AnSlS1C8 AMLlllL8

lL ls lmporLanL Lo noLe LhaL a LranslsLor can accompllsh falLhful ampllflcaLlon only lf
proper assoclaLed clrculLry ls used wlLh lL. llg. shows a pracLlcal slngle sLage LranslsLor
ampllfler. 1he varlous clrculL elemenLs and Lhelr funcLlons are descrlbed below.
(1) 8lASlnC Cl8Cul1
1he reslsLances 8
1
, 8
2
and 8
L
form Lhe blaslng and sLablllzaLlon clrculL. 1he blaslng
clrculL musL esLabllsh a proper operaLlng polnL oLherwlse a parL of Lhe negaLlve half cycle of
Lhe slgnal may be cuL off ln Lhe ouLpuL.
(2) lnu1 CAACl1AnCL (C
ln
)
An elecLrolyLlc capaclLor C
ln
ls used Lo couple Lhe slgnal Lo Lhe base of Lhe LranslsLor. lf
lL ls noL used, Lhe slgnal source reslsLance wlll come across 8
2
and Lhus change Lhe blas. 1he
capaclLor C
ln
allows only AC slgnal Lo flow buL lsolaLes Lhe slgnal source from 8
2
.
(3) LMl11L8 8?ASS CAACl1C8 (C
L
)
An emlLLer bypass capaclLor C
L
ls used ln parallel wlLh 8
L
Lo proved a low reacLance
paLh Lo Lhe ampllfled AC slgnal. lf lL ls noL used, Lhen ampllfled AC slgnal flowlng Lhrough 8
L

wlll cause a volLage drop across lL, Lhereby reduclng Lhe ouLpuL volLage.
(4) CCuLlnC CAACl1C8 (C
C
)
1he coupllng capaclLor Cc couples one sLage of ampllflcaLlon Lo Lhe nexL sLage. lf lL ls
noL used Lhe blas condlLlons of Lhe nexL sLage wlll be changed due Lo Lhe shunLlng effecL of
8
C
. 1he coupllng capaclLor C
C
lsolaLes Lhe uC of one sLage from Lhe nexL sLage, buL allows Lhe
passage of AC slgnal.


PASL 8LvL8SAL
ln a common emlLLer connecLlon when lnpuL slgnal volLage lncreases ln Lhe poslLlve
sense, Lhe ouLpuL volLage lncreases ln Lhe negaLlve dlrecLlon and vlce versa. ln oLher words,
Lhere ls a phase dlfference of 180
0
beLween Lhe lnpuL and ouLpuL volLage ln common emlLLer
connecLlon. 1hls ls called phase reversal (lf Lhe ouLpuL ls Laken across 8
C
lL wlll be ln phase
wlLh Lhe lnpuL).
1be pbose Jlffeteoce of 180
0
betweeo tbe slqool voltoqe ooJ ootpot voltoqe lo o
commoo emlttet ompllflet ls koowo os pbose tevetsol.

Conslder a common emlLLer ampllfler clrculL ls shown ln flgure. 1he slgnal ls fed aL Lhe
lnpuL Lermlnals (l.e beLween base and emlLLer) and ouLpuL ls Laken from collecLor and
emlLLer end of supply. 1he LoLal lnsLanLaneous ouLpuL volLage v
CL
ls glven by
v
CL
= v
CC
- l
C
8
C

When Lhe slgnal volLage lncreases ln Lhe poslLlve half cycle, Lhe base currenL also
lncreases. 1he resulL ls LhaL collecLor currenL and hence volLage drop l
C
8
C
lncreases. As
v
CC
ls consLanL, Lherefore ouLpuL volLage v
CL
decreases. ln oLher words as Lhe slgnal volLage
ls lncreaslng ln Lhe poslLlve half cycle, Lhe ouLpuL volLage ls lncreaslng ln Lhe negaLlve
dlrecLlon. l.e. ouLpuL ls 180
0
ouL of phase wlLh Lhe lnpuL. lL follows, Lherefore, LhaL ln a
common emlLLer ampllfler, Lhe poslLlve half cycle of Lhe slgnal appear as ampllfled negaLlve
half-cycle ln Lhe ouLpuL and vlce-vetso. lL may be noLed LhaL ampllflcaLlon ls noL affecLed by
Lhls phase reversal.

1SS | a g e 8 A S l C L L L C 1 8 C n l C S l 1 l 8 \ N 0

uC LCulvALLn1 Cl8Cul1
Whlle dolng Lhe d.c analysls of a LranslsLor ampllfler only d.c condlLlons are Lo be
consldered. 1herefore whlle drawlng d.c equlvalenL clrculL of Lhe ampllfler followlng sLeps
are Lo be applled.
8educe all Lhe a.c sources Lo zero, slnce only d.c condlLlons are consldered.
Assume all capaclLors open slnce d.c does noL flow Lhrough Lhe capaclLor.
As per Lhe above concepL Lhe d.c equlvalenL clrculL of Lhe slngle sLage LranslsLor
ampllfler can be drawn as shown ln flg.

uc polvoleot cltcolt
A.C LCulvALLn1 Cl8Cul1

ln Lhe a.c equlvalenL clrculL of an ampllfler only a.c condlLlons are consldered.
1herefore, whlle drawlng a.c equlvalenL clrculLs followlng are Lo be done.
8educe all d.c sources Lo zero, slnce we are conslderlng only a.c condlLlon.
ShorL clrculL all capaclLors, slnce capaclLor offers an easy paLh for a.c currenLs.
Applylng Lhe above condlLlons Lhe a.c equlvalenL clrculL of a slngle sLage LranslsLor
ampllfler can be drawn as shown ln flg.
A.C LCAu LlnL
1hls ls Lhe load llne whlch glves Lhe values of l
C
and v
CL
when slgnal ls applled .


1o consLrucL an AC load llne, we requlre Lwo end polnLs as ln uC load llne. Cne,
maxlmum collecLor-emlLLer volLage and Lhe oLher maxlmum collecLor currenL polnL. An A.C
load llne 'Cu' lndlcaLlng Lhese values (when slgnal ls applled ) ls shown ln flgure (1) along
wlLh Lhe uC load llne 'A8'.

1hese load llnes are drawn by conslderlng Lhe slngle sLage LranslsLor ampllfler ln flgure
(ll).
lL should be noLed LhaL Lhe operaLlng polnL lles boLh AC and uC load llnes. lL ls noL
surprlslng because slgnal ls AC and lL becomes zero afLer every half cycle. When Lhe slgnal ls
zero, we have Lhe exacL uC condlLlon. 1herefore key polnL ln mlnd ls LhaL Lhe polnL of
lnLersecLlon of uC and AC load llne ls Lhe operaLlng polnL 'C'.
vCL1ACL CAln
1he baslc funcLlon of an ampllfler ls Lo ralse Lhe sLrengLh of an AC lnpuL slgnal. 1he
voltoqe qolo of tbe ompllflet ls tbe totlo of Ac ootpot voltoqe to tbe Ac lopot slqool voltoqe.
1herefore ln order Lo flnd volLage galn we should conslder only Lhe AC currenLs and volLages
ln Lhe clrculL. lor Lhls purpose, we should look aL Lhe AC equlvalenL clrculL of LranslsLor
ampllfler.

lL ls clear LhaL load 8
C
appears ln parallel wlLh 8
L
for Lhe AC slgnal. 1herefore effecLlve
load for AC ls glven by
AC load, 8
AC
= 8
C
ll 8
L


=
L C
L C
R R
R R
+

CuLpuL volLage , v
ouL
= l
c
8
AC

lnpuL volLage , v
ln
= l
b
8ln

volLage galn, A
v
=
Vin
Vout
=
ibRin
icR
AC
=
ib
ic
x
Rin
R
AC

= x
Rin
R
AC
(
b
c
i
i
= Q )
ower galn, A
=
Inputpower
r Outputpowe
=
Rin ib
R ic
2
AC
2
=
2
2
ib
ic
x
Rin
R
AC

=
2
x
Rin
R
AC
.
roblem (1)
ln Lhe clrculL shown ln flgure , flnd Lhe volLage galn. Clven LhaL = 60 and lnpuL
reslsLance 8
ln
= 1kD.

Clven LhaL
8
C
= 2kD, 8
L
= 0.3kD, =60, 8
ln
= 1kD.
8
AC
=
L C
L C
R R
R R
+
=
5 . 0 2
5 . 0 2
+
=0.4kD.
volLage galn A
v
= x
Rin
R
AC
= 60 x
1
4 . 0
= 24
roblem (2)
ln Lhe clrculL shown above lf 8
C
= 10kD, 8
L
= 10kD, 8ln = 2.3kD, =100. llnd Lhe
ouLpuL volLage for an lnpuL volLage of 1mv rms.

Clven LhaL

8
C
= 10kD, 8
L
= 10kD,8ln = 2.3kD, =100


8
AC
=
L C
L C
R R
R R
+
=
10 10
10 10
+
= 3kD.

volLage galn ,A
v
= x
Rin
R
AC
= 100 x
5 . 2
5
= 200

or
in
out
J
J
= 200

v
ouL
= 200 x v
ln
= 200 x 1mv = 200mv.

roblem (3)
ln a LranslsLor ampllfler when Lhe slgnal changes by 0.02v, Lhe base currenL changes
by 10A and collecLor currenL by 1mA. lf collecLor load 8
C
= 3kD and 8
L
= 10kD, llnd
(l) CurrenL galn (ll) lnpuL lmpedance (lll) a.c load (lv) volLage galn (v) ower galn .

Clven LhaL
A I
B
10 = , mA I
C
1 = ,
BE
J =0.02v, 8
C
= 3kD, 8
L
= 10kD
) Current ga|n, =
B
C
I
I
=
A
mA
10
1
= 100
(||)Input |mpedance, 8ln =
B
BE
I
J
=
A
J
10
02 . 0
=2kD.
(|||) A. C. Load, 8
AC
=
L C
L C
R R
R R
+
=
10 5
10 5
+
= 3.3kD.
(|v) Vo|tage ga|n , A
v
= x
Rin
R
AC
= 100 x
2
3 . 3
= 163
(v) ower ga|n, A
= CurrenL galn x volLage galn

= 100 x 163
= 16300
roblem (4)
ln flg. , Lhe LranslsLor has = 30. llnd Lhe ouLpuL volLage lf lnpuL reslsLance 8ln =
0.3kD.


= 30 , 8ln = 0.3kD.
A. C. Load, 8
AC
=
L C
L C
R R
R R
+
=
6 3
6 3
+
= 2kD.

Vo|tage ga|n , A
v
= x
Rin
R
AC
= 30 x
5 . 0
2
= 200

Cutput vo|tage = 200 x v

ln
= 200 x (1mv) = 200mv.

roblem (3)
llgure shows a LranslsLor clrculL, Lhe manufacLure of Lhe clrculL shows LhaL collecLor
poLenLlal ls Lo be +6v. 1he volLage measured aL polnL '8' by a Lechnlclan ls found Lo be +4v. ls
Lhe clrculL operaLlng properly?

1he volLage aL polnL '8' ls equal Lo Lhe volLage across 81 . now LoLal volLage v
CC
across
Lhe serles comblnaLlon 81 and 82 ls 6v. 1herefore uslng volLage dlvlder meLhod we have
volLage across 8
1
=
CC
J
R R
R
) (
2 1
1
+

=
+ 2 1
1
6 =
3
6
=2v.
1he clrculL ls noL operaLlng properly lL ls because Lhe volLage aL polnL '8' ls 2v lnsLead of 4v.
CLASSlllCA1lCn Cl AMLlllL8S
1he LranslsLor ampllflers may be classlfled as Lo Lhelr usage, frequency capablllLy,
coupllng meLhods and mode of operaLlon.
(1) Accordlng Lo use:-
1he classlflcaLlon of ampllflers as Lo Lhelr usage are baslcally vo|tage amp||f|ers and
power amp||f|ers. 1he former lncreases Lhe volLage level of Lhe slgnal whereas power ampllfler
malnly lncreases Lhe power level of Lhe slgnal.
(2) Accordlng Lo frequency capablllLles :-


Accordlng Lo frequency capablllLles ampllflers are classlfled as aud|o frequency
amp||f|ers, rad|o frequency amp||f|ers eLc. 1he former are used Lo ampllfy Lhe slgnals lylng ln
Lhe audlo range 20 Pz Lo 20kPz whereas Lhe laLer are used Lo ampllfy slgnals havlng very hlgh
frequency.
(3) Accordlng Lo coupllng meLhod :-
1he ouLpuL from a slngle sLage ampllfler ls usually lnsufflclenL Lo meeL Lhe pracLlcal
requlremenL. AddlLlonal ampllflcaLlon ls ofLen necessary. 1o do Lhls Lhe ouLpuL of one sLage ls
coupled Lo Lhe nexL sLage. uependlng upon Lhe coupllng devlce used, Lhe ampllflers are
classlfled as k-C coup|ed amp||f|ers, transformer coup|ed amp||f|ers eLc.
(4) Accordlng Lo mode of operaLlon:-
1he ampllflers are classlfled accordlng Lo Lhelr mode of operaLlon as C|ass A, C|ass 8,
C|ass A8, and c|ass C amp||f|ers. 1hls classlflcaLlon depends on Lhe porLlon of Lhe lnpuL slgnal
cycle durlng whlch collecLor currenL ls expecLed Lo flow. 1hus Class A ampllfler ls one ln whlch
collecLor currenL flows for enLlre AC slgnal. Class 8 ampllfler ls one ln whlch collecLor currenL
flows Lhe half cycle of lnpuL A C slgnal. lor Class -A8 ampllfler collecLor currenL flows for more
Lhan half cycle buL less Lhan enLlre cycle. llnally Class-C ampllfler ls one ln whlch collecLor
currenL flows for less Lhan half cycle of AC slgnal.
. WhaL do you undersLand by Lhe followlng ampllflers?
(l) Class A volLage ampllfler
(ll) Audlo volLage ampllfler.
(lll) Class 8 ower ampllfler
(lv) Class A Lransformer coupled power ampllfler.
A. (l) Class A ampllfler means LhaL lL ralses Lhe volLage level of Lhe slgnal and lLs mode of
ampllflcaLlon ls such LhaL collecLor currenL flows for Lhe whole lnpuL slgnal.
(ll) Audlo volLage ampllfler means LhaL lL ralses Lhe volLage level of audlo slgnal and lLs
mode o ampllflcaLlon ls class A.
(lll) Class 8 ampllfler means LhaL ralses Lhe power level of Lhe slgnal and lLs mode of
operaLlon ls such LhaL collecLor currenL flows for half cycle of Lhe slgnal only.
(lv) lL means LhaL power ampllflcaLlon ls belng done, coupllng ls by Lransformer and
mode of operaLlon ls class A.


MuL1lS1ACL 18AnSlS1C8 AMLlllL8S
1he galn of a slngle sLage ampllfler ls lnadequaLe for pracLlcal purposes. 1herefore
addlLlonal ampllflcaLlon over Lwo or Lhree sLages ls necessary. 1o achleve Lhls, Lhe ouLpuL of
each ampllfler sLage ls coupled ln some way Lo Lhe lnpuL of Lhe nexL sLage. 1he resulLlng
sysLem ls referred as mulLlsLage ampllfler. lt sboolJ be ooteJ tbot ptoctlcol ompllflets ote
olwoys moltlstoqe ompllflets.
ln a mulLlsLage ampllfler a number of slngle sLage ampllflers are connecLed ln cascade
arrangemenLs. l.e ouLpuL of Lhe flrsL sLage ls connecLed Lo Lhe lnpuL of Lhe second sLage
Lhrough a coupllng devlce and so on. llgure shows a block dlagram of a mulLlsLage (Lhree
sLages ) ampllfler. Lach sLage conslsLs of one LranslsLor and assoclaLed clrculLry and ls coupled
Lo Lhe nexL sLage Lhrough a coupllng devlce.

lnu1
ll8S1
S1ACL

CCuLlnC

SLCCnu
S1ACL

CCuLlnC

1Pl8u
S1ACL
Cu1u1

1he name of Lhe ampllfler ls usually glven afLer Lhe Lype of coupllng used.

Nhl 0l t0IFllNb

Nhl 0l hIl1l1bl hFlllll8

1. 8C Coupllng 8C coupled ampllfler
2. 1ransformer coupllng 1ransformer colled ampllfler
3. ulrecL coupllng ulrecL coupled ampllfler

(1) ln 8C coupllng, a capaclLor ls used as Lhe coupllng devlce. 1he capaclLor connecLed Lo Lhe
ouLpuL of one sLage Lo Lhe lnpuL of Lhe nexL sLage ln order Lo pass Lhe AC slgnal whlle blocklng
Lhe uC blas volLages.
(2) ln Lransformer coupllng, Lransformer ls used as Lhe coupllng devlce. 1he Lransformer
coupllng provldes Lhe same Lwo funcLlons (l.e Lo pass Lhe slgnal and blocklng uC) buL permlLs
ln addlLlon lmpedance maLchlng.
(3) ln dlrecL coupllng or uC coupllng, Lhe lndlvldual ampllfler sLage blas condlLlon are so
deslgned LhaL Lhe Lwo sLages may be dlrecLly connecLed wlLh ouL Lhe necesslLy for uC
lsolaLlon.


lMC81An1 1L8MS
CAln
1he raLlo of Lhe ouLpuL elecLrlcal quanLlLy Lo Lhe lnpuL one of Lhe ampllflers ls called lLs
galn.
1he galn of a mulLlsLage ampllfler ls equal Lo Lhe producL of galns of lndlvldual sLages.
lor e.g. lf C
1
,C
2
and C
3
are Lhe lndlvldual volLage galns of a Lhree sLage ampllfler, Lhen LoLal
volLage galn, C ls glven by
C = C
1
x C
2
x C
3

lL ls lmporLanL Lo noLe LhaL ln pracLlce, Lhe LoLal galn ls less Lhan C
1
x C
2
x C
3
due Lo
Lhe loadlng effecL of Lhe nexL sLages.
l8LCuLnC? 8LSCnSL
volLage galn of he ampllflers varles wlLh slgnal frequency. lL ls because reacLance of Lhe
capaclLor ln Lhe clrculL changes wlLh slgnal frequency and hence affecL Lhe ouLpuL volLage.

1be cotve betweeo voltoqe qolo ooJ slqool ftepoeocy of oo ompllflet ls koowo os
ftepoeocy tespoose. llgure shows Lhe frequency response of a Lyplcal ampllfler. 1he galn of Lhe
ampllfler lncreases as Lhe frequency lncreases from zero Llll lL becomes maxlmum aL 'fr' called
resonanL frequency. lf Lhe frequency of Lhe slgnal lncreases beyond 'fr', Lhe galn decreases.
1he performance of an ampllfler depends Lo a conslderable exLenL upon lLs frequency
response. Whlle deslgnlng an ampllfler approprlaLe sLeps musL be Laken Lo ensure LhaL galn ls
essenLlally unlform over some speclfled range. lor example ln case of audlo ampllfler whlch ls
used Lo ampllfy speech or muslc, lL ls necessary LhaL all Lhe frequencles ln Lhe sound specLrum
(l.e 20Pz Lo 20kPz) should be unlformly ampllfled oLherwlse speaker wlll glve a dlsLorLed
sound ouLpuL .


uLCl8LL CAln
AlLhough Lhe galn of an ampllfler can be expressed as a number, yeL lL ls of greaL
pracLlcal lmporLance Lo asslgn lL a unlL. 1he unlL asslgned ls bel or Jeclbel(Jb).
1be commoo loqotltbm (loq to tbe bose 10) of powet qolo ls koowo os be/ powerqoin.

l.e ower galn = log
10
in
P
out
P

1 bel = 10 db
ower galn = 10 log

10
in
P
out
P
Jb.
As v
2
or l
2
, Lherefore Lhe volLage or currenL galn can be expressed ln db as
volLage galn = 20log
in
out
J
J
db
CurrenL galn = 20 log
in
out
I
I
db.
1he followlng are Lhe advanLages of expresslng Lhe galn ln db

(a) 1he unlL of db ls a logarlLhmlc unlL. Cur ear response ls also logarlLhmlc l.e loudness of
sound heard by ear ls noL accordlng Lo Lhe lnLenslLy of sound buL accordlng Lo Lhe log lnLenslLy
of sound. 1hus lf Lhe lnLenslLy of sound glven by speaker (l.e power ) ls lncreased 100 Llmes ,
our ears hear a doubllng effecL (log
10
100 =2) l.e as lf loudness were doubled lnsLead of made
100 Llmes. Pence , Lhls unlL Lallles wlLh Lhe naLural response of our ears.
(b) When Lhe galns are expressed ln db, Lhe overall galn of a mulLlsLage ampllfler ls Lhe sum
of galns of lndlvldual sLages ln db. Powever absoluLe galn ls obLalned by mulLlplylng Lhe galns
of lndlvldual sLages. Cbvlously, lLs easler Lo add Lhan Lo mulLlply.
8AnuWlu1P
1be tooqe of ftepoeocy ovet wblcb tbe qolo ls epool to ot qteotet tboo 70.7X* of tbe
moxlmom qolo ls koowo os bondwidth.
______________
*Tbe bumon eor is not o very sensitive beorinq Jevice. lt bos been founJ tbot if tbe qoin folls to 70.7% of
moximum qoin, tbe eor connot Jetect tbe cbonqe. Ior instonce, if tbe qoin of on omplifier is 100, tben even if
tbe qoin folls to 70.7, tbe eor connot Jetect tbe cbonqe in intensity of sounJ onJ bence no Jistortion will be
beorJ. Eowever , if tbe qoin folls below 70.7% , tbe eor will beor cleor Jistortion.


1he volLage galn of an ampllfler changes wlLh frequency. 8eferrlng Lo Lhe frequency
response ln flg.,lL ls clear LhaL for any frequency lylng beLween f
1
and f
2
,Lhe galn ls equal Lo or
greaLer Lhan 70.7 Lhe maxlmum galn. 1herefore, f
1
-f
2
ls Lhe bandwldLh. lL may be seen LhaL
f
1
and f
2
are Lhe llmlLlng frequencles. 1he former (f
1
) ls called lowet cot-off ftepoeocy and Lhe
laLLer (f
2
) ls known as oppet cot-off ftepoeocy. lor dlsLorLlon less ampllflcaLlon, lL ls lmporLanL
LhaL slgnal frequency range musL be wlLhln Lhe band wldLh of Lhe ampllfler.
8and-wldLh of an ampllfler can also be deflned ln Lerms of declbel. Suppose Lhe
maxlmum volLage galn of an ampllfler ls 100. 1hen 70.7 of lL ls 70.7
lall ln volLage galn from maxlmum galn = 20log
10
7 . 70
100
db = 20log
10
1.4142 db = 3 db.
neoce bondwidth of oo ompllflet ls tbe tooqe of ftepoeocy ot tbe llmlts of wblcb lts
voltoqe qolo folls by JJb ftom tbe moxlmom qolo.
Lxamp|e (|) . llnd Lhe galn ln db ln Lhe followlng cases :
(l) volLage galn of 30
(ll) ower galn of 100
Ans. (l)volLage galn = 20log
10
30 db = 20 x 1.477 db = 29.34 db.
(ll)ower galn = 10log
10
100 db = 10 x 2 db = 20db
Lxamp|e (||) . Lxpress Lhe followlng galns as a number?
(l) ower galn of 40 db
(ll)ower galn of 43 db.
Ans. (l) ower galn = 40 db = 4 bel
lf we wanL Lo flnd Lhe galn as a number, we should work from logarlLhm back
Lo Lhe orlglnal number.
Caln = AnLllog 4
= 10
4
= 10000
(ll) ower galn = 43 db = 4.3 bel


ower galn = AnLllog 4.3 = 2 x 10

4
= 20000
Lxamp|e (|||) . A Lhree sLage ampllfler has a flrsL sLage volLage galn of 100, second sLage
volLage galn of 200, and Lhlrd sLage galn of 400. llnd Lhe LoLal volLage galn ln db.

Ans .
llrsL sLage volLage galn ln db = 20 log
10
100 = 20 x 2 = 40
Second sLage volLage galn ln db = 20 log
10
200 = 20 x 2.3 = 46
1hlrd sLage volLage galn ln db = 20 log
10
400 = 20 x 2.6 = 32

1oLal volLage galn = 40 + 46 + 32 = 138 db

Lxamp|e (|v) A mulLlsLage LranslsLor ampllfler employs 3 sLages. Lach of whlch has a power
galn of 30. WhaL ls Lhe LoLal galn of Lhe ampllfler ln db ?
(b) lf a negaLlve feedback of 10db ls employed , flnd Lhe resulLanL galn.
(a) ower of one sLage ln db = 10 log
10
30 = 10 x 1.477 = 14.77

1oLal power galn = 3 x 14.77 = 73.83 db.

(b) 8esulLanL power galn wlLh negaLlve feedback = 73.83 -10 = 63.83 db.
lL ls clear from Lhe above example LhaL by expresslng Lhe galn ln db, calculaLlons have become
very slmple.
Lxamp|e (v)
ln an ampllfler, Lhe ouLpuL power 1.3 waLLs aL 2kPz and 0.3W aL 20Pz,whlle Lhe lnpuL
power ls consLanL aL 10 mW. CalculaLe by how many declbels galn aL w0Pz ln below LhaL aL 2
kPz.
Ans.
Db power ga|n at 2knz. AL 2kPz, Lhe ouLpuL power ls 1.3 waLLs and lnpuL power 10mW.

ower galn ln db = 10 log

10
mW
W
10
5 . 1
= 10 log
10
130 = 10 x 2.176 = 21.76.
Db power ga|n at 20nz. AL 20Pz, Lhe ouLpuL power ls 0.3W and lnpuL power ls 10mW

ower galn ln db = 10 log

10
mW
W
10
3 . 0
= 10 log
10
30 = 10 x 1.477 = 14.77.
lo// in qoin from 2knt to 20 nt = 21.76 -14.77 = 6.99 db
Lxamp|e (v|)
ln an ampllfler, Lhe maxlmum volLage galn ls 2000 and occurs aL 2 kPz. lL falls Lo 1414
aL 10 kPz and 30 Pz. llnd :-


(l) 8and wldLh (ll) Lower cuL off frequency (lll) upper cuL-off frequency

Ans. (l) 8eferrlng Lo Lhe frequency response ln llg. , Lhe maxlmum galn ls 2000. 1hen 70.7 of
Lhls galn ls 0.707 x 2000 = 1414. lL ls glven LhaL galn ls 1414 aL 30Pz and 10kPz. As band wldLh
ls Lhe range of frequency over whlch galn ls equal or greaLer Lhan 70.7 of maxlmum galn,
8andwldLh = 30 Pz Lo 10kPz
(ll) 1he frequency (on lower slde) aL whlch Lhe volLage galn of Lhe ampllfler ls exacLly
70.7 of Lhe maxlmum galn ls known as lower cuL-off frequency. 8eferrlng Lo flg. lL ls clear
LhaL
Lower cuL-off frequency = 30 Pz.
(lll) 1he frequency (on Lhe hlgher slde ) aL whlch Lhe volLage galn of Lhe ampllfler ls exacLly
70.7 of Lhe maxlmum galn ls known as upper cuL-off frequency. 8eferrlng Lo flg, lL ls clear
LhaL,
upper cuL-off frequency = 10kPz.
Comments. As banu wiuth of the amplifiei is Su Bz to 1uKBz , theiefoie it will amplify the
signal fiequencies lying in this iange without any uistoition. Bowevei, if the signal
fiequency is not in this iange, then theie will be uistoition in the output.
8C CCuLLu 18AnSlS1C8 AMLlllL8
1hls ls Lhe mosL popular Lype of coupllng because lL ls cheap and provldes excellenL
audlo fldellLy over a wlde range of frequency. lL ls usually employed for volLage ampllflcaLlon.


llg. shows Lwo sLages of an 8C coupled ampllfler. A coupllng capaclLor C
C
ls used Lo
connecL Lhe ouLpuL of flrsL sLage Lo Lhe base (l.e lopot) of Lhe second sLage and so on. As Lhe
coupllng from one sLage Lo nexL ls achleved by a coupllng capaclLor followed by a connecLlon
Lo a shunL reslsLor, Lherefore, such ampllflers are called teslstooce copocltooce coopleJ
ompllflets.
1he reslsLances 8
1
,8
2
and 8
L
form Lhe blaslng and sLablllzaLlon neLwork. 1he emlLLer
bypass capaclLor offers low reacLance paLh Lo Lhe slgnal. WlLhouL Lhem, Lhe volLage galn of
each sLage would be losL. 1he coupllng capaclLor C
C
LransmlLs a.c slgnal buL blocks d.c . 1hls
prevenLs d.c lnference beLween varlous sLages and Lhe shlfLlng of operaLlng polnL.
CL8A1lCn
When a.c slgnal ls applled Lo Lhe base of Lhe flrsL LranslsLor lL appears ln Lhe ampllfled
form across lLs collecLor load 8
C
. 1he ampllfled slgnal developed across 8
C
ls glven Lo Lhe base
of nexL sLage Lhrough coupllng capaclLor C
C
. 1he second sLage does furLher ampllflcaLlon of Lhe
slgnal. ln Lhls way, Lhe coscoJeJ ( one afLer anoLher ) sLages ampllfy Lhe slgnal and Lhe overall
galn ls conslderably lncreased.
lL may be menLloned here LhaL LoLal galn ls less Lhan Lhe producL of Lhe galns of
lndlvldual sLages. lL ls because when a second sLage ls made Lo follow Lhe flrsL sLage, Lhe
effecLlve load reslsLance of flrsL sLage ls reduced due Lo Lhe shunLlng effecL of Lhe lnpuL
reslsLance of second sLage. 1hls reduces Lhe galn of Lhe sLage whlch ls loaded by Lhe nexL
sLage. lor lnsLance, ln a 3-sLage ampllfler Lhe galn of flrsL and second sLages wlll be reduced
due Lo loadlng effecL of nexL sLage. Powever, Lhe galn of Lhe Lhlrd sLage whlch has no loadlng
effecL of subsequenL sLage remalns unchanged. 1he overall galn shall be equal Lo Lhe producL
of Lhe galns of Lhree sLages.


l8LCuLnC? 8LSCnSL

llg. shows Lhe frequency response of a Lyplcal 8-C coupled ampllfler. lL ls clear LhaL
volLage galn drops off aL low (< 30Pz) and hlgh (>20kPz) frequencles whereas lL ls unlform
over mlJ-ftepoeocy tooqe (30 Pz Lo 20kPz). 1hls behavlor of Lhe ampllfler ls brlefly explalned
below.
(l) AL low frequencles (< 30Pz)
1he reacLance of Lhe coupllng capaclLor C
C
ls qulLe hlgh and hence very small parL of
slgnal wlll pass from one sLage Lo Lhe nexL sLage. Moreover, C
L
cannoL shunL Lhe emlLLer
reslsLance 8
L
effecLlvely because of lLs large reacLance aL low frequencles. 1hese Lwo facLors
cause a falllng off volLage galn aL low frequencles.
(ll) AL hlgh frequencles (>20kPz)
1he reacLance C
C
ls very small and lL behaves as a shorL clrculL. 1hls lncreases Lhe
loadlng effecL of nexL sLage and serves Lo reduce Lhe volLage galn. Moreover, aL hlgh
frequency, capaclLlve reacLance of base-emlLLer [uncLlon ls low whlch lncreases Lhe base
currenL. 1hls reduces Lhe currenL ampllflcaLlon facLor . uue Lo Lhese Lwo reasons, Lhe volLage
galn drops off aL hlgh frequency.
(lll) AL mld-frequencles (30 Pz Lo 20 kPz)
1he volLage galn of Lhe ampllfler ls consLanL. 1he effecL of coupllng capaclLor ln Lhls
frequency range ls such so as Lo malnLaln a unlform volLage galn. 1hus, as Lhe frequency
lncreases ln Lhls range, reacLance of C
C
decreases whlch Lends Lo lncrease Lhe galn. Powever,
aL Lhe same Llme, lower reacLance means hlgher loadlng of flrsL sLage and hence lower galn.
1hese Lwo facLors almosL cancel each oLher, resulLlng ln a unlform galn aL mld frequency.
AuvAn1ACLS
(1) lL has excellenL frequency response. 1he galn ls consLanL over Lhe audlo
frequency range whlch ls Lhe reglon of mosL lmporLance for speech, muslc eLc.
(2) lL has lower cosL slnce lL employs reslsLors and capaclLors whlch are cheap.


