The Art and Technology of Field Photography Author(s): Herbert M. Cole and Doran H.

Ross Reviewed work(s): Source: African Arts, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Aug., 1985), pp. 46-55+98-99 Published by: UCLA James S. Coleman African Studies Center Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3336257 . Accessed: 10/03/2012 17:23
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The

Art

and

of Technology

Field

Photography

HERBERTM. COLE* DORANH. ROSS

V irtually every traveler to Africa today-whether government employee, tourist, or researcher-arrives armed with at least one camera. In America and Europe these days photographs are taken for granted, at least as mementos of foreign and exotic places. For students, scholars, and the serious travelers who read this journal, the camera is often a crucial extra eye, and moreover, an eye blessed with a memory. In this article we discuss photography in the field as a skill in which art and technology merge. It is also a skill that has, occasionally, a confounding or delightful element of luck (Fig. 2). We first address the processes of picture-taking, and photographs, from an affective point of view. Everyone realizes the artistic potential of photography, and we suggest some ways to maximize the aesthetic possibilities. In the second half of the article we focus more specifically on technical and practical matters such as what sorts of cameras, films, lights, and other gear to take, and how and when to use them, check them for accuracy, and protect them. Yet it is obvious that artistic and technical aspects of photography are interdependent, that neither really works without the other. In setting forth these notes, we are well aware of their limitations, since they grow out of our own experiences as research art historians. Furthermore, photo technology is changing rapidly; what is said here may well be obsolete in a few years. I Many will find what follows simple or self-evident. Other fieldworkers could doubtless add many helpful suggestions-we hope they will-or take issue with some of our proposals; further dialogue on the subject is welcomed. And while we write as fieldworkers primarily for other researchers, we hope that anyone using a camera in Africa will find some value here. The Aesthetics of Data Gatherinlg While most students heading for their first field experience are reasonably well prepared in the techniques of interviewing and other aspects of verbal and observational data-gathering, little preparatory attention is given to illustrating one's work with quality imagery. Graduate programs tend to accord rather low status to photography despite the fact that visual records of fieldwork are crucial to research in all the arts. Ideally we will all return from Africa with superior verbal and visual documentation, for neither alone will tell the whole story. Fine photographs bring texts alive. They also record unique, irreplaceable experiences that take their place in history. However object-oriented one may be, one wants to know the African setting of a figure, staff, or textile. It is fine to have a tape recording of music, but better still to hear it while seeing images of the musicians, their instruments, and the audience. Dance notations pale beside sequence photographs of steps and gestures. Indeed, any still photograph does far less than cinema or video, neither of which is discussed here; these are subjects, perhaps, for a later special issue of this journal. Many African arts are nonportable; that is, they are available to us only in photographs or drawings (or descriptions): architecture, wall painting, festivals, dress ensembles, and the myriad personal arts. Masquerades-again, superior in motionpicture media-are profoundly better in still photographs than only in written description. Carving, casting, weaving, and other creative processes require photo documentation in addition to notes. Important too are the environments: landscape, village, audience, ritual, the interior of a house or shrine, the farm, well, or gathering place. If all this is self-evident, it nevertheless bears repeating, because all of us have returned from research trips with less than a complete visual record. Although it is hard to imagine studying African arts without photo documentation, photography is nevertheless taken for granted, in part because of the widespread assumption that cameras record things objectively, as they are. In fact, photoBY 2. BACKLIT SHOT OF A FLAG DANCER HIGHLIGHTED THE SUN. THE RAINBOWEFFECT WAS FORTUITOUS.ONE OF THOSE RARE PLEASANTSURPRISES ONE SOMETIMESGETS MONTHS AFTER THE PICTURE HAS BEEN TAKEN. WHEN THE KODACHROMERETURNS FESTIVAL. ANOMABU. GHANA. 1974 FROM BEING PROCESSED FANTEATRANBIR

BY 1 THE LOW CAMERA ANGLE AND SLOW SHUTTER SPEED NECESSITATED THE UMBRELLA OVERTHECHIEFS HEAD HAVEBLURREDTHERIGHTHAND HOLDINGTHEGLASS YET BOTH THE BLURRED HAND AND THE CHIEFS EXPRESSION ENLIVENTHIS LIBATION GOMOA. ABODOM. GHANA. 1974 SCENE FANTEAKWAMBOFESTIVAL.

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graphs are created, artificial, twodimensional images, as we discover when someone unable to read a picture holds it upside down. Particularly since the advent of allegedly fool-proof automatic cameras, some researchers expect to return with pictures that will serve their purposes well simply because they have had film in the camera, pointed it, and pushed the right button. Yet we all know the difference between an underexposed or out-of-focus masquerader and a dramatic picture, technically perfect, that causes the audience to catch its breath in admiration. Luck, whether good or bad, is far less often a factor than many would have it be. Consistently effective photography is the result of careful planning and creative thinking. The first rule is work. Know your camera and practice with it before going to the field. Automatic cameras do not automatically take good pictures. Not all of them do what their ads tell us they will, and some are out of whack when they leave the factory, manufacturers' tests notwithstanding. And while all good cameras come with guarantees, receiving your money back for technical malfunction and many lost rolls of film will not salvage six months of research void of fine photographic records. Practicing photography for African fieldwork, whether with a new camera or a familiar one, means taking pictures that best simulate conditions to be encountered. At least two practice rolls should be shot of action contexts, dark skins, activities at dusk or otherwise poor light, crowds or parades, reluctant