(3) 1he clrculL ls very compacL as Lhe modern reslsLors and capaclLors are small and
exLremely llghL.
ulSAuvAn1ACLS
(l) 1he galn of an 8-C coupled ampllfler ls comparaLlvely small because of Lhe loadlng effecL
of nexL sLage.
(ll) 1hey have Lhe Lendency Lo become nolsy wlLh age, parLlcularly ln molsL cllmaLes.
(lll) lmpedance maLchlng ls poor. lL ls because Lhe ouLpuL lmpedance of 8-C coupled ampllfler
ls several hundred ohms whereas LhaL of a speaker ls only a few ohms. Pence, llLLle
power wlll be Lransferred Lo Lhe speaker.
ALlCA1lCnS
1he 8C coupled ampllflers have excellenL audlo fldellLy over a wlde range of frequency.
1herefore, Lhey are wldely used as volLage ampllflers e.g ln Lhe lnlLlal sLages of publlc address
sysLem. lf oLher Lype of coupllng (e.g Lransformer coupllng) ls employed ln Lhe lnlLlal sLages,
Lhls resulL ln frequency dlsLorLlon whlch may be ampllfled ln nexL sLages. Powever, because of
poor lmpedance maLchlng, 8C coupllng ls rarely used ln Lhe flnal sLages.
lMLuAnCL CCuLLu AMLlllL8 (L-C CCuLLu AMLlllL8)


llgure shows a Lwo sLage lmpedance coupled ampllfler. 1he clrculL conslsLs of Lwo
sLage common emlLLer LranslsLor ampllflers. 1he lnducLor 'L
1
' and capaclLor C
C
(L
2
and C
2
ln Lhe
second sLage) forms Lhe coupllng neLwork. 1he only baslc dlfference beLween Lhls clrculL and
8C coupled ampllfler ls LhaL Lhe collecLor reslsLor 8
C
ls replaced by an lnducLor 'L'. 1he funcLlon
of 8
1
,8
2
,8
L
, C
L
and C
C
are Lhe same as explalned for 8C coupled ampllflers.
1he expresslon for overall volLage galn and lndlvldual sLage galns may be obLalned ln
Lhe same way as obLalned for 8C coupled ampllflers. 1he only change Lo be made Lhere ls LhaL
8
C
should be replaced by lnducLlve reacLance x
L
.
AuvAn1ACLS
1. 1he blggesL advanLages of Lhls coupllng ls LhaL Lhere ls hardly any dc drop across 'L' so
LhaL low collecLor supply volLage ca be used.
ulSAuvAn1ACLS
1. lL ls larger, heavler and cosLller Lhan 8C coupllng.
2. ln order Lo prevenL Lhe magneLlc fleld of Lhe coupllng lnducLor from affecLlng Lhe
slgnal, Lhe lnducLor Lurns are wound on a closed core and are also shlelded.
3. Slnce lnducLor lmpedance depends on frequency, Lhe frequency characLerlsLlc of Lhls
coupllng ls noL so good as Lhose of 8C coupllng. 1he flux parL of Lhe frequency versus
galn curve ls small
18AnSlC8ML8 CCuLLu AMLlllL8

1hls Lype of coupllng ls generally employed when Lhe load ls small. lL ls malnly used for
power ampllflcaLlon. llg shows Lwo sLages of Lransformer coupled ampllfler. A coupllng
Lransformer ls used Lo feed Lhe ouLpuL of one sLage Lo Lhe lnpuL of Lhe nexL sLage. 1he prlmary
'' of Lhls Lransformer ls made Lhe collecLor load and lLs secondary 'S' glves lnpuL Lo Lhe nexL
sLage.


CL8A1lCn
When an a.c slgnal ls applled Lo Lhe base of flrsL LranslsLor, lL appears ln Lhe ampllfled
form across prlmary '' of Lhe coupllng Lransformer. 1he volLage developed across prlmary ls
Lransferred Lo Lhe lnpuL of Lhe nexL sLage by Lhe Lransformer secondary as shown ln flg. 1he
second sLage does ampllflcaLlon ln an exacLly slmllar manner.
l8LCuLnC? 8LSCnSL

1he frequency response of a Lransformer coupled ampllfler ls shown ln flgure. lL ls
clear LhaL frequency response ls very poor l.e galn ls consLanL only over a small range of
frequency. 1he ouLpuL volLage ls equal Lo Lhe collecLor currenL mulLlplled by reacLance of
prlmary. AL low frequencles, Lhe reacLance of prlmary beglns Lo fall, resulLlng ln decreased
galn. AL hlgh frequencles, Lhe capaclLance beLween Lurns of wlndlngs acLs as a by pass
condenser Lo reduce Lhe ouLpuL volLage and hence galn. lL follows, Lherefore, LhaL Lhere wlll be
dlsproporLlonaLe ampllflcaLlon of frequencles ln a compleLe slgnal such as muslc, speech eLc.
Pence Lransformer coupled ampllfler lnLroduces ftepoeocy Jlstottloo.
lL may be added here LhaL ln a properly deslgned Lransformer lL ls posslble Lo achleve a
falrly consLanL galn over Lhe audlo frequency range. 8uL a Lransformer LhaL achleves a
frequency response comparable Lo 8C coupllng may cosL 10 Lo 20 Llmes as much as Lhe
lnexpenslve 8C coupled ampllfler.

AuvAn1ACLS
l. no slgnal power ls losL ln Lhe collecLor or base reslsLors.
ll. An excellenL lmpedance maLchlng can be achleved ln a Lransformer coupled ampllfler.
lL ls easy Lo make Lhe lnducLlve reacLance of prlmary equal Lo Lhe ouLpuL lmpedance of
Lhe LranslsLor and reacLance of secondary equal Lo Lhe lnpuL lmpedance of nexL sLage.
lll. uue Lo excellenL lmpedance maLchlng, Lransformer coupllng provldes hlgher galn. As a
maLLer of facL, a slngle sLage of properly deslgned Lransformer coupllng can provlde Lhe
galn of Lwo sLages of 8C coupllng.


ulSAuvAn1ACLS
l. lL has poor frequency response l.e Lhe galn varles conslderably wlLh frequency.
ll. 1he coupllng Lransformers are bulky and falrly expenslve aL audlo frequency.
lll. 1ransformer coupllng Lends Lo lnLroduce hum* ln Lhe ouLpuL.
ALlCA1lCnS
1ransformer coupllng ls mosLly employed for lmpeJooce motcbloq. ln general, Lhe lasL
sLage of a mulLlsLage ampllfler ls Lhe powet stoqe. Pere, a concenLraLed efforL ls made Lo
Lransfer maxlmum power Lo Lhe ouLpuL devlce. e.g a loudspeaker. lor maxlmum power
Lransfer, Lhe lmpedance of power source should be equal Lo LhaL of load. usually, Lhe
lmpedance of an ouLpuL devlce ls a few ohms whereas Lhe ouLpuL lmpedance of LranslsLor ls
several hundred Llmes Lhls value. ln order Lo maLch Lhe lmpedance, a sLep down Lransformer
of proper Lurn raLlo ls used. 1he lmpedance of secondary of Lhe Lransformer ls made equal Lo
Lhe load lmpedance and prlmary lmpedance equal Lo Lhe ouLpuL lmpedance of LranslsLor.

llg. shows Lhe lmpedance maLchlng by a sLep-down Lransformer. 1he ouLpuL devlce
connecLed Lo Lhe secondary has small reslsLance 8
L
. 1he load 8
L
' appearlng on Lhe prlmary
slde wlll be
8
L
' = **
L
S
P
R
N
N
2

________________________
*1bete ote booJteJs of totos of ptlmoty ooJ secooJoty. 1bese totos wlll moltlply oo loJoceJ e.m.f ftom oeotby powet wltloq.
As tbe ttoosfotmet ls coooecteJ lo tbe bose cltcolt, tbetefote, tbe loJoceJ bom voltoqe wlll oppeot lo ompllfleJ fotm lo tbe
ootpot.
**5oppose ptlmoty ooJ secooJoty of ttoosfotmet cotty cotteot l
l
ooJ l
5
tespectlvely.
l
l
2
x k
l
= l
5
2
x k
l

k
l
=
2
L
2
S
R x I
P
I
=
2
P
S
I
I
x k
l
=
L
S
P
R
N
N
2
=
S
P
P
S
N
N
I
I
Q


lor lnsLance, suppose LhaL Lhe Lransformer has Lurn raLlo n
: n
S
= 10 : 1. lf 8
L
=
100U,Lhen load appearlng on Lhe prlmary ls
8
L
' =
2
1
10
x 100 U = 10kU.
1hus load on Lhe prlmary slde ls comparable Lo Lhe ouLpuL lmpedance of Lhe LranslsLor.
1hls resulLs ln maxlmum power Lransfer from LranslsLor Lo Lhe prlmary of Lransformer.
ul8LC1 CCuLLu AMLlllL8

lL ls also called as uC ampllfler and ls used Lo ampllfy very low frequency. (l.e below
10Pz) slgnals lncludlng dlrecL currenL of zero frequency. lL may be noLed LhaL Lhe capaclLors ,
lnducLors and Lransformers cannoL be used as coupllng neLwork aL very low frequencles
because Lhe elecLrlcal slze of Lhese devlces aL low frequency becomes very large.
llgure shows a Lwo sLage dlrecL coupled LranslsLor ampllfler. lL may be noLed LhaL Lhe
ouLpuL of flrsL sLage ls dlrecLly connecLed Lo Lhe base of Lhe nexL LranslsLor. 1here are no lnpuL
or ouLpuL coupllng capaclLors. 1he operaLlon of Lhls clrculL ls dlscussed below.
1he slgnal Lo be ampllfled ls dlrecLly applled Lo Lhe lnpuL of Lhe flrsL sLage. uue Lo
LranslsLor acLlon lL appears ln Lhe ampllfled form across Lhe collecLor reslsLor of LranslsLor C
1
.
1hls volLage Lhen drlves Lhe base of Lhe second LranslsLor C
2
and Lhe ampllfled ouLpuL ls
obLalned across Lhe collecLor reslsLor of LranslsLor C
2
.
l8LCuLnC? 8LSCnSL Cl ul8LC1 CCuLLu AMLlllL8


llg. shows Lhe frequency response of dlrecL coupled ampllfler. lL ls clear from Lhe flgure
LhaL Lhe galn ls unlform up Lo cerLaln frequency denoLed by l
2
. 8eyond Lhls frequency Lhe galn
decreases. lL ls due Lo Lhe lncreased emlLLer dlode capaclLance and sLray wlrlng capaclLance.
AuvAn1ACLS
1. 1hls clrculL arrangemenL ls very slmple because lL uses mlnlmum number of reslsLors.
2. 1he clrculL consLrucLs wlLhouL capaclLor Lhus reduces Lhe cosL.
3. lL can ampllfy very low frequency slgnal down Lo zero frequency.
ulSAuvAn1ACLS
1. lL cannoL ampllfy hlgh frequency slgnal
2. lL has poor LemperaLure sLablllLy. lL ls due Lo Lhe facL LhaL any varlaLlon ln base currenL
(due Lo LemperaLure change ln one sLage ls ampllfled ln Lhe followlng sLages, Lhereby
shlfLlng Lhe 'C'olnL. Powever, sLablllLy can lmprove by uslng emlLLer sLablllLy reslsLor.
ALlCA1lCnS
1. ln regulaLor clrculL of elecLronlc power supplles
2. ln pulse ampllflers
3. CompuLer clrculLry.
18AnSlS1C8 AuulC CWL8 AMLlllL8S
A pracLlcal ampllfler always conslsLs of a number of sLages LhaL ampllfy a weak slgnal
unLll sufflclenL power ls avallable Lo operaLe a loud speaker or oLher ouLpuL devlce. 1he flrsL
few sLages ln Lhls mulLlsLage ampllfler have Lhe funcLlon of only Lhe volLage ampllflcaLlon.
Powever Lhe lasL sLage ls deslgned Lo provlde maxlmum power. 1he flnal sLage ls known as
power sLage.
Audlo ampllflers ampllfy elecLrlcal slgnal LhaL have a frequency range correspondlng Lo
Lhe range of human hearlng l.e 20Pz Lo 20kPz. llgure shows Lhe block dlagram of audlo
ampllfler.

18AnSlS1C8 AuulC AMLlllL8
A ttooslstot ompllflet wblcb tolses tbe powet level of tbe slqools tbot bove ooJlo
ftepoeocy tooqe ls koowo os ttooslstot ooJlo powet ompllflet.


1he power ampllfler dlffers from all oLher prevlous sLages. ln LhaL here a concenLraLed
efforL ls made Lo obLaln maxlmum ouLpuL power. A LranslsLor LhaL ls sulLable for power
ampllflcaLlon ls generally called power trans|stor. lL dlffers from oLher LranslsLors mosLly ln
slze, lL ls conslderably larger Lo provlde for handllng Lhe greaL amounL of power.
ulllL8LnCL 8L1WLLn vCL1ACL Anu CWL8 AMLlllL8S
1he dlsLlncLlon beLween volLage and power ampllflers ls some whaL arLlflclal slnce
useful power (l.e, producL of volLage and currenL) ls always developed ln Lhe load reslsLance
Lhrough whlch currenL flows. 1he dlfference beLween Lhe Lwo Lypes ls really one of degree, lL
ls a quesLlon of how much volLage and how much power. A volLage ampllfler ls deslgned Lo
achleve maxlmum volLage ampllflcaLlon. lL ls, however, noL lmporLanL Lo ralse Lhe power level .
Cn Lhe oLher hand power ampllfler ls deslgned Lo obLaln maxlmum ouLpuL power.
1. vCL1ACL AMLlllL8
1he volLage galn of an ampllfler ls glven by:
A
v
= x
in
C
R
R

ln order Lo achleve hlgh volLage ampllflcaLlon, Lhe followlng feaLures are lncorporaLed
ln such ampllflers:
(l) 1he LranslsLor wlLh hlgh (> 100) ls used ln Lhe clrculL. ln oLherwords, Lhose LranslsLors are
employed whlch have Lhln base.
(ll) 1he lnpuL reslsLance 8
ln
of Lhe LranslsLor ls soughL Lo be qulLe low as compare Lo Lhe
collecLor load 8
C
.
(lll) A relaLlvely hlgh load 8
C
ls used ln Lhe collecLor. 1o permlL Lhls condlLlon, volLage
ampllflers are always operaLed aL low collecLor currenLs ( 1mA) . lf Lhe collecLor currenL ls
small, we can use large 8
C
ln Lhe collecLor clrculL.
2.CWL8 AMLlllL8
A ower ampllfler ls requlred Lo dellver a large amounL of power and as such lL has Lo handle
large currenL. ln order Lo achleve hlgh power ampllflcaLlon, Lhe followlng feaLures are
lncorporaLed ln such ampllflers:
(l) 1he slze of power LranslsLor ls made conslderably larger ln order Lo dlsslpaLe Lhe heaL
produced ln Lhe LranslsLor durlng operaLlon.
(ll) 1he base ls made Lhlcker Lo handle large currenLs. ln oLher words, LranslsLors wlLh
comparaLlvely smaller are used.


(lll) 1ransformer coupllng ls used for lmpedance maLchlng.
1he comparlson beLween volLage and power ampllflers ls glven below ln Lhe Labular
form.
Sl.no. A81lCuLA8S vCL1ACL AMLlllL8
CWL8
AMLlllL8
1 Plgh( >100) Low ( 20 Lo 30)
2 8
C
Plgh ( 4-10 kD) Low ( 3-20D)
3 Coupllng 8C coupllng
1ransformer
coupllng
4 lnpuL volLage Low( a few mv) Plgh ( 2-4v)
3 CollecLor currenL Low ( 1 mA) Plgh (>100 mA)
6 ower ouLpuL Low Plgh
7 CuLpuL lmpedance Plgh ( 12kD) Low (200D)

(1) A power ampllfler operaLed from 12v baLLery glves an ouLpuL of 2W. llnd Lhe maxlmum
collecLor currenL ln Lhls clrculL?
LeL l
C
be Lhe maxlmum collecLor currenL
ower = volLage x CurrenL
l.e = 8aLLery volLage x collecLor currenL
l =
J
P
=
12
2
= 166.7 mA.
CollecLor currenL l
C
= 166.7mA.
1hls example shows LhaL a power ampllfler handle large power a well as large currenL.
L8lC8MAnCL CuAn1l1lLS ClCWL8 AMLlllL8S
CCLLLC1C8 LlllClLnC?
1be totlo of Ac ootpot powet to tbe zeto slqool powet ( l.e uc powet ) sopplleJ by tbe
bottety of o powet ompllflet ls koowo os collectot efflcleocy.
CollecLor efflclency means as how well can ampllfler converLs uC power from Lhe
baLLery lnLo AC ouLpuL power. lor example:- lf Lhe uC power supplled by Lhe baLLery ls 10W
and AC ouLpuL power ls 2W, Lhen collecLor efflclency ls 20. 1he greaLer Lhe collecLor


efflclency larger ls Lhe AC power ouLpuL. lL ls obvlous LhaL for power ampllflers maxlmum
collecLor efflclency ls Lhe deslred goal.
ulS1C81lCn
1be cbooqe of ootpot wove sbope ftom tbe lopot wove sbope of oo ompllflet ls koowo
os Jlstottloo.
A LranslsLor llke oLher elecLronlc devlce ls a non-llnear devlce. 1herefore, whenever a
slgnal ls applled Lo Lhe lnpuL of Lhe LranslsLor Lhe ouLpuL slgnal ls noL exacLly llke Lhe lnpuL
slgnal, l.e dlsLorLlon occurs. ulsLorLlon ls noL a problem for small slgnals (l.e volLage ampllflers)
slnce LranslsLor ls a llnear devlce for small varlaLlons abouL Lhe operaLlng polnL.
Powever a power ampllfler handles large slgnals and Lherefore Lhe problem of dlsLorLlon
lmmedlaLely arlses. lor Lhe comparlson of Lwo power ampllflers LhaL one whlch has Lhe less
dlsLorLlon ls Lhe beLLer.
CWL8 ulSSSlA1lCn CAA8lLl1?
1be oblllty of o powet ttooslstot to Jlsslpote beot ls koowo os powet Jlsslpotloo
copoblllty.
A power LranslsLor handles large currenL and heaLs up durlng operaLlon. As any
LemperaLure change lnfluences Lhe operaLlon of LranslsLor, Lherefore Lhe LranslsLor musL
dlsslpaLe Lhls heaL Lo lLs surroundlngs. 1o achleve Lhls, generally a heaL slnk (meLal case ) ls
aLLached Lo a power LranslsLor case. 1he lncreased surface area allows heaL Lo escape easlly
and keeps Lhe case LemperaLure of Lhe LranslsLor wlLhln permlsslble llmlLs.
lL ls found LhaL maxlmum power dlsslpaLlon ln a LranslsLor occurs under zero slgnal
condlLlon. 1herefore, Lhe power dlsslpaLlon capablllLy of a power LranslsLor musL be aL leasL
equal Lo Lhe zero slgnal raLlng. lor example, lf Lhe zero slgnal power dlsslpaLlon of a LranslsLor
ls 1W, Lhen Lhe LranslsLor needs a raLlng of aL leasL 1W. lf Lhe power raLlng of Lhe LranslsLor ls
less Lhan 1W, lL ls llkely Lo be damaged.
CLASSlllCA1lCn Cl AMLlllL8S
1. CLASS A CWL8 AMLlllL8
lf Lhe collecLor currenL flows aL all Llmes durlng Lhe full cycle of Lhe slgnal, Lhen Lhe
power ampllfler ls known as class A ower Ampllfler.


Cbvlously, for Lhls Lo happen Lhe power ampllfler musL be blased ln such a way LhaL no
parL of Lhe slgnal ls cuL-off. llg(a) shows clrculL of a class A ower ampllfler. noLe LhaL
collecLor has Lransformer as Lhe load whlch ls mosL common for all classes of power ampllflers.
1he use of Lransformer permlLs lmpedance maLchlng, resulLlng ln Lhe Lransference of
maxlmum power Lo Lhe load e.g loud speaker. When a class A power ampllfler ls used ln Lhe
flnal sLage lL ls called slngle ended class A ower ampllfler.
llg(b) shows Lhe class A operaLlon ln Lerms of Lhe AC load llne. 1he operaLlng polnL 'C'
ls selecLed LhaL collecLor currenL flows Lhrough aL all Llmes LhroughouL Lhe full cycle of Lhe
applled slgnal. As Lhe ouLpuL wave shape ls exacLly slmllar Lo Lhe lnpuL wave shape, Lherefore,
such ampllflers have leasL dlsLorLlon. Powever, Lhey have Lhe dlsadvanLage of low power
ouLpuL and low collecLor efflclency.
1he fo||ow|ng po|nts may be noted :
1. Class A power ampllflers have a maxlmum collecLor efflclency of 30 l.e maxlmum of
30 of uC supply power ls converLed lnLo AC power ouLpuL. ln pracLlce, Lhe efflclency
of Class A power ampllfler ls less Lhan 30 (abouL 33 ) due Lo power loss ln Lhe
prlmary of Lransformer.
2. 1he maxlmum power ls dlsslpaLed ln Lhe LranslsLor ls ln Lhe zero slgnal condlLlon l.e
maxlmum power dlsslpaLed by Lhe LranslsLor

uC
= v
CC
x l
C

1he power raLlng of Lhe LranslsLor should be aL leasL equal Lo
uC
.
CLASS 8 CWL8 AMLlllL8
lf Lhe collecLor currenL flows only durlng Lhe poslLlve half cycle of Lhe lnpuL slgnal lL ls
called a Class 8 ower ampllfler.


ln class 8 operaLlon Lhe LranslsLor blas ls so ad[usLed LhaL zero slgnal collecLor currenL ls
zero. l.e no blaslng clrculL ls needed aL all. uurlng Lhe poslLlve half cycle of Lhe slgnal Lhe lnpuL
clrculL ls forward blased and hence a collecLor currenL flows. Powever, durlng Lhe negaLlve half
cycle of Lhe slgnal, Lhe lnpuL clrculL ls reverse blased and no collecLor currenL flows. llgure
shows Lhe class 8 operaLlon ln Lerms of AC load llne.

Cbvlously, Lhe operaLlng polnL 'C' shall be locaLed aL collecLor cuL-off volLage. lL ls easy
Lo see LhaL ouLpuL from a class 8 ampllfler ls ampllfled half wave recLlflcaLlon. ln a class 8
ampllfler Lhe negaLlve half cycle of Lhe slgnal ls cuL off and hence a severe dlsLorLlon occurs.
Powever, class 8 ampllfler provldes hlgher power ouLpuL and collecLor efflclency. Such
ampllflers are mosLly used for power ampllflcaLlon ln push-pull arrangemenL. ln such an
arrangemenL, Lwo LranslsLors are used ln class 8 operaLlon, one LranslsLor ampllfy Lhe poslLlve
half cycle of Lhe slgnal whlle Lhe oLher ampllfles Lhe negaLlve half cycles.
CLASS A8 AMLlllL8S
An ampllfler whlch selecLs blaslng poLenLlal mld-way beLween Class A and Class 8
ampllflers.
1hey have efflclency more Lhan Class A and dlsLorLlon ls less Lhan Class 8. 1hls ampllfler
has beLLer hlgh fldellLy Lhan LhaL of Class 8 buL poor Lhan LhaL of Class A.
CLASS C AMLlllL8S
lf Lhe collecLor currenL flows for less Lhan half cycle of Lhe lnpuL slgnal lL ls called class C
ower ampllfler.
ln Class C ampllfler Lhe base ls glven some negaLlve blas so LhaL collecLor currenL does
noL flow [usL when Lhe poslLlve half cycle of Lhe slgnal sLarLs. Such ampllflers never use ln


power ampllflcaLlon. Powever Lhey are used as Luned ampllflers l.e Lo ampllfy a narrow band
of frequencles near Lhe resonanL frequency.
PLA1 SlnkS
As power LranslsLors handle large currenLs Lhey always heaL up durlng operaLlon. Slnce
LranslsLor ls a LemperaLure dependenL devlce, Lhe heaL generaLed musL be dlsslpaLed Lo Lhe
surroundlngs. ln order Lo keep Lhe LemperaLure wlLhln permlsslble llmlLs , generally a
LranslsLor ls flxed on a meLal sheeL (usually Alumlnlum) so LhaL addlLlonal heaL ls Lransferred Lo
Lhe alumlnum sheeL.
1be metol sbeet tbot setves to Jlsslpote tbe oJJltloool beot ftom tbe powet ttooslstot ls
koowo os beot slok.
MosL of Lhe heaL wlLhln Lhe LranslsLor ls produced aL Lhe collecLor [uncLlon. 1he heaL
slnk lncreases Lhe surface area and allows heaL Lo escape from Lhe collecLor [uncLlon easlly.
1he resulL ls LhaL LemperaLure of Lhe LranslsLor ls sufflclenLly lowered. As a maLLer of facL,
modern LranslsLors are generally mounLed ln Lhermal conLacL wlLh Lhe chassls. now chassls ls a
heaL conducLlng body, Lherefore enLlre chassls becomes Lhe heaL slnk.
S1ACLS Cl A 8AC1lCAL CWL8 AMLlllL8
1he funcLlons of a pracLlcal power ampllfler ls Lo ampllfy a weak slgnal unLll sufflclenL
power ls avallable Lo operaLe a loud speaker or oLher ouLpuL devlce. 1o achleve Lhls goal, a
power ampllfler has generally Lhree sLages, namely vo|tage amp||f|cat|on stage, dr|ver stage
and output stage. llgure shows a block dlagram of a pracLlcal power ampllfler.

1. vCL1ACL AMLlllCA1lCn S1ACL
1he slgnals found ln pracLlce have exLremely lows volLage level(less Lhan 10mv).
1herefore Lhe volLage level of Lhe weak slgnal ls ralsed by Lwo or more volLage ampllflers.
Cenerally 8C coupled ls employed for Lhls purpose.
2. u8lvL8 S1ACL
1he ouLpuL from Lhe lasL volLage ampllflcaLlon sLage ls fed Lo Lhe drlver sLage. lL
supplles necessary power Lo Lhe ouLpuL sLage. 1he drlver sLage generally employed Class A
Lransformer coupled power ampllfler. Pere, concenLraLed efforL ls made Lo obLaln maxlmum
power galn.


3. Cu1u1 S1ACL
1he ouLpuL power from Lhe drlver sLage ls fed Lo Lhe ouLpuL sLage. lL ls Lhe flnal sLage
and feeds power dlrecLly Lo Lhe speaker or oLher ouLpuL devlce. 1he ouLpuL sLage ls
Lransformer coupled and employs Class 8 ampllflers ln push-pull arrangemenL. Pere ,
concenLraLed efforL ls made for maxlmum power ouLpuL.
u8lvL8 S1ACL
1he sLage LhaL lmmedlaLely precedes Lhe ouLpuL sLage ls called Lhe drlver sLage. lL ls
operaLed as a class A ower ampllfler and supplles Lhe drlve for Lhe ouLpuL sLage. noLe LhaL
Lransformer coupllng ls employed.
.
1he prlmary of Lhls Lransformer ls Lhe collecLor load. 1he secondary ls almosL always
cenLre-Lapped so as Lo provlde equal and opposlLe volLage Lo Lhe lnpuL of push-pull ampllfler.
l.e ouLpuL sLage. 1he drlver Lransformer usually ls a sLep down Lransformer and faclllLaLes
lmpedance maLchlng.
1he ouLpuL from Lhe lasL volLage ampllflcaLlon sLage forms Lhe lnpuL of Lhe drlver sLage.
1he drlver sLage does power ampllflcaLlon ln Lhe usual way. lL may be added LhaL maln
conslderaLlon ls Lhe maxlmum power galn. 1he ouLpuL of Lhe drlver sLage ls Laken from Lhe
cenLre-Lapped secondary and ls fed Lo Lhe ouLpuL sLage.
Cu1u1 S1ACL
1he ouLpuL sLage conslsLs of a power ampllfler and lLs purpose ls Lo Lransfer maxlmum
power Lo Lhe ouLpuL devlce. lf a slngle LranslsLor ls used ln Lhe ouLpuL sLage lL can only be
employed as Class A ampllfler for falLhful ampllflcaLlon. unforLunaLely Lhe power efflclency of
a Class A power ampllfler ls very low (33 approx.). As LranslsLor ampllflers operaLed from


baLLerles whlch are a cosLly source of power, Lherefore such a low efflclency cannoL be
LoleraLed.
ln order Lo obLaln hlgh ouLpuL power aL hlgh efflclency, ush-pu|| arrangement ls used
ln Lhe ouLpuL sLage. ln Lhls arrangemenL we employ Lwo LranslsLors ln class 8 operaLlon. Cne
LranslsLor ampllfles Lhe poslLlve half cycles of Lhe slgnal whlle Lhe oLher LranslsLor ampllfles Lhe
negaLlve half cycle of Lhe slgnal. ln Lhls way ouLpuL volLage ls a compleLe slne wave. AL Lhe
same Llme, Lhe clrculL dellvers hlgh ouLpuL power Lo Lhe load due Lo class 8 operaLlon.

1he push-pu|| amp||f|er ls a power ampllfler and ls frequenLly used ln Lhe ouLpuL sLage
of elecLronlc clrculLs. lL ls used whenever hlgh ouLpuL power aL hlgh efflclency ls requlred.
llgure shows Lhe clrculL of a push-pull ampllfler. 1wo LranslsLors 1r
1
and 1r
2
placed back Lo
back are employed. 8oLh LranslsLors are operaLed ln class-8 operaLlon l.e collecLor currenL ls
nearly zero, ln Lhe absence of slgnal. 1he cenLre-Lapped secondary of Lhe drlver Lransformer 1
1

supplles equal and opposlLe volLages Lo Lhe base clrculL of Lwo LranslsLors.
1he ouLpuL Lransformer 1
2
has Lhe cenLre Lapped prlmary wlndlng. 1he supply volLage
v
CC
ls connecLed beLween Lhe bases and cenLre Lap. 1he loud speaker ls connecLed across Lhe
secondary of Lhls Lransformer.
Cl8Cul1 CL8A1lCn
1he lnpuL slgnal appears across Lhe secondary 'A8', of drlver Lransformer. Suppose
durlng Lhe flrsL half cycle (marked 1) of slgnal, end A becomes poslLlve and end 8 negaLlve.
1hls wlll make Lhe base emlLLer [uncLlon of 1r
1
reverse blased and LhaL of 1r
2
forward blased.
1he clrculL wlll conducL currenL due Lo 1r
2
only and ls shown by solld arrows. 1herefore Lhls
half cycle of Lhe slgnal ls ampllfled by 1r
2
and appears ln Lhe lower half of Lhe prlmary of ouLpuL
Lransformer. ln Lhe nexL half cycle of Lhe slgnal 1r
1
ls forward blased whereas 1r
2
ls reverse


blased. 1herefore 1r
1
conducLs and ls shown by doLLed arrows. ConsequenLly, Lhls half cycle of
Lhe slgnal ls ampllfled by 1r
1
and appears ln Lhe upper half of Lhe ouLpuL Lransformer prlmary.
1he cenLre-Lapped prlmary of Lhe ouLpuL Lransformer comblnes Lwo collecLor currenLs Lo form
a slne wave ouLpuL ln Lhe secondary.
lL may be noLed here LhaL push-pull arrangemenL also permlLs a maxlmum Lransfer of
power Lo Lhe load Lhrough lmpedance maLchlng. lf 8
L
ls Lhe reslsLance appearlng across
secondary of ouLpuL Lransformer, Lhen reslsLance 8
L
' of prlmary shall become
8
L
' =
2
2
1
2
N
N
8
L

Where n
1
= number of Lurns beLween elLher end of prlmary wlndlng and cenLre-Lap
n
2
= number of secondary Lurns
AuvAn1ACLS
(1) 1he efflclency of Lhe clrculL ls qulLe hlgh (approxlmaLely equal Lo 73) due Lo clas 8
operaLlon.
(2) A hlgh AC ouLpuL power ls obLalned.
ulSAuvAn1ACLS
(1) 1wo LranslsLors have Lo be used
(2) lL requlres equal and opposlLe volLages aL Lhe lnpuL. 1herefore, push -pull clrculL
requlres Lhe use of drlver sLage Lo furnlsh Lhese slgnals.
(3) lf Lhe parameLers of Lhe Lwo LranslsLors are noL Lhe same, Lhere wlll be unequal
ampllflcaLlon of Lwo halves of Lhe slgnal.
(4) 1he clrculL glves more dlsLorLlon
(3) 1ransformers used are bulky and expenslve.
C8CSS CvL8 ulS1C81lCn
1ranslsLors ln a class 8 ush pull ampllfler are blased aL cuL-off. lL means LhaL when uC
blas volLage ls zero, Lhe lnpuL slgnal volLage musL exceed Lhe barrler volLage before a LranslsLor
Lo conducL. ln oLher words, a LranslsLor does noL conducL unLll lnpuL slgnal volLage exceed
0.7v for slllcon and 0.3v for Cermanlum LranslsLors. 8ecause of Lhls , Lhere ls a Llme lnLerval
beLween Lhe poslLlve and negaLlve alLernaLlons of Lhe lnpuL slgnal when boLh Lhe LranslsLors
are noL conducLlng as shown ln flgure. 1he resulLlng dlsLorLlon ln Lhe ouLpuL slgnal ls called
cross over dlsLorLlon.


1he cross over dlsLorLlon may be avolded by applylng a sllghL forward blas (equal Lo
0.7v for Sl and 0.3v for Ce LranslsLors) Lo Lhe base-emlLLer [uncLlon of boLh Lhe LranslsLors of
Lhe ampllfler clrculL. lL causes Lhe LranslsLor Lo conducL lmmedlaLely when Lhe AC lnpuL slgnal
ls applled. ln LhaL case each LranslsLor operaLes for more Lhan one half cycle. 1he resulLlng
operaLlon of Lhe LranslsLor ls called Class A8 operaLlon.
CCMLLMLn1A8? S?MML18? uSPuLL AMLlllL8
1hls Lype of push-pull ampllfler does noL requlre any bulky and expenslve ouLpuL
Lransformer. lL also avolds Lhe lnpuL cenLre-Lapped Lransformer or phase lnverLer for supplylng
Lwo ouL of phase lnpuL slgnal.
As we know, a sLandard class 8 ampllfler requlres Lwo power LranslsLors of Lhe same
Lype wlLh closely maLched parameLers. 8uL Lhe chlef requlremenL of complemenLary
ampllflers ls a palr of closely maLched buL opposlLely doped power LranslsLors. 1he Lerm
complemenLary means LhaL one LranslsLor ls n Lype and Lhe oLher ls of nn Lype. 1hey have
symmeLry l.e boLh are made wlLh Lhe same maLerlal, Lechnology and have same maxlmum
raLlng.


llg. shows Lhe clrculL of a complemenLary symmeLry class 8 push pull ampllfler. 1he
Lwo LranslsLors are complemenLary Lo each oLher and operaLe as emlLLer follower ampllflers.
1he lnpuL ls capaclLlve coupled and Lhe ouLpuL ls dlrecL coupled.
CL8A1lCn
WlLh zero slgnal lnpuL none of Lhe LranslsLor conducLs. 1hus ouLpuL volLage ls zero.
uurlng Lhe poslLlve lnpuL half cycle LranslsLor 18
1
conducLs and 18
2
ls off. Slmllarly durlng Lhe
negaLlve lnpuL half cycle LranslsLor 18
2
conducLs and 18
1
ls off. lL ls clear LhaL Lhls clrculL ls a
push pull ampllfler because Lurnlng one LranslsLor Cn Lurns Lhe oLher Cll.
1hls clrculL posses Lhe essenLlal characLerlsLlcs of an emlLLer follower l.e unlLy volLage
galn, no phase lnverslon and lnpuL lmpedance much hlgher Lhan ouLpuL lmpedance. 1hls
clrculL requlres spllL supply for lLs operaLlon. uue Lo Lhe ellmlnaLlon of Lransformer, boLh Lhe
low and hlgh frequency response of Lhe clrculL are exLended aparL from reduced cosL and
welghL.
ulS1C81lCn ln AMLlllL8S
1he ampllfler dlsLorLlon may be dlvlded lnLo Lwo broad caLegorles
(1) non-llnear dlsLorLlon (2) Llnear dlsLorLlon
nCn-LlnLA8 ulS1C81lCn
non-llnear dlsLorLlon occurs ln Lhe case of large slgnals lnpuL when Lhe acLlve devlce
(LranslsLor) ls drlven ln Lo Lhe non-llnear reglon of lLs characLerlsLlcs. 1here are Lhree Lypes of
non-llnear dlsLorLlon
(a) AmpllLude dlsLorLlon (b) Parmonlc dlsLorLlon (c) lnLermodulaLlon(lM) dlsLorLlon.
(a) Amplituue uistoition
llg. shows below lllusLraLe Lhe ampllLude dlsLorLlon.

As seen Lhe poslLlve half cycle of Lhe lnpuL slgnal has ampllLude more Lhan lLs negaLlve
half-cycle. ConsequenLly wave shape of Lhe ouLpuL slgnal dlffers from LhaL of Lhe lnpuL slgnal.
(b)Baimonic uistoition
1hls dlsLorLlon occurs when lnpuL slgnal ls of one frequency. llg. shown below
lllusLraLes Lhls Lype of dlsLorLlon.


As seen, Lhe lnpuL ls a slngle frequency (f
1
) slgnal buL ouLpuL slgnal conLalns new
frequencles (called harmonlcs) whlch are noL presenLed ln Lhe lnpuL. 1hese frequencles are
harmonlcally relaLed Lo each oLher. 1hese harmonlcs are Lhe lnLegral mulLlples of Lhe lnpuL
slgnal frequency. ConsequenLly Lhe ouLpuL ls dlsLorLed. 1he magnlLude of dlsLorLlon depends
on Lhe sLrengLh and number of Lhese harmonlcs.
1he audlo ampllflers used for ampllflcaLlon of speech or muslc, have Lhe less harmonlc
dlsLorLlon ls Lhe beLLer. Parmonlc dlsLorLlon should noL exceed 10 oLherwlse lnLelllglblllLy wlll
suffer. Pl-ll ampllflers have harmonlc dlsLorLlon less Lhan 1.
(c)Inteimouulation uistoition
lL occurs when lnpuL slgnal(llke speech) conslsLs of more Lhan one frequency. 1hls Lype
of non-llnear dlsLorLlon whlch generaLes frequency componenLs noL harmonlcally relaLed Lo
Lhe slgnal frequency. Suppose an lnpuL slgnal conLalns Lwo frequencles l
1
and l
2
. 1he ouLpuL
slgnal wlll conLaln Lhelr harmonlcs l.e l
1
, 2l
1
and 3l
1
eLc. and ln addlLlon Lhere would be
componenLs (l
1
+ l
2
) and (l
1
- l
2
) and also Lhe sum and dlfference of Lhe harmonlcs. 1hese sum
and dlfference frequencles are called lnLemodulaLlon frequencles and are qulLe undeslrable ln
ampllflers because Lhey subLracL from orlglnal lnLelllgence. 1hese lM frequencles are easlly
deLecLed by human ear as nolse. Pence greaL care ls Laken Lo mlnlmlze Lhem ln hlgh fldellLy
audlo ampllflers. ln Pl-ll ampllflers Lhese dlsLorLlon ls less Lhan 1.
ll.LlnLA8 ulS1C81lCn
lL occurs even when Lhe acLlve devlce ls worklng on llnear parL of lLs characLerlsLlcs. lL ls
prlmarlly due Lo frequency dependenL reacLances assoclaLed wlLh Lhe clrculL or LranslsLor
lLself and occurs when lnpuL slgnals have many dlfferenL frequencles oLher Lhan Lhose aL Lhe
lnpuL. lL can be dlvlded lnLo (a) lrequency dlsLorLlon (b) phase or delay dlsLorLlon
(a) Fiequency uistoition
lL ls baslcally due Lo change ln Lhe ampllfler galn wlLh frequency l.e unequal
ampllflcaLlon of dlfferenL frequencles presenL ln Lhe lnpuL slgnal.
1he dlsLorLlon ls due Lo Lhe varlous frequency dependenL reacLances (boLh capaclLlve
and lnducLlve) assoclaLed wlLh Lhe clrculL or acLlve devlce lLself. ln Lhe case of audlo slgnals Lhe


frequency dlsLorLlon leads Lo a change ln Lhe quallLy of sound. Pence ln Lhe deslgn of wlde
band ampllflers speclal sLeps are Laken Lo reduce varlaLlon of galn wlLh frequency.
(b) Phase oi uelay uistoition
hase dlsLorLlon ls sald Lo Lake place when phase angles beLween Lhe componenL
waves of Lhe ouLpuL are noL Lhe same as Lhe correspondlng angle of Lhe lnpuL. 1hese changes
ln phase angles are also due Lo frequency dependenL capaclLlve and lnducLlve reacLance
assoclaLed wlLh Lhe clrculL and Lhe acLlve devlce of Lhe ampllfler. 1hls Lype of dlsLorLlon whlch
ls due Lo Lhe non-unlform phase shlfL of dlfferenL frequency componenLs ls dlfflculL Lo
ellmlnaLe. lorLunaLely Lhe human ear ls unable Lo dlsLlngulsh phase dlfference (Lhough eye
can) and ls Lhus noL senslLlve Lo Lhls dlsLorLlon. ConsequenLly phase dlsLorLlon ls of no pracLlcal
lmporLance ln audlo ampllflers. 8uL ln ampllflers ln 1elevlslon seLs (vldeo ampllflers) and oLher
sysLems where ear ls noL Lhe flnal recelver ellmlnaLlon of phase dlsLorLlon ls lmporLanL.
lLLu8ACk ln AMLlllL8S
A pracLlcal ampllfler has a galn of nearly one mllllon l.e lLs ouLpuL ls one mllllon Llmes
Lhe lnpuL. ConsequenLly even a llLLle dlsLurbance aL Lhe lnpuL wlll appear ln Lhe ampllfled form
ln Lhe ouLpuL. 1here ls a sLrong Lendency ln ampllflers Lo lnLroduce 'hum' due Lo sudden
LemperaLure changes or sLray elecLrlc and magneLlc flelds. 1here every hlgh galn ampllfler
Lends Lo glve nolse along wlLh slgnal ln lLs ouLpuL. 1he nolse ln Lhe ouLpuL of an ampllfler ls
undeslrable and musL be kepL Lo as small a level as posslble.
1he nolse level ln ampllflers can be reduced conslderably by Lhe use of negaLlve
feedback.
lLLu8ACk
1he process of ln[ecLlng a fracLlon of ouLpuL energy of some devlce back Lo Lhe lnpuL ls
known as feed back. uependlng upon wheLher Lhe feedback energy alds or opposes Lhe lnpuL
slgnal Lhere are Lwo Lypes of feed backs namely, positive feedbock ond neqotive feedbock.
CSl1lvL lLLu 8ACk C8 8LCLnL8A1lvL lLLu 8ACk
When Lhe feedback energy (volLage or currenL) ls ln phase wlLh Lhe lnpuL slgnal and
alds lL , lL ls called poslLlve feedback. oslLlve feedback of Lhe ampllfler lncreases galn of Lhe
ampllfler. Powever, lL has Lhe dlsadvanLage of lncreased dlsLorLlon and lnsLablllLy . 1herefore,
oslLlve feedback ls noL employed ln ampllflers. Cne lmporLanL use of poslLlve feedback ls ln
osclllaLors.


nLCA1lvL lLLu8ACk C8 uLCLnL8A1lvL lLLu8ACk
When Lhe feed back energy (volLage or currenL) ls ouL of phase wlLh Lhe lnpuL slgnal
and Lhus oppose lL , lL ls called negaLlve feedback. negaLlve feedback reduces galn of Lhe
ampllfler. Powever Lhe advanLages of negaLlve feedback are reduction in distortion, stobi/ity
in qoin ond increosed bondwidth ond improved input ond output impedonce. lL ls due Lo
Lhese advanLages LhaL negaLlve feedback ls used ln ampllflers.
8lnClLL Cl lLLu8ACk AMLlllL8S

llg. shows Lhe block dlagram of a baslc feedback ampllfler wlLh negaLlve feedback.
Where
A ls Lhe galn of Lhe ampllfler wlLhouL feedback
ls Lhe feed back facLor
v
l
ls Lhe lnpuL slgnal volLage
v'
C
ls Lhe ouLpuL volLage
Pere a fracLlon of Lhe ouLpuL obLalned across load reslsLor 8
L
of Lhe ampllfler ls fed back Lo Lhe
lnpuL Lhrough a neLwork called network or feedbock network. 1he feedback neLwork
usually conslsLs of reslsLors. lL reLurns a fracLlon of ouLpuL volLage vo back Lo Lhe lnpuL ln
phase opposlLlon.
ln Lhls case acLual lnpuL volLage Lo Lhe ampllfler
= v
l
- v
o

` or v
C
= A (v
l
- v
o
)
or Av
l
= v
o
+ A v
o
= v
o
(1 + A)
or v
o
=
) A (1
AV
I

1he galn of Lhe feedback ampllfler A
f
=
I
V
Vo


=
I
I
V
) A (1
AV
=
A
A
+ 1

lrom Lhls expresslon, lL ls seen LhaL tbe qolo of oo ompllflet ls teJoceJ wbeo oeqotlve
feeJbock ls oseJ.
ln case of poslLlve feed back , Lhe expresslon for galn
A
f
=
A
A
1

As seen from Lhls expresslon tbe qolo of ompllflet locteoses wltb posltlve feeJbock.
AuvAn1ACLS Cl nLCA1lvL lLLu8ACk
1here are a large number of advanLages of negaLlve feedback wlLh only dlsadvanLage
LhaL lL reduces Lhe galn. lLs advanLages wlLh respecL Lo sLablllLy, dlsLorLlon, nolse, lnpuL and
ouLpuL lmpedance, bandwldLh eLc.are dlscussed below.
1. Improves stability
We have seen LhaL Lhe galn of ampllfler wlLh negaLlve feedback
A
f
=
A
A
+ 1

=
A
A
( A Q >>1)
=
1

1hus Lhe galn of feedback ampllfler ls lndependenL of Lhe lnLernal galn of Lhe ampllfler
'A' and Lhe galn of Lhe ampllfler wlLh feedback 'A
f
' depends only Lhe feedback facLor '' whlch
ln Lurn depends upon passlve elemenLs such as reslsLors. 1he value of passlve elemenLs
remalns falrly consLanL and hence Lhe galn of Lhe ampllfler wlll be sLable.
2. Reduces tbe distortion and noise


WlLh no feedback an ampllfler produces cerLaln amounL of dlsLorLlon 'u' ln Lhe ouLpuL.
When a fracLlon '' of Lhe ouLpuL volLage ls fed back Lo lnpuL ln opposlLe phase Lhe same
fracLlon of dlsLorLlon ln Lhe ouLpuL also fed back Lo Lhe lnpuL and geLs ampllfled 'A' Llmes by
Lhe baslc ampllfler.
1hls ampllfled dlsLorLlon geLs added up ( ln reverse polarlLy ) Lo Lhe orlglnal dlsLorLlon
Lo make neL dlsLorLlon reduced Lhrough cancellaLlon and becomes
u
f
=
A
D
+ 1

1hls expresslon shows LhaL Lhe dlsLorLlon ls reduced by a facLor
A + 1
1
, when negaLlve
feedback ls used ln Lhe ampllfler.
3. Improves frequency response
As feedback ls usually obLalned Lhrough a reslsLlve neLwork, Lherefore volLage galn of
Lhe ampllfler ls lndependenL of slgnal frequency.
4. Increases circuit stability
1he ouLpuL of an ordlnary ampllfler ls easlly changed due Lo varlaLlon ln amblenL
LemperaLure, frequency and slgnal ampllLude. 1hls changes Lhe galn of Lhe ampllfler resulLlng
ln dlsLorLlon. Powever, by applylng negaLlve feedback, volLage galn of Lhe ampllfler ls
sLablllzed or accuraLely flxed ln value. 1hls can be easlly explalned. Suppose Lhe ouLpuL of a
negaLlve feedback ampllfler has lncreased because of LemperaLure changes or due Lo some
any reason. 1hls means more negaLlve feedback slnce feedback ls belng glven from Lhe
ouLpuL. 1hls Lends Lo oppose Lhe lncrease ln ampllflcaLlon and malnLaln lL sLable. 1he same ls
Lrue lf Lhe ouLpuL volLage decreases. ConsequenLly, Lhe clrculL sLablllLy ls conslderably
lncreased.
5. Increases input impedance and decreases output impedance
1he negaLlve feedback lncreases Lhe lnpuL lmpedance and decreases Lhe ouLpuL
lmpedance of Lhe ampllfler. Such a change ls proflLable ln pracLlce l.e as Lhe ampllfler can Lhen
serve Lhe purpose of lmpedance maLchlng.
(a) lnpuL lmpedance
1he lncrease ln lnpuL lmpedance wlLh negaLlve feedback ls glven by Lhe equaLlon
Z'
ln
= Z
ln
(1 + A)
Where Z
ln
= lnpuL lmpedance wlLhouL feedback
Z'
ln
= lnpuL lmpedance wlLh feedback.


lL ls clear LhaL by applylng negaLlve feedback, lnpuL lmpedance of Lhe ampllfler ls
lncreased by a fracLlon 1+A. As 'A' ls much greaLer Lhan unlLy , Lherefore, lnpuL lmpedance
ls lncreased conslderably.
(b)CuLpuL lmpedance
CuLpuL lmpedance wlLh negaLlve feedback ls glven by
Z'ouL =
A
Zout
+ 1

Where Z'ouL = CuLpuL lmpedance wlLh negaLlve feedback.
ZouL = CuLpuL lmpedance wlLhouL feedback.
lL ls clear LhaL by applylng negaLlve feedback Lhe ouLpuL lmpedance of ampllfler ls
decreased by a facLor 1+A.
nLCA1lvL lLLu8ACk Cl8Cul1
negaLlve feedback ln an ampllfler ls a meLhod for feedlng a porLlon of ampllfled ouLpuL
energy back Lo Lhe lnpuL of Lhe ampllfler so as Lo oppose Lhe lnpuL slgnal. 1wo baslc Lypes of
feed back are used namely, Neqotive vo/toqe feedbock ond Neqotive current feedbock. ln
elLher case a volLage ls fedback Lo Lhe lnpuL of Lhe ampllfler. Powever, Lhe meLhod of
obLalnlng Lhls volLage and Lhe facLors conLrolllng Lhe amounL of Lhls volLage dlffers ln Lhe Lwo
cases.
1. nLCA1lvL vCL1ACL lLLu 8ACk
ln Lhls meLhod, Lhe volLage feedback Lo Lhe lnpuL of Lhe ampllfler ls proporLlonal Lo Lhe
ouLpuL volLage. negaLlve volLage feed back reduces Lhe ouLpuL lmpedance and also decreases
Lhe galn of Lhe ampllfler. Powever lL reduces Lhe dlsLorLlon and lncreases band wldLh.
1herefore, lL ls exLenslvely used ln elecLronlc clrculLs. ln all modern hlgh galn LranslsLor
ampllflers (e.g. ubllc address sysLem, LranslsLor radlo) negaLlve volLage feedback ls always
employed.
2. nLCA1lvL Cu88Ln1 lLLu 8ACk
ln Lhls meLhod, Lhe volLage feedback Lo Lhe lnpuL of Lhe ampllfler ls proporLlonal Lo Lhe
ouLpuL currenL. negaLlve currenL feedback lmproves Lhe hlgh frequency response of an
ampllfler. lL lncreases Lhe lnpuL lmpedance and decreases Lhe ouLpuL lmpedance of Lhe
ampllfler. lor Lhls reason lL ls ofLen employed for lmpedance maLchlng.


nLCA1lvL Cu88Ln1 lLLu8ACk 18AnSlS1C8 Cl8Cul1S
1here are Lwo lmporLanL negaLlve currenL feedback clrculLs namely,
1. Common -emlLLer clrculL wlLhouL bypass capaclLor
2. LmlLLer follower
1. Common - LmlLLer clrculL wlLhouL bypass capaclLor
llgure shows an 8C coupled ampllfler wlLhouL emlLLer bypass capaclLor across emlLLer
reslsLance 8
L
.

1hls ls a negaLlve currenL feedback clrculL. When a slgnal e
s
ls

applled ln Lhe lnpuL,
resulLlng a.c emlLLer currenL l
e
produces a volLage l
e
8
L
across emlLLer reslsLance. 1hls volLage
opposes Lhe slgnal as lL ls ln opposlLe dlrecLlon Lo Lhe slgnal. 1he negaLlve volLage feedback ls
proporLlonal Lo Lhe emlLLer currenL l
e
. lL ls ln Lhls way LhaL Lhe clrculL provldes negaLlve currenL
feedback .
volLage galn wlLh negaLlve feedback ls glven by
A
fb
=
E
C
R
R

2. LmlLLer lollower

llgure shows Lhe clrculL dlagram of an emlLLer follower or a common collecLor ampllfler.


lLs mosL lmporLanL characLerlsLlc ls LhaL lL has hlgh lnpuL lmpedance and low ouLpuL
lmpedance. 1hls makes lL an ldeal clrculL for lmpedance maLchlng. lL dlffers from Lhe clrculLry
of convenLlonal ampllfler by Lhe absence of collecLor load and emlLLer bypass capaclLor. 1he
emlLLer reslsLance 8
L
lLself acLs as Lhe load and Lhe a.c ouLpuL volLage 'e
o
' ls Laken across lL.
1he blaslng ls generally provlded by base reslsLor meLhod. When slgnal 'e
s
' ls applled Lhe
resulLlng a.c emlLLer currenL 'l
e
' produces an ouLpuL volLage l
e
8
L
across emlLLer reslsLance. 1hls
volLage opposes Lhe slgnal volLage Lhus provldlng negaLlve feedback. lL ls a currenL feedback
clrculL, slnce Lhe volLage feedback ls proporLlonal Lo Lhe emlLLer currenL, l.e ouLpuL currenL. lL
ls called emlLLer follower because volLage varlaLlons across base-emlLLer [uncLlon follow Lhe
emlLLer.
volLage galn of an emlLLer follower ls nearly 1. CurrenL galn of Lhe emlLLer follower ls .
Slnce lL has hlgh lnpuL lmpedance and low ouLpuL lmpedance, lL can be used for lmpedance
maLchlng lnsLead of Lransformer. LmlLLer follower ls noL only more convenlenL Lhan a
Lransformer buL lL has much beLLer frequency response l.e lL works over a large frequency
range.
________________


CPA1L8 14
SlnuSCluAL CSClLLA1C8S
ln18CuuC1lCn
Many elecLronlc devlces requlre a source of energy aL a speclflc frequency whlch may
range from a few herLz Lo several megaherLz. 1hls ls achleved by an elecLronlc devlce called an
osclllaLor. CsclllaLors are exLenslvely used ln elecLronlc equlpmenLs. lor e.g ln radlo and
1elevlslon recelvers, osclllaLors are used Lo generaLe hlgh frequency wave (called carrler wave)
ln Lunlng sLages. Audlo frequency and radlo frequency slgnals are requlred for repalr of radlo &
Lelevlslon and oLher elecLronlc equlpmenLs. CsclllaLors are also wldely used ln radar, elecLronlc
compuLers and oLher elecLronlc devlces. CsclllaLor can produce slnusoldal or non-slnusoldal
waves.
SlnuSCluAL CSClLLA1C8
Ao electtoolc Jevlce tbot qeoetotes sloosolJol osclllotloos of JeslteJ ftepoeocy ls koowo
os o sloosolJol osclllotot.
AlLhough we speak of an osclllaLor as 'generaLlng' a frequency, lL should be noLed LhaL
lL does noL creaLe energy buL merely acLs as a converLor. lL recelves uC energy and changes lL
lnLo AC energy of deslred frequency. 1he frequency of osclllaLlons depends upon Lhe consLanLs
of Lhe devlce.
lL may be menLloned here LhaL alLhough an alLernaLor produces slnusoldal osclllaLlon of
30Pz, lL cannoL be called an osclllaLor. llrsLly, an alLernaLor ls a mechanlcal devlce havlng
roLaLlng parLs whereas an osclllaLor ls a non-roLaLlng elecLronlc devlce. Secondly, an
alLernaLor converLs mechanlcal energy lnLo A.C energy whlle an osclllaLor converLs u.C energy
lnLo A.C energy. 1hlrdly, an alLernaLor cannoL produce hlgh frequency osclllaLlons whereas an
osclllaLor can produce osclllaLlons ranglng from a few Pz Lo several MPz.
AJvootoqes
AlLhough osclllaLlons can be produced by mechanlcal devlces (e.g. alLernaLors), buL
elecLronlc osclllaLors have Lhe followlng advanLages:
1. An osclllaLor ls a non-roLaLlng devlce. ConsequenLly, Lhere ls llLLle wear and Lear and
hence longer llfe.
2. uue Lo Lhe absence of movlng parLs, Lhe operaLlon of an osclllaLor ls qulLe sllenL.
3. An osclllaLor can produce from small Lo exLremely hlgh frequencles (>100MPz).


4. 1he frequency of osclllaLlons can be easlly changed when deslred.
3. lL has good frequency sLablllLy. l.e frequency once seL remalns consLanL for a
conslderable perlod of Llme.
6. lL has very hlgh efflclency.
1?LS Cl SlnuSCluAL CSClLLA1lCnS
Slnusoldal elecLrlcal osclllaLlons can be of Lwo Lype vlz JompeJ osclllotloos and
ooJompeJ osclllotloos.
l. uompeJ osclllotloos
1he elecLrlcal osclllaLlons whose ampllLude goes on decreaslng wlLh Llme are called
damped osclllaLlons. llg.(l) shows wave form of damped elecLrlcal osclllaLlons. Cbvlously, Lhe
elecLrlcal sysLem ln whlch Lhese osclllaLlons are generaLed has losses and some energy ls losL
durlng each osclllaLlon. lurLher, no means are provlded Lo compensaLe for Lhe losses and
consequenLly Lhe ampllLude of Lhe generaLed wave decreases gradually. lL may be noLed LhaL
frequency of osclllaLlons remalns unchanged slnce lL depends upon Lhe consLanLs of Lhe
elecLrlcal sysLem.

ll. uoJompeJ Osclllotloos
1he elecLrlcal osclllaLlons whose ampllLude remalns consLanL wlLh Llme are called
undamped osclllaLlons. llg.(ll) shows wave from of undamped elecLrlcal osclllaLlons. AlLhough
Lhe elecLrlcal sysLem ln whlch Lhese osclllaLlons are belng generaLed has also losses, buL now
rlghL amounL of energy ls belng supplled Lo overcome Lhe losses. ConsequenLly, Lhe
ampllLude of Lhe generaLed wave remalns consLanL. lL should be emphaslzed LhaL an
osclllaLor ls requlred Lo produce undamped elecLrlcal osclllaLlons for uLlllzlng ln varlous
elecLronlc equlpmenLs.


CSClLLA1C8? Cl8Cul1
A cltcolt wblcb ptoJoces electtlcol osclllotloos of ooy JeslteJ ftepoeocy ls koowo os oo
osci//otory circuit ot tonk circuit.
A slmple osclllaLory clrculL conslsLs of a capaclLor (C) and lnducLance coll(L) ln parallel
as shown ln flg. 1hls elecLrlcal sysLem can produce elecLrlcal osclllaLlons of frequency
deLermlned by Lhe values of L and C. 1o undersLand how Lhls comes abouL, suppose Lhe
capaclLor ls charged from a d.c source wlLh a polarlLy as shown ln llg. (l)
l. ln Lhe poslLlon shown ln flg. (l) , Lhe upper plaLe of capaclLor has deflclL of elecLrons and
Lhe lower plaLe has excess of elecLrons. 1herefore, Lhere ls a volLage across Lhe
capaclLor and Lhe capaclLor has elecLro-sLaLlc energy.

ll. When swlLch S ls closed as shown ln flg. (ll), Lhe capaclLor wlll dlscharge Lhrough
lnducLance and Lhe elecLron flow wlll be ln Lhe dlrecLlon lndlcaLed by Lhe arrow. 1hls
currenL flow seLs up magneLlc fleld around Lhe coll. uue Lo Lhe lnducLlve effecL, Lhe
currenL bullds up slowly Lowards a maxlmum value. 1he clrculL currenL wlll be
maxlmum when Lhe capaclLor ls fully dlscharged. AL Lhls lnsLanL, elecLrosLaLlc energy ls
zero buL because elecLron moLlon ls greaLesL (l.e) maxlmum currenL), Lhe magneLlc fleld
energy around Lhe coll ls maxlmum. 1hls ls shown ln llg (ll) . Cbvlously, elecLro-sLaLlc
energy across Lhe capaclLor ls compleLely converLed lnLo magneLlc fleld energy around
Lhe coll.
lll. Cnce Lhe capaclLor ls dlscharged, Lhe magneLlc fleld wlll begln Lo collapse and produce
a counLer e.m.f. Accordlng Lo Lenz's Law, Lhe counLer e.m.f wlll keep Lhe currenL
flowlng ln Lhe same dlrecLlon. 1he resulL ls LhaL Lhe capaclLor ls now charged wlLh
opposlLe polarlLy, maklng upper plaLe of capaclLor negaLlve and lower plaLe poslLlve as
shown ln (lll)
lv. AfLer Lhe collapslng fleld has recharged Lhe capaclLor, Lhe capaclLor now beglns Lo
dlscharge currenL flowlng ln Lhe opposlLe dlrecLlon. llg. (lv) shows capaclLor fully
charged and maxlmum currenL flowlng.