subjects at close range, unposed workers or dancers, indoor situations with and without people present, among other possibilities. Assessing practice rolls critically can save a lot of grief later. Understanding the difference between successful photographs and those of lesser quality-shot by oneself or by otherscan make a big difference in what we are able to bring home or, more often, discover when we get back to see our pictures for the first time. Look through the pages of several AfricanArts, National GeLife, and other publications to ograVphic, see which photographs have the most sensitivity or punch, tell the best story, bring Africa most alive. A second basic rule is to photograph something the first time it is encountered. Do not procrastinate. Often we are inclined to say, "I'll certainly see this again, and perhaps when the light is better," and all of us have come home without some of these pictures. Sometimes our reluctance stems from anxiety and the often hard emotional work needed to open up a situation for photography. Then, too, it is simpler not to take pictures, especially if we expect to see the same thing several times in the future. All too frequently the second opportunity never comes and the fish get away. Strong images are often not the result of the easiest picture-taking situations. Many Africans, for example, are accustomed to posing for photographs, but frontal, formal shots are not always very telling; maskers are best in mid-action, carvers while carving, priests or chiefs when making a sacrifice. Close-ups of

people require not only their cooperation but also a certain boldness because of the psychological discomfort that stems from getting close to a subject. Though it is always easier to shoot from a distance, often the resulting images lack important detail and a sense of immediacy. Asking a third person to divert the subject is a remedy for stiff, self-conscious posing. Pictures are taken at eye level conveniently enough; but ones shot from a kneeling or prone position, or from a building top or vehicle roof, may be more effective. Varying the camera angle, shooting from unexpected places, and including significant foregrounds tend to return interesting photographs. The artificiality and stiffness of much field photography stem from taking too much time to set up and shoot. Speed in camerawork (which comes only from familiarity with the equipment and practice) is especially critical when photographing people in action or at close range. If your choice is for unposed situations, you have to be ready for them, just as you have to move in on a subject if you want a close-up. The researcher's presence and his effect on African people-his hosts-are delicate issues. It is virtually impossible to be inconspicuous, with or without a camera. Admitting that, we can sometimes accept the discomfort of intruding-we hope without disturbing the natural course of events-and occasionally even use our stranger status to advantage. In many African contexts a foreigner with cameras is allowed to be closer to action or to important participants than local people are. This greater access carries with it a greater likelihood of skewing an event by one's presence. Finding an appropriate balance between that and getting the desired shot is never easy. If I stand far away I may not disturb anyone, and also I may not get the picture I want! Planning a photographic strategy improves the chances for good results. An active event-a masquerade or ritual, for example-has unforeseen segments but is still largely predictable. Much about its timing, location, personnel, and movement can be learned in advance. Places of entrance and exit for actors can be identified, along with varied vantage points that enable the researcher to record the activity as thoroughly as possible, and with the best lighting. By taking
TOP. 5. THE DARK GREEN BACKGROUND OF THE PALMS SETS OFF THE COLORFUL PALANQUINAND UMBRELLA. COMPOSITIONADDS INTEREST AND THEASYMMETRICAL THE UNFORTUNATELY HIGHCAMERAANGLE DIMINISHES A THATCHARACTERIZES CHIEF THESENSE OF ELEVATION CARRIEDON THE SHOULDERS OF HIS SUBJECTS. FANTE SALTPOND.GHANA, 1980. BOTTOM. ODAMBEAFESTIVAL. 6. THISSTOP-ACTIONDANCE SCENE GIVESA GOOD IDEA OF THE FLOWING ROBES OF NORTHERN GHANA BUT WOULD HAVE BENEFITED FROM A SLOWER SHUTTER A SPEED CREATING SLIGHTBLURRINGOF THEDANCER S DRESS. NANUMBA, BIMBILA, GHANA, 1976.

BECAUSE OF THE WOMAN'S 3 & 4. A WOMAN IN SIRIGU. NORTHERNGHANA. FIGURE 3 HAS MORE HUMAN INTEREST, EXPRESSIONAND THE CHILD, BUT FIGURE4 INCLUDESAN IN-PROCESS BASKETAND A CLEARER,PROFILEVIEWOF THE WOODEN LADDER. BOTH PICTURESWERETAKENCLOSE ENOUGH TO DOCUMENTTHE FAFACEAGAINSTTHE LIGHTER 1976. CIALSCARIFICATION.