1he sequence of charge and dlscharge resulLs ln alLernaLlng moLlon of elecLrons or an
osclllaLlng currenL. 1he energy ls alLernaLely sLored ln Lhe elecLrlc fleld of Lhe capaclLor (C)
and Lhe magneLlc fleld of Lhe lnducLance coll (L) . 1hls lnLerchange of energy beLween L and C
ls repeaLed over and agaln resulLlng ln Lhe producLlon of osclllaLlons.
CSClLLA1lCn l8CM 1Ank Cl8Cul1
lf Lhere were no loses ln Lhe Lank clrculL Lo consume Lhe energy Lhe lnLerchange of
energy beLween 'L' and 'C' would conLlnue lndeflnlLely. ln a pracLlcal Lank clrculL, Lhere are
reslsLlve and radlaLlon loses ln Lhe coll and dlelecLrlc losses ln Lhe capaclLor. uurlng each cycle
a small parL of Lhe energy ls used up Lo overcome Lhese losses. 1he resulL ls LhaL Lhe ampllLude
of osclllaLlng currenL decreases gradually and becomes lL zero when all Lhe energy ls consumed
as losses. 1herefore Lhe Lank clrculL by lLself wlll produce damped osclllaLlons.
l8LCLnC? Cl CSClLLA1lCn
1he frequency of osclllaLlons ln Lhe Lank clrculL ls deLermlned by Lhe consLanLs
of Lhe clrculL l.e 'L' and 'C'. 1he acLual frequency of Lhe osclllaLlon ls Lhe resonanL frequency (or
naLural frequency) of Lhe Lank clrculL and ls glven by
f
0
=
LC 2
1

lL ls clear LhaL frequency of osclllaLlons ln Lhe Lank clrculL ls lnversely proporLlonal Lo 'L'
and 'C' . 1hls can be easlly explalned, lf a large value of capaclLor ls used. lL wlll Lake longer for
Lhe capaclLor Lo charge fully and also longer Lo dlscharge. 1hls wlll 'lengLhen' Lhe perlod of
osclllaLlon ln Lhe Lank clrculL or equlvalenLly lower lLs frequency. WlLh a large value of
lnducLance, Lhe opposlLlon Lo change ln currenL flow ls greaLer and hence Llme requlred Lo
compleLe each cycle wlll be longer. 1herefore, Lhe greaLer Lhe value of lnducLance, Lhe longer
ls Lhe perlod or Lhe lower ls Lhe frequency of osclllaLlon ln Lhe Lank clrculL.
l8LCuLnC? S1A8lLl1? Cl An CSClLLA1C8
1he ablllLy of an osclllaLor Lo malnLaln a consLanL frequency of Lhe osclllaLlon ls called
lLs frequency sLablllLy. lollowlng facLors affecL Lhe frequency sLablllLy.
1. CL8A1lnC Cln1 Cl AC1lvL uLvlCL
1he 'C' polnL of Lhe acLlve devlce l.e LranslsLor ls so chosen as Lo conflrm Lhe clrculL
operaLlon ls ln Lhe llnear porLlon of lLs characLerlsLlcs. CperaLlon on non-llnear porLlon varles
Lhe parameLers of Lhe LranslsLor whlch affecLs Lhe frequency sLablllLy.


2. ln1L8-LLLMLn1 CAACl1AnCL
Any change ln Lhe lnLer-elemenL capaclLance of LranslsLor parLlcularly Lhe collecLor Lo
emlLLer capaclLance causes changes ln Lhe osclllaLor ouLpuL frequency Lhus affecLlng lLs
frequency sLablllLy.
3. CWL8 SuL?
Changes ln Lhe uC operaLlng volLage applled Lo Lhe acLlve devlce shlfLs Lhe osclllaLor
frequency. 1hls problem can be avolded by uslng regulaLed power supply.
4. 1LML8A1u8L vA8lA1lCnS
varlaLlons ln LemperaLure causes change ln LranslsLor parameLers and also change
Lhe values of reslsLors ,capaclLors and lnducLors used ln Lhe clrculL.
3. Cu1u1 LCAu
A change ln Lhe ouLpuL load may cause a change ln Lhe C-facLor of Lhe L-C Luned
clrculL Lhereby affecLlng Lhe osclllaLor ouLpuL frequency.
unuAMLu CSClLLA1lCnS l8CM 1Ank Cl8Cul1
ln order Lo make Lhe osclllaLlons ln Lhe Lank clrculL undamped, lL ls necessary Lo supply
correcL amounL of energy Lo Lhe Lank clrculL aL Lhe proper Llme lnLervals Lo meeL Lhe losses.
Any energy whlch would be applled Lo Lhe clrculL musL have a polarlLy conformlng Lo Lhe
exlsLlng polarlLy aL Lhe lnsLanL of appllcaLlon of energy. lf Lhe applled energy ls of opposlLe
polarlLy, lL would oppose Lhe energy ln Lhe Lank clrculL, causlng sLoppage of osclllaLlons.
1herefore, ln order Lo make Lhe osclllaLlons ln Lhe Lank clrculL undamped, Lhe followlng
condlLlons musL be fulfllled:
|. 1he amounL of energy supplled should be such so as Lo meeL Lhe losses ln Lhe Lank
ClrculL and Lhe a.c energy removed from Lhe clrculL by Lhe load. lor lnsLance, lf losses ln LC
clrculL amounL Lo 3mW and a.c ouLpuL belng Laken ls 100mW, Lhen power of 103mW should
be conLlnuously supplled Lo Lhe clrculL.
||. 1he applled energy should have Lhe same frequency as LhaL of Lhe osclllaLlons ln Lhe
Lank clrculL.
|||. 1he applled energy should be ln phase wlLh Lhe osclllaLlons seL up ln Lhe Lank clrculL
l.e lL should ald Lhe Lank clrculL osclllaLlons.
lf Lhese condlLlons are fulfllled, Lhe clrculL wlll produce conLlnuous undamped ouLpuL.


18AnSlS1C8 CSClLLA1C8
ln order Lo obLaln conLlnuous undamped a.c ouLpuL from Lhe Lank clrculL, lL ls necessary
Lo supply Lhe correcL amounL of power Lo Lhe clrculL. 1he mosL pracLlcal way Lo do Lhls ls Lo
supply d.c power Lo some devlce whlch should converL lL Lo necessary a.c power for supply Lo
Lhe Lank clrculL. 1hls can be achleved by employlng a LranslsLor clrculL. 8ecause of lLs ablllLy Lo
ampllfy, a LranslsLor ls very efflclenL energy converLer l.e. lL converLs d.c power lnLo a.c power.
lf Lhe damped osclllaLlons ln Lhe Lank clrculL are applled Lo base of LranslsLor, lL wlll resulL ln an
ampllfled reproducLlon of osclllaLlons ln Lhe collecLor clrculL. 8ecause of Lhls ampllflcaLlon,
more energy ls avallable ln Lhe collecLor clrculL Lhan ln Lhe base clrculL. lf a parL of Lhls
collecLor clrculL energy ls feed back by some means Lo Lhe base clrculL ln proper phase Lo ald
Lhe osclllaLlons ln Lhe Lank clrculL, Lhen lLs losses wlll be overcome and conLlnuous undamped
osclllaLlons wlll occur.
LSSLn1lALS Cl 18AnSlS1C8 CSClLLA1C8

llgure shows Lhe block dlagram of an osclllaLor lLs essenLlal componenLs are :
i. 1onk circuit
lL conslsLs of lnducLance coll (L) connecLed ln parallel wlLh capaclLor (C) . 1he
frequency of osclllaLlons ln Lhe clrculL depends upon Lhe values of lnducLance of Lhe coll and
capaclLance of Lhe capaclLor.
ii. 1ronsistor 4mp/ifier
1he LranslsLor ampllfler recelves d.c power from Lhe baLLery and changes lL lnLo a.c
power for supplylng Lo Lhe Lank clrculL. 1he osclllaLlons occurrlng ln Lhe Lank clrculL are applled
Lo Lhe lnpuL of Lhe LranslsLor ampllfler. 8ecause of Lhe ampllfylng properLles of Lhe LranslsLor,
we geL lncreased ouLpuL of Lhese osclllaLlons. 1he ouLpuL of Lhe LranslsLor can be supplled Lo
Lhe Lank clrculL Lo meeL Lhe losses.


iii. leed bock circuit
1he feedback clrculL supplles a parL of collecLor energy Lo Lhe Lank clrculL ln correcL
phase Lo ald Lhe osclllaLlons l.e lL provldes poslLlve feedback.
ulllL8Ln1 1?LS Cl 18AnSlS1C8 CSClLLA1C8S
A LranslsLor can work as an osclllaLor Lo produce conLlnuous undamped osclllaLlons of
any deslred frequency lf Lank and feedback clrculLs are properly connecLed Lo lL. All osclllaLors
under dlfferenL names have slmllar funcLlon l.e Lhey produce conLlnuous undamped ouLpuL.
Powever, Lhe ma[or dlfference beLween Lhese osclllaLors lles ln Lhe meLhod by whlch energy
ls supplled Lo Lhe Lank clrculL Lo meeL Lhe losses.
1unLu CCLLLC1C8 CSClLLA1C8

llg. shows Lhe clrculL of Luned collecLor osclllaLor . lL conLalns Luned clrculL L
1
-C
1
ln Lhe
collecLor and hence Lhe name. 1he frequency of osclllaLlons depends upon Lhe values of L
1
and
C
1
and ls glven by

1 1
2
1
C L
f
= ---------------------- (l)
1he feedback coll L
2
ln Lhe base clrculL ls magneLlcally coupled Lo Lhe Lank clrculL coll L
1

. ln pracLlce, L
1
and L
2
form Lhe prlmary and secondary of Lhe Lransformer. 1he blaslng ls
provlded by poLenLlal dlvlder arrangemenL. 1he capaclLor C connecLed ln Lhe base clrculL
provldes low reacLance paLh Lo Lhe osclllaLlons.
Cl8Cul1 CL8A1lCn
When swlLch S ls closed, collecLor currenL sLarLs lncreaslng and charges Lhe capaclLor
C
1
. When Lhls capaclLor ls fully charged, lL dlscharges Lhrough coll L
1
, seLLlng up osclllaLlons of
frequency deLermlned by exp.(l) . 1hese osclllaLlons lnduce some volLage ln coll L
2
by muLual


lnducLlon. 1he frequency of volLage ln coll L
2
ls Lhe same as LhaL of Lank clrculL buL lLs
magnlLude depends upon Lhe number of Lurns of L
2
and coupllng beLween L
1
and L
2
. 1he
volLage across L
2
ls applled beLween base and emlLLer and appears ln Lhe ampllfled form ln Lhe
collecLor clrculL, Lhus overcomlng Lhe losses occurrlng ln Lhe Lank clrculL. 1he number of Lurns
of L2 and coupllng beLween L
1
and L
2
are so ad[usLed LhaL osclllaLlons across L
2
are ampllfled Lo
a level [usL sufflclenL Lo supply losses Lo Lhe Lank clrculL.
lL may noLed LhaL Lhe phase of feedback ls correcL l.e energy supplled Lo Lhe Lank clrculL
ls ln phase wlLh Lhe generaLed osclllaLlons. A phase shlfL of 180
0
ls creaLed beLween Lhe
volLages of L
1
and L
2
due Lo Lransformer acLlon. A furLher phase shlfL of 180
0
Lakes place
beLween base emlLLer and collecLor clrculL due Lo LranslsLor properLles. As a resulL, Lhe energy
fedback Lo Lhe Lank clrculL ls ln phase wlLh Lhe generaLed osclllaLlons.
PA81LL? CSClLLA1C8
.
ln flg ls shown a LranslsLor ParLley osclllaLor uslng Common LmlLLer conflguraLlon. lLs
general prlnclple of operaLlon ls slmllar Lo Lhe Luned-collecLor osclllaLor.
lL uses a slngle Lapped-coll havlng Lwo parLs marked L
1
and L
2
lnsLead of Lwo separaLe
colls. So far as ac slgnals are concerned, one slde of L
2
ls connecLed Lo base vla C
1
and Lhe
oLher Lo emlLLer vla ground and C
3
. Slmllarly, one end of L
1
ls connecLed Lo collecLor vla C
2

and Lhe oLher Lo common emlLLer Lermlnal vla C
3
. ln oLher words, L
1
ls ln Lhe ouLpuL clrculL l.e.
collecLor - emlLLer clrculL whereas L
2
ls ln Lhe base-emlLLer clrculL l.e. lnpuL clrculL. 1hese Lwo
parLs are lnducLlvely-coupled and form an auLo-Lransformer or a spllL-Lank lnducLor. leedback
beLween Lhe ouLpuL and lnpuL clrculLs ls accompllshed Lhrough auLoLransformer
___________
*All ttoosfotmets lottoJoce o pbose sblft of 180
0
betweeo ptlmoty ooJ secooJoty


acLlon whlch also lnLroduces a phase reversal of 180
0
. 1hls phase reversal beLween Lwo
volLages occurs because Lhey are Laken from opposlte eoJs of an lnducLor (L
1
--- L
2

comblnaLlon) wlLh respecL Lo Lhe Lap whlch ls Lled Lo common LranslsLor Lermlnal l.e. emlLLer
whlch ls ac grounded vla C
3
. Slnce LranslsLor lLself lnLroduces a phase shlfL of 180
0
, Lhe LoLal
phase shlfL becomes 360
0
Lhereby maklng Lhe feedback poslLlve whlch ls essenLlal for
osclllaLlons. As seen, poslLlve feedback ls obLalned from Lhe Lank clrculL and ls coupled Lo Lhe
base vla C
1
.
8eslsLors 8
1
and 8
2
from a volLage dlvlder for provldlng Lhe base blas and 8
3
ls an
emlLLer sLablllzlng reslsLor Lo add sLablllLy Lo Lhe clrculL. CapaclLor C
3
provldes ac ground
Lhereby prevenLlng any slgnal degeneraLlon whlle sLlll provldlng LemperaLure sLablllzaLlon.
8adlo lrequency choke (8lC) provldes dc load for Lhe collecLor and also keeps ac currenLs ouL
of Lhe dc supply v
CC
.
When vcc ls flrsL swlLched on Lhrough S, an lnlLlal blas ls esLabllshed by 81---82 and
osclllaLlons are produced because of poslLlve feedback from Lhe LC Lank clrculL (L
1
and L
2
consLlLuLes L). 1he frequency of osclllaLlon ls glven by

LC
f
2
1
0
=
Where L = L
1
+ L
2
+ 2M
1he ouLpuL from Lhe Lank may be Laken ouL by means of anoLher coll coupled elLher Lo
L
1
and L
2
.
CCLLl11'S CSClLLA1C8

1he CollplLL's osclllaLor ls slmllar Lo ParLley osclllaLor wlLh mlnor modlflcaLlons. lnsLead
of uslng a Lapped lnducLance, Lwo capaclLors C
1
and C
2
are placed across a common lnducLance
L and Lhe cenLre of Lhe Lwo capaclLors ls Lapped as shown ln flg. 1he Lank clrculL ls made up of


C
1
,C
2
and L. 1he frequency of osclllaLlons ls deLermlned by Lhe values of C
1
,C
2
and L and ls
glven by :

LC
f
2
1
0
=
-------------- (l)

Where C =
2 1
2 1
C C
C C
+

Cl8Cul1 CL8A1lCn
When swlLch S ls closed, Lhe capaclLance C
1
and C
2
are charged. 1hese capaclLors
dlscharge Lhrough coll L, seLLlng up osclllaLlons of frequency deLermlned by exp (l). 1he
osclllaLlons across C
2
are applled Lo Lhe base -emlLLer [uncLlon and appear ln Lhe ampllfled
form ln Lhe collecLor clrculL and supply losses Lo Lhe Lank clrculL. 1he amounL of feedback
depends upon Lhe relaLlve capaclLance values of C
1
and C
2
. 1he smaller Lhe capaclLance C
1
, Lhe
greaLer Lhe feedback. lL should be noLed LhaL energy feedback Lo Lank clrculL ls of correcL
phase. 1he capaclLors C
1
and C
2
acL as a slmple alLernaLlng volLage dlvlder. 1herefore, polnLs
and C are 180
0
ouL of phase. A furLher phase shlfL of 180
0
ls produced by Lhe LranslsLor. ln Lhls
way, feedback ls properly phased Lo produce conLlnuous undamped osclllaLlons.
CLA CSClLLA1C8

lL ls a varlaLlon of CollplLL's osclllaLor and ls shown ln flgure. lL dlffers from CollplLL's
osclllaLor ln respecL of capaclLor C
2
only whlch ls [olned ln serles wlLh Lhe Lank lnducLor.
AddlLlon of C
3
(l)

lmproves frequency sLablllLy and (ll) ellmlnaLes Lhe effecL of LranslsLors
parameLers on Lhe operaLlon of Lhe clrculL.


1he operaLlon of Lhls clrculL ls Lhe same as LhaL of Lhe CollplLL's osclllaLor.

LC
f
2
1
0
=

Where
3 2 1
1 1 1 1
C C C C
+ + =

1unLu 8ASL CSClLLA1C8
Such an osclllaLor uslng a LranslsLor ln Common LmlLLer conflguraLlon ls shown ln
flgure. 8eslsLors 8
1
, 8
2
and 8
3
deLermlne Lhe dc blas of Lhe clrculL. 1he parallel 8
3
-C
3
neLwork
ln Lhe emlLLer clrculL ls a sLablllzlng clrculL Lo prevenL slgnal degeneraLlon. As usual, C
1
ls Lhe dc
blocklng capaclLor. 1he muLually coupled colls L
1
and L formlng prlmary and secondary of an 8l
Lransformer provlde Lhe requlred feedback beLween Lhe collecLor and base clrculLs. 1he
amounL of feedback depends on Lhe coefflclenL of coupllng beLween Lhe Lwo colls. 1he
Common LmlLLer connecLed LranslsLor lLself provldes a phase shlfL of 180
0
beLween lLs lnpuL
and ouLpuL clrculLs. 1he Lransformer provldes anoLher 180
0
phase shlfL Lhus produclng o totol
pbose sblft of J60
0
wblcb ls oo esseotlol cooJltloo fot ptoJocloq osclllotloos.
1he parallel Luned LC clrculL connecLed beLween base and emlLLer ls Lhe frequency-
deLermlnlng neLwork l.e. lL generaLes Lhe osclllaLlon aL lLs resonanL frequency.
Cl8Cul1 AC1lCn
1he momenL swlLch S ls closed, collecLor currenL ls seLup whlch Lends Lo rlse L lLs
qulescenL value. Pls lncrease ln l
C
ls accompanled by:
1. an expandlng magneLlc fleld Lhrough L
1
whlch llnks wlLh L and
2. an lnduced e.m.f called feedback volLage ln L
1wo lmmedlaLe reacLlons of Lhls feedback volLage are :
(l) lncrease ln emlLLer-base volLage (and base currenL) and
(ll) a furLher lncrease ln collecLor currenL l
C

lL ls followed by a successlon of cycles of
1. an lncrease ln feedback volLage
2. an lncrease ln emlLLer-base volLage and
3. an lncrease ln l
C
unLll saLuraLlon ls reached.


Meanwhlle, C geLs charged. As soon as l
C
ceases Lo lncrease, magneLlc fleld of L
1

ceases Lo expand and Lhus no longer lnduces feedback volLage ln L. Pavlng been charged Lo
maxlmum value, C sLarLs Lo dlscharge Lhrough L. Powever, decrease ln volLage across C causes
Lhe followlng sequence of reacLlons:
1. a decrease ln emlLLer-base blas and hence ln l
8

2. a decrease ln l
C

3. a collapslng magneLlc fleld ln L
1

4. an lnduced feedback volLage ln L Lhough, Lhls Llme, ln opposlte dlrecLlon
3. furLher decrease ln emlLLer-base blas and so on Llll l
C
reaches lLs cuL-off value.
uurlng Lhls Llme, Lhe capaclLor havlng losL lLs orlglnal charge, agaln becomes fully
charged Lhough wlLh opposlte polarlLy. 1ranslsLor belng ln cuL-off, Lhe capaclLor wlll agaln
begln Lo dlscharge Lhrough L. Slnce polarlLy of capaclLor charge ls opposlLe Lo LhaL when
LranslsLor was ln saLuraLlon, Lhe sequence of reacLlons now wlll be
1. an lncrease ln emlLLer-base blas
2. an lncrease ln l
C

3. an expandlng magneLlc fleld ln L
1
.
4. an lnduced feedback volLage ln L
3. a furLher lncrease ln emlLLer-base blas and
6. so on Llll l
C
lncreases Lo lLs saLuraLlon value.
1hls cycle of operaLlon keeps repeaLlng so long as enough energy ls supplled Lo meeL
losses ln Lhe LC clrculL.
1he ouLpuL can be Laken ouL by means of a Lhlrd wlndlng L
2
magneLlcally coupled Lo L
1
.
lL has approxlmaLely Lhe same waveform as collecLor currenL.


1he frequency of osclllaLlon ls equal Lo Lhe resonanL frequency of Lhe LC clrculL.
8lnClLLS Cl PASL SPll1 CSClLLA1C8S
1he osclllaLor clrculL so far sLudled uslng L-C elemenL as Lank clrculL have Lwo general
drawbacks.
1. lrequency sLablllLy and wave form are poor.
2. lL cannoL be used for very low frequencles because Lhey become Loo much bulky and
expenslve.
Cood frequency sLablllLy and waveform can be obLalned from osclllaLors uslng
reslsLlve and capaclLlve elemenLs. Such ampllflers are called 8C or phase shlfL osclllaLors and
have Lhe addlLlonal advanLages LhaL Lhey can be used for very low frequencles. ln a phase shlfL
osclllaLor a phase shlfL of 180
0
ls obLalned wlLh a phase shlfL clrculL lnsLead of capaclLlve or
lnducLlve coupllng. A furLher phase shlfL of 180
0
ls lnLroduced due Lo Lhe LranslsLor properLles.
1hus, energy supplled back Lo Lhe Lank clrculL ls assured of correcL phase.
PASL SPll1 Cl8Cul1

A phase shlfL clrculL conslsLs of an 8-C neLwork. llgure (a) shows aslngle secLlon of 8C
neLwork. value of '8' and 'C' are so selecLed Lo produce a phase shlfL of 60
0
by each neLwork.
1herefore, such Lhree secLlons as shown ln flg (b) produce a LoLal phase shlfL of 180
0
.
8C PASL SPll1 CSClLLA1C8

llgure shows Lhe clrculL of a phase shlfL osclllaLor. lL conslsLs of a convenLlonal slngle
LranslsLor ampllfler and a 8C phase shlfL neLwork. 1he phase shlfL neLwork conslsLs of Lhree


secLlons 8
1
C
1
,8
2
C
2
and 8
3
C
3
. AL some parLlcular frequency fo , Lhe phase shlfL ln each 8C
secLlon ls 60
0
, so LhaL Lhe LoLal phase-shlfL produced by Lhe 8C neLwork ls 180
0
. 1he frequency
of osclllaLlons ls glven by

6 2
1
RC
fo
= ---------------------------- (l)
where 8
1
= 8
2
= 8
3
= 8
C
1
= C
2
= C
3
= C
Cl8Cul1 CL8A1lCn
When Lhe clrculL ls swlLched on, lL produces osclllaLlons of frequency deLermlned by
exp.(l) 1he ouLpuL L
0
of Lhe ampllfler ls fedback Lo 8C feedback neLwork. 1hls neLwork
produces a phase shlfL of 180
0
and a volLage L
l
appears aL lLs ouLpuL whlch ls applled Lo Lhe
LranslsLor ampllfler.
1he feedback phase ls correcL. A phase shlfL of 180
0
ls produced by Lhe LranslsLor
ampllfler. A furLher phase shlfL of 180
0
ls produced by Lhe 8C neLwork. As a resulL, Lhe phase
shlfL around Lhe enLlre loop ls 360
0
.
AJvootoqes
(l) lL does noL requlre Lransformers or lnducLors
(ll) lL can be used Lo produce very low frequencles
(lll) 1he clrculL provldes good frequency sLablllLy
ulsoJvootoqes
(l) lL ls dlfflculL for Lhe clrculL Lo sLarL osclllaLlons as Lhe feedback ls generally small.
(ll) 1he clrculL glves small ouLpuL.
WLln 88luCL CSClLLA1C8
1he weln-brldge osclllaLor ls Lhe sLandard osclllaLor clrculL for all low frequencles ln Lhe
range of 10 Pz Lo abouL 1MPz. lL ls Lhe mosL frequenLly used Lype of audlo osclllaLor as Lhe
ouLpuL ls free from clrculL flucLuaLlons and amblenL LemperaLure. llgure shows Lhe
clrculL of Weln brldge osclllaLor. lL ls essenLlally a Lwo-sLage ampllfler wlLh 8-C brldge clrculL.
1he brldge clrculL has Lhe arms 8
1
C
1
, 8
2
,8
2
C
2
and LungsLen lamp L
p
. 8eslsLances 8
3
and L
p
are
used Lo sLablllze Lhe ampllLude of Lhe ouLpuL. 1he LranslsLor 1
1
serves as an osclllaLor and
ampllfler whlle Lhe oLher LranslsLor 1
2
serves as an lnverLer (l.e. Lo produce a phase shlfL of
180
0
). 1he clrculL uses poslLlve and negaLlve feedbacks. 1he poslLlve feedback ls Lhrough 8
1
C
1
,
8
2
C
2
Lo Lhe LranslsLor 1
1
. 1he frequency of osclllaLlons ls deLermlned by Lhe serles elemenL
8
1
C
1
and parallel elemenL 8
2
C
2
of Lhe brldge.


2 2 1 1
2
1
C R C R
f
=
lf 8
1
= 8
2
= 8 and
C
1
= C
2
= C Lhen

RC
f
2
1
= _______________ (l)
When Lhe clrculL ls sLarLed, brldge clrculL produces osclllaLlons of frequency
deLermlned by exp. (l). 1he Lwo LranslsLors produce a LoLal phase shlfL of 360
0
so LhaL proper
poslLlve feedback ls ensured. 1he negaLlve feedback ln Lhe clrculL ensures consLanL ouLpuL.
1hls ls achleved by Lhe LemperaLure senslLlve LungsLen lamp L
. lLs reslsLance lncreases wlLh

currenL. Should Lhe ampllLude of ouLpuL Lend Lo lncrease, more currenL would flow Lhrough L
,
lLs reslsLance would lncrease whlch would provlde more negaLlve feedback. 1he resulL ls LhaL
Lhe ouLpuL would reLurn Lo orlglnal value. A reverse acLlon would Lake place lf Lhe ouLpuL
Lends Lo decrease.
AJvootoqes
(l) lL glves consLanL ouLpuL
(ll) 1he clrculL works qulLe easlly
(lll) 1he overall galn ls hlgh because of Lwo LranslsLors
(lv) 1he frequency of osclllaLlons can be easlly changed by uslng a poLenLlomeLer.
ulsoJvootoqes
(l) 1he clrculL requlres Lwo LranslsLors and a large number of componenLs.
(ll) lL cannoL generaLe very hlgh frequencles.


LlMl1A1lCnS Cl LC Anu 8C CSClLLA1C8S

1he LC and 8C osclllaLors have Lhelr own llmlLaLlons. 1he ma[or problem ln such clrculLs
ls LhaL Lhelr frequency of operaLlon does noL remaln sLrlcLly consLanL. lL ls because
1he values of reslsLors and lnducLors, whlch are Lhe frequency deLermlnlng facLors ln Lhese
clrculLs, change wlLh LemperaLure. 1hls causes Lhe change ln frequency of Lhe osclllaLor.
Powever, ln many appllcaLlons, lL ls deslrable and necessary Lo malnLaln Lhe frequency
consLanL wlLh exLreme low Lolerances. lor example, Lhe frequency Lolerance for broadcasLlng
sLaLlon should noL exceed 0.002 l.e. change ln frequency due Lo any reason should noL be
more Lhan 0.002 of Lhe speclfled frequency. 1he broadcasLlng sLaLlons have frequencles
whlch are qulLe close Lo each oLher. ln facL, Lhe frequency dlfference beLween Lwo
broadcasLlng sLaLlons ls less Lhan 1. lL ls apparenL LhaL lf we employ LC or 8C clrculLs , a
change of LemperaLure may cause Lhe frequencles of ad[acenL broadcasLlng sLaLlons Lo
overlap.
ln order Lo malnLaln consLanL frequency, plezoelecttlc ctystols are used ln place of LC or
8C clrculLs. CsclllaLors of Lhls Lype are called ctystol osclllotots. 1he frequency of a crysLal
osclllaLor changes by less Lhan 0.1 due Lo LemperaLure and oLher changes. 1herefore, such
osclllaLors offer Lhe mosL saLlsfacLory meLhod of sLablllzlng Lhe frequency and are used ln greaL
ma[orlLy of elecLronlc appllcaLlons.
lLZCLLLC18lC C8?S1ALS

CerLaln crysLalllne maLerlals, namely, 8ochelle salL, quarLz and Lourmallne exhlblL Lhe
plezoelecttlc effect l.e when we apply an a.c volLage across Lhem, Lhey vlbraLe aL Lhe frequency


of Lhe applled volLage. Conversely, when Lhey are compressed or placed under mechanlcal
sLraln Lo vlbraLe, Lhey produce an a.c. volLage. Such crysLals whlch exhlblL plezoelecLrlc effecL
are called plezoelecttlc ctystols. Cf Lhe varlous plezoelecLrlc crysLals, quarLz ls mosL commonly
used because lL ls lnexpenslve and readlly avallable ln naLure.
uortt crysto/
CuarLs crysLals are generally used ln crysLal osclllaLors because of Lhelr greaL
mechanlcal sLrengLh and slmpllclLy of manufacLure. 1he naLural shape of quarLz crysLal ls
hexagonal as shown ln flg. 1he Lhree axes are shown: Lhe z-axls ls called Lhe optlcol oxls,
1he x-axls ls called Lhe electtlcol oxls and y-axls ls called Lhe mecboolcol oxls. CuarLz crysLals
can be cuL ln dlfferenL ways. CrysLal cuL perpendlcular Lo Lhe x-axls ls called x-cot ctystol
whereas LhaL cuL perpendlcular Lo y-axls ls called y-cot ctystol. 1he plezoelecLrlc properLles of
a crysLal depend upon lLs cuL.
frequency of crysto/
Lach crysLal has a naLural frequency. 1he naLural frequency f of a crysLal ls glven by:
f =
t
K

Where k ls a consLanL LhaL depends upon Lhe cuL and L ls Lhe Lhlckness of Lhe crysLal. lL ls clear
LhaL frequency ls lnversely proporLlonal Lo crysLal Lhlckness. 1he Lhlnner Lhe crysLal, Lhe
greaLer ls lLs naLural frequency and vlce-vetso. Powever, an exLremely Lhln crysLal may break
because of vlbraLlons. 1hls puLs a llmlL Lo Lhe frequency obLalnable. ln pracLlce, frequencles up
Lo 27 MPz have been obLalned wlLh crysLals.
WC8klnC Cl CuA81Z C8?S1AL
ln order Lo use crysLal ln an elecLronlc clrculL, lL ls placed beLween Lwo meLal plaLes.
1he arrangemenL Lhen forms a capaclLor wlLh crysLal as Lhe dlelecLrlc as shown ln flgure .

lf an a.c. volLage ls applled across Lhe plaLes, Lhe crysLal wlll sLarL vlbraLlng aL Lhe frequency of
applled volLage. Powever, lf Lhe frequency of Lhe applled volLage ls made equal Lo Lhe naLural


frequency of Lhe crysLal , resonance Lakes place and crysLal vlbraLlons reach a maxlmum
value.
18AnSlS1C8 C8?S1AL CSClLLA1C8

llgure shows Lhe clrculL of a LranslsLor crysLal osclllaLor. A Lank clrculL L
1
-C
1
ls placed ln
Lhe collecLor and Lhe crysLal ls connecLed ln Lhe base clrculL. leedback ls obLalned by coll L
2

lnducLlvely coupled Lo coll L
1
. 1he crysLal ls connecLed ln serles wlLh Lhe feedback wlndlng.
1he naLural frequency of LC clrculL ls made nearly equal Lo Lhe naLural frequency of crysLal.
Cl8Cul1 CL8A1lCn
When Lhe power ls Lurned on, capaclLor C
1
ls charged. When Lhls capaclLor dlscharges,
lL seLs up osclllaLlons. 1he volLage across L
1
ls fed Lo coll L
2
due Lo muLual lnducLance. 1he
poslLlve feedback causes Lhe osclllaLor Lo produce osclllaLlons. 1he frequency of osclllaLlons ln
Lhe clrculL ls conLrolled by Lhe crysLal. lL ls because Lhe crysLal ls connecLed ln Lhe base clrculL
and hence lLs lnfluence on Lhe frequency of Lhe clrculL ls much more Lhan LC clrculL.
ConsequenLly, Lhe enLlre clrculL vlbraLes aL Lhe naLural frequency of Lhe crysLal. As Lhe
frequency of crysLal ls lndependenL of LemperaLure eLc, Lherefore, Lhe clrculL generaLes a
consLanL frequency.
AJvootoqes ooJ JlsoJvootoqes
CrysLal osclllaLors have a hlgh order of frequency sLablllLy. Powever, Lhey suffer from
Lwo dlsadvanLages. llrsLly, Lhey are fraglle and consequenLly can be used only ln low power
clrculLs. Secondly, Lhe frequency of osclllaLlons cannoL be changed appreclably.
______________________


CPA1L8 13
SWl1CPlnC Cl8Cul1S
A clrculL whlch can Lurn Cn or Cll currenL ln an elecLrlcal clrculL ls known as a
sw|tch|ng c|rcu|t.
A swlLchlng clrculL essenLlally conslsLs of Lwo parLs namely, (l) a swlLch and (ll)
assoclaLed clrculLry. 1he swlLch ls Lhe mosL lmporLanL parL of Lhe swlLchlng clrculL. lL acLually
makes or breaks Lhe elecLrlcal clrculL. 1he funcLlon of assoclaLed clrculLry ls Lo help Lhe swlLch
ln Lurnlng Cn or Cll currenL ln Lhe clrculL.
SWl1CP

A swlLch ls a devlce whlch can Lurn Cn or Cll currenL ln an elecLrlcal clrculL. 1he
swlLches are classlfled lnLo Lhe followlng Lhree Lypes. (l) Mecboolcol swltcb (ll) lecttomoqoetlc
swltcb (lll) lecttoolc swltcb
1. MLCnANICAL SWI1Cn
1hls Lype of swlLch ls operaLed mechanlcally ln order Lo Lurn Cn or Cll currenL ln an
elecLrlcal clrculL ls known as a mechanlcal swlLch.(see Lhe above flg.)
LlmlLaLlons
(l) ln Lhe closed poslLlon, Lhe swlLch carrles Lhe whole of Lhe load currenL. lor a large
load currenL Lhe swlLch conLacLs have Lo be made heavy Lo enable Lhem Lo carry Lhe necessary
currenL wlLhouL overheaLlng. 1hls lncreases Lhe slze of Lhe swlLch.
(ll) lf Lhe load currenL carrled by Lhe clrculL ls large, Lhere wlll be sparklng aL Lhe conLacLs
of Lhe swlLch durlng breaklng operaLlon. 1hls resulLs ln Lhe wear and Lear of Lhe conLacLs.
(lll) 1he speed of operaLlon ls very small.
2. LLLC1kCMLCnANICAL SWI1Cn Ck kLLA
lL ls a mechanlcal swlLch whlch ls operaLed elecLrlcally Lo Lurn Cn or Cll currenLs ln
an elecLrlcal clrculL.


1he elecLro-mechanlcal swlLch or relay ls an lmproved form of slmple mechanlcal
swlLch. llg shows Lhe dlagram of a Lyplcal relay. lL conslsLs of lever L carrylng armaLure A and a
solenold C. 1he sprlng pulls Lhe lever upwards whlle Lhe solenold when energlzed pulls lL
downwards. 1he solenold clrculL ls so deslgned LhaL when swlLch S ls closed, Lhe downward
pull of Lhe solenold exceeds Lhe upward pull of Lhe sprlng.

When Lhe swlLch S ls closed, Lhe lever ls pulled downward and Lhe armaLure A closes
Lhe relay conLacLs 1 and 2. 1hls Lurns Cn currenL ln Lhe clrculL. Powever, when swlLch S ls
opened, Lhe solenold ls de-energlzed and Lhe sprlng pulls Lhe lever and hence Lhe armaLure A
upwards. ConsequenLly, Lhe relay conLacLs 1 and 2 are opened and currenL flow ln Lhe clrculL ls
lnLerrupLed. ln Lhls way , a relay acLs as a swlLch.
AuvAn1ACLS
A relay possesses Lhe followlng advanLages over a slmple mechanlcal swlLch:
(l) 1he relay or elecLro-mechanlcal swlLch requlres a small power for lLs operaLlon. 1hls
permlLs Lo conLrol a large power ln Lhe load by a small power Lo Lhe relay clrculL.
(ll) 1he swlLch ln Lhe relay coll carrles a small currenL as compared Lo Lhe load currenL.
1hls permlLs Lhe use of a smaller swlLch ln Lhe relay coll clrculL.
(lll) 1he operaLor can Lurn Cn or Cll power Lo a load even from a dlsLance. 1hls ls a very
lmporLanL advanLage when hlgh volLages are Lo be handled.
3. LLLC1kCNIC SWI1Cn
lL ls a devlce whlch can Lurn Cn or Cll currenL ln an elecLrlcal clrculL wlLh Lhe help of
elecLronlc devlces e.g. LranslsLors.


LlecLronlc swlLches have become very popular because of Lhelr hlgh speed of operaLlon
and absence of sparklng. 1he operaLlon of LranslsLor as a swlLch can be lllusLraLed by referrlng
Lo flg. shown below.

(l) When Lhe base lnpuL volLage ls negaLlve or zero (flg. a) Lhe LranslsLor ls cuL-off and no
currenL flows ln Lhe load 8
C
. As a resulL, Lhere ls no volLage drop across Lhe collecLor load and
Lhe ouLpuL volLage ls ldeally v
CC
.
(ll) When Lhe base lnpuL volLage ls poslLlve (see flg. b) currenL l
8
flows ln Lhe base and
ampllfled collecLor currenL l
C
flows Lhrough Lhe load 8
C
.
v
ouL
= v
CC
- l
C
8
C

1he above dlscusslon shows LhaL a LranslsLor can Lurn Cn or Cll currenL ln Lhe load 8
C

dependlng upon wheLher Lhe lnpuL base volLage ls poslLlve or negaLlve. 1hus, a LranslsLor can
acL as a swlLch.
AJvootoqes
1he followlng are Lhe advanLages of LranslsLor swlLch over oLher Lypes of swlLches.
(l) lL has no movlng parLs and hence Lhere ls llLLle wear and Lear. 1herefore, lL glves
nolseless operaLlon.
(ll) lL has smaller slze and welghL.
(lll) lL glves Lrouble free servlce because of solld sLaLe.
(lv) lL ls cheaper Lhan oLher swlLches and requlres llLLle malnLenance.
(v) lL has a very fasL speed of operaLlon say up Lo 10
6
operaLlons per second. Cn Lhe
oLher hand, Lhe mechanlcal swlLches have a small speed of operaLlon e.g. less Lhan 3
operaLlons ln a second.
lMC81An1 1L8MS
1he followlng are Lhe Lerms whlch use ln swlLchlng clrculL analysls.


(l) CCLLLC1C8 LLACkACL Cu88Ln1
When Lhe lnpuL clrculL ls reverse blased or lnpuL volLage ls zero, a small currenL (a few
A) flows ln Lhe collecLor. 1hls ls known as collecLor leakage currenL and ls due Lo Lhe mlnorlLy
carrlers. 1he value of Lhls leakage currenL ls qulLe large ln Ce LranslsLors, buL ln modern slllcon
LranslsLors, Lhe value of leakage currenL ls low enough Lo be lgnored.
(ll) SA1u8A1lCn CCLLLC1C8 Cu88Ln1
lt ls tbe moxlmom collectot cotteot fot o pottlcolot looJ lo o ttooslstot.
Conslder an nn LranslsLor havlng a load 8
C
ln lLs collecLor clrculL as shown ln flg. As
Lhe lnpuL forward blas ls lncreased, Lhe collecLor currenL l
C
also lncreases because l
C
= l
8
.

Powever, wlLh Lhe lncrease ln l
C
, Lhe volLage drop across 8
C
lncreases. 1hls resulLs ln Lhe
decrease of v
CL
. When v
CL
drops Lo knee volLage, any furLher lncrease ln collecLor currenL ls
noL posslble slnce decreases sharply when v
CL
falls below knee volLage. 1hls maxlmum
currenL ls known as saLuraLlon collecLor currenL.
(lll) SWl1CPlnC 18AnSlS1C8S
A ttooslstot wblcb ls oseJ os o swltcb ls koowo os o switchinq tronsistor.
ln general, swlLchlng LranslsLor ls fabrlcaLed by Lhe same process as an ordlnary
LranslsLor excepL LhaL lL has speclal deslgn feaLures Lo reduce swlLch-off Llme and saLuraLlon
volLage. lL ls so arranged ln Lhe clrculL LhaL elLher maxlmum currenL (saLuraLlon collecLor
currenL) flows Lhrough Lhe load or mlnlmum currenL (collecLor leakage currenL) flows Lhrough
Lhe load. ln oLher words, a swlLchlng LranslsLor has Lwo sLaLes , vlz,(l) ON stote or when
collecLor saLuraLlon currenL flows Lhough Lhe load (ll) Oll stote or when collecLor leakage
currenL flows Lhrough Lhe load.
SWl1CPlnC AC1lCn Cl A 18AnSlS1C8
1he swlLchlng acLlon of a LranslsLor can also be explalned wlLh Lhe help of ouLpuL
characLerlsLlcs. llgure shows Lhe ouLpuL characLerlsLlc of a Lyplcal LranslsLor for a common


emlLLer conflguraLlon. 1he load llne ls drawn for load 8
C
and collecLor supply v
CC
. 1he
characLerlsLlcs are arranged ln Lhree reglon Cll, Cn and acLlve reglon.

(1) Cll 8LClCn
When Lhe lnpuL blas volLage ls zero or negaLlve, Lhe LranslsLor ls sald Lo be ln Lhe Cll
condlLlon. ln Lhls condlLlon l
8
=0 and Lhe collecLor currenL ls equal Lo Lhe collecLor leakage
currenL l
CLC
as shown ln flgure. Slnce l
CLC
ls very small as compared Lo full load currenL LhaL
flows ln Lhe Cn condlLlon, power loss ln Lhe LranslsLor ls qulLe small ln Lhe Cll condlLlon. lL
means LhaL Lhe LranslsLor has a hlgh efflclency as a swlLch ln Lhe Cll condlLlon.
(2) Cn C8 SA1u8A1lCn 8LClCn
When Lhe lnpuL volLage ls made so much poslLlve LhaL saLuraLlon collecLor currenL
flows, Lhe LranslsLor ls sald Lo be ln Lhe Cn condlLlon. 1he ouLpuL volLage ln Lhls condlLlon ls
equal Lo v
knee
and ouLpuL currenL ls l
C

saL
as shown ln flgure ll. Agaln Lhe efflclency of LranslsLor
as a swlLch ln Lhe Cn condlLlon ls hlgh. lL ls because Lhe power loss ln Lhls condlLlon ls qulLe
low due Lo small value of v
knee
.
(3) AC1lvL 8LClCn
lL ls Lhe reglon LhaL lles beLween Cll and Cn condlLlons. 1he Cll and Cn reglons are
Lhe sLable reglons of operaLlon. 1he acLlve reglon ls Lhe unsLable reglon Lhrough whlch Lhe
operaLlon of Lhe LranslsLor passes whlle changlng from Cll sLaLe Lo Lhe Cn sLaLe. 1hus
referrlng Lo flg. (ll) , Lhe paLh A8 ls Lhe acLlve reglon.
MuL1lvl88A1C8S
MulLlvlbraLor ls an anoLher Lype of osclllaLor LhaL generaLes non slnusoldal
waves(Square wave, sawLooLh, Lrlangular eLc.) . 1he mulLlvlbraLor ls essenLlally Lwo sLage 8C
coupled ampllfler wlLh ouLpuL of one sLage ls fed back Lo Lhe lnpuL of Lhe nexL sLage. Coupllng
ls ln beLween Lhe collecLor and base of Lhe LranslsLor. 1here are Lhree Lypes of mulLlvlbraLors.


1. AsLable or free runnlng mulLlvlbraLor
2. Mono sLable or oneshoL mulLlvlbraLor.
3. 8lsLable mulLlvlbraLor or lllp-flop mulLlvlbraLor
AS1A8LL MuL1lvl88A1C8
A moltlvlbtotot wblcb qeoetotes spoote woves of lts owo (l.e. wltboot ooy extetool
ttlqqetloq polse) ls koowo os ostob/e ot free runninq mu/tivibrotor.
1he asLable mulLlvlbraLor has no sLable sLaLe. lL swlLches back and forLh from one sLaLe
Lo Lhe oLher, remalnlng each sLaLe for Llme deLermlned by clrculL consLanLs. ln oLher words , aL
flrsL one LranslsLor conducLs(l.e. Cn sLaLe) and Lhe oLher sLays ln Lhe Cll sLaLe for someLlme.
AfLer Lhls perlod of Llme, Lhe second LranslsLor ls auLomaLlcally Lurned Cn and Lhe flrsL
LranslsLor ls Lurned Cll. 1hus Lhe mulLlvlbraLor wlll generaLe a square wave of lLs own.1he
wldLh of Lhe square wave and lLs frequency wlll depend upon Lhe clrculL consLanLs.
Cl8Cul1 uL1AlLS
llg. shows Lhe clrculL dlagram of an asLable mulLlvlbraLor . lL conslsLs of Lwo ldenLlcal
common emlLLer ampllfler. 1he clrculL essenLlally conslsLs of Lwo symmeLrlcal CL ampllfler
sLages, each provldlng a feed back Lo Lhe oLher. 1hus collecLor loads of Lhe Lwo sLages are
equal. l.e. 8
1
=8
4
and Lhe blaslng reslsLors are also equal l.e 8
2
= 8
3
. 1he ouLpuL of LranslsLorC
1

ls coupled Lo Lhe lnpuL of C
2
Lhrough C
1
whlle Lhe ouLpuL of C
2
ls fed Lo Lhe lnpuL of C
1

Lhrough C
2
. 1he square wave ouLpuL can be Laken from C
1
or C
2
.

CL8A1lCn
When vcc ls applled collecLor currenL sLarLs Lo flow ln C
1
and C
2
. CapaclLors C
1
and C
2

are also charglng up. Lven lf Lhe Lwo LranslsLors are ldenLlcal , Lhelr parameLers are noL equal.


1herefore, one LranslsLor say C
1
, conducLs more rapldly Lhan C
2
. 1he ralslng collecLor currenL
ln C
1
drlves lLs collecLor more and more poslLlve. 1he lncreaslng poslLlve ouL puL aL polnL 'A' ls
applled Lo Lhe base of LranslsLor C
2
Lhrough C
1
. 1hls esLabllshes a reverse blas on C
2
and lLs
collecLor currenL sLarLs decreaslng. As Lhe collecLor of C
2
ls connecLed Lo Lhe base of C
1

Lhrough C
2
, Lherefore, base of C
1
becomes more negaLlve l.e. C
1
ls more forward blased. 1hls
furLher lncreases Lhe collecLor currenL ln C
1
and causes a furLher decrease of collecLor currenL
ln C
2
. 1hls serles of acLlons ls repeaLed unLll Lhe clrculL drlves C
1
Lo saLuraLlon and C
2
Lo cuL
off. 1hese acLlons occur very rapldly and may be consldered pracLlcally lnsLanLaneous. 1he
ouLpuL of C
1
(Cn sLaLe) ls approxlmaLely zero and LhaL of C
2
(Cll sLaLe) ls approxlmaLely v
CC
.
1hls ls shown by ob ln flg.

When C
1
ls aL saLuraLlon and C
2
ls cuL off, Lhe full volLage v
CC
appears across 8
1
and
volLage across 8
4
wlll be zero. 1he charges developed across C
1
and C
2
are sufflclenL Lo
malnLaln Lhe saLuraLlon and cuL off condlLlons aL C
1
and C
2
respecLlvely. 1hls condlLlon ls
represenLed by Llme lnLerval bc ln flg. Powever, Lhe capaclLors wlll noL reLaln Lhe charges
lndeflnlLely buL wlll dlscharge Lhrough Lhelr respecLlve clrculLs. 1he dlscharge paLh for C
1
,wlLh
plaLe L negaLlve and C
1
conducLlng, ls LAC,v
CC
,8
2
M as shown ln flg(l).
1he dlscharge paLh for C
2
,wlLh plaLe k negaLlve and C
2
cuL off, ls k88
4
8
3
! as
shown ln flg (ll). As Lhe reslsLance of Lhe dlscharge paLh for C
1
ls lower Lhan LhaL of
C
2
,Lherefore, C
1
wlll dlscharge more rapldly.
As C
1
dlscharges, Lhe base blas aL C
2
become less poslLlve and aL a Llme deLermlned by
8
2
and C
1
forward blas ls re-esLabllshed aL C
2
.1hls causes Lhe collecLor currenL Lo sLarL ln
C
2
. 1he lncreaslng poslLlve poLenLlal aL collecLor of C
2
ls applled Lo Lhe base of C
1
Lhrough Lhe
capaclLor C
2
. Pence Lhe base of C
1
wlll become more poslLlve l.e. C
1
ls reverse blased. 1he
decrease ln collecLor currenL ln C
1
sends a negaLlve volLage Lo Lhe base of C
2
Lhrough C
1
,
Lhereby causlng furLher lncrease ln Lhe collecLor currenL of C
2
. WlLh Lhls seL of acLlons Laklng
place, C
2
ls qulckly drlven Lo saLuraLlon and C
1
Lo cuL off. 1hls condlLlon ls represenLed by Cu ln


flg. 1he perlod of Llme durlng whlch C
2
remalns aL saLuraLlon and C
1
aL cuL off ls deLermlned
by C
2
and 8
2
.

CN or CII t|me
1he Llme for whlch elLher LranslsLor remalns Cn or Cll ls glven by ,
Cn Llme for C
1
(or Cll Llme for C
2
)
1
1
= 0.694 8
2
C
1

Cll Llme for C
1
(or Cn Llme for C
2
)
1
2
= 0.694 8
3
C
2

1oLal Llme perlod of Lhe square wave
1= 1
1
+ 1
2

= 0.694 (8
2
C
1
+ 8
3
C
2
)
As 8
2
= 8
3
=8 and C
1
= C
2
=C ,

1= 0.694 (8C + 8C)

lrequency of Lhe square wave,

T
f
1
=
RC
7 . 0
Pz.
lL may be noLed LhaL ln Lhese expresslons, 8 ls ln ohms and C ln farads.
18AnSlS1C8 MCnCS1A8LL MuL1lvl88A1C8
A moltlvlbtotot lo wblcb ooe ttooslstot ls olwoys cooJoctloq (l.e. lo tbe ON stote) ooJ
tbe otbet ls ooo-cooJoctloq (l.e. lo tbe Oll stote) ls colleJ monostob/e mu/tivibrotor.
A monosLable mulLlvlbraLor has only one sLaLe sLable. ln oLher words, lf one LranslsLor
ls conducLlng and Lhe oLher ls non-conducLlng, Lhe clrculL wlll remaln ln Lhls poslLlon. lL ls only
wlLh Lhe appllcaLlon of exLernal pulse LhaL Lhe clrculL wlll lnLerchange Lhe sLaLes. Powever,
afLer a cerLaln Llme, Lhe clrculL wlll auLomaLlcally swlLchback Lo Lhe orlglnal sLable sLaLe and


remalns Lhere unLll anoLher pulse ls applled. 1hus a monosLable mulLlvlbraLor cannoL generaLe
square waves of lLs own llke asLable mulLlvlbraLor. Cnly exLernal pulse wlll cause lL Lo generaLe
Lhe square wave.
Cl8Cul1 uL1AlLS
llg. shows Lhe clrculL of a LranslsLor monosLable mulLlvlbraLor. lL conslsLs of Lwo slmllar
LranslsLors C
1
and C
2
wlLh equal collecLor loads l.e 8
1
= 8
4
. 1he values of v
88
and 8
3
are such
as Lo reverse blas C
1
and keep lL aL cuL off. 1he collecLor supply v
CC
and 8
2
forward blas C
2
and
keep lL aL saLuraLlon. 1he lnpuL pulse ls glven Lhrough C
2
Lo obLaln Lhe square wave. Agaln
ouLpuL can be Laken from C1 or C2.

CL8A1lCn
WlLh Lhe clrculL arrangemenL shown, C
1
ls aL cuL off and C
2
ls aL saLuraLlon. 1hls ls Lhe
sLable sLaLe for Lhe clrculL and lL wlll conLlnue Lo sLay ln Lhls sLaLe unLll a Lrlggerlng pulse ls
applled aL C
2
. When a negaLlve pulse of shorL duraLlon and sufflclenL magnlLude ls applled Lo
Lhe base of C
1
Lhrough C
2
, Lhe LranslsLor C
1
sLarLs conducLlng and poslLlve poLenLlal ls
esLabllshed aL lLs collecLor. 1he poslLlve poLenLlal aL Lhe collecLor of C
1
ls coupled Lo Lhe base
of C
2
Lhrough capaclLor C
1
. 1hls decreases Lhe forward blas on C
2
and lLs collecLor currenL
decreases. 1he lncreaslng negaLlve poLenLlal on Lhe collecLor of C
2
ls applled Lo Lhe base of C
1

Lhrough 8
3
. 1hls furLher lncreases Lhe forward blas on C
1
and hence lLs collecLor currenL. WlLh
Lhls seL of acLlons Laklng place, C
1
2
Lo cuL off.
WlLh C
1
aL saLuraLlon and C
2
aL cuL off, Lhe clrculL wlll come back Lo Lhe orlglnal sLaLe
(l.e. C
2
aL saLuraLlon and C
1
aL cuL off) afLer some Llme.
1he capaclLor C
1
(charged Lo approxlmaLely v
CC
) dlscharges Lhrough Lhe paLh 8
2
, v
CC
,C
1
.
As C
1
dlscharges, lL sends a volLage Lo Lhe base of C
2
Lo make lL less poslLlve. 1hls goes on unLll


a polnL ls reached when forward blas ls re-esLabllshed on C
2
and collecLor currenL sLarLs Lo
flow ln C
2
. 1he sLep by sLep evenLs already explalned occur and C
2
ls qulckly drlven Lo
saLuraLlon and C
1
Lo cuL off. 1hls ls Lhe sLable sLaLe for Lhe clrculL and remalns ln Lhls condlLlon
unLll anoLher pulse causes Lhe clrculL Lo swlLch over Lhe sLaLes.
18AnSlS1C8 8lS1A8LL MuL1lvl88A1C8
A moltlvlbtotot wblcb bos botb tbe stotes stoble ls colleJ o blstoble moltlvlbtotot.
1he blsLable mulLlvlbraLor has boLh Lhe sLaLes sLable. lL wlll remaln ln whlchever sLaLe lL
happens Lo be unLll a Lrlgger pulse causes lL Lo swlLch Lo Lhe oLher sLaLe. lor lnsLance, suppose
aL any parLlcular lnsLanL, LranslsLor C
1
ls conducLlng and LranslsLor C
2
ls aL cuL off. lf lefL Lo
lLself, Lhe blsLable mulLlvlbraLor wlll sLay ln Lhls poslLlon for ever. Powever, lf an exLernal pulse
ls applled Lo Lhe clrculL ln such a way LhaL C
1
ls cuL off and C
2
ls Lurned on, Lhe clrculL wlll sLay
ln Lhe new poslLlon. AnoLher Lrlgger pulse ls Lhen requlred Lo swlLch Lhe clrculL back Lo lLs
orlglnal sLaLe.
Cl8Cul1 uL1AlLS
.
llg. shows Lhe clrculL of a Lyplcal LranslsLor blsLable mulLlvlbraLor. lL conslsLs of Lwo
ldenLlcal CL ampllfler sLages wlLh ouLpuL of one fed Lo Lhe lnpuL of Lhe oLher. 1he feedback ls
coupled Lhrough reslsLors (8
2
,8
3
) shunLed by capaclLors C
1
and C
2
. 1he maln purpose of
capaclLors C
1
and C
2
ls Lo lmprove Lhe swlLchlng characLerlsLlcs of Lhe clrculL by passlng Lhe
hlgh frequency componenLs of Lhe square wave. 1hls allows fasL rlse and fall Llmes and hence
dlsLorLlonless square wave ouLpuL. 1he ouLpuL can be Laken across elLher LranslsLor.


CL8A1lCn
When v
CC
ls applled, one LranslsLor wlll sLarL conducLlng sllghLly ahead of Lhe oLher
due Lo some dlfferences ln Lhe characLerlsLlcs of Lhe LranslsLors. 1hls wlll drlve one LranslsLor
Lo saLuraLlon and Lhe oLher Lo cuL off ln a manner descrlbed for Lhe asLable mulLlvlbraLor.
Assume LhaL C
1
ls Lurned Cn and C2 ls cuL Cll. lf lefL Lo lLself, Lhe clrculL wlll sLay ln Lhls
condlLlon. ln order Lo swlLch Lhe mulLlvlbraLor Lo lLs oLher sLaLe, a Lrlgger pulse musL be
applled. A negaLlve pulse applled Lo Lhe base of C
1
Lhrough C
3
wlll cuL lL off or a poslLlve pulse
applled Lo Lhe base of C
2
Lhrough C
4
wlll cause lL Lo conducL.
Suppose a negaLlve pulse of sufflclenL magnlLude ls applled Lo Lhe base of C
1
Lhrough
C
3
. 1hls wlll reduce Lhe forward blas on C
1
and cause a decrease ln lLs collecLor currenL and an
lncrease ln collecLor volLage. 1he rlslng collecLor volLage ls coupled Lo Lhe base of C
2
where lL
forward blases Lhe base-emlLLer [uncLlon of C
2
. 1hls wlll cause an lncrease ln lLs collecLor
currenL and decease ln collecLor volLage. 1he decreaslng collecLor volLage ls applled Lo Lhe
base of C
1
where lL furLher reverse blases Lhe base-emlLLer [uncLlon of C
1
Lo decrease lLs
collecLor currenL. WlLh Lhls seL of acLlons Laklng place, C
2
1

Lo cuL off. 1he clrculL wlll now remaln sLable ln Lhls sLaLe unLll a negaLlve Lrlgger pulse aL C
2
(or
a poslLlve Lrlgger pulse aL C
1
) changes Lhls sLaLe.
______________________________


CPA1L8 16
1P?8lS1C8S
1hyrlsLors baslcally are mulLllayer semlconducLor devlce. 1hey are swlLchlng devlces.
1hey have Lwo sLages of operaLlon. Pence Lhey are blsLable devlces . 1he Lwo sLaLes are Cn
and Cll sLaLe. 1he maln advanLage of LhyrlsLors ls LhaL Lhey can handle large powers wlLh
small conLrolllng power. 1here are four layer, Lhree layer devlces ln Lhe famlly of LhyrlsLors.
1hey are superlor Lo LranslsLors ln swlLchlng appllcaLlons ln lndusLry. S|||con contro||ed
rect|f|ers (SCk),1kIAC and DIAC are Lhe popularly used devlces ln Lhls famlly. 1he name
LhyrlsLors ls glven Lo Lhe famlly of semlconducLor devlces used for power conLrol ln boLh AC
and uC sysLems.
SlLlCCn CCn18CLLLu 8LC1lllL8S (SC8)
lL ls one of Lhe promlnenL members of Lhe LhyrlsLor famlly. lL ls a four-layer or nn
devlce. 8aslcally, it is o rectifier with o contro/ e/ement. ln facL, lL conslsLs of Lhree dlodes
connecLed back-Lo-back wlLh a gaLe connecLlon. lL ls wldely used as a swlLchlng devlce ln
power conLrol appllcaLlons. lL can conLrol loads by swlLchlng currenL Cll and Cn up Lo many
Lhousand Llmes a second. lL can swlLch Cn for varlable lengLhs of Llme, Lhereby dellverlng
selecLed amounL of power Lo Lhe load. Pence, lL possesses Lhe advanLages of a rheosLaL and a
swlLch wlLh none of Lhelr dlsadvanLages.
a. Construct|on

As shown ln flg (a) , lL ls a Lhree-[uncLlon ,Lhree Lermlnal four-layer LranslsLor, Lhe layers
belng alLernaLely of -Lype and n-Lype slllcon. 1he Lhree [uncLlons are marked !
1
,!
2
and !
3

whereas Lhe Lhree Lermlnals are : anode (A),CaLhode (C) and gaLe (C) whlch connecLed Lo Lhe


lnner -Lype layer. 1he funcLlon of Lhe gaLe ls Lo conLrol Lhe flrlng of SC8. 1he symbol ls shown
ln flg (b).
b. 8|as|ng
WlLh Lhe polarlLy of v as shown ln flg (a) , Lhe [uncLlons !
1
and !
3
becomes forward-
blased whereas !
2
ls reverse-blased. Pence, no currenL (excepL leakage currenL ) can flow
Lhrough Lhe SC8.