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pictures from several positions, you also automatically vary light sources, backgrounds, and foregrounds, all of which work toward a more interesting group of images. Taking along too little film or being overly stingy in shooting it, particularly when subjects are in motion, are rather short-sighted, even foolish, economies. It is probably best to have ten or more rolls above what one feels one needs or can afford; these additions will be a miniscule percentage of the total expenditure for an African trip. If one takes six, eight, or more shots of each significant actor, action, or event, being sure to check exposure, focus, shutter speed, clarity of the main subject against the background, camera angle, and other aspects of composition, perhaps two or three will be successful in content and impact. Taking only one or two pictures of important things increases the risk of discovering when the contact sheets or slides are examined, sometimes several months later, that a critical shot is missing or inadequate; by then, the opportunity has been lost, probably forever. How many of us have but a single photograph that makes a visual point convincing, a photograph we show or illustrate over and over? Composition is not an especially easy subject to discuss but is no less important for that. Again one can look at books of fine photography, studying what makes a particular composition unusual, strong or subtle, vivid and convincing. A number of good "how to" books address this and other dimensions of photography as art. Some things to keep in mind: the main subject should be

dramatized, preferably without placing it in the middle of the frame; asymmetrical compositions are usually more arresting than centered, equally balanced ones (Fig. 8); close-up foreground framing devices (usually desirable on one side, sometimes on both) lead the eye into the picture (Fig. 10); action shots need more space in front of the actor than behind; objects or people peripheral to a desired subject can be included to dramatize it or lend interest (Fig. 6); oblique angles of people or buildings tend to be more revealing than straight-on frontal ones. Composing a series of pictures of a discrete situation or event is closely related to composing individual photographs. The same creative thinking is required to frame and dramatize even a short sequence on, say, a wall painter and her art as is needed to get the single effective picture. For lectures or publications we often have to prepare photo essays of varying length that are best put together with a range of imagery from the general to the specific. If one is continue the concentrating-to example-on wall painting (Figs. 7-10), certainly the entire compound or a large part of it is needed, probably from several angles, and a continuum of pictures: some very close, others at middledistance, a few panoramic. When the scale of a building is not evident, including a person (unposed) is an instant corrective. Ideally there will be a logical flow from one photograph to another and thus a sense of completeness and unity even if only three or four illustrations are used. Lighting is an important consideration. For a great many situations, assum-

ing one has a choice, the best-lit pictures will be made within two to three hours of either sunrise or sunset. With the light source at a low angle, most thingsbuildings and people, for example-are shown in their most flattering aspect. By the same token many subjects are best seen with side or three-quarter-front light than that which is straight on. A raked light is best for reliefs, such as sculptured doors or textured walls. Sideand sometimes back-lighting, though the latter is considered a rule-breaker, often gets dramatic results (Fig. 14). Breaking rules, incidently, is often why especially fine pictures result. Marilyn Houlberg's front-on portrait of a titled Yoruba woman is superb not just because of the camera position but because of the very close in-camera croppingthe bold selectivity and exclusion of unnecessary details (Fig. 13). Pictures work for a great many reasons; broken rules are overridden by other strengths, other choices among the infinite variety. In the field the photographer needs to study opportunities and assess the local situation. Few of us are able to live in a community long enough to be accepted totally, with camera or without. Most of us will probably intrude upon the lives and values of the people to some extent if we hope to return with good data, not to mention successful photographs. The presence of aliens and strangers, especially those with cameras, is disturbing to many Africans. Camerawork requires as much or more sensitivity to those we hope to photograph as it does to technical or artistic concerns, so choice-making must involve careful, patient, and sometimes repeated explanations to our hosts. Often we can be correctly accused of exploitation for our own purposes, returning too little to those who make our work possible and are in fact the reason for it. Informants' fees or gifts should be considered, and often they will be expected. If you promise to send or bring back a picture, do so. This is the very least you can do.2 There are many ethical choices in field research that can translate into artistic choices, even opportunities. Authenticity decreases whenever a ceremony or scene is set up for us or "commissioned." Obviously it is best to be present at an event that would take place anyway, having checked in advance with its directors or sponsors. Still, it may be necessary
S TOP. 8. GENERAL SHOT OF ATOYUURE COMPOUND IN SIRIGU, NORTHERNGHANA. THE INCLUSIONOF PEOPLE GIVESA SCALETO THEBUILDINGS.1972. BOTTOMLEFT9. THE SENIOR WOMAN AND OWNER OF THE COMPOUND A REPAINTING SECTIONOF OUTSIDEWALL. ABOUT EIGHT PICTURES WERE TAKENOF THIS SCENE. 1972. BOTTOM RIGHTD SCENE IN A COMPOUND NEIGHBORINGTHE 10. ONE SHOWN IN FIGURES 7-9. IT GIVES INFORMATION ABOUT LIFEINTHEAREA. THEWALLSON THESIDES HELP TO FRAMEAND LEAD ONE INTOTHE PICTURE,AND THE IT CHILDANIMATES 1972.