ln flg.(b) polarlLy of v has been reversed. lL ls seen LhaL now, [uncLlons !
1
and !
3
become
reverse-blased and only !
2
ls forward blased. Agaln, Lhere ls no flow of currenL Lhrough Lhe
SC8.
c. Cperat|on

ln flg (a) above, currenL flow ls blocked due Lo reverse blased [uncLlon !
2
. Powever,


when anode volLage ls lncreased, a cerLaln crlLlcal value called forward break over volLage v
8C

ls reached when !
2
breaks down and SC8 swlLches suddenly Lo a hlghly conducLlng sLaLe.
under Lhls condlLlon, SC8 offers very llLLle forward reslsLance (0.01D-1.0D) so LhaL volLage
across lL drops Lo a low value (abouL 1v) as shown ln flg and currenL ls llmlLed only by Lhe
power supply and Lhe load reslsLance. CurrenL keeps flowlng lndeflnlLely unLll Lhe clrculL ls
opened brlefly.
WlLh supply connecLlon as ln flg (b) ,Lhe currenL Lhrough Lhe SC8 ls blocked by Lhe Lwo
reverse-blased [uncLlons !1 and !3. When v ls lncreased , a sLage comes when breakdown
occurs whlch may desLroy Lhe SC8 (llg). Pence, lL ls seen LhaL SC8 ls a unldlrecLlonal devlce
unllke Lrlac whlch ls bldlrecLlonal.
d. 1wo trans|stor ana|ogy
1he baslc operaLlon an SC8 can be descrlbed by uslng Lwo LranslsLor analogy. lor Lhls
purpose SC8 ls spllL lnLo 3- layer LranslsLor sLrucLures as shown ln llg.(a). As seen, LranslsLor C1
ls a n LranslsLor whereas C2 ls an nn LranslsLor lnLerconnecLed LogeLher. lL wlll also be
noLed from flg (b) LhaL
(a) collecLor currenL of C
1
ls also Lhe base currenL ofC
2
and
(b) base currenL of C
1
ls also Lhe collecLor currenL of C
2

Suppose LhaL Lhe supply volLage across Lermlnals A and C ls such LhaL reverse-blased
!uncLlon !
2
sLarLs breaklng down. 1hen currenL Lhrough Lhe devlce beglns Lo rlse. lL means LhaL
l
L1
beglns Lo lncrease. 1hen
1. l
C1
lncreases (remember l
C
= dl
L
)
2. Slnce l
C1
= l
82,
l
82
also lncreases


3. Pence, l
C2
lncreases ( remember l
C
= l
8
)
4. now, l
C2
=

l
81,
hence l
81
lncreases
3. ConsequenLly, boLh l
C1
and l
L1
lncrease
As seen , a regeneraLlve acLlon Lakes place whereby an lnlLlal lncrease ln currenL
produces furLher lncrease ln Lhe same currenL. Soon, maxlmum currenL ls reached llmlLed by
exLernal reslsLances. 1he Lwo LranslsLors are fully Lurned Cn and volLage across Lhe Lwo
LranslsLors falls Lo a very low value. 1yplcal Lurn Cn Llmes for an SC8 are 0.1 Lo 1.0s.
e. I|r|ng or 1r|gger|ng
usually, SC8 ls operaLed wlLh an anode volLage sllghLly less Lhan Lhe forward break over
volLage v
8C
and ls Lrlggered lnLo conducLlon by a low-power gaLe pulse. Cnce swlLched Cn,
gaLe has no furLher conLrol on Lhe devlce currenL. CaLe slgnals can be
(a) uc flrlng slgnals - llg (a)
(b) ulse slgnals - llg (b)

ln flg .(a) wlLh S open , SC8 does noL conducL and Lhe lamp ls ouL. When S ls closed
momenLarlly, a poslLlve volLage ls applled Lo Lhe gaLe whlch forward-blases Lhe cenLre n
[uncLlon. As a resulL, SC8 ls pulsed lnLo conducLlon and Lhe lamp llghLs up. SC8 wlll remaln ln
Lhe conducLlng sLaLe unLll Lhe supply volLage ls removed or reversed. llg (b) shows Lrlggerlng
by Llmed pulses obLalned from a pulse source.
f. 1urn|ng CII
As sLaLed earller, once 'flred', SC8 remalns Cn eveo wbeo ttlqqetloq polse ls temoveJ.
1hls ablllLy of Lhe SC8 Lo remaln Cn even when gaLe currenL ls removed ls referred Lo as
|atch|ng. ln facL, SC8 belongs Lo a class of devlces known as lotcbloq Jevlces.
8y now, lL ls clear LhaL an SC8 cannoL be Lurned Cll by slmply removlng Lhe gaLe pulse.
number of Lechnlques ls employed Lo Lurn an SC8 Cll. 1hese are


1. anode currenL lnLerrupLlon
2. reverslng polarlLy of anode-caLhode volLage as ls done each half-cycle by v ln flg.(b)
J. reduclng currenL Lhrough SC8 below Lhe holdlng currenL l
P
(flg.) . lL ls called low-cotteot
Jtopoot
g. App||cat|ons
Maln appllcaLlon of an SC8 ls as a powet coottol Jevlce. lL has been shown above, LhaL
when SC8 ls Cll, lLs currenL ls negllglble and when lL ls Cn, lLs volLage ls negllglble.
ConsequenLly, lL never dlsslpaLes any appreclable amounL of power even when conLrolllng
subsLanLlal amounLs of load power. CLher common areas of lLs appllcaLlons lnclude
(1) teloy coottols (2) teqoloteJ powet sopplles (J) stotlc swltcbes (4) motot coottols (5)
lovettets (6) bottety cbotqets (7) beotet coottols (8) pbose coottol
SC8s have been deslgned Lo conLrol powers up Lo 10MW wlLh lndlvldual raLlngs as hlgh
as 2000A aL 1.8kv. lLs frequency range appllcaLlon has been exLended Lo abouL 30kPz.
18lAC
lL ls a 3-layer bldlrecLlonal devlce whlch can be Lrlggered lnLo conducLlon by boLh
poslLlve and negaLlve volLages aL lLs anodes and wlLh boLh poslLlve and negaLlve Lrlggerlng
pulses aL lLs gaLe. lL behaves llke Lwo SC8s coooecteJ lo potollel, opslJe Jowo wltb tespect to
eocb otbet. 1haL ls, Lhe anode of one ls Lled Lo Lhe caLhode of Lhe oLher and Lhelr gaLes are
dlrecLly Lled LogeLher. Pence, anode and gaLe volLages applled ln elLher dlrecLlon wlll flre a
Lrlac because Lhey would flre aL leasL one of Lhe Lwo SC8s whlch are ln opposlLe dlrecLlons.
Slnce a Lrlac responds Lo boLh poslLlve and negaLlve volLages aL Lhe anode, Lhe concepL
of caLhode used for SC8 ls dropped. lnsLead Lhe Lwo elecLrodes are called anode A
1
(or M1
1
)
and A
2
(or M1
2
).


(|) Construct|on
As shown ln flg (a) , a Lrlac has Lhree Lermlnals A
1
,A
2
and C. As seen, gaLe C ls closer Lo
anode A
1
. lL ls clear from flg (b), LhaL a Lrlac ls noLhlng buL two lovetse potollel-coooecteJ SC8s
wltb o commoo qote tetmlool. As seen, lL has slx doped reglons. llgure (c) shows Lhe symbol
whlch conslsLs of Lwo lnverse-connecLed SC8 symbols.

(||) Cperat|on
(a) When A2 |s os|t|ve
When poslLlve volLage ls applled Lo A
2
, paLh of currenL flow ls
1
-n
1
-
2
-n
2
. 1he Lwo
[uncLlons
1
-n
1
and
2
-n
2
are forward-blased whereas n
1
-
2
[uncLlon ls blocked. 1he gaLe can
be glven elLher poslLlve or negaLlve volLage Lo Lurn Cn Lhe Lrlac as explalned below.
(l) oslLlve gaLe
A poslLlve gaLe (wlLh respecL Lo A
1
) forward-blases Lhe
2
-n
2
[uncLlon and Lhe
breakdown occurs as ln a normal SC8.
(ll) negaLlve gaLe
A negaLlve gaLe forward-blases Lhe
2
-n
3
[uncLlon and currenL carrlers ln[ecLed lnLo
2

Lurn on Lhe Lrlac.
(b) When A
1
|s pos|t|ve
When poslLlve volLage ls applled Lo anode A
1
,paLh of currenL flow ls
2
-n
1
-
1
-n
4
. 1he
Lwo [uncLlons
2
-n
1
and
1
-n
4
are forward blased whereas [uncLlon n
1
-
1
ls blocked.
ConducLlon can be achleved by glvlng elLher poslLlve or negaLlve volLage Lo C as explalned
below.
(l) oslLlve gaLe
A poslLlve gaLe (wlLh respecL Lo A
1
) ln[ecLs currenL carrlers by forward-blaslng
2
-n
2

[uncLlon and Lhus lnlLlaLes conducLlon.
(ll) negaLlve gaLe
A negaLlve gaLe ln[ecLs currenL carrlers by forward-blaslng
2
-n
3
[uncLlon Lhereby
Lrlggerlng conducLlon.
lL ls seen LhaL Lhere are four Lrlac-Lrlggerlng modes, Lwo each for Lhe Lwo anodes.


Low -currenL dropouL ls only way Lo open a Lrlac.
(|||)V]I Character|st|cs
1yplcal characLerlsLlcs of a Lrlac are shown ln flgure.

As seen, Lrlac exhlblLs same forward blocklng and forward conducLlng characLerlsLlcs as
an SC8 buL fot eltbet polotlty of voltoqe opplleJ to tbe molo tetmlool. Cbvlously, a Lrlac has
laLch currenL ln elLher dlrecLlon.
(|v)App||cat|on
As AC ower conLrol
As sLaLlc swlLch Lo Lurn ac power Cll and Cn
lor mlnlmlzlng radlo lnLerference
lor llghL conLrol
lor moLor speed conLrol eLc.
1he only dlsadvanLage of Lrlac ls LhaL lL Lakes comparaLlvely longer Llme Lo recover Lo
Cll sLaLe. Pence, lLs use ls llmlLed Lo ac supply frequencles of up Lo 400 Pz.
ulAC
1o puL lL slmply, a dlac ls noLhlng else bot o ttloc wltboot lts qote tetmlool as shown ln
flg.(a). lLs equlvalenL clrculL ls a palr of lnverLed four-layer dlodes. lLs symbol ls shown ln flg(b) .
As seen, lt coo bteok Jowo lo eltbet Jltectloo.
When anode A
1
ls poslLlve, Lhe currenL paLh ls
2
-n
2
-
1
-n
1
. Slmllarly, when A
2
ls
poslLlve, Lhe currenL flow paLh ls
1
-n
2
-
2
-n
3
. ulac ls deslgned Lo Lrlgger Lrlacs or provlde
proLecLlon agalnsL over-volLages.


1he operaLlon of a dlac can besL be explalned by lmaglnlng lL as two d|odes connected
|n ser|es. volLage applled across lL ln elLher dlrecLlon Lurns Cn one dlode, reverse blaslng Lhe
oLher. Pence, lL can be swlLched from Cll Lo Cn sLaLe for elLher polarlLy of Lhe applled
volLage.
1he characLerlsLlc curve of a Lyplcal dlac ls shown ln flg. lL resembles Lhe leLLer Z slnce
dlac breaks down ln elLher dlrecLlon .

As sLaLed above, dlac has symmeLrlcal bldlrecLlonal swlLchlng characLerlsLlcs. 8ecause
of Lhls feaLure, dlacs are frequenLly used as Lrlggerlng devlces ln Lrlac phase conLrol clrculLs
used for llghL dlmmlng, unlversal moLor speed conLrol and heaL conLrol eLc.
LAM ulMML8 uSlnC 18lAC Anu ulAC
Compared Lo SC8, 1rlac ls mosL popular and works saLlsfacLorlly for |amp d|mmer
c|rcu|ts and speed contro| of un|versa| motors. AlLhough boLh SC8 and 18lAC can be used Lo
phase conLrol and vary Lhe currenL Lhrough Lhe lamp or moLor, 18lAC belng a full wave devlce,
symmeLrlcally conLrols Lhe phase of boLh half cycles of Lhe applled AC. 1he resulLanL full wave
currenL formaL Lhen produces smooLh lamp or moLor operaLlon LhaL can be aLLalned from Lhe


half wave recLlflcaLlon uslng SC8s. 1hls ls parLlcularly noLlceable durlng low/dlm llghL
requlremenL or low speed for moLors.
1he clrculL aL flg.1 shows a 18lAC phase conLrol clrculL for conLrolllng Lhe brlghLness of
Lhe lamp or speed of unlversal moLors.

1he load shown ln clrculL aL flg.(1) ls a general load raLher Lhan a moLor symbol
because, Lhls clrculL can also be used for llghL dlmmers and for Lhe conLrol of heaLers.
1he ulAC used as Lrlgger devlce, adds Lo Lhe rellablllLy of Lhe clrculL. 1he elemenLal low
pass fllLer comprlslng L
l
and C
l
aLLenuaLes much of Lhe radlo-frequency lnLerference (8ll) LhaL
geLs generaLed and Lrles Lo geL lnLo Lhe power llne. 1hls hlgh frequency 8ll energy ls
generaLed by Lhe exLremely rapld Lurn -on Llme of Lhe 18lAC. Whlch should be ellmlnaLed Lo
avold radlo lnLerference due Lo hlgher frequency conLenL of Lhe recLlfled wave form.
CLherwlse, Lhe frequency may lnLerfere wlLh recepLlon aL nearby places or ln Lhe maln llne
clrculL elsewhere.
LAM ulMML8S
Lamp dlmmer ls a clrculL whlch conLrols AC power supplled Lo an lncandescenL lamp
Lhereby conLrolllng Lhe lnLenslLy of llghL emlLLed by Lhe lamp from almosL zero Lo full
brllllance.
SlMLL LlCP1 ulMML8
1he clrculL shown ln flg(2) ls a wlde range llghL dlmmer uslng very few parLs. 1he clrculL
can be operaLed uslng any malns supply source (240v,30Pz) by chooslng approprlaLe value of
clrculL componenLs. 1he clrculL can conLrol up Lo 1000WaLLs of power Lo lncandescenL bulbs.


1he power Lo Lhe bulbs ls varles by conLrolllng Lhe conducLlon angle of Lrlac. Many
clrculLs can be used for phase conLrol, buL Lhe slngle Lrlac clrculL used ls Lhe slmplesL and ls
Lherefore chosen for Lhls parLlcular appllcaLlon.

1he conLrol clrculL for Lhls Lrlac musL funcLlon as shown ln flg (2b). 1he conLrol clrculL
musL creaLe a delay beLween Lhe Llme volLage ls applled Lo Lhe clrculL and Lhe Llme lL ls applled
Lo Lhe load. 1he Lrlac ls Lrlggered afLer Lhls delay and conducLs currenL Lhrough Lhe load for Lhe
remalnlng parL of each alLernaLlon. 1hls clrculL can conLrol Lhe conducLlon angle from 0
0
Lo
abouL 170
0
.
_____________


CPA1L8 17
llLLu LllLC1 18AnSlS1C8S
&
unl!unC1lCn 18AnSlS1C8S

ln Lhe prevlous chapLers, we have dlscussed Lhe clrculL appllcaLlons of an ordlnary
LranslsLor. ln Lhls Lype of LranslsLor boLh holes and elecLrons play parL ln Lhe conducLlon
process. lor Lhls reason, lL ls someLlmes called as b|po|ar trans|stor. 1he ordlnary or blpolar
1ranslsLor has Lwo prlnclpal dlsadvanLages. llrsLly, lL has a low lnpuL lmpedance because of
forward blased emlLLer [uncLlon. Secondly, lL has conslderable nolse level. 1hese draw backs
have been overcome Lo a greaL exLenL ln fleld effecL LranslsLors.
llLLu LllLC1 18AnSlS1C8 (lL1)
A fie/d effect tronsistor ls o tbtee tetmlool semlcooJoctot Jevlce lo wblcb cotteot
cooJoctloo ls by ooe type of cottlet l.e. electtoos ot boles.

1he lL1 was developed abouL Lhe same Llme as Lhe LranslsLor buL lL came lnLo general
use only ln Lhe laLe 1960s. ln a lL1 , Lhe currenL lnducLlon ls elLher by elecLrons or holes and ls
conLrolled by means of an elecLrlc fleld beLween Lhe gaLe elecLrode and Lhe conducLlng
channel of Lhe devlce. 1he lL1 has hlLgh lnpuL lmpedance and low nolse level.
CCnS18uC1lCnAL uL1AlLS
A lL1 conslsLs of a -Lype or n-Lype slllcon bar conLalnlng Lwo pn [uncLlons aL Lhe sldes
as shown ln flg. 1he bar forms Lhe conducLlng channel for Lhe charge carrlers. lf Lhe bar ls of
n-Lype , lL ls called o-cboooel l1 as shown ln flg(l) and lf Lhe bar ls of p-Lype , lL ls called a p-
cboooel l1 as shown ln flg (ll). 1he Lwo pn [uncLlons formlng dlodes are connecLed lnLernally


and a common Lermlnal called qote ls Laken ouL. CLher Lermlnals are 5ource and dra|n Laken
ouL from Lhe bar as shown.
lL1 CLA8l1lLS
llgure (l) shows n-channel lL1 polarlLles whereas (ll) shows Lhe p-channel lL1
polarlLles. noLe LhaL ln each case, Lhe volLage beLween Lhe gaLe and source ls such LhaL Lhe
gaLe ls verse blased. 1hls ls Lhe normal way of lL1 connecLlon. 1he draln and source Lermlnals
are lnLerchangeable l.e. elLher end can be used as source and Lhe oLher end as draln.

WC8klnC 8lnClLLS Cl lL1
llg. shows Lhe clrculL of n-channel lL1 wlLh normal polarlLles. 1he clrculL acLlon ls as
follows:-
(l) When a volLage v
uS
ls applled beLween draln and source Lermlnals and volLage on Lhe
gaLe ls zero (see flg.l) , Lhe Lwo pn [uncLlons aL Lhe sldes of Lhe bar esLabllsh depleLlon layers.
1he elecLrons wlll flow from source Lo draln Lhrough a channel beLween Lhe depleLlon layers.
1he slze of Lhese layers deLermlnes Lhe wldLh of Lhe channel and hence Lhe currenL conducLlon
Lhrough Lhe bar.

(ll) When reverse volLage v
CS
ls applled beLween Lhe gaLe and source (see flg.ll) , Lhe wldLh
of Lhe depleLlon layers ls lncreased. 1hls reduces Lhe wldLh of conducLlng channel, Lhereby
lncreaslng Lhe reslsLance of n-Lype bar. ConsequenLly, Lhe currenL from source Lo draln ls
decreased. Cn Lhe oLher hand, lf Lhe reverse volLage on Lhe gaLe ls decreased, Lhe wldLh of Lhe


depleLlon layers also decreases. 1hls lncreases Lhe wldLh of Lhe conducLlng channel and hence
source Lo draln currenL.
lL ls clear from Lhe above dlscusslon LhaL currenL from source Lo draln can be conLrolled
by Lhe appllcaLlon of poLenLlal (l.e. elecLrlc fleld) on Lhe gaLe. lor Lhls reason, Lhe devlce ls
called flelJ effect ttooslstot. lL may be noLed LhaL a p-channel lL1 operaLes ln Lhe same
manner as an n-channel lL1 excepL LhaL channel currenL carrlers wlll be Lhe holes lnsLead of
elecLrons and Lhe polarlLles of v
CS
and v
uS
are reversed.
S?M8CLS Cl lL1
llg. show Lhe symbol of lL1. 1he verLlcal llne ln Lhe symbol may be LhoughL as channel
and source and draln connecLed Lo Lhls llne. lf Lhe channel ls n-Lype , Lhe arrow on Lhe gaLe ls
glven as shown ln flg (l) whereas for p-Lype channel, Lhe arrow on Lhe gaLe ls as shown ln flg
(ll). noLe LhaL ln Lhe symbol, draln and source are symmeLrlcal because Lhey are
lnLerchangeable.

ulllL8LnCL 8L1WLLn lL1 Anu 8lCLA8 18AnSlS1C8.
1he lL1 dlffers from an ordlnary or blpolar LranslsLor ln Lhe followlng ways:
(l) ln a lL1, Lhere ls only one Lype of carrler, holes ln p-Lype channel and elecLrons ln n-
Lype channel. lor Lhls reason , lL ls also called a unipo/or tronsistor. Powever, ln an ordlnary
LranslsLor boLh holes and elecLrons play parL ln conducLlon. 1herefore, an ordlnary LranlslsLor
ls someLlmes called a bipo/or tronsistor or bipo/or junction tronsistor {8l1)
(ll) As Lhe lnpuL clrculL (l.e. gaLe Lo source ) of a lL1 ls reverse blased, Lherefore, Lhe devlce
has hlgh lnpuL lmpedance. Powever, Lhe lnpuL clrculL of an ordlnary LranslsLor ls forward
blased and hence has low lnpuL lmpedance.
(lll) As Lhe gaLe ls reverse blased, Lherefore, lL carrles very small currenL. Cbvlously, lL1 ls
[usL llke a vacuum Lube where conLrol grld (correspondlng Lo gaLe ln lL1 ) carrles exLremely
small currenL and lnpuL volLage conLrols Lhe ouLpuL currenL. lor Lhls reason, lL1 ls a vo/toqe -


driven device. Powever, ordlnary LranslsLor ls a currenL operaLed devlce l.e. lnpuL currenL
conLrols Lhe ouLpuL currenL.
(lv) A blpolar LranslsLor uses a currenL lnLo lLs base Lo conLrol a large currenL
beLween collecLor and emlLLer whereas a lL1 uses voltoqe on Lhe 'gaLe' (=base ) Lermlnal Lo
conLrol Lhe currenL beLween draln (=collecLor) and source (=emlLLer) . 1hus a blpolar LranslsLor
galn ls characLerlzed by currenL galn whereas as Lhe lL1 galn ls characLerlzed as a
LransconducLance l.e. Lhe raLlo of change ln ouLpuL currenL (draln currenL) Lo Lhe lnpuL (gaLe)
volLage.
(v) ln lL1, Lhere are no [uncLlons as ln an ordlnary LranslsLor. 1he conducLlon ls Lhrough
an n-Lype or p-Lype seml-conducLor maLerlal. lor Lhls reason, nolse level ln lL1 ls very small.
lL1 as an ampllfler
lL1 AS An AMLllL8

llg. shows lL1 ampllfler clrculL. 1he weak slgnal ls applled beLween gaLe and source
and ampllfled ouLpuL ls obLalned ln Lhe draln-source clrculL. 1he lnpuL clrculL ls always reverse
blased. A small change ln Lhe reverse blas on Lhe gaLe produces a large change ln draln
currenL. 1he facL makes lL1 capable of ralslng Lhe sLrengLh of a weak slgnal. uurlng Lhe
poslLlve half of slgnal, Lhe reverse blas on Lhe gaLe decreases. 1hls lncreases Lhe channel wldLh
and hence Lhe draln currenL. uurlng Lhe negaLlve half-cycle of Lhe slgnal, reverse volLage on
Lhe gaLe lncreases. ConsequenLly, Lhe draln currenL decreases. 1he resulL ls Lhe small change ln
volLage aL Lhe gaLe produces a large change ln draln currenL. 1hese large varlaLlons ln draln
currenL produces large ouLpuL across Lhe load 8
L
. ln Lhls way lL1 acLs as an ampllfler.
Cu1u1 CPA8AC1L8lS1lCS Cl lL1
1he curve beLween draln currenL (l
u
) and draln-source volLage (v
uS
) of a lL1 aL
consLanL gaLe-source volLage (v
CS
) ls known as ouLpuL characLerlsLlcs of lL1. llg. shows


Lhe clrculL for deLermlnlng Lhe ouLpuL characLerlsLlcs of lL1. keeplng v
CS
flxed aL some value,
say,1v, Lhe draln-source volLage ls changed ln sLep . Correspondlng Lo each value of v
uS
,Lhe
draln currenL l
u
ls noLed. A ploL of Lhese values glves Lhe ouLpuL characLerlsLlcs of lL1 aL v
CS
=
1v. 8epeaLlng slmllar procedure, ouLpuL characLerlsLlcs aL oLher gaLe-source volLages can be
drawn. llg . shows a famlly ouLpuL characLerlsLlcs.
1he followlng polnLs may be noLed from Lhe characLerlsLlcs:
(l) AL flrsL, Lhe draln currenL l
u
rlses rapldly wlLh draln-source volLage v
uS
buL Lhen
becomes consLanL. 1he draln-source volLage above whlch draln currenL becomes consLanL ls
known as pinch off vo/toqe. 1hus ln flg. CA ls Lhe plnch off volLage.
(ll) AfLer plnch off volLage, Lhe channel-wldLh becomes so narrow LhaL depleLlon layers
almosL Louch each oLher. 1he draln currenL passes Lhrough Lhe small passage beLween Lhese
layers. 1herefore, lncrease ln draln currenL ls very small wlLh v
uS
above plnch off volLage.
ConsequenLly, draln currenL remalns consLanL.
(lll) 1he characLerlsLlcs resemble LhaL of penLode valve.
AuvAn1ACLS Cl lL1
A lL1 ls a volLage conLrolled, consLanL currenL devlce (slmllar Lo a vacuum penLode) ln
whlch varlaLlons ln lnpuL volLage conLrol Lhe ouLpuL currenL. lL comblnes Lhe many advanLages
of boLh blpolar LranslsLor and vacuum penLode. Some of Lhe advanLages of a lL1 are :-
(l) lL has a very hlgh lnpuL lmpedance (of Lhe order of 100 MD). 1hls permlLs hlgh degree
of lsolaLlon beLween Lhe lnpuL and ouLpuL clrculL.
(ll) 1he operaLlon of a lL1 depends upon Lhe bulk maLerlal currenL carrlers LhaL do noL
cross [uncLlons. 1herefore, Lhe lnherenL nolse of Lubes (due Lo hlgh-LemperaLure operaLlon)
and Lhose of LranslsLors (due Lo [uncLlon LranslLlons) are noL presenL ln a lL1.
(lll) A lL1 has a negaLlve LemperaLure co-efflclenL of reslsLance. 1hls avolds Lhe rlsk of
Lhermal runway.
(lv) A lL1 has a very hlgh power galn. 1hls ellmlnaLes Lhe necesslLy of uslng drlver sLages.


(v) A lL1 has a smaller slze, longer llfe and hlgh efflclency.

lL1 ALlCA1lCnS
1he hlgh lnpuL lmpedance and low ouLpuL lmpedance and low nolse level make lL1 far
superlor Lo Lhe blpolar LranslsLor. Some of Lhe clrculL appllcaLlons of lL1 are:-

(l) As o boffet ompllflet
A buffer ampllfler ls a sLage of ampllflcaLlon LhaL lsolaLes Lhe precedlng sLage from Lhe
followlng sLage. 8ecause of Lhe hlgh lnpuL lmpedance and low ouLpuL lmpedance, a lL1 can acL
as an excellenL buffer ampllfler. 1he hlgh lnpuL lmpedance of lL1 means llghL loadlng of Lhe
precedlng sLage. 1hls permlLs almosL Lhe enLlre ouLpuL from flrsL sLage Lo appear aL Lhe buffer
lnpuL. 1he low ouLpuL lmpedance of lL1 can drlve heavy loads (or small load reslsLances). 1hls
ensures LhaL all Lhe ouLpuL from Lhe buffer reaches Lhe lnpuL of Lhe second sLage.
(ll)lbose-sblft osclllotots
1he phase shlfL osclllaLor dlscussed wlLh Lhe LranslsLor wlll also work wlLh lL1s.
Powever, Lhe hlgh lnpuL lmpedance of lL1 ls especlally valuable ln phase-shlfL osclllaLor Lo
mlnlmlze Lhe loadlng effecL. llg. shows Lhe phase-shlfL osclllaLor uslng n-channel lL1.


ML1AL CxluL SLMlCCnuuC1C8 lL1 (MCSlL1)
MeLal oxlde semlconducLor fleld effecL LranslsLor ls an lmporLanL seml-conducLor
devlce and ls wldely used ln many clrculL appllcaLlons. 1he lnpuL lmpedance of f MCSlL1 ls
much more Lhan LhaL of a lL1 because of very small gaLe leakage currenL. 1he MCSlL1 can be
used ln any of Lhe clrculLs covered for Lhe lL1. 1herefore, all Lhe equaLlons apply equally well
Lo Lhe MCSlL1 and lL1 ln ampllfler connecLlons.
CCnS18uC1lCnAL uL1AlLS
llg(l) shows Lhe consLrucLlonal deLalls of n-channel MCSlL1. lL ls slmllar Lo lL1 excepL
wlLh Lhe followlng modlflcaLlons. :
(l) 1here ls only a slngle p-reglon. 1hls reglon ls called subLraLe.
(||) A Lhln layer of meLal oxlde (usually slllcon dloxlde) ls deposlLed over Lhe lefL slde of Lhe
channel. A meLalllc qote ls deposlLed over Lhe oxlde layer. As slllcon dloxlde ls an lnsulaLor,
Lherefore, gaLe ls lnsulaLed from Lhe channel. lor Lhls reason, MCSlL1 ls someLlmes called
insu/oted qote l1.
(lll) Llke lL1, a MCSlL1 has Lhree Lermlnals namely, source, gaLe and draln.