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and possible to salvage a waning artsay a masquerade-by encouraging its principal organizers and actors to perform it. Surely most Dogon masking performances at Sanga in recent years have been staged for outsiders. Many of us have commissioned carvers or painters so as to record their processes, and sometimes such stimulus has helped rekindle local interest and keep these arts alive. Photographers are constantly making choices that affect their results to the point that a photographer's style is frequently as recognizable as that of a sculptor or painter. The options are nearly endless if we remain flexible and open to new possibilities. Do I shoot one frame from an obvious angle or explore the subject from several positions, catching a bit of new information with each frame? Do I show something looking up at it or down, with a vertical format or a horizontal one? Do I attempt to catch a sense of motion, even by blurring, or do I stop action? Do I photograph a figure inside its shrine or ask that it be taken outdoors and thus out of context, or both? If it is taken out, what will its background be?3 Do I kneel down or stand on something, back up or move forward? How many angles or details should I take? What we do is dictated by the importance of the piece or the ceremony, the amount of film or time available, among many factors. Each choice provides different data that can be gathered as long as we remain aware of the camera's possibilities. is a selective, Taking pictures thought-involving activity that betrays our biases and interests. True objectivity does not exist. We try to bring back the images that are going to say the most,

show and mean the most, to our audiences, whose visual and other values we largely share. While remaining sensitive, we have to seize opportunities and occasionally create them. We are doing more than merely taking notes with a camera. What are often called "record" photographs-implying a quick, artless, or casual approach-are in fact, in field situations, critical documents that no one else will ever have the opportunity to duplicate. It therefore makes sense to approach photography less as a necessary and perhaps distasteful task than as an art or at least a practiced skill. If one sets out-with only one unfamiliar camera, no matter how good or expensive-to keep a mere record, less than that can easily result from laziness, inattention to details, and other plagues. This is the "bad luck" we hear about-how a roll of film was washed in the Levis pocket or how it was inadvertently left out in the broiling sun. All photographers have to accept doses of bad luck; the more successful ones work to keep them at bay. While photography in the field can be considered the creating of recordsarchives to be explored later and at the gathering of greater leisure-and visual data, it can obviously be more. Photographs can be discoveries and dramatizations. They can tantalize and draw a viewer into a subject and, vicariously, into Africa. Pictures can be evocations and even poems about mood, process, environment, climate, emotion and value. With photographs we can get into and around the corners of African arts and their custodians or owners; sometimes in being peripheral to a subject, pictures can provide glimpses of the center, where the truth lies.

PracticalProblemsin Field Photography While the foregoing has stressed artistic concerns, obviously these depend upon an informed use of cameras and films, namely an understanding of what they can and cannot do. The focus here is on some of the more common problems encountered by field photographers. Many volumes exist to instruct us on all aspects of photography. Two may be cited: Kodak Guide to 35mm Photography (1984), with a brief, useful text and hundreds of fine pictures; and Upton and Upton, Photography (3rd ed., 1985), a far weightier and more richly illustrated book with a comprehensive if basic approach. Fundamental too is the camera's instruction manual, for it gives specific potentials and limitations. Formats larger than 35mm-usually been used with great 21/4" x 21/4"-have success by many professionals-Rene Gardi, Michel Huet, Gert Chesi among them-but the fact remains that 35mm single-lens reflex cameras (SLRs) with are the through-lens light-metering most popular and practical (small, lightweight) ones in use today by researchers and professionals alike. The splendid 35mm images by Carol Beckwith, often reproduced in double-page spreads, prove that SLR cameras are more than adequate to our tasks. For traveling exhibitions the UCLA Museum of Cultural History has enlarged 35mm transparencies into 8' x 12' mural photographs with remarkable clarity. The need to use slides in lectures, especially for teaching, has led many researchers to slight black-and-white photography in the field. We cannot afford to be slaves to color imagery, however more dramatic and revealing it may be in the lecture hall. First, very few journals or books publish more color than black-and-white. The average issue of AfricanArts has at least twice as many black-and-white images; many of the best-respected journals publish no color (e.g., Art Bulletin, Metropolitan Museum Journal). Color is far more expensive to reproduce, and the budgets of all journals are limited, especially scholarly ones without advertising to increase revenues. Second, converting color slides-everybody's favorite, and admitfor illustrated tedly indispensable talks-involves a rough 10-20% loss of image quality (Figs. 11, 12). The unalteraAN TOP: 13. YORUBAWOMANWEARING IPAGBECEREMONIAL HEADTIEWITHSEVEN TASSELS, A SIGN OF CHIEFTAINCY. IJEBU REMOAREA, NIGERIA,1973. PHOTOGRAPH BY MARILYN HOULBERG.BOTTOM:14. BACKLITSCENES CAN OFTEN PRODUCE DRAMATIC SHADOWS, HIGHTHIS RELATIVELY SYMMETRILIGHTS,AND SILHOUETTES. CALCOMPOSITIONHAS GOOD DEPTHOF FIELD,AND THE TO ARMS DIRECTTHE VIEWER'SATTENTION RADIATING SCULPTURE(KIKANGO),WHICHIS THECOMMEMORATIVE SUBGROUP, THERITUAL FOCUS OF THISSCENE. GIRIAMA KENYA,1981. PHOTOGRAPHBY MATEMBENI, MIJIKENDA, ERNIEWOLFEIII.

OF LEFT:11. AKAN FOROWA, INSTITUTEOF AFRICAN STUDIES, UNIVERSITY GHANA, LEGON. PHOTOGRAPHTAKEN IN 12. FILM NATURAL LIGHTON KODAKPLUS X BLACK-AND-WHITE (ASA 120). RIGHT: THESAME OBJECTAS IN FIGURE11, BUT PHOTOGRAPHEDON KODACHROME64 COLOR TRANSPARENCYFILM,THEN CONVERTED INTO A BLACK-AND-WHITE WHEN COMPAREDWITH WAS TAKEN.NOTETHE LOSS OF QUALITY FROMWHICHTHE PRINTFOR PUBLICATION NEGATIVE FIGURE11.

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ble scientific fact is that fine color slides do not translate into fine black-andwhites very often. After eighteen years, Arts has seen a great many color Africani slides unacceptable for publication, with no black-and-white alternative to substitute. Third, color transparencies are more difficult to expose correctly, having a margin of error of only one-half stop. Black-and-white films are more forgiving, with up to a three-stop exposure latitude. This greater flexibility helps protect against improperly set exposures or a faulty light meter. Hence the argument is strong for taking two cameras to the field, one for color and one for black-and-white, and double-shooting as much as possible. Until color film became widely available in the 1950s, the world was content with black-and-white photography, and many will argue that it does things, especially from an artistic

point of view, by virtue of the very removal of color, that makes it a separate and very important medium (Fig. 15). Recording with both cameras not only saves the frustration of lesser imagequality and the expense of conversion, it gives the research scholar twice as many images to choose from. Taking two preferably identical cameras to the field, one for color and one for black-and-white, has other benefits as well. Most obvious is the assurance of a backup if one camera malfunctions or gets dropped, wet, or stepped on. It is almost impossible to have a camera reliably repaired in Africa. In addition the two cameras can be used to cross-check exposure readings to ensure agreement.4 One can also move quickly back and forth between cameras with lenses of different focal lengths to increase the variety of views. Both raw film

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15. WITHFIVE DIFFERENTPATTERNSOF MULTI-HUED CLOTH, THIS WOULD MAKEA DAZZLINGCOLOR PHOTOGRAPH. WITHTHEFACES.WHICHARE IMAGEPREVENTSTHECLOTHFROMCOMPETING THIS BLACK-AND-WHITE NEVERTHELESS. FESTIVAL. GOMOA DAGO. GHANA, 1975. THE REALSUBJECT OF THIS PHOTOGRAPH.FANTEAKWAMBO

and processing costs of black-and-white are less than half those of color. Granted a second camera increases initial expense, most who use two find the extra cost amply repaid. Be sure the cameras are clearly marked so you always know which type of film you are shooting. With two matched 35mm camera bodies, a choice of interchangeable lenses is an important consideration. The standard 50mm or 55mm lens provided with most cameras will handle at least 75% of the work, but a wide-angle lens (28mm or 35mm) and a telephoto lens (100mm to 200mm) can maximize photographic opportunities. A wideangle lens is often needed in architectural photography to document a whole building, and it is equally useful in more intimate surroundings. Shrine ensembles with their attendant sculpture are frequently housed in cramped rooms and cannot be recorded in total without a wide-angle lens. In markets or festival situations, where dense crowds often prohibit the photographer from establishing sufficient distance between camera and subject, again a wide lens provides a broader view. These short-focallength lenses also minimize the effects of camera and subject movement in situations where the photographer is apt to be unsteady or is focusing on action sequences. One can use a telephoto lens to address opposite problems. In many cases one cannot get close enough to a subject without disturbing events. A long lens brings the action to the camera and helps fill the frame. It allows picture-taking from balconies or second-story windows, providing varied camera angles and a bird's-eye view of activities. Shooting architectural details, such as the roof line of a mosque, is facilitated with a long lens. Further, telephotos are good for portraits, enabling the photographer to obtain candid images without intruding on the subject's space. The magnifying properties of long lenses, however, tax one's camera-holding skill because the negative aspects of both camera and subject movement are amplified. These can be held in check by using a high shutter speed when possible, but as a basic rule, a lens greater than 200mm should not be hand-held without some form of bracing (and lenses over 400mm should be used only with a tripod).5 While sacrificing some image sharpness, a zoom lens with an adjustable focal length (e.g., 35mm-80mm, or 80mm-200mm) provides additional flexibility in precisely framing an image. Because of the zoom's complexity, a lens hood should always be used in bright light to prevent flare or ghosting. Zooms, which can be substituted for both wide-angle and telephoto lenses, come in a variety of combinations. Choices have as much to do with per-