WC8klnC 8lnClLL Cl MCSlL1


llg. shows Lhe clrculL of MCSlL1. lnsLead of gaLe dlode as ln lL1, here gaLe ls formed as
a small capaclLor. Cne plaLe of Lhls capaclLor ls Lhe gaLe and Lhe oLher plaLe ls Lhe channel wlLh
meLal oxlde as Lhe dlelecLrlc. When negaLlve volLage ls applled Lo Lhe gaLe, elecLrons
accumulaLe on lL. 1hese elecLrons *repel Lhe conducLlon band elecLrons ln Lhe n-channel.
1herefore, lesser number of conducLlon elecLrons are made avallable for currenL conducLlon
Lhrough Lhe channel. 1he greaLer Lhe negaLlve volLage on Lhe gaLe, Lhe lesser ls Lhe currenL
conducLlon from source Lo draln. lf Lhe gaLe ls glven poslLlve volLage, more elecLrons are made
avallable ln Lhe n-channel. ConsequenLly, currenL from source Lo draln lncreases. 1he followlng
polnLs may be noLed:
(l) ln a MCSlL1, Lhe source Lo draln currenL ls conLrolled by Lhe elecLrlc fleld of capaclLor
formed aL Lhe gaLe.
(ll) unllke Lhe lL1,a MCSlL1 has no gaLe dlode. 1hls makes lL posslble Lo operaLe Lhe
devlce wlLh poslLlve or negaLlve gaLe volLage.
(lll) As Lhe gaLe forms a capaclLor ,Lherefore, negllglble gaLe currenL flows wheLher poslLlve
or negaLlve volLage ls applled Lo Lhe gaLe. ConsequenLly Lhe lnpuL lmpedance of
MCSlL1 ls very hlgh, ranglng from 10000 MD Lo 1000000MD.
CWL8 MCSlL1
A power MCSlL1 ls a speclflc Lype of MeLal Cxlde SemlconducLor lleld LffecL 1ranslsLor
(MCSlL1) deslgned Lo handle large power. Compared Lo Lhe oLher power semlconducLor
devlces (lC81, 1hyrlsLor.) lLs maln advanLages are hlgh commuLaLlon speed and good
efflclency aL low volLages.
lL was made posslble by Lhe evoluLlon of Lhe CMCS Lechnology, developed for
manufacLurlng lnLegraLed clrculLs ln Lhe laLe 1970s. 1he power MCSlL1 shares lLs operaLlng
prlnclple wlLh lLs low-power counLerparL, Lhe laLeral MCSlL1.
1he power MCSlL1 ls Lhe mosL wldely used low-volLage (l.e. less Lhan 200v) swlLch. lL
can be found ln mosL power supplles, uC Lo uC converLers, and low volLage moLor conLrollers.
8ASlC S18uC1u8L
Several sLrucLures had been explored aL Lhe beglnnlng of Lhe 1980s, when Lhe flrsL
ower MCSlL1 was lnLroduced. Powever, mosL of Lhem have been abandoned (aL leasL unLll
recenLly) ln favour of verLlcal ulffused MCS (vuMCS) .
_________________
*lf ooe plote of copocltot ls oeqotlvely cbotqeJ, lt loJoces posltlve cbotqe oo tbe otbet plote


1he cross secLlons of a vuMCS (llg) show Lhe 'verLlcallLy' of Lhe devlce. lL can be seen
LhaL Lhe source elecLrode ls placed over Lhe draln, resulLlng ln a currenL malnly verLlcal when
Lhe LranslsLor ls ln Lhe on-sLaLe. 1he 'dlffuslon' ln vuMCS refers Lo Lhe manufacLurlng process :
Lhe wells are obLalned by a dlffuslon process (acLually a double dlffuslon process Lo geL Lhe
and n reglons, hence Lhe name double dlffused). vuMCS cell ls very small (some mlcromeLers
Lo some Lens of mlcromeLers wlde) and LhaL a ower MCSlL1 ls composed of several Lhousand
of Lhem).
ower MCSlL1 have a dlfferenL sLrucLure Lhan Lhe laLeral MCSlL1: as wlLh all power devlces,
Lhelr sLrucLure ls verLlcal and noL planar. ln a planar sLrucLure, Lhe currenL and breakdown
volLage raLlngs are boLh funcLlons of Lhe channel dlmenslons( respecLlvely wldLh and lengLh of
Lhe channel), resulLlng ln lnefflclenL use of Lhe 'slllcon esLaLe'. WlLh a verLlcal sLrucLure, Lhe
volLage raLlng of Lhe LranslsLor ls a funcLlon of Lhe doplng an Lhlckness of Lhe n eplLaxlal layer
(see cross secLlon), whlle Lhe currenL raLlng ls a funcLlon of Lhe channel wldLh. 1hls makes
posslble for Lhe LranslsLor Lo susLaln boLh hlgh blocklng volLage and hlgh currenL wlLhln a
compacL plece of slllcon.
lL ls worLh noLlng LhaL power MCSlL1s wlLh laLeral sLrucLure exlsLs. 1hey are malnly
used ln hlgh-end audlo ampllflers. 1helr advanLage ls a beLLer behavlor ln Lhe saLuraLed reglon
(correspondlng Lo Lhe llnear reglon of a blpolar LranslsLor) Lhan Lhe verLlcal MCSlL1s. verLlcal
MCSlL1s are deslgned for swlLchlng appllcaLlons, so Lhey are only used ln Cn or Cff sLaLes.
unl!unC1lCn 18AnSlS1C8S
1he unl-[uncLlon LranslsLor conslsLs of a bar of llghLly doped n-Lype slllcon wlLh a small
plece of heavlly doped -Lype maLerlal [olned Lo one slde aL 60 of helghL from Lhe base as
shown ln flg1(a). 1he end Lermlnals are named as base 1 (8
1
) or CaLhode (k) and base 2 (8
2
) or


anode (A) and Lhe -Lype maLerlal as emlLLer (L). 1he hlghly doped n-Lype maLerlal has a hlgh
reslsLance and can be represenLed by Lwo reslsLors r
81
and r
82
. 1he sum of r
81
and r
82
ls
deslgnaLed as 8
88
(8efer flg 1b). 1he emlLLer (-Lype) form a n [uncLlon wlLh Lhe n-Lype slllcon
bar and Lhls [uncLlon ls represenLed by a dlode ln Lhe equlvalenL clrculL (llg 1b). 1he clrculL
symbol ls shown ln llg 1c.

When Lhe volLage v
8182
ls applled as shown ln llg 1b, Lhe volLage aL Lhe [uncLlon r
81
and
r
82
ls
v1 = v
81
x v
82
x
2 1
1
B B
B
r r
J
+

= v
8182
x
CB
B
r
r
1

Where r
81
+r
82
= 8
88

v
1
ls also Lhe volLage aL Lhe caLhode of Lhe dlode represenLlng Lhe n [uncLlon whlle Lhe
emlLLer Lermlnal ls open clrculLed Lhe only currenL flowlng ls
l
82
=
BB
B B
R
J
2 1

lf Lhe emlLLer Lermlnal ls grounded, Lhe n [uncLlon ls reverse blased and a small reverse
currenL l
LC
flows. 1hls ls shown as polnL 1 ln Lhe characLerlsLlc curve. (flg 2).
LeL us conslder Lhe effecL of applylng an lnpuL volLage v
L81
across Lhe 8
1
and L. Assume
v
L8C
ls lncreased from zero. As v
L8S
becomes equal Lo v
1
, l
LC
wlll be reduced Lo zero. 1hls
happens due Lo equal volLage aL [uncLlon. 1hls occurs aL polnL (2) of Lhe characLerlsLlc curve
shown ln llg 2. WlLh furLher lncrease of v
L81
, Lhe n [uncLlon ls forward blased, and a forward
emlLLer currenL l
L
beglns Lo flow from Lhe emlLLer Lermlnal lnLo Lhe slllcon bar. When Lhls
occurs Lhe charge carrlers are ln[ecLed lnLo Lhe r
81
reglon of Lhe slllcon bar. Slnce Lhe reslsLance
of a seml-conducLor depends upon Lhe doplng level, Lhe lnLroducLlon of charge carrler curve


causes Lhe reslsLance of r
81
Lo rapldly decrease. ConsequenLly Lhe volLage drop across Lhe
r
81
also decreases, causlng Lhe p-n [uncLlon Lo be more heavlly forward blased. 1he drop ln

volLage across r
81
ls lndlcaLed ln Lhe characLerlsLlc curve shown ln llg 2.
1he decrease of volLage v
L81
Lo a polnL called 'valley olnL' and Lhe lnpuL currenL l
L
ls
lncreased Lo a llmlL deLermlned by Lhe source reslsLance. 1he devlce remalns ln Lhls 'Cn'
condlLlon unLll Lhe lnpuL ls open clrculLed or unLll l
L
ls reduced Lo a very low level.
u!1 characLerlsLlc curve (llg 2) shows Lhe relaLlon beLween emlLLer currenL and emlLLer
volLage aL dlfferenL levels of supply volLage.
ALlCA1lCn Cl u!1s
u!1s are employed ln a wlde varleLy of clrculLs lnvolvlng elecLronlc swlLchlng and volLage or
currenL senslng appllcaLlons. 1hese lnclude
1rlggers for LhyrlsLors
as osclllaLors
as pulse and sawLooLh generaLors
Llmlng clrculLs
regulaLed power supplles
blsLable clrculLs and so on.
____________________________


CPA1L8 18
ln1LC8A1Lu Cl8Cul1S
Cne of Lhe lnnovaLlons ln Lhe fleld of elecLronlcs ls Lhe developmenL of lnLegraLed
ClrculL or Lhe lC. 1he use of modern manufacLurlng Lechnlques has faclllLaLed Lhe manufacLure
of an enLlre group of dlscreLe componenLs on a slngle chlp or a semlconducLor subsLraLe. All
Lhe lndlvldual componenLs llke reslsLors, capaclLors, dlodes and LranslsLors whlch are used ln
varlous clrculL schemaLlcs are referred Lo as dlscreLe componenLs.
1he lc is o semiconductor device which incorporotes o comp/ete circuit {or o portio/
circuit) in which the components /ike tronsistors, diodes, resistors, copocitors ond the
interconnections between them ore creoted in o wofer of suitob/y processed si/icon.
1he plus polnLs of Lhls Lechnology are hlgh rellablllLy, compacL slze and low cosL as
compared Lo Lhe convenLlonal clrculLs employlng lndlvldual dlscreLe componenLs.
1he process lnvolved ln Lhe consLrucLlon of lC ls slmllar Lo LhaL used for Lhe
consLrucLlon of lndlvldual dlodes and LranslsLors. Lach lnLegraLed clrculL Lyplcally conslsLs of a
slngle crysLal chlp of slllcon, whlch ls elLher poslLlvely or negaLlvely doped. 1hls chlp ls referred
Lo as subsLraLe. Cn Lhls subsLraLe, addlLlonal and n dopenLs (layers or reglons) are added by
dlffuslon process Lo form Lhe deslred componenLs.
labrlcaLlon of lndlvldual componenLs on a subsLraLe ls explalned below :
kes|stor
1o form an lnLegraLed clrculL reslsLor, a slngle n-Lype reglon ls added Lo a -Lype
subsLraLe as shown ln flg.1. MeLal conLacLs are [olned Lo Lhe n- Lype maLerlal aL Lwo dlfferenL
polnLs. An oxlde coaLlng ls formed beLween Lhe meLal conLacLs and Lhe maln body of Lhe chlp.
1hls coaLlng serves as an lnsulaLor and clrculL lsolaLor Lo prevenL any posslble shorL clrculL. 1he
reslsLance of Lhe n-Lype maLerlal forms Lhe acLual reslsLor.


1he value of Lhe reslsLor depends on Lhe reslsLlvlLy of Lhe maLerlal used, lLs wldLh and
lLs lengLh. 1he reslsLlvlLy of Lhe maLerlal ls pre-deLermlned and Lhe value of Lhe reslsLor ls
calculaLed by Lhe equaLlon
8eslsLance =
Width
Length
x 8eslsLlvlLy
Capac|tor
1o form an lnLegraLed clrculL capaclLor, Lhe oxlde layer ls used as a dlelecLrlc. 1he flg.2
lllusLraLes Lhe formaLlon of a capaclLor. Pere only one meLal conLacL (A) ls [olned wlLh Lhe n-
Lype maLerlal whlle Lhere ls an oxlde layer (dlelecLrlc) beLween Lhe oLher meLal conLacL (8) and

Lhe n-Lype maLerlal. 1he value of Lhe capaclLor depends upon Lhe depLh of Lhe oxlde layer and
Lhe physlcal geomeLry of Lhe n-Lype maLerlal. 1he value of Lhe capaclLor ls deLermlned by Lhe
equaLlon:
CapaclLance = Surface area of maLerlal x dlelecLrlc consLanL
uepLh of oxlde layer
1he Lhlckness of oxlde layer ls generally kepL consLanL. 1hus ln order Lo form a
capaclLor of hlgher value, larger n-Lype reglon ls used. 8ecause of Lhls reason, Lhe capaclLors
consume a loL of area ln an lnLegraLed clrculL.

D|odes & 1rans|stors:
1he meLhods of fabrlcaLlon of a dlode and a LranslsLor are shown ln flg. 3 and flg.4
respecLlvely.
uslng Lhe same baslc prlnclple of lnLegraLlng lndlvldual componenLs, a large clrculLry
uslng several Lhousands of LranslsLors, dlodes, capaclLors and reslsLors can be made on a slngle


chlp. SLlll Lhe slze ls noL much larger Lhan a dlscreLe LranslsLor. llg.3 shows a slmple clrculL
schemaLlc and Lhe process of lnLegraLlng lL on a slngle chlp.

lnLegraLed clrculLs avold a loL of convenLlonal clrculLry and Lhe Lrouble-shooLlng of Lhe
lC based clrculL ls comparaLlvely much slmple.
LlnLA8 ln1LC8A1Lu Cl8Cul1S
Llnear lCs are deslgned for convenLlonal appllcaLlons such as ampllflcaLlon or
osclllaLlon. As osclllaLor, Lhe ouLpuL slgnal ls conLlnuous raLher Lhan broken. As ampllfler, Lhe
ouLpuL slgnal ls exacL repllca of Lhe lnpuL slgnal.
Llnear lCs are lncreaslngly employed as A.l,8.l,l.l vldeo, operaLlonal ampllflers eLc.
1hese lCs can be readlly adapLed Lo numerous appllcaLlons oLher Lhan Lhose for whlch Lhe lCs
are deslgned.


ulCl1AL ln1LC8A1Lu Cl8Cul1S
ulglLal lCs are deslgned for Lhe on-off Lype of operaLlon common Lo Lrlgger and
swlLchlng sysLems. 1hese flnd usage ln fllp-flops , gaLes, laLches, lnverLers eLc. 1he dlglLal lCs
are lncreaslngly used ln dlglLal elecLronlcs Lo perform dlglLal funcLlons llke addlLlon,
subLracLlon, mulLlpllcaLlon and dlvlslon. 1he dlglLal lCs play a very lmporLanL role ln daLa
processlng equlpmenLs, mlcroprocessors, compuLers, shlfL reglsLers eLc.
ulglLal lCs can be readlly adapLed Lo numerous appllcaLlons oLher Lhan Lhose for whlch
Lhe lCs are deslgned.
ln an lnLegraLed clrculL, dlscreLe componenLs are creaLed ln a chlp or wafer of sulLably
processed slllcon by means of some comblnaLlon of dlffuslon, meLallzlng and
phoLollLhography. 1he lC fabrlcaLlon Lechnlque allows a compllcaLed mulLlsLage clrculL Lo be
conLalned ln a small case. 1he lCs can also be classlfled as under:
1. Mono||th|c Integrated c|rcu|ts:
1he Lerm 'monollLhlc' was derlved from Creek monollLhos whlch means 'made
from one sLone'. ln a monollLhlc lC, all of lLs componenLs and lnLerconnecLlons are formed ln a
slngle chlp or wafer of semlconducLor maLerlal. 1hroughouL lLs body, Lhe chlp ls one maLerlal,
varlous small areas of lL have been processed Lo yleld dlode, LranslsLor, capaclLor or reslsLor.
1hls slngle chlp consLrucLlon provldes hlgh unlformlLy and rellablllLy. MaLched dlodes and
maLched LranslsLors are rellable.
2. 1h|n -I||m Integrated C|rcu|ts :
ln a Lhln-fllm lC , sulLable maLerlals are deposlLed ln a Lhln fllm on Lhe semlconducLor
chlp or wafer (subsLraLe). 1hen Lhe resulLlng speclal areas are processed Lo form varlous
dlscreLe componenLs and lnLerconnecLlons. 1ranslsLors are noL usually formed ln Lhls manner
ln lnLegraLed clrculLs.
3. nybr|d Integrated C|rcu|t:
1he hybrld lC comblnes feaLures of boLh Lhe monollLhlc Lype and Lhe Lhln-fllm Lype.
4nother c/ossificotion of lcs is os under:
1. Small scale lnLegraLlon(SSl):
lL refers Lo lCs whlch have only a few componenLs (usually upLo 100) lnLegraLed on a
slngle subsLraLe.


2. Medlum scale lnLegraLlon (MSl)
lL refers Lo lCs whlch have hundreds of LranslsLors and dlodes lnLegraLed on a slngle
subsLraLe.
3. Large scale lnLegraLlon
lL refers Lo lCs whlch have several Lhousands of LranslsLors and oLher componenLs
lnLegraLed on a slngle subsLraLe of slze near abouL 2" x 0.73".
4. very Large Scale lnLegraLlon (vLSl)
very large scale lnLegraLed clrculLs have several Lhousands of LranslsLor and oLher
dlscreLe componenLs on one chlp. 1hese devlces are very complex.
3. Mlcroprocessor or 1he chlp
1he pasL few years have seen Lhe evoluLlon and developmenL of Lhe
mlcroprocessor, referred Lo as 'Lhe chlp'. 1he chlp has compleLe elecLronlc sysLems ln one
lnLegraLed clrculL raLher Lhan only Lhe elecLronlc componenLs. lL ls programmable. Lach
mlcroprocessor has a seL of lnsLrucLlon whlch lL can undersLand and execuLe. 1he sequence ln
whlch lL ls Lhen asked Lo execuLe a serles of Lhese lnsLrucLlons (known as a programme),
deLermlnes Lhe funcLlon whlch Lhe mlcroprocessor ls belng asked Lo perform.
A form of lnLelllgence ln a small package, Lhe mlcroprocessor ls belng used ln almosL
every man made devlce. 1hese compleLe elecLronlc clrculLs on a chlp are small ln slze and
consume very low power and are very very powerful.
Advantages of ICs
1. LxLremely small physlcal slze
2. very small welghL
3. 8educed cosL
4. LxLremely hlgh rellablllLy
3. SulLablllLy for small slgnal operaLlon
6. Low power consumpLlon
7. Lasy replacemenL
Draw backs of ICs
1. Colls or lnducLors cannoL be fabrlcaLed.
2. lCs funcLlon aL falrly low volLages
3. 1hey handle only llmlLed amounL of power
4. 1hey are qulLe dellcaLe and cannoL wlLhsLand rough handllng or excesslve heaL.


Su8lACL MCun1 uLvlCLS (SMus)

Surface mounL devlces are referred Lo elecLronlc componenLs whlch can be mounLed
on prlnLed clrculL boards (C8) wlLhouL Lhe use of Lhrough hole. SMu ls placed on Lhe surface
of a C8 as shown ln flg(b) and noL lnserLed Lhrough lL as done ln Lhe case of convenLlonal
componenLs as shown ln flg (a). SMus are avallable ln boLh leaded and leadless verslons.
Ma[orlLy of Lhe componenLs are now avallable ln SMu verslon lncludlng lCs, dlscreLe
semlconducLors, reslsLors, mulLllayered ceramlc capaclLors, plasLlc fllm capaclLors, fuses, dlp
swlLches eLc...

Advantages
8educes Lhe C8 area by 30 as compared Lo Lhrough hole Lechnololgy.
SMus can be mounLed on boLh sldes of C8
SMus are llghL welghL and as such are ldeal for moblle appllcaLlons.
1he lead lengLh of SMus are elLher very small or Lhey are leadless and Lhls
ensure hlgh reslsLance Lo vlbraLlon and shock.
SMus ellmlnaLe Lhe process of cuLLlng and bendlng of leads
araslLlc lnducLance and capaclLance are very small
Lnsures accuraLe, repeaLable and correcL placemenL of componenLs


Low producLlon cosL
As Lhe package helghL ls small Lhe board helghL ls less and lL Lakes less space .
Slnce Lhe number of holes are reduced, Lhe board becomes sLronger and more
rellable
D|sadvantages
SM1 based deslgn calls for hlgh preclslon and so manual arL work for C8 ls very
dlfflculL
uue Lo Lhe same reason, use of hlgh preclslon, auLomaLlc placemenL and
solderlng becomes a musL.
1he caplLal lnvesLmenL ls very hlgh. Pence may noL be a sulLable Lechnology for
small scale operaLlons and low volume producLs
8eworklng on SMus ls dlfflculL.
App||cat|ons
SMus are ldeal for appllcaLlons where real esLaLe usage consLralnLs are slgnlflcanLly
hlgh and especlally for operaLlons lnvolvlng hlgher frequencles and ln assemblles sub[ecLed Lo
greaLer mechanlcal sLress levels.

_______________


CPA1L8 19
CL8A1lCnAL AMLlllL8S&1lML8S
CperaLlonal ampllfler ls a very hlgh galn, hlgh lnpuL reslsLance, dlrecLly-coupled
negaLlve feedback ampllfler whlch can ampllfy slgnals havlng frequency ranglng from 0 nt to o
/itt/e beyond 1Mnt. 1hey are made wlLh dlfferenL lnLernal conflguraLlons ln llnear lCs. An C-
AM ls so named because lL orlglnally was deslgned Lo perform maLhemaLlcal operaLlons llke
summaLlon, subLracLlon, mulLlpllcaLlon, dlfferenLlaLlon and lnLegraLlon eLc ln analog compuLers.
resenL day usage ls much wlder ln scope buL Lhe popular name C-AM conLlnues.
1yplcal uses of C-AM are : analog compuLer operaLlons, ln lnsLrumenLaLlon and
conLrol sysLems and a greaL varleLy of phase-shlfL and osclllaLor clrculLs.
AlLhough an C-AM ls a compleLe ampllfler, lL ls so deslgned LhaL exLernal componenLs
(reslsLors, capaclLors eLc) can be connecLed Lo lLs Lermlnals Lo change lLs exLernal
characLerlsLlcs. Pence, lL ls relaLlvely easy Lo Lallor Lhls ampllfler Lo flL a parLlcular appllcaLlon
and lL ls, ln facL, due Lo Lhe versaLlllLy LhaL C-AMs have become so popular ln lndusLry.
An Cp-AM lC may conLaln Lwo dozen LranslsLors, a dozen reslsLors and one or Lwo
capaclLors.
Lxamples of C-AMs
lC 741 - 1hese are hlgh-galn operaLlonal ampllflers whlch are lnLended for use as
(l)*ComparaLor (ll)** lnLegraLor (lll) dlfferenLlaLor(lv) |Summer (v) dc
ampllfler(vl) MulLlvlbraLor and (vll) bandpass fllLer.
lC 709 - lL ls also a hlgh galn operaLlonal ampllfler
C-AM S?M8CL
SLandard Lrlangular symbol for an C-AM ls shown ln llg.(a) Lhough Lhe one shown ln
llg (b) ls also used ofLen. ln flg (b) the common ground ||ne has been om|tted.

________________________________
J4 summer circuit provides on output vo/toqe proportiono/ to or equo/ to the o/qebroic sum of two or more input vo/toqes.
*Comparator :-A circuit used for comparing the difference between two electronic signals
**It provides an output voltage which is proportional to the integral of the input voltage. It is a wave shaping circuit.
J It provides an output voltage which is proportional to the rate of change of the input voltage. It is inverse mathematical
operation to that of an integrator. It is a wave shaping circuit
It is the amplifier which amplifies DC voltages of 0Hz
It transmits a specified band of frequencies and stops others.


1he C-AM's lnpuL can be slngle-ended or double ended (or dlfferenLlal lnpuL)
dependlng on wheLher lnpuL volLage ls applled Lo one lnpuL Lermlnal only or Lo boLh. Slmllarly,
Ampllfler's ouLpuL can also be elLher slngle-ended or double-ended. 1he mosL common
conflguraLlon ls two lopot tetmlools ooJ o sloqle ootpot.
All C-AMs have a mlnlmum of flve Lermlnals
1. lnverLlng lnpuL Lermlnal
2. non-lnverLlng lnpuL Lermlnal
3. CuLpuL Lermlnal
4. oslLlve blas supply Lermlnal
3. negaLlve blas supply Lermlnal
CLA8l1? CCnvLn1lCnS
ln llg (b),Lhe lnpuL Lermlnals have been marked wlLh mlnus (-) and lus (+) slgns . 1hese
are meanL Lo lndlcaLe the |nvert|ng and non-|nvert|ng term|na|s on|y (llg.C). lL slmply means
LhaL a slgnal applled aL negaLlve lnpuL Lermlnal wlll appear ampllfled buL phase |nverted at the
output term|na| as shown ln llg. u. Slmllarly , slgnal applled aL Lhe poslLlve lnpuL Lermlnal wlll
appear ampllfled and |n-phase aL Lhe ouLpuL. Cbvlously, Lhese plus and mlnus

polarlLles |nd|cate phase reversa| on|y. lL does noL mean LhaL volLages v
1
and v
2
ln llg. C are
negaLlve and poslLlve respecLlvely. AddlLlonally, lL also does noL lmply LhaL o posltlve lopot
voltoqe bos to be coooecteJ to tbe plos-motkeJ ooo-lovettloq tetmlool 2 ooJ oeqotlve lopot
voltoqe to tbe oeqotlve-motkeJ lovettloq tetmlool 1. ln facL, Lhe ampllfler can be used 'elLher
way up' so Lo speak. lL may also be noLed LhaL all lnpuL and ouLpuL volLages are referred Lo a
common reference usually Lhe ground shown ln (a).
luLAL CL8A1lCn AMLlllL8
When an C-AM ls operaLed wlLhouL connecLlng any reslsLor or capaclLor from lLs
ouLpuL Lo any one of lLs lnpuLs (l.e. wlLhouL feedback ) lL s sald Lo be ln Lhe open-|oop
cond|t|on. 1he word 'open loop' means LhaL feeJbock potb ot loop ls opeo. 1he speclflcaLlons of
an C-AM under such condlLlon are called open-loop speclflcaLlons.


An ldeal C-AM has Lhe followlng characLerlsLlcs:
1. lLs open-loop galn A
v
ls loflolte l.e. A
v
=
2. lLs lnpuL reslsLance 8
l
(measured beLween lnverLlng and non-lnverLlng Lermlnals) ls
loflolte l.e 8
l
= ohm
3. lLs ouLpuL reslsLance 8
o
( seen looklng back lnLo ouLpuL Lermlnals) ls zeto l.e 8
0
= 0D.
4. lL has loflolte booJwlJtb l.e lL has flaL frequency response from dc Lo lnflnlLy.
1hough Lhese characLerlsLlcs cannoL be achleved ln pracLlce, yeL an ldeal C-AM serves
as a convenlenL reference agalnsL whlch real C-AMs may be evaluaLed.
C-AM ALlCA1lCnS
As scalar or llnear (l.e. small slgnal ) consLanL galn ampllfler boLh lnverLlng
and non-lnverLlng.
As unlLy follower
Adder or summer
SubLracLor
lnLegraLor
ulfferenLlaLor
ComparaLor
C-AM AS lnvL81lnC AMLlllL8
llgure shows a Lyplcal lnverLlng ampllfler uslng an Cp-Amp . ln Lhls lnverLlng ampllfler,
Lhe lnpuL slgnal ls applled Lo Lhe lnvL81lnC (lnv) Lermlnal. 1he nCn-lnvL81lnC (nCn)
Lermlnal whlch ls grounded. Slnce Lhe lnpuL slgnal ls applled aL Lhe lnv Lermlnal, Lhe ouLpuL of
Lhe ampllfler wlll be an ampllfled slgnal of opposlLe polarlLy. 1he reslsLor 8
l
beLween Lhe ouLpuL
and lnpuL provldes necessary negaLlve feedback. 1he amounL of feedback provlded depends on
Lhe values of reslsLors 8
l
and 8
ln
.
As an example, leL us calculaLe Lhe closed-loop volLage galn, for Lhe lnverLlng ampllfler aL llg.
Assume values of 8
l
= 470kD and 8
ln
= 47kD. Assume an lnpuL slgnal volLage of 0.3v.
1he closed-loop galn of an lnverLlng ampllfler ls glven by


A
(lnv)
=
IN
F
R
R

ln llg. , for Lhe glven example,
A
(lnv)
=
47
470K
= 10
1he ouLpuL volLage of an lnverLlng ampllfler ls glven by
v
ouL(lnv)
= A
(lnv) .
v
ln

ln llg, for Lhe glven example,
v
ouL(lnv)
= A
(lnv) .
v
ln

= 10 x 0.3v = 3v.
ALlCA1lCn Cl C-AM AS A SuMMlnC AMLlllL8

llg. shows Lhe clrculL of an Cp-Amp summlng ampllfler or ln slmple Lerms an adder.
Pere, Lhe Cp-Amp ls used as an lnverLlng ampllfler Lo do Lhe summlng operaLlon. ln flgure ,
Lhree lnpuL slgnals are applled Lo Lhe lnv Lermlnal of Lhe Cp-Amp Lhrough reslsLors 8
1
, 8
2
and
8
3
. 1he amounL of negaLlve feedback glven Lo Lhe Cp-Amp ls dependenL on Lhe value of 8
l

dlvlded by each reslsLor ln Lhe feedback paLh. As a resulL, Lhe ouLpuL volLage of Lhe Cp-Amp
ls glven by
v
(Cu1)
=
1
1
J
R
R
F
+

2
2
J
R
R
F
+

3
3
J
R
R
F

lf, 8
1
= 8
2
= 8
3
= 8
l
, Lhen
R
R
F
becomes 1 ln each slgnal paLh,
v
ouL
= v
1
+v
2
+v
3

v
ouL
= ( 1 x 1v) + (1 x 2v) + (1
v
ouL
= 1+2+3 = 6 v

2SS | a g e 8 A S l C L L L C 1 8 C n l C S l 1 l 8 \ N 0

1he ouLpuL of 6v ls equal Lo Lhe sum of Lhe Lhree lnpuL volLages. noLe LhaL Lhe value of
reslsLor 8
4
(3kD) aL Lhe nCn Lermlnal of Cp-Amp ls made equal Lo Lhe parallel comblnaLlon of
Lhree 9k reslsLors aL Lhe lnv Lermlnal. 1hls reslsLor ls requlred Lo balance Lhe lnpuLs of Lhe
dlfferenLlal ampllfler ln Lhe Cp-Amp.
1lML8
A Llmer ls an elecLronlc clrculL LhaL causes Lhe acLlon ln lL Lo accuraLely operaLe a
deslred second clrculL aL a deslred laLer Llme.
1lmers are requlred ln lndusLrlal appllances, for Lhelr correcL funcLlonlng. 1lmers
provlde auLomaLlc conLrol of machlnes. Several operaLlons, lndlvldually or ln a glven sequence
can be performed uslng Llmer clrculLs. 1lmers LhaL could be seL Lo very small Llme lnLervals or
for very long duraLlons can be deslgned. reclslon Llmlng can be obLalned uslng
elecLronlc Llmers.
LlecLronlc Llmer conslsLs of a Llme varylng quanLlLy. lL also conslsLs of a
devlce Lo flnd Lhe characLerlsLlc lnsLanL, aL whlch Lhe Llme varylng quanLlLy reaches Lhe
requlred reference level.
An 8.C clrculL can produce Llme varylng volLage. Conslder a reslsLor and capaclLor
connecLed ln serles. Applylng a volLage Lo Lhe clrculL Lhrough a swlLch we can analyze Lhe
worklng of Lhe slmple clrculL as follows.

llg a llgb
ln Lhe clrculL shown ln flg( a),Lhe swlLch ls closed Lhe capaclLor sLarLs geLLlng charged
form zero charge level. 1he raLe aL whlch Lhe capaclLor geLLlng charged ls dependanL on Lhe
Llme consLanL 8C. 1he time constont { 1= kc)of such circuit is the period of time in seconds ,
required for the vo/toqe ocross the copocitor to reoch lX of the opp/ied vo/toqe.
Pence we wlll be able Lo choose Lhe values of 8 and C Lo make Lhe Llme consLanL 1
equal Lo Lhe deslred values, such LhaL ln Lhls deslred Llme lnLerval Lhe volLage across Lhe
capaclLor would rlse Lo 0.63 of L. 1he volLage developed across Lhe capaclLor 'C' ln Lhe clrculL
shown above may be used as a reference volLage such LhaL Lhe reference clrculL operaLes
when Lhe volLage reaches Lhe value of 0.63L.