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sonal preference as with fieldwork demands. If a researcher is concentrating on studies of jewelry, Akan goldweights, or other small objects, a macro (sometimes called micro) lens or supplementary close-up lenses are essential. The latter are cheaper and screw onto the end of a normal lens like a filter. A macro lens, though, provides a sharper image and is more convenient because it can be used for both close-ups and average to infinity is, for general purphotographs-that poses. For this reason many prefer to substitute a macro lens for a normal lens on one body, using the standard 50mm or 55mm on the other. Film choice is another problem area for many photographers. One should have a variety of films. We recommend at least four types: low-speed color (ASA 25 or 64) and high-speed color (ASA 200 or 400); low-speed black-and-white (ASA 120) and high-speed black-and-white (ASA 400). Since slides are needed for lectures and since publishers uniformly request transparencies if printing color, color negative film, used for prints, should be ruled out. While there are many fine brands of daylight film on the market, the fact is that most North American researchers depend on Kodak products. (The above ASAs are based on Kodak film.) Two basic points should be films made about their low-speed (Kodachromes) and high-speed films (Ektachromes). In brightly lit situations the slower film should be selected, as it is widely favored by publishers for its warmer colors and more saturated reds and yellows. It should be remembered that Ektachrome (not Kodachrome) film speed can be doubled with special thus Ektachrome "push-processing"; 400 can be shot at ASA 800, adequate for all but the dimmest natural light situations. (Remember to mark any pushed rolls.) While Kodak also makes an Ektachrome 800/1600 Professional film that can also be boosted, documentary situations would probably be better served by using a flash. The amounts and types of film taken into the field are determined in part by what is being studied. If one expects many rituals or festivals that occur at night or in dimly lit interiors, obviously a greater percentage of fast films will be required. For the average fieldworker, however, slower films that produce finer-grained images are preferred. We recommend a ratio of three to Continued page98 on
OF TOP. 16. WIVESAND CHILDRENMOURNINGTHEDEATH A TIKARCHIEF.CAMEROON.BOTTOM:17. FON OF BALIIN A CAP AND GOWN OF HIS OWN DESIGN. THE LATEDR. PAULGEBAUER.WHOTOOKTHESE PICTURES,WAS WELL KNOWNFOR HIS EXTENSIVE STUDIES OF CAMEROONART AND LIFE. HE WAS ALSO A MASTER PHOTOGRAPHER AND LONG WHO. BECAUSE OF HIS WARMPERSONALITY TRUSTOF RESIDENCEIN THE FIELD,HAD THECOMPLETE THE PEOPLE. sm
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their invaders. But how is this different from a Japanese film made about Hiroshima? Or, for that matter, a German film on the invasion of Normandy? Similarly, if the Chinese dislike Antonioni's film, though Westerners see it as sympathetic, how would any outsider's film be evaluated by a nation caught in the upheavals of the Cultural Revolution, that great spasm of activism by now long since repudiated? Gabriel notes that "sociological and anthropological researchers have been limited to generalized surveys of Third World peoples . . . Such generalizations have only narrowed the scope of empirical investigations of Third World cultures" (p. 57). While this point is arguable, and perhaps confusing, it does suggest that such efforts are significantly different in intention and audience from the products of "third cinema" practitioners. Antonioni, long considered a "friend of China," was invited to make his film. The critique of his efforts was a product of a turbulent era and did not take into account the simple fact that he is entitled to make films in the style of his choice. Jean Rouch, also a Westerner, should not be evaluated on the basis of such a problematic work as The Mad Masters (Les Maitres Fous). Whether his efforts are considered a romanticized anthropology or Eurocentric effort at explicating African cultures, there is certainly more than a little merit in films such as The Lion Hunters (1965) and Jaguar (1967). They offer detailed views of African societies and help explain some of their complexities. But is there no room for these types of cinematic studies in the Third World?If not for peasant consumption, what about scholarly viewing and study? What about documentary or "ethnographic" films made by Europeans, such as White Man's Country (Koff and Howarth, 1973) or !Nai: The Story of a !Kung Woman (John Marshall, 1980), based on activist or locally derived self-images? What about films such as Alain Resnais's Les StatuesMeurentAussi, banned at the time of France's colonial collapse, which denounced the theft of African art objects and their placement in European museums? It would be difficult to fault such films for being too general or for perpetuating exotic or erroneous images of the societies. A politically activist cinema that focused on anti-colonialism was pioneered in the 1960s by cineastes like Godard in response to French and later American imperialism in Vietnam. As Gabriel points out: "New developments in cinema do not take place in a vacuum. The influence of contemporary trends in cinema on Third Cinema is obvious. For instance, Third Cinema practitioners find a common bond with progressive or Left groups il, A,merica, Italy or France. Moreover, the Third Cinema continues to enrich itself with the theoretical and aesthetic concerns of contemporary thought and scholarship. The relationship between the culture of one country and another, however, or that of individual Third World filmmakers with one another, is often complicated and vacillating. Although there may not be a unified, fully coherent

movement, it is nevertheless possible to find shared experiences and objectives" (p. 3). The author touches on intra-Third World relationships without clarifying these influences. Later on, suggesting that "FirstWorld" cineastes cannot adequately capture Third World concerns, Gabriel opens the door to unnecessary inconsistencies. His concern over anthropological generalization is ironic given his own persistence in grouping peasants from Africa, Latin America, or China into a homogeneous class. Though Gabriel acknowledges their language differences, he refers to "folk" culture, perception of time, and commonly held traditions, with little recourse to specifics. While recognizing Fanon's concern that new cultural entities should build on the older indigenous forms, the author makes but a few and only partial attempts to consider this in depth. He doesn't mention specific tales, proverbs, songs, or practices. Cinema is indeed a powerful weapon of information and motivation, especially for nonliterate people isolated from the centers of political decision-making. But Gabriel offers very little documented proof as to the results of such revolutionary efforts. He doesn't sufficiently consider the problem of distribution and audience. We are told that Jorge Sanjines has taken his films to the Quechua Indians who form the target audience. What were his observations and the results of his effortsbesides the government ban on the films? Ousmane Sembene, who also takes his films to the masses of his country, tells us they spark discussion and new awareness. How can these results be duplicated? What can be done to improve the conditions of distribution and exhibition in the places where "the people" must be reached? Appendixes A and B provide some of this information in the documented manifestos and joint communiques of Third World filmmakers at conferences. But proclamations do not provide enough insight into actual results of screening films for peasants. The fact remains that, in general, the kinds of films espoused by these filmmakers and described by this study will be the same productions that are banned in the nations where the peasants can most benefit from them. While the topic may be covered in the author's book on African cinema (TheDeveloping African Cinema: An Introduction, forthcoming from Crossroads Press), it would have been helpful to look at African film industries to illustrate the problems of a "national cinema." Gabriel discusses the Cuban film industry to a degree, but he passes too quickly over the experience of Algeria, where a profitable nationalized industry, born of a revolution, contributes to nation-building. Similarly, Tanzania and Mozambique use film for education in a nationalistic and entertainment framework. All of these efforts are important, and most of them have had partial success. Yet the realities of present economic and political circumstances have sapped these programs. An "aesthetics of liberation" is necessary, but it will not go far if the films are not

being produced. Unless funding is available for the three areas of the industryproduction, distribution, and exhibitioneven the best films will not reach their audiences. This study is a valuable introduction to the concerns of activist and relevant cinema in the Third World. However, Gabriel skirts some fundamental problems of aesthetics. Placing Third World film into a wider world context of styles and intentions might have tempered the often prescriptive nature and rigid categorization of the commentary. Gabriel merits attention from scholarly and activist artistic circles. It is an ironic confirmation of his basic thesis that these ideas on a popular cinema are contained in a rather prohibitively priced book. RobertCancel Untiversity of California,San Diego THE ART AND TECHNOLOGY OF FIELD PHOTOGRAPHY Continuedfrompage 55 one for slow vs. fast films. One ubiquitous note on film care bears repeating: keep both exposed and unexposed film out of the heat as much as possible. (Unfortunately this admonition seems like a bad joke to Africanist researchers.) For the purposes of this paper we assume that everyone understands the workings of his camera's built-in light meter. Nevertheless, poor exposures are the single major problem plaguing fieldworkers. Exposure is a combination of shutter speed and lens opening. It is not uncommon for shutters to slow down in older cameras, especially in the faster ranges. Shutter speeds should be checked at a professional repair shop before each trip into the field. Built-in light meters should also be tested. After checking, shoot a few rolls in a variety of circumstances with and without flash to confirm the camera's reliability. With most manually adjustable cameras, a shutter speed is selected and the light meter indicates the correct lens opening. Automatic cameras may have either aperture priority or shutter priority exposure systems. With all three of these systems as well as with fully automatic systems that select both shutter speed and lens opening, the cameras are set up to expose film properly under normal conditions. If we eliminate operator error and camera malfunction, we must conclude by the many poorly exposed photographs crossing the desks of African Arts that photographic conditions in Africa are generally abnormal, and indeed this is often the case. The only way to assure oneself of properly exposed photographs is by bracketing exposures. Professionals routinely do this even in highly controlled studio situations, but the average tourist or researcher, fearful of wasting film, proves stingy to a fault. Exposure bracketingis a simple process that involves, with less forgiving color films, taking two additional exposures of the same scene, one at a stop over that indicated by the light meter and one a

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stop under. For once-in-a-lifetime situations additional bracketing at two stops over and under the meter reading is suggested. Both fortunately and unfortunately these unique situations seem to occur all too often in Africa, and the only way to ensure documenting them is to bracket. For black-and-white photography this is much less critical; when it seems warranted an initial two-stop bracketing will generally guarantee results. One recurring lighting circumstance in Africa that troubles most metering systems involves photographing dark skins against a brightly lit sky, a whitewashed wall, or similar contrasting backgrounds. In these situations most cameras will generally produce a photograph that underexposes black skin against a dominant light background by as much as one or two stops. The problem can be corrected by opening the aperture (f-stop) accordingly and thus overriding the in-camera meter. (Most automatic cameras have a switch that allows this.) An independent light meter, while often not practical in situations involving action, can be used to take a reading off the subject for a more accurate exposure. Alternatively, for posed photographs one can move up to the subject to take a reading with the in-camera meter. The reverse situation exists with bright or light objects photographed against a dominant dark background (e.g., a silver pendant against dark skin). In this case the in-camera meter will tend to overexpose the pendant. The solution is to close the aperture a stop or so or to take an independent reading and adjust exposure accordingly. When in doubt bracketing will ensure a quality photo. Focusing a camera seems like such a basic issue that most people take it for granted. Many simply turn the focusing ring until the image looks sharp, then they release the shutter. This often results in a photograph that is partly in focus, but unfortunately it may be the wrong part, or at least not enough of the whole. One fundamental rule of focusing is called the rule of thirds, which can help determine the depth of field (the part of any picture in focus). Generally the range of focus will be about a third in front of the point of focus and two-thirds behind it. Whether shooting a building or a small sculpture, one should not focus on the very front of the subject, but rather a third of the way back into it. One can also increase the depth of field in any picture by using smaller apertures (higher f-stop numbers). Maximizing depth of field, however, is not always desirable. For many scenes it is preferable to eliminate visual background "noise." For example, if you want to separate the performer in a masquerade from the audience behind, a larger aperture (lower f-stop) will help by blurring the background. On the other hand, if the intent is to record the total ambience of the dance-background, audience, and all-a narrower aperture will increase depth of the field. Obviously the intent of the photographer as well as personal aesthetic preferences determine the choice,