A graph showlng Lhe varlaLlon of Lhe lnsLanLaneous volLage durlng Lhe charge ls shown
ln flg(b).
MosL of Lhe Llmers use keslstooce ooJ copocltooce os tbe tlme Jetetmloloq elemeots.
1PL SSS 1lML8
Cne of Lhe mosL lmporLanL and popular lC for produclng Llmlng lnLervals ls Lhe 333.
1hls lC ls popularly known as SSS t|mer. Slmllar Lo operaLlonal ampllflers, 333 lC ls rellable,
easy Lo use ln varleLyof appllcaLlons and aL low cosL. 1he 333 lC can operaLe from a wlde range
of supply volLages of +3v Lo +18v.
1he funcLlonal blocks ln Lhls lC ls shown ln llg.1

As can be seen from llg.1, Lhe 333 lC conLalns Lwo comparaLors, one LranslsLor, Lhree
equal value reslsLors, a fllp-flop, and an ouLpuL sLage.
A comparaLor ls a clrculL havlng Lwo lnpuLs and a slngle ouLpuL. lL compares Lhe slgnal
volLage glven aL one lnpuL wlLh a reference volLage on Lhe oLher lnpuL as shown ln llg.2.
ComparaLors are essenLlally made uslng Cp-Amps.


1ypes of SSS t|mer IC packages
1he 333 Llmer lC ls avallable ln Lwo package sLyles meLal can (1C) and ul as shown ln
llg.3

Modes of operat|on
1he 333 lC Llmer has Lwo modes of operaLlon
As an asLable (free runnlng) mulLl-vlbraLor
As a mono-sLable (one-shoL) mulLl-vlbraLor
8lnClLL Cl 333 CL8A1lCn
8eferrlng Lo Lhe block dlagram of lC 333 ln llg.1, aL Lhe lnpuL Lhere are Lwo comparaLors
connecLed Lo an lnLernal reslsLlve volLage dlvlder. 8oLh comparaLors have a reference lnpuL Lled
Lo Lhe volLage dlvlder. 1he thresho|d comparator ls referenced Lo as 2(vcc/3) and Lhe Lrlgger
comparaLor ls referenced Lo as vcc/3. ComparaLor ouLpuLs are connecLed Lo a set-reset f||p-
f|op. lf Lhe Lrlgger volLage lnpuL falls below vcc/3 , lLs assoclaLed comparaLor reseLs Lhe fllp-flop
ouLpuL low.
lor uslng Lhe 333 lC , cerLaln exLernal componenLs are requlred Lo be connecLed as
shown ln llg4.


1he Lhreshold lnpuL ls usually connecLed Lo an exLernal 8C Llmlng clrculL. lf Lhe
capaclLor charge (Lhreshold lnpuL) exceeds Lhe 2/3vcc reference on Lhe Lhreshold comparaLor ,
Lhe comparaLor ls Lrlggered and Lhe fllp-flop ls seL. When Lhe fllp-flop ls seL, Lhe dlscharge
LranslsLor ls Lurned on and Lhe capaclLor dlscharges.
lC333 AS An AS1A8LL MuL1lvl88A1C8
llg.3 shows 333 connecLed for asLable operaLlon
1he reseL lnpuL ls connecLed Lo vcc. lf lL were connecLed Lo ground , 333 wlll geL
dlsabled.
C
1
provldes nolse fllLerlng for Lhe conLrol volLage lnpuL.
When Lhe dlscharge LranslsLor ls off, capaclLor C ls charglng Lhrough 8
A
and 8
8
.
1hus Lhe clrculL Llme consLanL ls glven by,
L = (8
A
+8
8
) C

As capaclLor C charges, Lhe Lhreshold lnpuL volLage wlll soon reach 2vcc/3. AL
Lhls polnL Lhe fllp-flop changes sLaLes, causlng Lhe dlscharge LranslsLor C
1
Lo Lurn
on. 1ranslsLor C
1
saLuraLes and dlscharges C Lhrough reslsLor 8
8
and C
1
. 1he
dlscharge Llme consLanL ls Lherefore glven by
L = 8
8
C


Slnce Lhe Lhreshold and Lrlgger lnpuLs are Lled LogeLher, as C dlscharges, aL some
polnL lL falls Lo a value below vcc/3 and acLlvaLes Lhe Lrlgger comparaLor. 1hls
reseLs Lhe 8S fllp-flop, Lurnlng off C
1
and allowlng C Lo sLarL charglng agaln. So
333 operaLes as an asLable mulLlvlbraLor by causlng C Lo conLlnuously charge and
dlscharge beLween vcc/3 and 2vcc/3. Wave forms aL Lhe capaclLor(Lrlgger
lnpuL)and aL Lhe ouLpuL 333 are shown ln llg 3c.

lL ls lmporLanL Lo noLe LhaL, because Lhe charglng paLh for C ls Lhrough 8
A
+8
8
and Lhe
dlscharge paLh ls Lhrough only 8
8
, Lhe ouLpuL ls noL symmeLrlcal. ln oLher words, Lhe Cn-Llme
and Lhe Cll-Llme of Lhe ouLpuL pulses are noL equal. 1he raLlo of Lhe Cn-Llme of Lhe pulse Lo
Lhe Cll-Llme of Lhe pulse ls known as duty cyc|e. 1he duLy cycle of 333 asLable clrculL range
from 30 Lo near 100. 1he duLy cycle can be calculaLed as follows:
uuLy cycle (u) = 100
2

+
+
B A
B A
R R
R R

lrom Lhe above equaLlon,
lf 8
8
ls made much greaLer Lhan 8
A
, Lhe duLy cycle wlll approach 30.
lor hlgher duLy cycle , 8
A
should be made greaLer Lhan 8
8
.
uLSL 8LL1l1lCn l8LCuLnC? (8l)
1he Lerm frequency ls generally used wlLh repeLlLlve waveforms whlch are symmeLrlcal
such as slne wave form. lor repeLlLlve wave forms whlch are non-symmeLrlcal such as Lhe
ouLpuL of an asLable mulLlvlbraLor, lnsLead of Lhe Lerm frequency Lhe Lerm u|se kepet|t|on
Irequency (kI) ls used. 8l can be calculaLed as follows:
lf L
Cn
ls Lhe Cn-Llme of Lhe pulse
and lf L
Cll
ls Lhe Cll-Llme of Lhe pulse ,
Lhen, 1lme perlod , 1 = L
Cn
+ L
Cll
Pence, 8l =
T
1

ALlCA1lCn Cl AS1A8LL MuL1lvl88A1C8S
AppllcaLlon of asLable mulLlvlbraLors are almosL lnnumerable. Some general appllcaLlons
are llsLed below.
lo electtoolc plooos : dlfferenL frequencles are generaLed by asLable wlLh
dlfferenL 8C values.
5lqool lojectots : used as a LesLlng lnsLrumenL by servlce Lechnlclans
llosbloq llqbt : lf lamps or LLus are connecLed aL Lhe ouLpuL of Lhe asLable ,
Lhe lamp /LLu flashes aL Lhe raLe seL by Lhe values of 8C
As voltoqe coottolleJ Osclllotot (vcO) : 1he osclllaLor frequency ls conLrolled by
Lhe lnpuL conLrol volLage.
_________________


CPA1L8 20
ulCl1AL LLLC18CnlCS
ulglLal, relaLed Lo dlglLs or Lhe way Lhey are represenLed. ln compuLlng, Jlqltol ls
vlrLually synonymous wlLh blnary dlglLs l.e. ( 0 and 1) because Lhe compuLers famlllar Lo mosL
people process lnformaLlon coded as comblnaLlons of blnary dlglLs (blLs).
ulglLal LlecLronlcs ls a newer as compared Lo analog elecLronlcs and lL has achleved
greaLer performance. 1he maln dlfference beLween analog and dlglLal elecLronlcs can be sLaLed
slmply. 4no/oq vo/toqes {or) currents ore continuous/y voriob/e between defined vo/ues and
diqito/ vo/toqes {or) currents con vory on/y distinct {or) discrete steps. An analog volLage or
currenL have any value wlLhln a deflned range. 1he followlng polnLs are hlghllghLed Lo show Lhe
dlfference beLween Lhem.
Ana|og D|g|ta|
ConLlnuously varlable ulscreLe sLeps
AmpllflcaLlon SwlLchlng
volLages numbers
ulglLal refers Lo Lhe processes ln compuLers LhaL manlpulaLe blnary numbers (0s or 1s),
whlch represenL swlLches LhaL are Lurned on or off by elecLrlcal currenL. A blL can have Lhe
value 0 or Lhe value 1, buL noLhlng ln beLween 0 and 1. Analog refers Lo clrculLs or numerlcal
values LhaL have a conLlnuous range. 8oLh 0 and 1 can be represenLed by analog compuLers,
buL so can 0.3, 1.3, or a number llke pl (approxlmaLely 3.14).
A lamp can serve as an example of Lhe dlfference beLween analog and dlglLal. lf Lhe
lamp has a slmple on/off swlLch, Lhen Lhe lamp sysLem ls dlglLal, because Lhe lamp elLher
produces llghL aL a glven momenL or lL does noL. lf a dlmmer replaces Lhe on/off swlLch, Lhen
Lhe lamp ls analog, because Lhe amounL of llghL can vary conLlnuously from on Lo off and all
lnLenslLles ln beLween.

Analog slgnal ulglLal slgnal


LlnLA8 & ulCl1AL Cl8Cul1S
MosL lnLegraLed clrculLs are classlfled as belng elLher llnear or dlglLal devlces. A llnear
clrculL ls one whose ouLpuL slgnal has a llnear relaLlonshlp wlLh Lhe lnpuL slgnal.
Llnear lCs are also known as analog lCs because Lhe slgnals LhaL Lhey handle may vary
conLlnuously over a range of values. Llnear lCs lnclude operaLlonal ampllflers, audlo ampllflers,
varlous radlo and Lelevlslon clrculLs.
ulglLal lCs operaLe wlLh blnary dlglLal slgnals LhaL are always ln elLher of Lwo posslble
sLaLes, namely loglc 0 and loglc 1. ulglLal lCs lnclude gaLes, counLers, memorles and
mlcroprocessors.
ulglLal lCs are manufacLurlng uslng dlfferenL Lechnologles and are numbers of varlous
loglc famllles. 1he Lhree baslc famllles are
(a) LranslsLor-LranslsLor loglc (11L) (b) ComplemenLary meLal oxlde semlconducLor(CMCS)
(c) emlLLer coupled loglc (LCL)
ulCl1AL Cl8Cul1S
Modern elecLronlcs make ever lncreaslng use of dlglLal elecLronlc clrculLry whlch
responds only Lo slgnals LhaL can only Lake up elLher one of Lwo loglc levels. LlLher Lhe slgnal ls
PlCP or lL ls LCW. ln mosL clrculLs Lhe nl6n stote is used to represent binory 1 whi/e the LOw
stote represents binory 0.
ln dlglLal elecLronlc sysLems, Lhe devlces have Lwo sLable sLaLes Cn and Cll and for Lhls
reason Lhe blnary number sysLem ls used.
1hese Lwo sLaLes may correspond respecLlvely Lo Lhe presence and absence of an
elecLrlc pulse. An elecLrlc pulse ls a large elecLrlc currenL or volLage LhaL exlsLs for a very small
lnLerval. LlecLrlc pulses of dlfferenL shapes are posslble. ?eL recLangular pulses are used ln
dlglLal clrculLs. llgure shows Lhe recLangular pulses normally used ln such clrculLs.

ln Lhls we can see LhaL, Lhe pulse corresponds Lo Lhe '1' sLaLe. lf Lhe pulse ls nll Lhe
poslLlon ls '0' sLaLe.


llgure shows Lhe posLlon of pulse, and Lhe correspondlng blnary sLaLes. 1hese blnary
sLaLes are easlly achleved by Lhe Cn and Lhe Cll sLaLes of an elecLronlc swlLch.
Advantages of D|g|ta| Systems
1. ulglLal sysLems are easler deslgn
Slnce Lhe clrculLs are havlng only swlLchlng clrculLs, Lhe Lwo symbols are used Lo deslgn
(0 and1) ln dlglLal clrculLs.

2. lnformaLlon sLorage ls easy
LaLches (or) 8eglsLers are used Lo sLore Lhe necessary daLa for a long Llme
3. Plgh accuracy and preclslon can be achleved.
1hls can be done slmply by addlng swlLchlng clrculLs, Lhe lnpuLs and ouLpuLs value does
noL depend on componenL parameLers.

4. Less affecLed by nolse
ulglLal slgnals are noL responds Lo nolse because nolse ls a form ampllLude (analog)
varlaLlon

3. 1he clrculL can be easlly fabrlcaLed ln lnLegraLed clrculLs
1hough analog clrculLs also have Lhe same advanLage buL Lhey have complex clrculLs
nuM8L8 S?S1LM
When we hear Lhe word 'number' lmmedlaLely we recall Lhe declmal dlglLs 0,1,2....9
and Lhelr comblnaLlon. Modern compuLers do noL process declmal numbers. lnsLead, Lhey
work wlLh blnary numbers whlch use Lhe dlglLs '0' and '1' only. 1he blnary number sysLem and
dlglLal codes are fundamenLal Lo dlglLal elecLronlcs. 8uL people do noL llke worklng wlLh blnary
numbers because Lhey are very long when represenLlng larger declmal quanLlLles. 1herefore,
dlglLal codes llke ocLal, hexadeclmal and blnary coded declmal are wldely used Lo compress
long sLrlngs of blnary numbers.
8lnary number sysLems conslsL of 1s and 0s. Pence, Lhls number sysLem ls well sulLed
for adopLlng lL Lo Lhe dlglLal elecLronlcs.
1he declmal number sysLem ls Lhe mosL commonly used number sysLem ln Lhe world.
lL uses 10 dlfferenL characLers Lo show Lhe values of numbers. 8ecause Lhls number sysLem
uses 10 dlfferenL characLers, lL ls called base-10 sysLem. 1he base of a number sysLem Lells you
how many dlfferenL characLers are used. 1he maLhemaLlcal Lerm for Lhe base of a number
sysLem ls radlx.


CSl1lCnAL nC1A1lCn Anu WLlCP1ACL
A declmal lnLeger value can be expressed ln unlLs, Lens, hundreds, Lhousands and so
on. lor example declmal number 1967 can be wrlLLen as 1967 = 1000+900+60+7. ln powers of
10 , Lhls becomes

1 x 10
3
= 1000
9 x 10
2
= 900
1 9 6 7 6 x 10
1
= 60
7 x 10
0
= 7
1967
l.e. (1967)
10
= 1 ( 10
3
) +9(10
2
) +6 (10
1
) +7 (10
0
)
uLClMAL 1C 8lnA8? CCnvL8SlCn
ulvlde Lhe glven declmal number by 2 as shown below and noLe down Lhe remalnder
Llll you geL Lhe quoLlenL - zero
Lxample

1he remalnder generaLed by each dlvlslon form Lhe blnary number . 1he flrsL
remalnder becomes Lhe LS8 and Lhe lasL remalnder becomes Lhe MS8 of blnary number.

1herefore, (34)
10
= (100010)
2

8lnA8? 1C uLClMAL CCnvL8SlCn

(1010)
2
= 1 (2
3
) + 0 (2
2
)+ 1 (2
1
) +0( 2
0
)
= 8 + 0 + 2 + 0
(1010)
2
= (10)
10

10
3
10
2
10
1
10
0


1able below shows all Lhe blnary numbers from 0000 Lo 1111 equlvalenL Lo declmal 0 Lo 13

Auul1lCn Cl 8lnA8? nuM8L8S
1he rules for blnary addlLlon are summarlzed below. 1hey are
0 + 0 = 0
0 + 1 = 1
1 + 0 = 1
1 + 1 = 10 or '0' wlLh carry 1.
Lg: Add 111
2
Lo 110
111
+110
1101
8lnA8? Su818AC1lCn
lL ls also performed ln a manner slmllar Lo LhaL used ln declmal subLracLlon. 1he four
rules for blnary subLracLlon are as under

0 - 0 = 0
1 - 1 = 0
1 - 0 = 1
0 - 1 = 1 wlLh a borrow of 1.


Lg: SubLracL 0101
2
from 1110
2

1110
--0101
1001
(1) ln Lhe flrsL column slnce we cannoL subLracL 1 from 0, we borrow 1 from Lhe nexL column
Lo Lhe lefL. Pence we puL down '1' ln Lhe answer and change Lhe '1' of Lhe nexL lefL column Lo
a '0'.
(2) We apply rule '1' Lo Lhe nexL column l.e. 0 - 0 = 0
(3) We apply rule '3' Lo Lhe Lhlrd column l.e. 1 - 1 = 0
(4) llnally we apply rule '2' Lo Lhe lasL column l.e. 1 - 0 = 1
8lnA8? MuL1lLlCA1lCn
1he procedure for Lhls mulLlpllcaLlon ls Lhe same as for declmal mulLlpllcaLlon. 1he
four slmple rules are as under
0 x 0 = 0
0 x 1 = 0
1 x 0 = 0
1 x 1 = 1
Lg. MulLlply 111 by 101 uslng blnary mulLlpllcaLlon
111
x101
111
000
111
---------
100011
8lnA8? ulvlSlCn
lL ls slmllar Lo Lhe dlvlslon ln Lhe declmal sysLem. Pere ln Lhls sysLem also dlvlslon by
zero ls meanlngless.
0
1
0
= and 1
1
1
=
Lg. ulvlde 1100 by 10

Answer = 110


LCClC CA1LS
A loglc gaLe ls an elecLronlc clrculL whlch makes loglc declslons. lL has one ouLpuL and
one or more lnpuLs. 1he ouLpuL slgnal appears only for cerLaln comblnaLlons of lnpuL slgnals.
Loglc gaLes are Lhe baslc bulldlng blocks from whlch mosL of Lhe dlglLal sysLems are bullL up.
1hey lmplemenL Lhe hardware loglc funcLlon based on Lhe loglcal algebra developed by
Ceorge 8oole, whlch ls called 8oolean algebra ln hls honour. A unlque characLerlsLlc of Lhe
8oolean algebra ls LhaL varlables used ln lL can assume only one of Lhe Lwo values l.e. elLher
0 or 1. Pence, every varlable ls elLher a 0 or a 1.
1hese gaLes are avallable Loday ln Lhe form of varlous lC famllles. 1he mosL popular
famllles are : 11L,MCS and CMCS
os|t|ve and Negat|ve Log|c
ln compuLlng sysLems, Lhe number symbols 0 and 1 represenL Lhe posslble sLaLes of a
clrculL or devlce. lL makes no dlfference lf Lhese Lwo sLaLes are referred Lo as Cn and Cll
,CLCSLu and CLn, PlCP and LCW, LuS and MlnuS or 18uL and lALSL dependlng on Lhe
clrcumsLances. Maln polnL ls LhaL Lhey musL be symbollzed by Lwo opposlLe condlLlons.
In pos|t|ve |og|c, a 1 represenLs
1. an Cn ClrculL
2. a CLCSLu swlLch
3. a PlCP volLage
4. a LuS slgn
3. a 18uL sLaLemenL
ConsequenLly, a 0 represenLs
1. an Cll clrculL
2. an CLn swlLch
3. a LCW volLage
4. a MlnuS slgn
3. a lALSL sLaLemenL
In negat|ve |og|c, [usL opposlLe condlLlons prevall. Commonly we are uslng poslLlve loglc,
oLherwlse sLaLe Lhe condlLlon.


1PL C8 CA1L
1he elecLronlc symbol for a Lwo-lnpuL C8 gaLe ls shown ln flg.(a) and lLs equlvalenL
swlLchlng clrculL ln llg.(b).1he Lwo lnpuLs have been marked as A and 8 and Lhe ouLpuL as C. lL
should be noLed LhaL as per 8oolean algebra, Lhe Lhree varlables A, 8 and C can have only one
of Lhe Lwo values l.e. elLher 0 or 1.

Loglc CperaLlon
1he C8 gaLe has an output of 1 when either 4 or 8 or both ore 1
As seen from llg.(b), Lhe lamp wlll llghL up (loglc 1) when elLher swlLch A or 8 or boLh
are closed.
Cbvlously, Lhe ouLpuL would be 0 if ond on/y if both its inputs ore 0. ln Lerms of Lhe swlLchlng
condlLlons, lL means LhaL lamp would be Cll (loglc 0) only when boLh swlLches A and 8 are
Cll.
1he C8 gaLe represenLs Lhe 8oolean equaLlon
A + 8 = C 18u1P 1A8LL
1he meanlng of Lhls equaLlon ls LhaL C ls Lrue when elLher A
ls Lrue or 8 ls Lrue or boLh are Lrue. AlLernaLely, lL means LhaL
ouLpuL C ls 1 when elLher A or 8 or boLh are 1.
1he above loglc operaLlon of Lhe C8 gaLe can be
summarlzed wlLh Lhe help of Lhe LruLh Lable glven ln llg. A LruLh
Lable may be deflned as a Lable whlch qlves tbe ootpot stote fot oll
posslble lopot comblootloos. 1he C8 Lable glves all ouLpuLs for all posslble A 8 lnpuLs of
00,01,10 and 11.
We may lnLerpreL Lhe LruLh Lable as follows:
When boLh lnpuLs are 0 (swlLches are CLn), ouLpuL C ls 0 (lamp ls Cll). When A ls ln
loglc sLaLe 0 (swlLch A ls CLn) buL 8 ls ln loglc sLaLe 1 (swlLch 8 ls CLCSLu), Lhe ouLpuL C ls ln
loglc sLaLe 1 (lamp ls Cn). Lamp would be also Cn when A ls CLCSLu and 8 ls CLn. Cf
A 8 C
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1


course, lamp would be Cn when boLh swlLches are CLCSLu. lL ls so because an C8 gaLe ls
equlvalenL Lo a para||e| clrculL ln lLs loglc funcLlon.
ulCuL C8 CA1L
llgure shows Lhe dlode C8 gaLe conslsLlng of Lwo ldeal dlodes u
1
and u
2
connecLed ln
parallel across Lhe ouLpuL C.

1. When A ls aL +3v, u
1
ls forward blased and hence conducLs. 1he clrculL currenL flows
vla 8 dropplng 3v across lL. ln Lhls way, polnL C achleves a poLenLlal of +3v.
2. When +3v ls applled Lo 8, u
2
conducLs causlng polnL C Lo go Lo +3v.
J. When boLh A and 8 are +3v,Lhe drop across 8 ls 3v because volLages of A and 8 are lo
potollel.
Agaln, polnL C ls drlven Lo +3v.
4. Cbvlously, when Lhere ls no volLage elLher aL A or 8, ouLpuL C remalns 0.
1PL Anu CA1L
1he elecLronlc (or loglc) symbol for a 2-lnpuL Anu gaLe ls shown ln llg.(a) and lLs
equlvalenL swlLchlng clrculL ln llg (b).
18u1P 1A8LL
Loglc CperaLlon
1. 1he Anu gaLe glves an ouLpuL only when o// its inputs ore
present.
2. 1he Anu gaLe has a 1 ouLpuL when boLh A and 8 are 1.
3. ln 1rue/lalse Lermlnology, Lhe ouLpuL of an Anu gaLe wlll
be true only lf a|| |ts |nputs are true. lLs ouLpuL would be
false lf any of lts lopots ls folse.
A 8 C
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1


1he Anu gaLe works on Lhe 8oolean algebra
A. 8 = C
1he loglcal meanlng of Lhe above equaLlon ls LhaL
1. CuLpuL of C ls 1 only when boLh A and 8 are 1
2. CuLpuL C ls Lrue only when boLh A and 8 are Lrue
As seen from llg (b), Lhe lamp would be Cn only when boLh swlLches A and 8 are
closed. Lven when one swlLch ls open, Lhe lamp would be Cll. Cbvlously, an Anu gaLe ls
equlvalenL Lo serles swlLchlng clrculL.
As seen ln Lhe LruLh Lable, C ls aL loglc 1 only when oll lnpuLs are aL loglc 1,noL
oLherwlse.
ulCuL Anu CA1L

lL ls shown ln llg. lLs loglcal operaLlon ls as under:
1. When A ls aL 0v, dlode u
1
conducLs and Lhe supply volLage of +3v drops across 8.
consequenLly, polnL n and hence polnL C ls drlven Lo 0v. 1herefore, Lhe ouLpuL C ls 0.
2. Slmllarly, when 8 ls aL 0v, u
2
conducLs Lhereby drlvlng n and hence C Lo ground.
3. Cbvlously, when boLh A and 8 are aL 0v, boLh dlodes conducL and, agaln, Lhe ouLpuL C
ls 0.
4. 1here ls no supply currenL and hence no drop across 8 ooly wbeo botb A ooJ 8ote ot
-5v. Cnly ln LhaL case , Lhe ouLpuL C goes Lo supply volLage of +3v.
1PL nC1 CA1L
lL ls so called because lts ootpot ls nC1 tbe some os lts lopot. lL ls also called an lovettet
because lL lnverLs Lhe lnpuL slgnal. lL has one lnpuL and one ouLpuL as shown ln llg (a). All lL
does ls Lo lovett (or complemenL) Lhe lnpuL as seen from lLs LruLh Lable of llg.(b).


1he symbol for lnverslon ls a small clrcle as shown ln llg. (a). 1he loglcal symbol for
lnverslon or negaLlon or complemenLaLlon ls a bar over Lhe funcLlon Lo lndlcaLe Lhe opposlLe
sLaLe.
SomeLlmes, lL ls also used as A'. lor example, A means noL-A. Slmllary, B A+ means
Lhe complemenL of (A+8).
18AnSlS1C8 nC1 CA1L

ln Lhe equlvalenL LranslsLor clrculL of llg. when +3v ls applled Lo A, Lhe LranslsLor wlll be
fully Lurned Cn, drawlng maxlmum collectot currenL. Pence, whole of v
CC
= 3v wlll drop
across 8 Lhereby sendlng 8 Lo 0v. WlLh 0v applled aL A, Lhe LranslsLor wlll be cuL Cll and Lhe
ouLpuL 8, Lherefore, wlll go Lo v
CC
l.e +3v. Cbvlously, ln each case, output is the inverse of
input.
1PL nC8 CA1L
ln facL, lL ls a nC1-C8 gaLe. lL can be made ouL of an C8 gaLe by connecLlng an lnverLer
ln lLs ouLpuL as shown ln llg. (a).

1he ouLpuL equaLlon ls glven by
C = B A+
A nC8 funcLlon ls [usL Lhe reverse of Lhe C8 funcLlon.
Log|c Cperat|on
A nC8 gaLe wlll have an ouLpuL of 1 on|y when a|| |ts |nputs
are 0. Cbvlously, lf any ouLpuL ls 1, Lhe ouLpuL wlll be 0.
AlLernaLlvely, ln a nC8 gaLe, Lhe ouLpuL lL true only when a||
|nputs are fa|se.
A 8 C
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
0


1he LruLh Lable for a 2-lnpuL nC8 gaLe ls shown ln llgure.
lL wlll be observed LhaL Lhe ouLpuL C ls [usL Lhe reverse of LhaL shown ln llgure.
1he LranslsLor equlvalenL of Lhe nC8 gaLe ls shown ln llgure. As seen, ouLpuL C ls1 only
when boLh LranslsLors are cuL off l.e. when A = 0 and 8 = 0. lor any oLher lnpuL condlLlon llke
01, 10 and 11, one or boLh LranslsLors saLuraLe forclng polnL C Lo go Lo ground.
1PL nAnu CA1L
lL ls ln facL, a nC1 -Anu gaLe. lL can be obLalned by connecLlng a nC1 gaLe ln Lhe
ouLpuL of an Anu gaLe as shown ln llgure. lLs ouLpuL ls glven by Lhe 8oolean equaLlon
C = AB

1hls gaLe glves an ouLpuL of 1 lf lLs botb lopots ote not 1. ln
oLher words, lL glves an ouLpuL 1 lf e|ther A or 8 or both are 0.
1he LruLh Lable for a 2-lnpuL nAnu gaLe ls glven ln llgure. lL
ls [usL Lhe opposlLe of Lhe LruLh Lable for Anu gaLe. lL ls so because
nAnu gaLe performs reverse funcLlon of Anu gaLe.
1he dlode-LranslsLor equlvalenL of a nAnu gaLe ls shown ln llgure.
A 8 C
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
0


lL ls seen LhaL polnL n would be drlven Lo ground when elLher u
1
or u
2
or boLh u
1
and
u
2
conducL. lL represenLs lnpuL condlLlons of 10,01 and 11* . under such condlLlons, C ls cuL
off and hence C goes Lo v
CC
meanlng loglc 1 sLaLe. Cnly Llme C ls 0 ls when A= 1 and 8 =1 (l.e
lnpuL volLages aL A and 8 are zero) so LhaL n ls +3v and C ls saLuraLed.
LxCLuSlvL C8 CA1L (x-C8) CA1L
lLs elecLronlc symbol ls shown ln llg.(a) and lLs equlvalenL swlLchlng clrculL ln llg.(b).

ln Lhls gaLe, ouLpuL ls 1 lf lLs elLher lnpuL but not both, ls 1. ln oLher words, lL has an
ouLpuL 1 when |ts |nputs are d|fferent. 1he ouLpuL ls 0 only when lnpuLs are the same.
1o puL lL a blL dlfferenLly, Lhls loglc gaLe has ouLpuL 0 when |nputs are e|ther a|| 0 or a|| 1.
1hls gaLe works on Lhe 8oolean equaLlon 18u1P 1A8LL
A8 = C
1he clrcle around plus (+) slgn ls worLh noLlng.
1he changeover swlLchlng clrculL of llg (b) slmulaLes Lhe
excluslve C8 (xC8) gaLe. SwlLch poslLlon A and 8 wlll lndlvldually
llghL up Lhe lamp buL a comblnaLlon of A and 8 ls noL posslble.
1he LruLh Lable for a 2-lnpuL xC8 gaLe ls glven ln 1able.
1PL xnC8 CA1L
lL ls known as a noL-xC8 gaLe l.e. XOR gaLe. lLs loglc symbol and LruLh Lable are shown
ln llg.
_______________________
* lo tbls cose, v
A
=v
8
= 0v.
A 8 C
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0


lLs loglc funcLlon and LruLh Lable ote jost tbe tevetse of
tbose fot \Ok qote.
1hls gaLe has an ouLpuL 1 lf |ts both |nputs are e|ther 0 or
1. ln oLher words, for geLLlng an ouLpuL, lLs boLh lnpuLs should be aL Lhe same loglc level of
elLher 0 or 1. Cbvlously, lL produces no ouLpuL lf lLs Lwo lnpuLs are aL Lhe oppos|te loglc level.
_________________

A 8 C
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
1

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Coe - Basic Electrconics

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1 | a g e 8 A S l C L L L C 1 8 C n l C S l 1 l 8 \ N 0

CurrenL supplled by Lhe baLLery, l =

Whlle applylng Lhe above Lwo laws for clrculL calculaL

) or dlelecLrlc consLanL of mlca ls '4'.

= 1000D per volL

MeLer reslsLance = 30 x 1000 = 30,000D

Meter wi// qive hiqh/y incorrect reodinq.

= CurrenL galn x volLage galn

Cutput vo|tage = 200 x v

ower galn = 10 log

ower galn = AnLllog 4.3 = 2 x 10

1oLal volLage galn = 40 + 46 + 32 = 138 db

1oLal power galn = 3 x 14.77 = 73.83 db.

ower galn ln db = 10 log

ower galn ln db = 10 log

. lLs reslsLance lncreases wlLh

1= 0.694 (8C + 8C)

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