along with the amount of light available. We would argue that both photographs should be taken. Selective blurring through the adjustment of either the aperture or shutter speed is often critical to producing an effective image. While the aperture controls blurring in front of or behind the point of focus, shutter speed controls blurring due to lateral movement. Stopaction photographs made with a fast shutter speed can be quite dramatic, but may seem somewhat artificial and static (Fig. 6). The slight blur of a masker's moving arm or leg, achieved with a slower shutter speed, may convey more of the dance action than a figure frozen in space, but again both types of photography should be attempted. One technique dealing with lateral movement is frequently overlooked. A performer moving quickly at right angles to the camera can be slowed down on film or stopped by panning the camera, keeping the subject in the center of the frame. In reduced light situations, this will permit a photograph with a slower shutter speed (e.g., 1/125 of a second instead of 11500),creating an image that might not otherwise be gotten. Panning will, of course, blur the background, but this in itself evokes a sense of movement even if the action of the subject is firmly stopped. Another major problem in field photography concerns the use of a flash or strobe. Low-light situations can be dealt with in part by high-speed films, but even the fastest films have their limitations. Extremely dark shrines or nighttime events often require the use of artificial light. A camera-mounted automatic electronic flash is the standard method for handling these circumstances. Assuming that the workings of the flash are thoroughly understood by the user (again a careful reading of the manual is needed), one technique can be employed to improve these pictures dramatically. Although more convenient to use, a camera-mounted flash has two major drawbacks: a tendency to flatten the subject and to create severe shadows when the subject is close to its background. More natural three-dimensional lighting can be achieved

by removing the flash from the camera and cord. As using a flash-synchronization as the flash is pointed at the subject its long automatic features will function. If holding the camera with one hand and the flash with the other proves difficult, an assistant or even a bystander can be enlisted. All that is required is that the flash be held a foot or so above the camera and slightly off to the side. These notes are sketchy, no substitute for careful study of one of the better photography manuals, and particularly no substitute for practice in the noncrucial atmosphere of simulated field-situations at home. The point of it all, of course, is to come back with more than casual records. Returning with high-quality photographs is gratifying in its own right. Creating pictures that breathe life into our texts, dramatize our lectures, and give our work full meaning is even more important. Fine photography enables us and our audience to learn about and appreciate African arts, to sense their import, their pervasiveness, and to know their strength and centrality in the lives of people who create them and value them most. ]
1. Publishing technology, for example, may advance to the point that color is used more often than black-and-white. Instant (Polaroid-type) pictures may become more versatile, with excellent negatives and prints made quickly in the field, and camera and film developments will doubtless occur. Now, however, we must address the problems and equipment at hand. 2. When Ross began research among the Fante of coastal Ghana in 1974, he went with several color prints made from Cole's 1972 slides. One, of a twelve-year-old chief who had died the previous year, was the only picture the family had, and it brought tears to his grandfather's eves. The return of this and several other pictures to Anomabu helped facilitate research in that community. 3. Working together in Ghana, we took plain colored cloths against which to shoot isolated objects such as Akan sword ornaments and jewelry, since the available "context" of these objects was sometimes onlv storage boxes. If possible, it is best to roll such cloth so as to minimize distracting folds. 4. If there is a discrepancy in readings both cameras can be checked against an independent light meter to determine which one is malfinctioning. Alternatively, the in-camera meters can be checked against the exposure tables in most film instruction sheets. As a very general guide, in bright sunlight the correct shutter speed at ft6 is 1/ASA of the film (e.g., Kodachrome 64 film would be exposed at 1/64 of a second at tf6). 5. We recommend that lenses over 200mm1 not be taken to the field. They are cumbersome, difficult to hand hold, and the tripods that make them effective add vet another burden to the fieldworker

EQUIPMENT CHECKLIST FOR FIELD PHOTOGRAPHY Camera body A Camera batteries Camera body B Flash batteries Normal lens Low speed color film Macro lens High speed color film Low speed black-and-white film Wide-angle lens Telephoto lens High speed black-and-white film Zoom lens Cloth backdrop Lens hood Camera manual Filters Flash manual Film information sheets Light meter Flash Tape recorder Flash synchronization cord Blank tapes Recorder batteries Tripod Cable release Head cleaning supplies Camera straps Tape measure Lens tissue Notebook Blower brush Pens

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